Phase-shift oscillator

I. Discussion

A phase-shift oscillator is a linear electronic circuit that produces a sinusoidal

output, commonly referred to as a sine wave. This oscillator consists of an inverting
amplifier component, which can be a transistor or an operational amplifier (op-amp).
The key feature of a phase-shift oscillator is its feedback loop, which includes a
phase-shift network comprised of resistors and capacitors arranged in a ladder
configuration.

These oscillators are known for their ability to generate a stable sinusoidal signal
at their output. They are often referred to as RC phase-shift oscillators due to the
presence of the resistor (R) and capacitor (C) network in the feedback path. In the
specific ladder configuration, it is sometimes called a ladder RC phase-shift oscillator. In
an RC circuit, the output voltage leads the input for a sinusoidal waveform, and the
degree of phase shift is determined by the values of the resistors and capacitors.

To ensure sustained oscillations in a phase-shift oscillator, two critical conditions must

be met:

1. The loop gain of the oscillator must be precisely equal to 1.

2. The total phase shift introduced by the circuit must be either 0 degrees or 360
degrees.

The amplifier circuit inherently introduces a 180-degree phase shift. To meet the
phase-shift criteria, the feedback path must also provide an additional 180-degree
phase shift. This combination results in an overall phase shift of either 0 or 360 degrees,
which is essential for sustained oscillations. Achieving a loop gain equal to 1 involves
tuning the gain of both the amplifier and the feedback circuit. Fine-tuning these
components ensures that the oscillator operates at the desired frequency and produces
a stable sine wave output.

II. Circuits

Phase Shift Oscillator Using Op-amp

The figure given below shows the circuit of an RC phase shift oscillator:
III. Formulas

The expression for the frequency of oscillations is given as

1
𝑓=
2π𝑅𝐶 2𝑁

Where:
N is the total number of Stages
ƒ is the Frequency of Oscillations in Hertz
R is the Resistance is Ohms
C is the Capacitance in Farads

Thus for 3 stages, the frequency of oscillations will be

1
𝑓=
2π𝑅𝐶 6

IV. Sample Problem

Example 1.
In the phase shift oscillator shown in Fig. 3, R1=R2=R3=1 Mπ and C1=C2=C3=68 pF.
At what frequency does the circuit oscillate?

Wien Bridge Oscillator

I. Discussion
 The Wien Bridge Oscillator is so called because the circuit is based on a
frequency-selective form of the Wheatstone bridge circuit. The Wien Bridge oscillator is
a two-stage RC coupled amplifier circuit that has good stability at its resonant
frequency, low distortion and is very easy to tune making it a popular circuit as an audio
frequency oscillator but the phase shift of the output signal is considerably different from
the previous phase shift RC Oscillator. Wien Bridge Oscillator is an oscillator which uses
RC network so as to produce a sine wave at the output. These are basically the
low-frequency oscillator that generates audio and sub audio frequency that ranges
between 20 Hz to 20 KHz.

The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a feedback circuit consisting of a series RC

circuit connected with a parallel RC of the same component values producing a
phase delay or phase advance circuit depending upon the frequency. At the resonant
frequency ƒr the phase shift is 0o. Consider the circuit below.

RC Phase Shift Network

The above RC network consists of a series RC circuit connected to a parallel RC

forming basically a High Pass Filter connected to a Low Pass Filter producing a very
selective second-order frequency dependant Band Pass Filter with a high Q factor at
the selected frequency, ƒr.

At low frequencies the reactance of the series capacitor (C1) is very high so
acts a bit like an open circuit, blocking any input signal at Vin resulting in virtually no
output signal, Vout. Likewise, at high frequencies, the reactance of the parallel
capacitor (C2) becomes very low, so this parallel connected capacitor acts a bit like a
short circuit across the output, so again there is no output signal.

So there must be a frequency point between these two extremes of C1 being

open-circuited and C2 being short-circuited where the output voltage, VOUT reaches its
maximum value. The frequency value of the input waveform at which this happens is
called the oscillators Resonant Frequency, (ƒr).

At this resonant frequency, the circuit's reactance equals its resistance, that is:
Xc = R, and the phase difference between the input and output equals zero degrees.
The magnitude of the output voltage is therefore at its maximum and is equal to one
third (1/3) of the input voltage as shown.

Oscillator Output Gain and Phase Shift

It can be seen that at very low frequencies the phase angle between the input
and output signals is “Positive” (Phase Advanced), while at very high frequencies the
phase angle becomes “Negative” (Phase Delay). In the middle of these two points the
circuit is at its resonant frequency, (ƒr) with the two signals being “in-phase” or 0o.

II. Circuits

Wien Bridge Oscillator Circuit is shown below:

 The circuit mainly consisted of two transistors Q1 and Q2 and the Wien bridge
circuit in which a series RC circuit consisting of R1C1 is connected with a parallel RC
circuit consisting of R2C2. At low-frequency range, the reactance of serially connected
capacitor C1 is very high due to which it acts as an open circuit that results in blocking
of an input signal which resultantly gives no signal at the output.

Similarly, at a higher frequency, the reactance of parallel capacitor C2 becomes

very low thus behaving like a short circuit across the output, which again results in no
signal at the output.

III. Formulas

Wien Bridge Oscillator Frequency

1
𝑓𝑟 = 2π𝑅𝐶

Where:
ƒr is the Resonant Frequency in Hertz
R is the Resistance is Ohms
C is the Capacitance in Farads
IV. Sample Problem

Example 1.
In the Wiend bridge oscillator shown in Fig. 4, R1=R2=220 kπ and C1=C2=250 pF.
Determine the frequency of oscillations.

Tuned Oscillator Circuits

I. Discussion
Colpitts Oscillator

The Colpitts Oscillator design uses two centre-tapped capacitors in series with a
parallel inductor to form its resonance tank circuit producing sinusoidal oscillations. The
basic configuration of the Colpitts Oscillator resembles that of the Hartley Oscillator but
the difference this time is that the centre tapping of the tank sub-circuit is now made at
the junction of a “capacitive voltage divider” network instead of a tapped
autotransformer type inductor as in the Hartley oscillator.

The Colpitts oscillator uses a capacitive voltage divider

network as its feedback source. The two capacitors, C1 and C2
are placed across a single common inductor, L as shown. Then
C1, C2 and L form the tuned tank circuit with the condition for
oscillations being: XC1 + XC2 = XL, the same as for the
Hartley oscillator circuit.

The advantage of this type of capacitive circuit

configuration is that with less self and mutual inductance within
the tank circuit, frequency stability of the oscillator is improved
along with a more simple design.

Hartley Oscillator

The Hartley Oscillator design uses two inductive

coils in series with a parallel capacitor to form its
resonance tank circuit producing sinusoidal oscillations.
As far as the oscillatory voltage is concerned, the emitter
is connected to a tapping point on the tuned circuit coil.

The feedback part of the tuned LC tank circuit is

taken from the centre tap of the inductor coil or even two
separate coils in series which are in parallel with a
variable capacitor, C as shown. The Hartley circuit is often referred to as a
split-inductance oscillator because coil L is centre-tapped. In effect, inductance L acts
like two separate coils in very close proximity with the current flowing through coil
section XY induces a signal into coil section YZ below.
II. Circuits

Basic Colpitts Oscillator Circuit

 The emitter terminal of the transistor is effectively connected to the junction of the
two capacitors, C1 and C2 which are connected in series and act as a simple voltage
divider. When the power supply is firstly applied, capacitors C1 and C2 charge up and
then discharge through the coil L. The oscillations across the capacitors are applied to
the base-emitter junction and appear amplified at the collector output.

Resistors, R1 and R2 provide the usual stabilizing DC bias for the transistor in
the normal manner while the additional capacitors act as a DC-blocking bypass
capacitor. A radio-frequency choke (RFC) is used in the collector circuit to provide a
high reactance (ideally open circuit) at the frequency of oscillation, ( ƒr ) and a low
resistance at DC to help start the oscillations.

The required external phase shift is obtained in a similar manner to that in the
Hartley oscillator circuit with the required positive feedback obtained for sustained
undamped oscillations. The amount of feedback is determined by the ratio of C1 and
C2. These two capacitances are generally “ganged” together to provide a constant
amount of feedback so that as one is adjusted the other automatically follows.

Basic Hartley Oscillator Circuit

 When the circuit is oscillating, the voltage at point X (collector), relative to point Y
(emitter), is 180o out-of-phase with the voltage at point Z (base) relative to point Y. At
the frequency of oscillation, the impedance of the Collector load is resistive and an
increase in Base voltage causes a decrease in the Collector voltage.

Thus there is a 180o phase change in the voltage between the Base and
Collector and this along with the original 180o phase shift in the feedback loop provides
the correct phase relationship of positive feedback for oscillations to be maintained.

The amount of feedback depends upon the position of the “tapping point” of the
inductor. If this is moved nearer to the collector the amount of feedback is increased, but
the output taken between the Collector and earth is reduced and vice versa. Resistors,
R1 and R2 provide the usual stabilizing DC bias for the transistor in the normal manner
while the capacitors act as DC-blocking capacitors.

III. Formulas
The frequency of oscillations for a Colpitts Oscillator is determined by the resonant
frequency of the LC tank circuit and is given as:
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2π 𝐿𝐶𝑇

Where CT is the capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series and is given as:

(𝐶1)(𝐶2)
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2

The amount of feedback developed by the Colpitts oscillator is based on the

capacitance ratio of C1 and C2 and is what governs the excitation of the oscillator. This
ratio is called the “feedback fraction” and is given simply as:

𝐶1
𝐹𝐹 = 𝐶2
𝑥100%

In the Hartley Oscillator:

1
𝑓𝑟 =
2π 𝐿𝑇𝐶

Where LT is the total cumulatively coupled inductance if two separate coils are used
including their mutual inductance, M.

𝐿𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀

IV. Sample Problem

Example 1

A Colpitts Oscillator circuit having two capacitors of 24nF and 240nF respectively
are connected in parallel with an inductor of 10mH. Determine the frequency of
oscillations of the circuit.

1
𝑓𝑟 =
2π 𝐿𝐶𝑇
(𝐶1)(𝐶2) 24𝑛𝐹(240𝑛𝐹)
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
= 24𝑛𝐹 + 240𝑛𝐹
= 21. 82𝑛𝐹
1
𝑓𝑟 = = 10. 8 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2π 10𝑚𝐻(21.82𝑛𝐹)
24𝑛𝐹
𝐹𝐹 = 240𝑛𝐹
𝑥100% = 10%

Example 2

A Hartley Oscillator circuit having two individual inductors of 0.5mH each, are designed
to resonate in parallel with a variable capacitor that can be adjusted between 100pF and
500pF. Determine the upper and lower frequencies of oscillation and also the Hartley
oscillators bandwidth.

1
𝑓𝑟 =
2π 𝐿𝑇𝐶

𝐿𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 = 0. 5𝑚𝐻 + 0. 5𝑚𝐻 = 1𝑚𝐻

Upper Frequency Oscillation Lower Frequency Oscillation

1 1
𝑓𝐻 = = 503𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝐿 = = 225𝑘𝐻𝑧
2π 1𝑚𝐻(100𝑝𝐹) 2π 1𝑚𝐻(500𝑝𝐹)

Hartley Oscillator Bandwidth

𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿 = 503𝑘𝐻𝑧 − 225𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 278𝑘𝐻𝑧

Crystal oscillators
 I. Discussion

Crystal oscillators operate on the principle of inverse piezoelectric effect in which

an alternating voltage applied across the crystal surfaces causes it to vibrate at its
natural frequency. It is these vibrations which eventually get converted into oscillations.

These oscillators are usually made of Quartz crystal, even though other
substances like Rochelle salt and Tourmaline exhibit the piezoelectric effect because,
quartz is inexpensive, naturally-available and mechanically-strong when compared to
others.Crystal oscillators are compact in size and are of low cost due to which they are
extensively used in various electronic fields.

In crystal oscillators, the crystal is suitably cut and mounted between two metallic
plates whose electrical equivalent is shown below. In reality, the crystal behaves like a
series RLC circuit, formed by the components

● A low-valued resistor RS
● A large-valued inductor LS
● A small-valued capacitor CS

which will be in parallel with the capacitance of its electrodes Cp.

Due to the presence of Cp, the crystal will resonate at two different frequencies
that is.,

1. Series Resonant Frequency, fs which occurs when the series capacitance CS

resonates with the series inductance LS. At this stage, the crystal impedance will
be the least and hence the amount of feedback will be the largest.

2. Parallel Resonant frequency, fp which is exhibited when the reactance of the

LSCS leg equals the reactance of the parallel capacitor Cp i.e. LS and CS
resonate with Cp. At this instant, the crystal impedance will be the highest and
thus the feedback will be the least.
II. Circuits
Crystal Oscillator Circuit is shown below

In the circuits shown, the resistors R1 and R2 form the voltage divider network
while the emitter resistor RE stabilizes the circuit. Further, CE (Figure 2a) acts as an AC
bypass capacitor while the coupling capacitor CC (Figure 2a) is used to block DC signal
propagation between the collector and the base terminals.

Next, the capacitors C1 and C2 form the capacitive voltage divider network in the
case of Figure 2b. In addition, there is also a Radio Frequency Coil (RFC) in the circuits
(both in Figure 2a and 2b) which offers dual advantage as it provides even the DC bias
as well as frees the circuit-output from being affected by the AC signal on the power
lines.

On supplying the power to the oscillator, the amplitude of the oscillations in the
circuit increases until a point is reached wherein the nonlinearities in the amplifier
reduce the loop gain to unity.

In general, the frequency of the crystal oscillators will be fixed to be the crystal’s
fundamental or characteristic frequency which will be decided by the physical size and
shape of the crystal. However, if the crystal is non-parallel or of non-uniform thickness,
then it might resonate at multiple frequencies, resulting in harmonics.
III. Formulas

Series Resonant Frequency Parallel Resonant Frequency

1 1
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓𝑝 =
2π 𝐿𝑠𝐶𝑠 2π
𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑠
𝐿𝑠 𝐶𝑝 + 𝐶𝑠

IV. Sample Problem

Example 1.

The ac equivalent circuit of a crystal has these values: L = 1H, C = 0.01 pF, R = 1kπ
and Cm = 20 pF. Calculate fs and fp of the crystal.

Unijunction oscillator
 I. Discussion

The Unijunction Transistor or UJT for short, is another solid state three terminal
device that can be used in gate pulse, timing circuits and trigger generator applications
to switch and control either thyristors and triacs for AC power control type applications.

Like diodes, unijunction transistors are constructed from separate P-type and
N-type semiconductor materials forming a single (hence its name Uni-Junction)
PN-junction within the main conducting N-type channel of the device.

Although the Unijunction Transistor has the name of a transistor, its switching
characteristics are very different from those of a conventional bipolar or field effect
transistor as it can not be used to amplify a signal but instead is used as a ON-OFF
switching transistor. UJT’s have unidirectional conductivity and negative impedance
characteristics acting more like a variable voltage divider during breakdown.

A unijunction oscillator is an electronic circuit that stands apart from typical

oscillators as it specializes in producing non-sinusoidal waveforms, primarily sawtooth
or square waves. Its unique active component is the unijunction transistor (UJT), a
semiconductor device with distinct voltage-dependent properties. Unlike common
oscillators focused on generating sine waves, unijunction oscillators excel at delivering
precise triggering pulses and timing signals.

At the core of this circuit is the UJT, featuring one emitter and two bases, B1 and
B2. What sets a unijunction oscillator apart is its ability to trigger the UJT through a
voltage pulse applied to the B1 base. Once triggered, the UJT engages in a relaxation
oscillator process, during which the voltage across its associated capacitor charges and
discharges systematically. This sequence yields the desired output waveform, often in
the form of a sawtooth or square wave.

Unijunction oscillators find their niche in various electronic applications where

consistent and controlled timing signals are crucial. They are valuable tools in circuit
design, employed in tasks such as timing circuitry, pulse generation, and as
precision-triggering elements in digital and analog systems. In contrast to sine wave
generators, unijunction oscillators play a distinct role by providing reliable and
predictable waveforms tailored to meet specific timing requirements, making them
indispensable components in the world of electronics.

II. Circuits
 Unijunction Transistor Symbol and Construction

Unijunction Transistor Relaxation Oscillator

When a voltage (Vs) is firstly applied, the unijunction transistor is “OFF” and the
capacitor C1 is fully discharged but begins to charge up exponentially through resistor
R3. As the Emitter of the UJT is connected to the capacitor, when the charging voltage
Vc across the capacitor becomes greater than the diode volt drop value, the p-n junction
behaves as a normal diode and becomes forward biased triggering the UJT into
conduction.

The unijunction transistor is “ON”. At this point the Emitter to B1 impedance

collapses as the Emitter goes into a low impedance saturated state with the flow of
Emitter current through R1 taking place.
III. Formulas
Intrinsic Standoff Ratio (η): It is the ration of RB1 and RB2. It can be expressed as:

η = RB1/(RB1 + RB2)
The typical range of intrinsic standoff ratio is from 0.4 to 0.8.

RBBO: It is the resistance between the terminals B1 and B2. In simple words, it is the
resistance of the N-Type bar when measured lengthwise. Ig RB1 is the resistance of the
bar from E to B1 and RB2 is the resistance of the bar from E to B2, then RBBO can be
expressed as:

RBBO = RB1 + RB2

The typical range of RBBO is from 3kπ to 10kπ

f=1/T
where T = R3Cln(1/(1-η))

Timing Resistor R3 is to be obtained by manipulating the formula above.

IV. Sample Problem

Example 1.

The data sheet for a 2N2646 Unijunction Transistor gives the intrinsic stand-off ratio η
as 0.65. If a 100nF capacitor is used to generate the timing pulses, calculate the timing
resistor required to produce an oscillation frequency of 100Hz.

The timing period is given as: f = 1/T

T=1/f = 1/100Hz =10mS

The value of the timing resistor, R3 is calculated as:

T = R3Cln(1/(1-η))

R3 = T/(Cln(1/(1-η))) = 10ms/(100nF)(ln[1/(1-0.65)])

R3 = 95.3kπ
References
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https://electronicscoach.com/phase-shift-oscillator.html

What is a Wien bridge oscillator? Definition,construction and working of Wien Bridge

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Wien Bridge Oscillator Tutorial and Theory. (2013, August 25). Basic Electronics
Tutorials. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/oscillator/wien_bridge.html

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Electronics Tutorials. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/oscillator/colpitts.html

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Tutorials. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/oscillator/hartley.html

Electrical4U. (n.d.). Crystal Oscillator: Circuit, Frequency & Working Principle |

Electrical4U. Https://Www.electrical4u.com/.
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Unijunction Transistor and UJT Relaxation Oscillator. (2014, March 27). Basic
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