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A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: An in-depth investigation of the incorporation of silane-treated and untreated glass waste in concrete is presented
Glass Waste in this research. Coarse and fine aggregates were replaced with glass waste in 30 wt.-% and 50 wt.-% ratios,
Concrete while glass powder was employed as an additive to concrete with 2 wt.-% and 5 wt.-% ratios. Physical, me
Sustainability
chanical, microstructural and surface chemical properties of the produced concrete samples were studied by
Morphology
Interaction mechanism
conducting water absorption test, compressive and splitting tensile strength tests, Scanning Electron Microscopy
Strength (SEM) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses, respectively. The results showed that the
combined influence of glass waste and silane coupling agent enhanced the impermeability of concrete by 87%
when replacing sand with 50 wt.-% glass. In addition, all modified mixtures showed a reduction in their 28 days’
compressive strength compared to the control, except mixtures where untreated glass powder was used as an
additive, which led to an increase in their compressive strength by 1%. Moreover, replacing sand with 50 wt.-%
glass enhanced the splitting tensile strength of concrete by 25%. Microstructural analysis revealed a delaminated
interface between glass and cement paste when using silane-treated coarse glass and the formation of Ettringite
at later ages.
* Corresponding author. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Brunel University London, Kingston Ln, Uxbridge, UB8 3PH, United Kingdom.
E-mail address: seyed.ghaffar@brunel.ac.uk (S.H. Ghaffar).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2022.100790
Received 18 October 2022; Received in revised form 15 November 2022; Accepted 18 November 2022
Available online 19 November 2022
2590-1230/Crown Copyright © 2022 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al. Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790
incorporation of glass waste into concrete, either by replacing the Untreated and silane-treated glass wastes are employed to replace coarse
aggregate or using it as an additive, provided some promising results, and fine aggregates in different ratios, in addition to their use as a
especially in terms of water absorption reduction [22–26]. Most studies functional additive to improve the performance of the resultant con
reported a reduction in water absorption between 25% and 72% when crete. Silane treatment was employed in an attempt to enhance con
replacing sand with glass waste in ratios between 40% and 70% [22,24]. crete’s properties, mainly impermeability, after the incorporation of
However, a contradiction in the mechanical properties results was glass. Furthermore, physical and mechanical properties along with
observed in different studies; some studies reported an improvement in microstructural and interaction mechanism analyses, are thoroughly
the mechanical properties [27,28], while others reported a declination assessed and discussed with statistical analyses.
[29]. For instance, Sharma (2022) reported a 122% enhancement in the
compressive strength when replacing coarse aggregate with 10% glass 2. Materials and methods
waste along with 20% waste foundry waste and 0.75% glass fibres, while
Tuaum et al. (2018) reported a reduction of 2% in the strength when The testing program, including mix formulations and experimental
using the same replacement ratio of glass waste [30,31]. This might refer methods used in this research, are represented in Fig. 1.
to the variation in the used glass waste’s chemical composition, colour,
and replacement ratio. Additionally, many studies reported the devel
opment of Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) in concrete after the integration 2.1. Materials
of glass waste, which negatively affects its mechanical properties
[32–34]. However, there are limited efforts aimed to study the inter CEM I 42.5 N Portland Cement, coarse limestone aggregate with a
action mechanism between glass waste and other concrete constituents maximum grain size of 25 mm, and 2 mm fine river sand were used in
to explain the effect of glass waste on concrete’s physical and mechan this study, following the guidelines of BS EN 197–1 and BS EN 12620
ical properties [35]. Based on previous studies, little research explored [36,37]. The used glass waste is a soda-lime glass type, which was
the strategies of treating glass waste before its incorporation into con provided by Greater Karak Municipality. The chemical composition and
crete to enhance its properties [10]. physical properties of the glass waste is illustrated in Table 1 [38–40].
Therefore, the novelty and significance of this study come from the The glass waste was washed, cleaned, and milled into various sizes be
possibility of incorporating glass waste in concrete in different forms. tween 0.007 mm and 25 mm to be consistent with the grain size of the
used cement and natural aggregates. The particle size distribution of the
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F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al. Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790
Table 1 specimens (six cubes and three cylinders). All specimens were cured in a
Chemical composition and physical properties of the used glass waste water tank at a temperature of 21 ◦ C for 7 and 28 days prior to testing
[38–40]. following the procedure of the BS EN 12390–2 [43]. Specimens were
Chemical composition Content (%) Physical properties value dried in an oven at 100 ◦ C, after completing the curing periods, until a
SiO2 70.5 Specific gravity 2.50–2.52
constant weight was attained.
Al2O3 3.2 Density (kg/m3) 2420 The experimental framework (Fig. 1) was assigned to characterise
Fe2O3 0.42 Finesse modulus 3.48–3.49 three main properties: (1) Mechanical, (2) Physical, and (3) Micro
CaO 10 Water absorption 0.40–0.43 structural. Mechanical properties were evaluated by conducting the
Na2O 12 – –
compressive and splitting tensile tests, where the compressive strength
K2O 1 – –
MgO 2.3 – – was performed on all specimens after 7 and 28 days of curing, and the
TiO2 0.07 – – tensile strength was performed on all specimens only after 28 days of
curing following the instructions of BS EN 12390–5 and BS EN 12390–6,
respectively [44,45]. Cubes were used to serve the compressive strength
used natural aggregate and glass waste is shown in Fig. 2. Moreover, test, while cylinders were used for the splitting tensile test.
Sikagard 700-S silane, provided by Sakkab Newport Trading (Amman, The physical properties of all mixtures were assessed by conducting
Jordan), was used to coat part of the crushed glass waste before its the water absorption test. After finishing the 7 and 28 days curing pe
integration into concrete. The used material is an environmentally riods, all hardened mixtures were tested for water absorption by
friendly compound with hydrophobic characteristics that works as a following the ASTM C1585 testing procedure [46]. Cylinder specimens
coupling agent to enhance the bonding between glass and the cement were used in this test after drying in an oven at 100 ◦ C until a constant
matrix [10,41]. mass was achieved. Cylinders were immersed in water, and the changes
in their masses were recorded after 30 min, 1 h, 2 h, 3 h, 4 h, 5 h, and 24
2.2. Mixture design h from placing them in water. The water absorption rate of specimens
was then calculated by using the following formula:
As illustrated in Table 2, 13 different mixtures were designed
following the instructions of BS 1881–125 [42]. All mixture formula W2 − W1
Water Absorption (%) = X 100
tions were designed with constant water-to-cement ratio (w/c) of 0.46. W1
As shown in Table 2, eight mixtures were designed by varying the coarse
where.W1: Dry weight of concrete specimens (g).W2: Weight of concrete
and fine aggregates by replacing them with glass waste in 30 wt.-% and
specimens after immersing in water (g).
50 wt.-% of the weight of natural aggregates. Four mixtures, out of the
To evaluate the microstructural characteristics of concrete after the
eight mentioned above, were prepared with silane-treated glass waste.
incorporation of glass waste (treated and untreated), Scanning Electron
Glass waste that was employed as coarse aggregate had a grain size
Microscopy (SEM) analysis was performed along with energy dispersive
range of 4.75 mm–25 mm, and glass waste that was used as fine
spectroscopy (EDS) analysis. Before conducting the analysis, small parts
aggregate had a grain size distribution between 0.075 mm and 2 mm.
(10 mm3) of the specimens were gold-coated to enhance the conduc
Furthermore, glass waste was also used as an additive in another four
tivity of their surfaces.
mixtures by adding it with 2 wt.-% and 5 wt.-% of cement weight. Two
An in-depth analysis of the interaction mechanism between the
mixtures out of the latter four contained silane-treated glass waste as an
incorporated glass waste (treated and untreated) and the cement matrix
additive. Glass waste was ground to a particle size of 0.007 mm before
was carried out using the attenuated total reflectance-fourier transform
using it as an additive. One mixture was used as a control for comparison
infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). The analysis was performed at a
reasons. Mixtures ID are explained in Fig. 1.
wavenumber range of 4000 cm− 1 to 400 cm− 1.
Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of the used natural and glass waste aggregates.
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F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al. Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790
Table 2
Mix design compositions with a fixed water/cement ratio of 0.46
Mixture ID Cement (kg/m3) Coarse aggregate (kg/m3) Fine aggregate (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Glass waste (kg/m3)
All concrete mixtures have been tested for water absorption to assess
their waterproofing properties. As illustrated in Fig. 3a, concrete mix
tures integrated with silane-treated fine and coarse glass aggregates
exhibited the least water absorption rates among all mixtures after 7
days of curing. Notably, a maximum drop of 78%, 67%, 32%, and 7%
was noticed in the water absorption of FT-50, FT-30, CT-50, and CT-30
mixtures, respectively, compared to the control. This is attributed to the
hydrophobic effect of silane that coats the glass aggregates and leads to
repelling water out of the concrete’s pores. Moreover, the lowest ab
sorption rate exhibited by FT-50 could be attributed to the higher sur
face area of fine glass aggregates that increases silane’s coupling effect
and allows more silane particles to link with their surface [10]. On the
other hand, the integration of untreated coarse and fine glass aggregates
in concrete showed higher water absorption rates than their treated
counterparts, which is evidence of silane’s high efficiency in reducing
water absorption (Fig. 3a).
After 28 days of curing, a noticeable reduction in water absorption
was spotted with increasing the replacement ratio of treated fine and
coarse glass aggregates (Fig. 3b). A maximum reduction of 87%, 78%,
31%, and 21% was achieved in the water absorption of FT-50, FT-30,
CT-50, and CT-30 mixtures, respectively. This is due to the presence of
silane that creates a water-repellent layer on the surface of the glass
aggregates. Similar to the results obtained at 7 days, FT-50 achieved the
lowest water absorption rate, which refers to the high silane content in
this mixture and its well-distribution on the high surface area glass [10].
Moreover, replacing fine and coarse aggregates with untreated fine and
coarse glass wastes showed water absorption values relatively lower
than the control but higher than their treated counterparts. This could be
attributed to glass’s inherent moderate hydrophobic nature compared
with natural aggregates.
Interestingly, incorporating untreated glass powder as an additive to
concrete recorded higher water absorption rates than the control, where
increasing the glass powder content increased the water absorption rate.
At 7 days, water absorption increased by 4% and 47% after integrating
2% and 5% untreated glass powder (AW-2 and AW-5 mixtures),
respectively (Fig. 3a). Moreover, at 28 days, water absorption of AW-2
and AW-5 mixtures increased by 2% for both mixtures. This increase
in water absorption might indicate forming a highly porous mixture
after incorporating the glass powder into the mix [47]. Furthermore, the
integration of treated glass powder as an additive (AT-2 and AT-5
mixtures) has also resulted in an increased water absorption rate.
Water absorption of the AT-2 mixture increased by 5% and 2%, whereas
the water absorption of the AT-5 mixture increased by 1% and 5% at 7
Fig. 3. Water absorption of concrete mixtures after (a) 7 days and (b) 28 days days and 28 days, respectively. This increase in water absorption might
of curing.
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F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al. Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790
also be attributed to the formation of higher porous mixtures after the hydration process at early ages [48]. In addition, the glass absorbs less
addition of glass powder, which works on absorbing higher amounts of water due to its hydrophobic nature, which leads to more water present
water than the control. The presence of silane in those mixtures is to accelerate the hydration process. Remarkably, the increase in the 7
considered minimal, which will not be enough to reduce the water ab days’ compressive strength of the coarse glass mixtures could be
sorption rate. attributed to the angular shape of glass particles that exhibits higher
friction and interlocking between the aggregate particles in the concrete
3.2. Compressive strength mixture [49].
As shown in Fig. 4b, replacing fine aggregate with untreated fine
Compressive strength results of all samples after 7 and 28 days are glass waste with ratios of 30% and 50% reduced the 28 days compressive
illustrated in Fig. 4 a-b. It is perceived that replacing fine and coarse strength of FW-30 and FW-50 mixtures by 13% and 5%, respectively.
aggregate with untreated glass waste has resulted in an increase in the 7 This could be due to the minimal effect of small glass particles in filling
days compressive strength of FW-30, FW-50, CW-30, and CW-50 mix the pores, resulting in forming a low-dense concrete structure [10].
tures by 23%, 29%, 7%, and 29%, respectively, compared to control Moreover, replacing coarse aggregate with untreated coarse glass
(Fig. 4a). This is due to the glass’s pozzolanic effect that enhances the reduced the 28 days’ compressive strength of CW-30 and CW-50 mix
tures by 7% and 33%, respectively. This could primarily be due to the
brittle nature of glass (more brittle than natural aggregate), which is
reflected in the decreased compressive strength of concrete [50].
On the other hand, using silane-treated glass waste as aggregate (fine
and coarse) negatively influenced the concrete mixtures’ 7 and 28 days
compressive strength. Moreover, the 28 days compressive strength of
FT-30, FT-50, CT-30, and CT-50 has dropped by 19%, 46%, 34%, and
45%, respectively. This might be due to the presence of silane that coats
the glass surface, which hinders the pozzolanic effect of glass powder. In
addition, silane might induce slippage between glass particles and
reduce their interlocking resulting in a decreased compressive strength
[51].
Remarkably, the use of glass waste (treated and untreated) as an
additive in concrete led to an increased compressive strength when
tested at 7 days, where a 28%, 12%, 10%, and 10% increase was
observed in AW-2, AW-5, AT-2, and AT-5 mixtures, respectively
(Fig. 4a). In the case of the silane-treated glass waste mixtures, the in
crease in the 7 days’ compressive strength could be attributed to the
hydrophobic effect of silane that provides more free water in the mix,
which is necessary to accelerate the hydration process at early ages.
Moreover, the increase in the 7 days’ compressive strength of untreated
glass waste mixtures could be due to the pozzolanic effect of glass
powder [52]. On the other hand, using untreated glass waste as an ad
ditive showed a modest enhancement in the 28 days’ compressive
strength, where only a 1% increase was noted in both AW-2 and AW-5
mixtures compared to the control (Fig. 4b). The presence of glass pow
der in small quantities (up to 5%) would minimise its dispersion in the
mix, affecting its role in enhancing the hydration process [52]. More
over, AT-2 and AT-5 mixtures experienced a drop of 5% and 21%,
respectively, in the 28 days’ compressive strength compared to the
control, which could refer to the silane effect at later ages in hindering
the reaction between silica in glass and the cement matrix.
The splitting tensile strength of all mixtures has been tested after 28
days of curing, and the results are illustrated in Fig. 5. All mixtures
experienced a drop in their tensile strength compared to control except
FW-30 and FW-50 mixtures, where an increase of 4% and 25%,
respectively, was seen. This increase could be attributed to: (i) the
enhanced bonding between fine glass and cement paste, where a strong
bond is anticipated to form after the reaction between silica and calcium
hydroxide resulting in the formation of high amounts of C–S–H gel, and
(ii) the small size of fine glass, which reduces the pore size of concrete
and results in a dense microstructure [20]. Replacing sand with un
treated fine glass waste outperformed the strength of control. On the
other hand, it is known that the tensile strength of concrete is easily
influenced by the quality of the interfacial transition zone between the
aggregate and the cement matrix. Therefore, the waste glass would have
a poor bonding with the cement matrix when present as a coarse
Fig. 4. Compressive strength of concrete mixtures after (a) 7 days and (b) 28 aggregate due to its smooth surface and small surface area resulting in a
days of curing. reduced tensile strength [53].
5
F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al. Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790
Fig. 6. SEM analysis of concrete with (a) untreated coarse glass aggregate, (b) treated coarse glass aggregate, (c) untreated fine glass aggregate, and (d) treated fine
glass aggregate.
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F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al. Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790
resulted in the formation of a low-dense structure with the presence of Spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR) analysis (Fig. 7). The obtained results were
imperceptible micro-cracks and enlarged voids. This might refer to the compared with the control. The spectra of all concrete samples are
rough texture of the small glass particles (generated from the fine dominated by some characteristic peaks at the absorption ranges of 3643
grinding of glass), which reduces their filling effect in the pores [10,56]. to 3434 cm− 1, 1428 cm− 1, 1100 cm− 1, 875 cm− 1, and 470 to 450 cm− 1.
Moreover, a small distribution of Ettringite was detected in the mix O–H stretching vibration bond was recorded at the band range of
(Fig. 6c), which might reduce the bond between the cement matrix and 3643 to 3434 cm− 1 [35,59,60]. Furthermore, the peak at 1428 cm− 1 is
glass, resulting in a lower densely packed structure [10,57]. However, attributed to the O–C–O stretching vibration bond [61,62]. The two
the presence of Ettringite did not demonstrate a strong negative influ peaks at 1100 cm− 1 and 875 cm− 1 are believed to belong to the
ence on the mechanical properties of concrete, where a slight reduction stretching bonds of S–O and Al–O, respectively [59,62,63]. Besides, the
in compressive strength was observed due to the formation of Ettringite small peaks at 470 to 450 cm− 1 are assigned to the Si–O–Si and O–Si–O
in small quantities. The presence of glass in small sizes in the mix would bending vibration bonds [62,64,65].
ease the reaction of its silica with the hydration products [50]. On the A noticeable increase in the transmittance of all the characteristic
other hand, and as shown in the water absorption section, replacing fine peaks was observed after incorporating untreated and silane-treated
aggregate with fine glass did not show any enhancement in the imper glass waste in concrete. However, the increase was higher in concrete
meability of concrete, which might refer to the presence of micro-cracks integrated with silane-treated glass waste (Fig. 7). The increase in the
and voids, and the inferior filling effect of glass powder. intensities of the O–H, S–O, and Al–O bonds might denote the presence
Interestingly, incorporating silane-treated fine glass aggregate in of Ettringite (Ca6Al2(SO4)3(OH)12⋅26H2O) in both mixtures (as demon
concrete has shown a high-dense structure with the absence of micro- strated in Fig. 6c and d) [60], with higher Ettringite content in
cracks or voids (Fig. 6d). A clear distribution of C–S–H crystals silane-treated glass waste concrete. Accordingly, the reduction in
(confirmed with EDS analysis) was also observed in the mix, which is the compressive strength of those mixtures could be linked to the increase in
main binding element in concrete [58]. This is sufficient to create a Ettringite levels. At the same time, the increase in the O–C–O stretching
highly dense and well-bonded matrix. Additionally, the application of vibration bond intensity assigns the presence of carbonates in the mix
silane on small-sized glass particles worked on enhancing the efficacy of tures, which might arise from the reaction between CO2 in air and the
silane due to the high surface area of glass powder, which will result in mixtures [61]. Furthermore, the presence of carbonates is higher in
the formation of strong organosilicon bonds between the glass and the silane-treated glass waste concrete, which implies the manifestation of
cement matrix and increase the bond between both vicinities [10]. This carbonation in this mix at higher levels. This might also contribute to the
could also influence the water absorption of this type of concrete, as it reduction in the mixture’s strength.
achieved the lowest absorption levels among all samples due to the On the other hand, an evident increase in the transmittance of the
hydrophobic effect of silane (Section 3.1). Moreover, few depositions of Si–O–Si and O–Si–O bending vibration bonds can be spotted in Fig. 7. In
Ettringite were found within the mix, which could explain the drop in the case of untreated glass concrete, this increase could be due to the
the compressive strength of this mixture (Section 3.2). This reduction in high silica content in the integrated glass. This explains the relative
compressive strength could also refer to the smooth texture that silane reduction in water absorption in this mix resulting from the low affinity
creates on the glass surface, which might increase the slippage between of silica to water [66]. However, higher intensities of the Si–O–Si and
particles after applying the load [51]. Furthermore, coating glass par O–Si–O bonds are witnessed in silane-treated glass waste concrete,
ticles with silane will create a barrier between the cement matrix and which refers to the abundance of those bonds in the chemical compo
glass, which can hinder the reaction between silica in glass and cement sition of the used silane (C7H18O3Si). This elucidates the superior per
products and reduce concrete’s strength. formance of this mix in terms of water absorption, as it achieved the
lowest absorption levels among all mixtures.
3.5. Surface functional chemistry
4. Statistical analyses
The interaction mechanism between glass and concrete on one side
and silane-treated glass and concrete on the other was investigated by In the previous sections, the mechanical and physical properties
conducting Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier Transform Infrared along with the microstructural and interaction mechanism analyses
were discussed in detail. This section applies statistical analyses to
investigate the significance of the population means of the mechanical
and physical properties of all mixtures with respect to the control mixes
(CS). The probability values “P-values” were used to interpret the results
statistically at a 95% confidence level.
The concrete mixtures were divided into three groups based on the
incorporation type of glass waste. The groups include coarse aggregate,
fine aggregate and additive mixtures. The coarse-aggregate group in
cludes CW-30, CW-50, CT-50, and CT-30 mixtures. The fine aggregate
group includes FW-30, FW-50, FT-50, and FT-30 mixtures. The additive
group includes AW-2, AW-5, AT-2, and AT-5 mixtures. A single-factor
analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique was then conducted to inves
tigate the significance of the population means (μ) of each group by
testing the following hypothesis:
H0 : μCS = μi = μj = μk = μl
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F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al. Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790
Concrete mixtures were developed with glass waste particles in Feras W. Al-Awabdeh: Investigation, Data curation, Formal analysis,
different ratios and sizes, employing silane treatment on the glass sur Writing – original draft. Mazen J. Al-Kheetan: Conceptualization, Visu
face. Coarse and fine aggregates were replaced with 30 wt.-% and 50 alization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft,
wt.-% glass waste, in addition to using glass powder as an additive to Writing – review & editing. Yazeed S. Jweihan: Formal analysis, Writing
concrete in 2 wt.-% and 5 wt.-% ratios. After conducting physical, me – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Husam Al-Hamaiedeh: Su
chanical, and microstructural analyses of the concrete mixtures, the pervision, Methodology, Visualization, Conceptualization, Resources,
following conclusions can be drawn: Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
editing. Seyed Hamidreza Ghaffar: Writing - Original Draft, Writing –
5. Using glass waste as a partial replacement for fine aggregate review & editing
reduced concrete’s water absorption with a maximum reduction
of 87% when using 50% silane-treated fine glass.
Table 4
“P-values” results from the t-tests.
Mixture type Compressive strength Splitting tensile strength Water absorption (after 24 h)
8
F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al. Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790
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