The term emotion derives from the Latin verb movere, which means fo move or fo stir up. Some definitions are: lL Woodworth (1938) defines emotions as “a stirred up state of an individual. It is a disturbed muscular and glandular activity”. This definition is little more than a literal translation of the Latin word. The advantages of its simplicity are offset by the fact that it tells us nothing about the specific nature of emotions. 2. Buck (1988) writes, “I define emotion as the process by which motivational potential is realized, or read out when activeted by challenging stimuli”. This broad definition implies that emotion is a mechanism, which conveys information about motivational system. Moreover emotion is a constantly occurring phenomenon present in all life from simple amoebas to complex human beings. 3. Fernald and Femald (1999) define emotions as, “a complex feeling state accompanied by physiological ‘arousal and overt behaviors”. This implies that emotions have many aspects, out of which two are very important ~ internal physiological states and overt actions. 4. According to Baron (2001) emotions are “reactions consisting of subjective cognitive states, physiological reactions, and expressive behaviors”. This implies: a. Unlike motives, emotions originate due to other stimuli. They are reactions. b. The reactions are external as well as intemal. c. We are aware of these reactions, we are conscious of them, though thi8 consciousness varies in different individuals. Characteristics of emotions 1. Emotions range from positive to negative: Emotions imply a stirred up, activated state of the organism that ranges from positive to negative. ‘They may lead to approach or avoidance of environmental stimulation. 2. Emotions are closely linked to motivation: Both terms come from the same Latin roots ¢ (out) and movere (lo move). Dissatisfaction of motives accompanies negative emotions whereas satisfaction of motives accompanies positive emotions. In terms of the organism's reactions, internal as well as external, no distinction ‘can be made in emotions and motivation. Nevertheless, psychologists do make the following conceptual distinctions: © Motives are relatively enduring, whereas emotions are transitory. * Motives act together as a single entity, emotions is many and is often in conflict with each other. + Motives generally lead to organized behavior, emotions lead to disorganization of behavior. 3, Emotions are subjective: Emotions are the most personal experience. Each individual experiences them in 2 difforent way and he himself is the best judge of their nature and intensity. This is why the method of introspection is useful for studying eniotions. 4. Emotions are affective, cognitive, and conative: Emotions are related to pleasant and unpleasant feelings or affective states. They are cognitive because we are conscious of an emotional experience. Moreover, the intensity ‘and kind of emotion we experience depends on the cognitive label attached to it (Schacter and Singer, 1971). If arousal is experienced in a sexual situation, it is labeled as love; if it is experienced in a quarrel, itis labeled as anger. Emotions are always accompanied by overt expression. They impel an individual to act in a certain way. Consequently they are also conative in nature. 5, - ‘Emotions are sudden: An individual is seldom prepared for an emotion. Neither can an emotion be practiced or rehearsed. Emotions are sudden reactions to provoking internal or external stimul 6. Emotions persist as a mood: once an emotion is aroused, it does not remain the same, There are changes in the quality of the emotional experience. An emotion quickly changed into a mood — long-lasting affect. 7. Emotions vary in intensity: a mother’s love for her child is tender and smooth, whereas a lover's love for the beloved is intense and passionate. ‘The intensity of emotions changes even as they are being experienced. The initial high excitation gives way to.a lower level emotional experience. 8. motions dominate conscious experience and behavior: A terrified person can think of nothing but his fear. He haé difficulty in sleeping, eating, and can’t carry out his normal activities. ‘Thus emotions dominate his existence. A lover thinks of nothing but his beloved, often neglecting his job, duties, family ete. 9. Emotions can be evoked by a variety of stimuli: Emotions are reactions to internal as well as.externel ‘stimuli. ‘They oocur when motives and instincts are thwarted or satisfied. They are evoked by environmental | They can occur due to memories or they can be shown in anticipation of future events.10. Reason provides a check on emotions: The emotional response is weakened by the application of fitgllect ©-&. reasoning can change the extreme emotions of range into mere irritability. 7 wy 1. op cunotions ave aids in emergency: Strong emotions are associated with arousal of the sympathotic nervous Set Ad inhibition of the parasympathetic nervous system. ‘The energy released in this manner helps the individual to combat stressful situation, Nevertheless exiremely high emotions are often detrimemel to performance. 1e pieimotions are expressed in overt behavior: Emotions cannot be hidden. Even if they are not expressed directly they are expressed indirectly in the form of subtle body language. F.g, even if anger is not expressed in words or actions, it is expressed in a stiff body posture and clenched hands, 13. There are individual variations in emotional expression: The expression of emotions varies from one Person {o another depending on the reinforcement the individual has received for emotional expression, particularly from the parents or other close relatives, 1a gy Lbet® ate cultural variations in emotional expression: Exactly how an emotion is expressed depends on the Society and culture e.g. the expression of grief varies from one culture to another. In the western world grief is expressed through mourning crying; In Samoa, expression of grief is considered abnormal; In Tahiti, women breale off their little fingers to express their grief. 15. a te, 2 oss-cultural similarities in emotional expression: People fiom a wide variety of cultures accurately identify facial expressions of a range of emotions. (Ekman, 1973). People from different cultures also ‘gree on the emotional significance of nonverbal features of speech such as piteh, loudness etc. (Frick, 1985) 16. _ Emotional expression is innate: This idea came originally from Charles Darwin who felt that many human emotional expressions are remnants of animal expressions of emotions e.g.: the sarcastic smile is a remnant of the baring of teeth by cats and dogs. Current rescarchers support Darwin by emphasizing that, infants and blind and deaf children show emotional expressions similar to adults. 17. Nita! Processing of emotions: The right hemisphere is especially important for processing emotional information, particularly negative emotions, such as depression and sadness. Moreover, strong positive emotions Preclude the processing or experiencing of strong negative emotions. We simply cannot feel very happy and very sad at the same time, 18 i nnntions appear at all ages: A child is perhaps nothing but a bundle of emotions. As he grows, he experiences a differentiation of basic emotions into a variety of emotions. One can observe emotions in a person Ul death, A young baby can be made angry by checking his movements and an old man by hurting his sentiments, 19. __ Emotions are affected by maturation and learning: An adult is capable of controlling his emotions more effectively than a child. He can also display a wider variety of emotional expressions. Cultural differences in Smotional expression also support the idea that emotions are affected by maturation and learning. 20, _ Emotions form the raw material of sentiments: When a number of emotions gather themselves around an object and persist for a relatively long period; the system of emotions is called a sentiment. So, sentiments ore based on emotions. Measurement of Emotions Physiological correlates of emotions: Emotions affet the whole organism. The individual is disturbed and stirred up mentally as well as physically. The activation theory of emotions (Lindsley, 1951) integrates the many observed physiological changes in emotions. The term activate medns to make active oF to render capable of + feacting, This is what emotion does to us ~ the angry man overreacts to stimulation. Strong emotion is thus one cnd of te continuum activation, is found in the sleeping man or even more accurately in death, Lindsley's theory grew directly from work on electrical activity of the brain. But if we take the term activation more generally, it implies energy - mobilization, stressed first by Cannon and Duffy. Strong emotion is not a special state; i i merely one end of a continuum of activation. There is always some degree of activation (emotion) in all organisms. Activation is reflected in the physiological correlates of emotions, which can be measured to assess the intensity of emotions. Some of these changes are: 1. Flood pressure: Blood pressure or pressure in the arteries depends on complex physiological factors, such as the output of blood from the heart and the resistance offered by the arteries to the passage of blood, Blood Pressure rises in excitement. The instrument to measure it is called the BP apparatus or sphygmomanometer, 2. Heartbeat: is the result of the heart's action, the contraction, known as the systole, and the relaxation knot as the diastole. One can listen to the heart’s sound with an ear against the organism’s chest or with a Stethoscope. cardiotachometer can count heartbeats on the basis of sound, whereas an clectro-cardiogramcan record elecuical changes in the contracting heart muscle. The arterial pulse can also be measured ¥ manually or mechanically by using a Sphygmograph. The heart beats faster in excitement. °3. Volumetric changes: Volumetric changes are the third possible circulatory index of level of activation. In an inactive state, the large abdominal vessels dilate and hold a large volume of blood, but under stress they constrict and inject blood rapidly to the heart, which in turn circulates it to the active muscles and brain. The volume recorder or plethysmograph can detect the resultant changes in the organs due to vasoconstriction and vasodilation. Such measurement is however not very reliable. 4. Respiration: The rate and depth of breathing changes with emotions though not in any predictable manner Sometimes breathing speeds up and sometimes it slows down. There is one constant pattern that can be found in disturbed breathing-this is the ratio of time taken to inhale (1) to the time taken to exhale (E), The V/E ratio increases in emotional states. ‘The rate of respiration can be measured by the pneumograph, which measures chest movements. 5. Muscular tension: Muscles are generally arranged in pairs of antagonists, as flexor and extensor. ‘There is an interaction between the two members of the pair so that one relaxes as the other contracts, thus keeping the limb under control, without any waste of energy. Sherrington (1906) describes this as reciprocal innervation. In addition to this reciprocal action, there are changes in the level of tension in both members of the pair. In sleep, the level of tension is low it increases as we become active and alert, The level of tension of various skeletal muscles furnishes an excellent index of the level of activation, particularly the neck muscles. Muscular tension may be measured through direct measures, such as force of grip exerted on a pencil, tremors, ‘or recording electrical potentials from muscles; or indirect measures such as measuring reaction time, testing reflexes, or measuring the metabolic rate through oxygen consumption. 6. Blectrical skin conductance: The most widely used index of level of activation is the electrical conductance (or its reciprocal, resistance) of the kin, usually of the palms of the hand, Skin conductance ranges from a low level in sleep to a high level in strongly activated states like rage, and it is sensitive enough to detect the mild interest aroused by a new sound in a quiet room. The measure of electrical skin conductance is known by various names such as the psychogalvanic reflex (PGR) or galvanic skin response (GSR) or the electrodermal response (EDR). The basal level of skin conductance is established and then fluctuations from it are recorded to measure momentary, brief activation, 7. Skin temperature: This can be measured with a thermocouple applicd to the skin. ‘The hand and face temperature fell during strong emotions, especially anger. 8. Oral temperature: The traditional value of 98.6 F is only a rough mean of oral temperature, which ranges over a degree or so. Activation is related to higher temperatures, though we have buiit in mechanisms to control body temperature. 9. Pupillary response: Pain and strong motion cause difation of the pupil. It is difficult to record and-changes are ‘obscured by constant small fluctuations. 10. Salivary secretion: It decreases during activation with the discharge being thicker producing the “dry mouth” effect, 11. Gasirointestinal activity: 1 decreases during activation. The changes can be observed by fluoroscopic ‘examination after the stomach has been filled with an opaque barium solution. Another method is to train the subject to swallow a balloon, which constricts as the stomach contracts. A pneumatic recording tambour can then record these constrictions. 12. Bye Blink: The frequency of spontaneous blinking seems to increase with emotional and other tension. Continuous photographic recording is required to measure eye blinks. 13, Blood chemistry. A large number of homeostatic mechanisms involve changes in the blood and other body fluids. Any one of the changes may serve as a useful index of activation 14, Brain waves: If electrodes are attached to the scalp and led off to electronic amplifiers, its possible to record “brain waves”, the electrical changes associated with brain processes. The electroencephalograph measures brain waves. When the individual is relaxed the alpha rhythm predominates which is a regular series of fairly sirong waves with a frequency of about 10°per second. Sudden stimulation, fear, or anxiety blocks the alpha rhythm. 15. Brain activity scanning: The activity level of the brain can be measured by monitoring the blod supply to cortical areas, injecting a radioactive substance into the blood and detecting its flow, or detecting the use of positrons in various areas of the cortex through Positron Emission Tomography (PET scans) ‘Though these various physiological indices of activation can be measured separately, often they are combined in various ways to be measured by a polygraph. A polygraph is simply a portable ink-writing instrument that records breathing fluctuations in blood pressure, and associative reaction time. Some polygraphs include the GSR. Its SELmost frequent use is as a lie detector in police-work. Its accuracy depends on the expertise and experiehice of the interpreter. It should be used to sereen out innocent suspects rather than to pinpoint the guilty man, 1s tsyally not admissible as court evidence. Extemal signs of emotions: The phy stich as: 1. Facial expressions: In order to judge emotions, the easiest thing to do is to observe the facial expressions of the individual. It is easiest to study the emotions of joy, anger, and sorrow from the face, ‘The face lights up with delight due to muscular expansion, it pulls down in sadness due to muscular contraction. Experiments on Judgment of emotions from social expression show that emotions cannot be read from the face alone, but the errors committed are rather small. A pose for love may be called happiness but never contempt or anger. It seems that there ise co-relation between the pose and the judgment and though the face does not very successfully convey the final shades of emotion, the’ general character of emotions is well depicted. 2. Vocal expressions: The voice is often more expressive that the face, the speaking voice being more expressive than the singing voice because it is free to slide up and down the pitch scale. The connection of excitement with loud, high-pitched voice is natural and unlearnt, When words with meanings are added to vocal tones, emotional expressions become clear. 3.. Postural expressions: Higher levels of activation lead to increased muscular tensions of straight, strict posture. Generally, however, body posture changes with different kind of emotions. A relaxed posture may be observed in love but a tense stance is seen in anger. Cultural variations occur besides individual variations, ‘When angry, some people use foul language, others attack their opponents whereas still others just hold their breath. Identification of the emotion depends on the arousing situation, 4. Role of hands in emotional expression: Emotional attitudes can be well expressed by hands. Everyone knows how to express an inclination to fight, to accept, to reject, or to plead for mercy. An actor can portray a large number of emotions by his hands alone. Observers are quite accurate in their judgment of emotions from hands, They generally imitate the pose to see how it feels or imagine a situation in which a given hand expression would be appropriate, A fairly accurate picture of activation/ emotionality of the subject can thus be gathered from these covert and overt indices. ‘iological correlates of activation are reflected in external signs of emotions ther _measures_of emotions: Emotions dominate the conscious experience ‘of the subject. The subjective experience of emotions can be studied by the use of introspection, which implies studying one’s own experience and analyzing it. The personal experience of the organism can thus be gathered from the subject and analyzed by the psychologist. Various questionnaires have also been devised to study emotions such as anxiety. E. Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Psychosomatic disorders also indicate excessive emotionality and stress in the subject. They occur due to continuous high level of activation as if the person is in a constant state of ‘emergency. Diseases of adaptation such as ulcers, asthma, heart attack, hypertension ete, are psychosomatic disorders, y Theories of emotions Indian view of emotions: The indigenous view of emotions explained by Uday Jain (2002) is based on Natyasastra by Sage Bharata, written around 200BC. The Natyashastra is an ancient Indian document on the performing arts including theatre, dance and music. Bharat refers to “bhavas” — the imitations of emotions that actors perform, and the “rasas” i.e, emotional responses that they inspire in the audience. He identifies 8 principle rasas” love, pity, anger, disgust, heroism, awe, terror and comedy. He said that they plays should mix different rasas but be dominated by one. Each “ras” experienced by the audience is associated with a specific “bhav” portrayed on the stage, Structural view of emotions: Wundt developed a sridimensional theory of feelings. He held that feclings (oF emotions) varied along three dimensions: pleasantness — unpleasantness, strain - relaxation, and excitement — calm, These three dimensions are independent of each other. There is a zone of indifference in the middle indicating neutrality of emotions. Titchener used the term afféction for emotions and held that only one dimensionThe other two can be subsumed in this _ pleasantness/unpleasaniness — was necessary t0 describe emotions. dimension, Psychoanalytic view of emotions: Psychoanalysts conceptualize emotion as anxiety. Preud (1926) defines anxiety 4s “a uniquely unpleasant feeling state accompanied by certain specific efferent or discharge phenomena, and the perception thereof. For man the first experience of anxiety is at birth. The child leaves the secure enviroument of the mother's womb and enters the harsh outside world, which has sudden and intense stimulation. ‘The infant's reaction to this birth trauma is anxiety. At that time the automatic physiological reactions, which accompany anxiety help the individual to breathe and allow his heart to function normally, Thus anxiety is essentially an adaptive response, which helps the neonate to survive in the world. Later in his life, the individual redintegrates (brings to the present) anxiety in any situation of excessive or unusual stimulation, such as, situations of danger. In terms of Freud’s structural system anxiety is the response of the ego to stimulation it is unable to control or Which it anticipates. The ego faces three harsh masters ~ reality, id and superego and consequently three kinds of anxiety may be distinguished — reel, neurotic and normal anxiety, ‘The perception of impending danger from any of these sources gives rise to anxiety, which serves as a signal of impending catastrophe and permits the eg0 to engage in anticipatory defensive actions. Though it is an adaptive response, anxicty itself is an unpleasant state. ‘Thus it also motivates individual to minimize or avoid the source of anxiety. In its search to reduce anxiety, the go uses defense mechanisms, An exaggerated use of defense mechanisms implies abnormality and if the ego is overwhelmed by anxiety, the individual may show a complete disintegration of personality. Yet a certain amount of anxiety is also necessary for healthy personality development. In each stage of psychosexual development the individual faces a conflict and thus experiences anxiety. The resolution of these conflicts is essential for the development of personality. E.g.: castration anxiety in the phallic stage helps the individual to resolve the Oedipus complex. Among the neo-freudians Sullivan elaborated upon Freué’s idea of anxiety. Sullivan postulates two basic human needs — satisfaction (of biological needs) and security (coming from social order). Interference with the ‘gratification of these needs leads to anxiety, transmitted to the infant by the caretaker/mother during the normal course of mothering. To counter this anxiety, the individual develops dynamisms i.e. personality traits, habits, defenses etc. James — Lange theory: William James (an American psychologist) and Carl Lange (a Danish physiologist) advanced this theory of emotions, also known as the peripheral theory of emotions, at approximately the same time in 1880.» It is indeed remarkable thet these two men separated by thousands of miles and working independently of each other, should have come to the same general conclusions at approximately the same time. ‘Their conclusions were so different from the common point of view conceming emotions that they caused a ‘worldwide controversy, that has not settled to this day. The common view is that emotions arise from perception, memory, or imagination of a situation and is experienced in the form of an organic reaction. E.g.: one perceives a tiger at a distance, it excites fear in one’s mind, which gives rise to trembling and running away. Contrarily, James held that “our bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact and our feeling of the same changes as they occur in emotions”. In other words, the feeling of fear is the result rather than the cause of the stirred up state of the body. They hold perception of an object directly produces many organic changes in the internal organs, which are reported to the brain. These organic sensations together with the perception of the object are called emotions. According to them, we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble; and not that we cry, strike, or tremble because we ate sorry, angry, or fearful. Bodily states initiate or determine a person’s emotion. The following arguments are given in favor of this theory: 1. The perception of a stimulus evokes an organic response without evoking an emotion. E.g.: We abruptly see a dark moving form, our heart stops beating, we catch our breath instantly before any articulate idea of danger can arise. There is no emotion intervening between the perception and bodily response. 2. If we fancy an emotion, and then (ry to abstract from it all its bodily symptoms, we find nothing left behind, only a cold and neutral state of iniellectual perception is left. We cannot think of an emotion without an organic expression. We can’t think of anger without the heaving of the chest, expansion of nostrils, grinding of teeth, frowning, etc. 3. Refuse to express an emotion and it dies. Suppression of organic expression leads to the suppression of the emotion.4. Anificial organic expression produces the corresponding emotion e.g: Actors sometimes feel anwry lien tiey express anger, or they fee! sad when they express sorrow. = ibe, 5. Organic changes due to the use of drugs, alcohol and other stimulants and depressants produce emotions. Here organic changes cause emotions. organic disturbances produce certain emotions e.g.: Disorders of the liver produce gloom and ity. Nervous diseases produce fear. Criticism: 1. All arguments tend to show that an emotion cannot exist without expressing itself, but from these it does not Follow that an emotion is identical with its expression. Organic expression does not constitute the whele emotion, 2. Titchener holds that emotions are distinct from organic states because emotions tend to vanish when they are attended to, but organic sensations do not vanish when they are attended to 3. TF emotions are identical with organio expressions and if the organic expression constitutes the emotion, then one emetion should have one organic expression. There is, however, no necessary correlation between organie expression and emotions either in intensity or quality. ‘4 ames held that the object being perceived immediately produces organic reflexes associated with the emotion. However in this case. responses to stimuli would not show the variation that they do. As Ward (1927) says, Fit James be confronted frst by a caged bear and next by a bear at large - to one he will present s bon ara’eh the other a clear pair of heels", 5. Experiments on animals such that they lost visceral and motor sensations conclusively prove the falsity of the james-Lange theory. Sherrington cut the sensory nerves of a dog carrying information ffom the trank co the brain yet the dog exhibited anger, fear, joy, and disgust. Cannon cut the sympathetic nerves of ¢ eat, yet it Performed the overt behaviour and expressive movements of anger. 6. Cannon (1927) criticizes the James-Lange theory on the following grounds: & Roughly similar physiological changes occur in different emotions such as fear and rage, yet people perceived the two emotions as being quite different. >. Tf peripheral organs are stimulated by a drug injction so tht the heartbeats faster, sweating occurs, and so on; people feel aroused but do not experience any strong emotions. & Viscera are relatively insensitive due to the lesser number of sensory fibres, and hence incapable of contribution to emotional expérience. 4. Some emotional reactions ovcur before the peripheral organs have time to react. Visceral change’ are too slow to be a source of feeling, ¢. Ifthe nerves to the peripheral organs are separated from the brain, emotions still occur. 7. he thalamio theory of emotions holds that experience and expression of emotions occurs simultaneously due {o neural impulses discharged by the hypothalamus. This important role assigned to an organ in the ceotral nervous system argues against the peripheral theury of emotions, 8. Schacter and Singer hold thatthe interpretation of bodily arousal is cognitive process, which in tum leads to ihe emotional experience. Hence a central process (thinking) is more important than peripheral provesves, Despite such arguments against the James-Lange theory, theories of the peripheral origins of emotions keep Trappearing. A recent revival of the peripheral theory is Zajonc's restatement of Waynbeum's theory. Wayubaun, & nineteenth century French physician, hypothesized that people's emotions are greatly influenced by the contraction of the facial muscles. Zajonc (1985) has taken this idea and proposes that the contraction, and relaxation of the facil muscles affect the blood supply to the brain and the temperature of particular regions of the brain, These changes give rise to the states that people call emotions. His theory accounts for the strikingly ‘consistent link between facial expression and emotions, Cannon - Bard theory: In 1920, another theory about the relationship between bodily states and felt emation was sed by Walter Cannon who based his approach to emotions on research done by Phil 1. To the internal bodily organs and the external muscles to produce the bodily expression of emotions. 2. To the cerebral cortex, where the pattem of discharge from the lower brain areas is perceived as the felt emotion,+ Thus, in contrast to the James-Larige theory. this theory holds thet bodily reactions and felt emotion are independent of each other in the sense that bodily reactions are not the basis of felt emotion. Various emotion- provoking events induce simultaneously the subjective experiences we label emotions and the physiological reactions that accompany them. The situation stimulates various portions of our nervous system so that both arousal, mediated by the autonomic nervous system; and subjective feelings, mediated in part by the cerebral cortex; are generated. Thus while James Lange held that emotional experience is the result of our bodily reactions, Cannon Bard insisted that emotional experience and bodily reactions occur at the same time as a result of thalamic and hypothalamic activity. Thus emotional experience depends on processes in the central nervous system rather than peripheral mechanisms, though the latter may support or supplement it. Diagrammatically the two theories can be contrasted as follows: Pe JAMES LANGE: — PERCEREIDN MOTOR AND VISCERAL REACTION : EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCE EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCE i ANNON BARD: PERCEPEEDN ‘THALAMIC AND HYPO{HALAMIC AROUSAL E VISCERAL AND MOTOR, REACTION Until the recent decade, most psychologists agreed with the Cannon-Bard viow, which seems to be more consistent with our every day experience. Scientists based their support on the following evidence cited by cannon and his co-workers: L. Surgical destruction of the nerves from the peripheral organs/ sympathetic nervous system did not eliminate emotional reactions. 2. if peripheral organs are stimulated by a drug injection so that the heart beats faster, sweating occurs, and so on, people feel aroused but do.not experience any strong emotions. 3. If the hypothalamus is removed from animals, emotional responses become fragmentary and disintegrated. 4, Electrical stimulation of certain centers in the hypothalamus results in a full-fledged rage and attack pattem. 5. Decorticate animals show quick but short emotional responses, which disappear almost as soon as the stimulus is withdrawn, Such responses also lack direction. This shows that the cortex ~ another CNS organ also plays an important role in emotions. 6. ‘The same physiological activity appears in many, if not all, emotional states and even in some non-emotional states. Cannon argued that the same physiological activity underlies such dissimilar experiences as fear, anger, exposure to heat and cold, physical exertion, and fever. Thus physiological activity alone cannot serve as the basis for distinct emotional experiences such as anger, fear, joy, or sorrow. However, more recently, the pendulum of scientific opinion has begun to swing the other way, and certain aspects of the James-Lange theory have gained increasing acceptance. Research with highly sophisticated equipment indicates that different emotions are indeed associated with different patterns of physiological activity. Additional support for the James-Lange theory is provided by the facial fee changes in ‘our facial expressions sometimes py TH OU emiotional experien< merely mirroring them. At present Gottrtheories=are-accepted to an exteitt-Subjective emotional experiences do often erise-directly in response to specific external stimuli, as the Cannon-Bard view suggests. However, they can also be generated by ‘changes in and awareness of our own body states, even, it appears, by changes in our current facial expression. Emergency theory of Cannon: This aspect of Carinon’s theory approaches emotions from a slightly different perspective. It is not directly concemed with the temporal and causal relationship between bodily reactions and ‘conscious experience. Cannon was more interested in the purpose served by the emotional reaction in the human organism. He argued that the sympathetic system is primarily responsible for the bodily state of excitement ‘common to all strong emotions. The sympathetic action not only occurs in all emergencies that call forth emotion, but also places the individual in a state of physiological preparedness or efficiency to meet the threat of such emergencies. Sympathetic action ocotirs because it is useful in an emergency. Digestive functions are stopped, and the blood supply of the body is directed to the voluntary muscles — the attack muscles, the flight muscles. The heart beats more rapidly supplying more blood to these muscles. Blood sugar is liberated from the liver to furnish extra fuel for heavy muscular activity. Lungs dilate, making it easier to breathe, ensuring a greater supply of oxygen. The sympathetic enervation of the adrenal gland resulis in the secretion of the hormone ~ adrenaline, which acts directly upon the viscera in the same manner as direct sympathetic stimulation. Adrenaline thusbecomes a sustaining or reinforcing agent, building up to the sympathetic response, Due to this action, it is'galled sympathomimetic chemical agent, for it duplicate the effects of the sympathetic system. Adrenaline alsoshestsome particular properties of its own which it contributes to the general bodily picture of efficiency for action during an emergency. It hastens the coagulation of blood to counteract surface injuries and helps to counteract the effects of fatigue. Thus the body is prepared for flight or fight. Emotion serves the purpose of mobilizing the resources of the organism to meet a situation that might endanger it. ‘The functions Cannon ascribes to the sympathetic nervous system are termed catabolic, in that they deplete energy reserves in the organism. ‘The opposite functions, the anabolic restoration of stored supplies, are ascribed to the parasympathetic nervous system. This buildup takes place during sleep or relaxation. However, a rapid onset of sympathetic arousal caused by sudden intense stress can produce a compensatory flood of parasympathetic activation. This can bring involuntary defecation and urination, or fainting due to slowing/ stopping of the heart, dilation of visceral blood vessels and consequent drop in BP. ‘The actual efficiency of the emergency response in the complicated conditions of present-day civilized living is quite dubious. We no Jonger require brute strength. In fact, such responses are often detrimental to social relations. Yet the visceral response is still present and the effort to suppress emotions in the civilized world is often costly to the individual in terms of his health and general functioning. According to Hans Selye (1967) the suppression of such emotions leads to the experience of stress and many psychosomatic disorders such as high blood pressure, cardiovascular disorders, ulcers, asthma, bronchitis, and so on. Cannon identified the hypothalamus as the main integrating center in the brain for the control of behavioral reactions in emotions. The hypothalamus is a collection of nuclei located, as the name indicates, below the thalamus. In the adult human, it is about as large as the end of a man’s thumb. It gathers and integrates information relevant to emotions and motivation from many peripheral and central sources. Experiments cited by Cannon showed that when the hypothalamus is removed from animals, emotional responses become fragmentary and disintegrated, On the other hand, electrical stimulation of certain centers in the hypothalamus results in a fall- fledged rage and attack pattem. Current opinion, however, holds that the Cannon’s approach is incomplete and too simplistic. The role of the hypothalamus is not to be denied, but the hypothalamus does not influence muscles and glands directly as originally proposed by Cannon. Many other physiological structures are also involved in emotions, especially the cerebral cortex. Thus the Cannon Bard theory underestimates the role of higher brain centers. Later theories, such as the activation theory, have remedied this defect. Activation theory of emotions: Activation theory began in Cannon’s emergency theory of emotions, and in Duffy’s (1951) and Freeman’s (1948) insistence that a major meaning of emotion is arousal or energy mobilization. It was furthered by Leeper’s (1948) contention that it is wrong to define emotion as a state of behavioral disorganization, when emotions often organize and strengthen behaviour. More recently, Lindsley (1957) and Hebb (1955) have stressed the role of the Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS) in arousal, which can be measured by the Blectroencephalogram (BEG). All these activation theories generally assume arousal/activation to be-a single undifferentiated state. Some contemporary theorists hold that the neural basis of ‘emotions resides in the central nervous system and that the autonomic nervous system is recruited by emotion to fulfill certain functions related to sustaining and regulating emotional experience. Neuroanatomical studies have shown that the central nervous system structures involved in emotional activation can exert direct influences on the autonomic nervous system. Studies have also shown that patterns of activity vary with the type of emotion being expressed. There is also some evidence that the two hemispheres of the braini are related differently to emotion processes. Early evidence suggested thatthe right (or dominant) hemisphere might be more adept than the left at discriminating among emotional expressions. Later research using electroencephalographs elaborated this initial conclusion, suggesting that the right hemisphere may be more involved in processing negative emotions and the left hemisphere more involved in processing positive emotions. Cannon (1932) argued that the sympathetic system is primarily responsible for the bodily state of excitement common to all strong emotions. The sympathetic action not only occurs in all emergencies, which call forth emotion, but also places the individual in a state of physiological preparedness or efficiency to meet the threat of such emergencies. Sympathetic action occurs because it is useful in an emergency. Digestive functions are stopped, and the blood supply of the body is directed to the voluntary muscles ~ the attack muscles, the flight muscles. The heart beats more rapidly, supplying more blood to these muscles. At the same time, blood sugar isliberated from the fiver to furnish extra fuel for heavy muscular activity. Lungs dilate, making it easier to breathe ahd eiisuring a greater supply of oxygen. It is the hypothalamus that controls emotions. It sould be stressed that ‘activation theory was not limited to seeking the physiological basis of emotions. Activation theories by Duffy (1951), Schlosberg (1954), and Malmo (1959) stress: 1, Arousal is a continuum varying from unconsciousness (death), to sleep, 10 awareness, t0 active, to excited states. Arousal is indicated by easily and reliably measured internal and external signs, such as heartbeat, GSR, facial expressions, ete. 2. Behavioral efficiency is a curvilinear function of arousal, being at its peak when arousal reaches intermediate magnitudes. They hold that stimulation is essential for efficient performance and organisms prefer moderate levels of stimulation to either very high or very low stimulation. In fact, the same stimulus may be pleasant at moderate intensities and unpleasant or even painful at very low or very high intensities. This explains the more efficient performance at intermediate levels of arousal, than at the extreme ends of the continuum. Solomon (1977) in his Opponent Process Theory holds that the CNS of mammals is organized so that they automatically oppose strong emotional reactions. These opposing reactions (produced by opponent processes) get stronger with every repetition of the emotion, and gradually overwhelm the initial response. Solomon has labeled the initial response to emotional events as a - processes. The opponent processes are called the b - processes. ‘The differences between the two are: LI a — processes b= processes 7] Produce initial emotional reactions to emotionally | 1] Produce secondary responses or afier reactions to significant stimuli. emotionally significant stimuli 2] Size and duration determined by the iniensily of |2| Size and duration determined by the size of the a the instigating stimulus. processes. 3] Maintain size and duration across various |3| Increase in size and duration each time they are clicitations. elicited. ‘This theory explains many everyday phenomena. E.g. when one slides down a slope, one is fearful, but eventually joy overwhelms fear and one starts enjoying it. When one learns to parachute or sky diving, one is fearful, but as the b-processes grow, one starts enjoying the activity. People first take a drug because it feels pleasant. But repeated use-dulls the pleasant feeling and the unpleasant after effects gain strength. Thus opponent processes serve as natural homeostatic breaks that prevent people from being in one emotional mood indefinitely. Unfortunately they also entrap people in a vicious cycle of a - processes and b - processes. The theory is an interesting and different view of emotions, though the idea that opponent processes always overwhelm one’s initial emotion has been criticized. Attribution theory of emotions: This theory emphasizes the cognitive factors in emotions. Amold (1960) was the first contemporary psychologist to propose that all emotions are a function of one's cognitive. appraisal of the stimulus oF situation, She maintained that before a stimulus can elicit emotion it has to be appraised as good or bad by the perceiver. She described the appraisal that arouses emotion as concrete, immediate, and not the result of reflection, Her position was adopted and elaborated by others, some of who assumed that cognitive activity, whether in the form of primitive evaluative perception or symbolic processes, is a necessary precondition of emotion. Schacter and Singer (1962) gathered evidence for the Cognitive Labeling theory (also sometimes called the two factor theory), a very influential theory, which holds that emotionaTexperience depends on the label attached to it. Emotions are produced when some stimulus or event increases arousal and we make ai atiributior about the cause of the increased arousal. Schacter holds that emotions have a cognitive aspect and a physiological aspect and that when either the cognitive or physiological aspect is missing the emotion will be incomplete. Attribution theory makes a number of assumptions about the nature of emotion. First, it assumes that peripheral autonomic arousal is important in determining the subjectively experienced emotional state, a position reminiscent of the James-Lange theory of emotion, Second, it assumes that the meaning of this arousal is determined cognitively. Emotion involves an information search, in which the responder searches the environment for an appropriate explanation for the arousal, and a labeling process, which determines the quality of the emotion.In their original experiment, Schacter and Singer (1962) injected some subjects with the drug epinephrifie, which increases arousal and others with a placebo. Among those who were injected with drug, one group of siejeets, was, told correctly how the drug would affect them, the second group was given false information and a third group was given no information. Schacter hypothesized that the emotions experienced by the uninformed subjects would depend on the external situation. The subjects then waited in an adjacent waiting room where there was another “subject” who had reccived similar treatment. This person was really a confederate of the experimenters, The confederate either acted euphoricaily (flew paper airplanes, played basketball with the waste paper basket) or angrily complained, and left the waiting room in a huff. The results of this experiment showed: First, the subjects given placebo injections did not report strong emotions no matter what they had been told or how the confederate behaved. This result is consistent with Schachter’s hypothesis that people must be aroused before they can feel emotions. Among the subjects who received epinephrine, those subjects who had been told that the injection ‘would increase arousal, were not influenced by the confederate, because they attributed their arousal to the drug. But subjects who had not been given any information were influenced by the confederate behavior. If a subject had been exposed to a euphoric confederate, the subject reported feeling euphoria. Ifa subject had been exposed to an angry confederate, the subject reported feeling angry. Thus subjects reported the experience of the same emotion (euphoria or anger) as possessed by the confederate. The external factor led the subjects to make a false attribution, Schachter and Singer reasoned that the uninformed subjects were in a state of autonomic arousal for which they had no explanation. Giving them different kinds of cognitions by way of the models produced different “emotions”. The essential sequence of events is as follows. The state of unexplained physiological arousal evoked “evaluative needs” in the uninformed subjects (Festinger, 1954), They were uncertain about what caused their arousal and needed to reduce the uncertainty. They thus searched the immediate environment for an appropriate e attribution, explanation, or label for their arousal. In the experiment, the model’s behavior provided an appropriate explanation for the arousal, allowing the subject to label the emotion as euphoria or anger. This reduced the uncertainty and, Schacter suggests, it also determined the quality of the emotion. After this labeling, the subjects gave subjective reports and acted in a way appropriate to the labeled emotion. As mentioned earlier, ‘Schacter feels there are two interacting components in emotion peripheral physiological arousal and the cognitions associated with that arousal. If either the physiological or cognitive element is not present, the emotion will be incomplete. If the physiological component is present without the cognitive component, that is, ifthe subject feels the sense, stirred-up state associated with arousal without knowing why, he or she will tend to search the environment to find reasons for the state of arousal. If an appropriate explanation is found, the subject will interpret or label the arousal accordingly, and the emotion will be experienced and expressed as a whole. Jn another demonstration of how people’s attributions influence their emotional experiences, people who felt little fear were told that they would be given a drug that would increase their arousal, whereas other low-fear subjects were not given this information (Nisbett and Schachter, 1966). ‘Then all of the subjects were asked to tolerate degrees of electric shocks.. Actually no subjects had been given any drug, but those who believed that they had been given the drug tolerated more intense shocks and rated the shocks as less painful than those who had not been so fortified. Apparently, people judge pain by how much they react physiologically to a painful stimulus. If people believe that a drug has aroused them, they attribute less of their pain —a form of arousal ~- to an external stimulus like an electric shock and therefore judge it as less painful. Schacter’s theory explains many everyday life experiences. If one climbs up the stairs with friends, one ‘experiences arousal and labels it as happiness, but if one climbs up the stairs with a teacher, the arousal is labeled as fear. In another instance, take two students who arc trying to quit smoking. People who quit smoking usually go through a period of withdrawal from the drugs in cigarettes that can last days or weeks. One student has read about the physical sensations she can expect after quitting, so she is prepared when she starts feeling physically aroused and agitated. She correctly attributes her arousal to quitting smoking, and therefore does not have any significant emotional reaction to it, But the other student does not know much about withdrawal. When he becomes aroused several days after quitting, he attributes his arousal to stressfidl events happening around him — therefore he gets very angry at someone who bothers him, very anxious about an upcoming test, and so on. This greater emotional response probably places him in a greatcr danger of relapsing. Lazarus and Alfert (1964) labeled the process of linking cognitions 10 specific emotional experience as one of cognitive appraisal. In later developments Lazarus and Folkman (1984) have added the processes of coping and reappraisal as aspects of the unfolding life experience. Emotions are patterns of events that develop from the appraisal of situations and resources, attempts to cope with those situations, and continuous reappraisal and coping. These ideas are the basis of psychotherapeutic techniques aimed at reversing depression._ Atiotlier global approach to explaining the causes of emotions is that of causal attribution theory. The central idea of this theory, according to Weiner (1985), is that the perceptions of the causes of events can be characterized in three principal ways, which affect many emotional experiences. The perceived causes of events (e.g., success ancl failure) are characterized by their locus (internal or external to the person), stability (a trait of the person or a temporary condition), and controllability (under the person's contro! or not). Research has shown that different patterns of causal attribution are associated with different emotions, including anger. guilt, shame, and the more complex phenomena of pity, pride, gratitude, and hopelessness. Pity is attributed to the perception of uncontrollable and stable causes — people feel pity for a person who has an affliction due to a genetic defect or accident, Anger is attributed to external and controllable events ~ people feel anger when an affront or injury is caused by someone's lack of concem or thoughtlessness. Guilt is attributed to the perception of internal and controllable causes~people feel guilt for wrongdoing they could have avoided. The controversy as to whether some cognitive process is a necessary antecedent of emotion may hinge on the definition of terms, particularly the definition of cognition. If cognition is defined so broadly that it includes all levels or types of information processing, then cognition may confidently be said to precede emotional activation. If the concept of cognition involves only the higher mental processes, then cognition so defined does not necessarily precede the three-week-old infant's smile to the high-pitched human voice, the two-year-old child’s angry response to pain, or the formation of the likes or dislikes in adults. In conclusion, itis interesting to note that whereas westem psychology has emphasized the role of cognition in emotions only after exploring the inadequacy of physiological processes, Indian psychology has conceptualized metaemotions (Rasas) and emotions (Sthayibahvas) as arising out of an appraisal process steeped in sociocultural conventions, at least since Bharat’s Natyasastra ‘Types of Emotions Primary emotions Primary emotions are those that we fee! first, as a first response to a situation. Thus, if we are threatened, we may feel fear. When we hear of a death, we may feel sadness. They are unthinking, instinctive responses that we have. ‘We will typically see these in animals also, which confirms our suspicion that they have an evolutionary basis. ‘Typical primary emotions include fear, anger, sadness and happiness Primary emotions aré often transient. They disappear as fast as they appear. Their replacement by secondary ‘emotions complicates the situation, making it difficult to understand what is really going on. Secondary emotions Secondary emotions appear after primary emotions. Secondary emotion is felt when ne feels something about the feeling itself - e.g, feel sad about being hurt, feel shame about anxiety. They may be caused directly by primary emotions, for example where the fear of a threat turns to anger that fuels the body for a fight reaction. They may also come from more complex chains of thinking. Secondary emotions may be simple feelings or may be a mix as more emotions join the fray. These.emotionse re Jess primal and often employs intellect and reasoning. Thus news of a wartime victory may start with feelings of joy, but then get tinged with sadness for the loss of life. SL ' iDifferent psychologists have attempted to develop lists of basic emotions. : William McDougall [1921] proposed that there were seven basic instincts with corresponding emotions: Ail * organisms are born with innate biological tendencies that help them survive. All behaviors are driven by instincts. Instincts are goal directed and innate patterns of behavior that are not the results of learning or experience. McDougall (1921) suggested that instinctive behavior has 3 key elements: 1. Perception, 2. Behavior and 3. Emotion. Some examples of instincts and corresponding emotions as given by William McDougall include: flight- feat, Repulsion- disgust, Curiosity-wonder, Pugnacity- anger, Self-assertion- elation. Sylvan Tomkins [1964] proposed that there were eight basic emotions: Interest, surprise, enjoyment, distress, fear, shame, contempt, and anger. He proposed that these were innate and expressed through physical reactions sch as facial expressions. Ekman’s List of Basie Emotions (1972) Ekman devised his list of basic emotions after doing research on many different cultures. He would describe a situation and ask individuals to choose a facial expression that best fit. He would also show photographs -of different facial expressions and ask individuals to identify the emotion. Across all cultures studied, Ekman found 6 basic emotions: ‘Anger Disgust Fear Happiness Sadness Surprise Ekman added to this list in the 1990s, but stated that not all of these can be encoded via facial expressions: Amusement Contempt Contentment Embarrassment Excitement Guilt Pride in achiovement Relief Satisfaction Sensory pleasure Shame Carroll Izard [1979,1994] proposed that there was ten basic emotions: interest, joy, surprise, distress, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame , and guilt. Each emotion has in own neural network in the brain, and corresponding behavioral response. Fischer, Shaver, and Carnochan [1990] proposed that there was a hierarchy of emotions. They contended that ‘we have two positive emotions - love and joy; 3 negative emotions - anger, sadness, and fear. Our other emotions stem from these basic emotions.[1998] proposed that we have eight basic emotions: joy, acceptance, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, and anticipation. These are the primary emotions these combine and form secondary emotions, He developed what is called the Emotions Profile Index [BP!) During the 1980s, Robert Plutchik introduced an émotion classification system known as the "wheel of emotions." ‘This model demonstrated how different emotions can be combined or mixed together, much the way an artist mixes primary colors to create other colors. Plutchik suggested that there are 8 primary emotional dimensions happiness vs. sadness, anger vs. fear, trust vs. disgust, and surprise vs. anticipation. These emotions can then be combined in a variety of ways. Plutchik’s three-dimensional circumplex model describes the relations among emotion concepts, in a similar way to the colours on a colour wheel. The cone’s vertical dimension represents intensity ~ emotions intensify as they move from the outside to the centre of the wheel. Asan example, a feeling of boredom can intensify to loathing if left unchecked. This is an important rule about emotions to be aware of in relationships in the workplace, with family and with friends. The cight sectors are designed to indicate that there are eight primary emotion dimensions.They are sadness, surprise, fear, anger etc. Each circle sector has an opposite emotion. The opposite of sadness is joy, the opposite of trust, disgust ete. ‘The emotions with no colour represent an emotion that is a mix of the 2 primary emotions. For example, anticipation and joy combine to be optimism and joy and trust, love etc.of Emotions (2006), identified 5 types of involumary voluntary conceptions sensations reflexes’ expressions expreasions rnaternal love & grief pleasing rasta, hunger, disguse | etarcle | horror anger grandmaternal love & grief | Sexual pleasure, lust repugnance | fear | momentary trowning| | haughter monogyniclove & grief | affection, cute, joneliness prolonged frowning infatuation, heartbreak | excitomsnt, boredom momentary smiling jealousy. adulterous guile crying Fevenge, criminal guilt prolonged smiling compassion, selfish guilt blushing pride, humifation humor, eavy ‘There are five types of emotion: conceptions, sensations, reflexes, involuntary expressions and voluntary expressions. Conceptions, sensations, reflexes and involuntary expressions are biological adaptations, ‘They are transmitted to thé next generation through reproduction. They are universal to the species. Voluntary expressions are cultural adaptations. They are transmitted to the next generation through interaction. They vary by culture, involuntary voluntary conceptions sensations reflexes expressions expressions pleasing ase, hunger disgust | state | horror anger sexual pleasure lust, ropugrance | fer | momentary fownin| | laughter affection cute oneness prolonged frowning ‘excitement, boredom ‘momentary smiling. enyng prolonged smiling bushing ca eect your telpyou | direct behavior | firectbetavior purpose tefevie woidthrens |""roters || ofomners conception tiger sersrysima | Sondionsor | oteaion || bit ar or reflex rental — suppressve | none rene physical sabe a facial facial & vocal effect ee Getensive 1 expressions || expressions & bth. he on feny &Introduction of Emotional Intelligence The term ‘Emotional Intelligence’ was coined and defined by Salovey and Mayer (1990), it gained popularity in the 1995 book by that title, written by the author, psychologist, and Daniel Goleman. Emotional intelligence is @ different type of intelligence. It’s about being “heart smart,” not just “book smart.” It is the ability to identify, use, understand, and manage your emotions in positive and constructive ways. I's about recognizing your own emotional state and the emotional states of others. Emotional intelligence can be defined as the ability to monitor one’s own and other people's emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use ‘emotional information to guide thinking and behavior. While Intelligence Quotient (IQ) has long been used as a predictor of a student’s success, as the world enters the 21st Century, research shows that Emotional Intelligence (El) is a better predictor of “success” than the more traditional measures of cognitive intelligence. According to Pool (1997), [Q predicts only about 20 percent of career success while emotional intelligence predicts about 80 percent of a person’s suecess in life. Goleman (1998) defined emotional intelligence as the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in us and in our relationships. : Historical Background of Emotional Intelligence The most distant roots of Emotional Intelligence can be traced back to Darwin's early work on the importance of emotional expression for survival and second adaptation, A brief history of Emotional Intelligence is as follows: “1930s ~ Edward Thorndike describes the concept of “social intelligence” as the ability to get along with other people. 1940s ~ David Wechsler suggests that affective components of intelligence may be essential to success in life. ‘1950s ~ Humanistic psychologists such as Abraham Maslow describe how people can build emotional strength, 4 1975 ~ Howard Gardner publishes The Shattered Mind, which introduces the concept of multiple intelligences. ** 1985 — Wayne Payne introduces the term emotional intelligence in his doctoral dissertation, 4 1990 ~ Psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer publish their landmark article, “Emotional Intelligence;” in the journal Imagination. Cognition, and Personelity> 7 eats vy Me “+ 1995 — The concept of emotional intelligence is popularized after publication of psychologist and New York Times science writer Daniel Goleman’s book Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than 10. Models of Emotional Intelligence 1. Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) Four Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence (EX) The model claims that EI includes four types of abilities viz., the perception of emotions, the ability to reason using emotions, the ability to understand emotion, and the ability to manage emotions: “Perceiving emotions — the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces, pictures, voices, —including the ability to identify one's own emotions. Perceiving emotions represents @ basic aspect of emotional intelligence, as it makes all other processing of formation possible. emotional * Using emotions ~ the ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitive activities, such as thinking and problem solving. “+ Understanding emotions ~ the ability to comprehend emotion language and to appreciate ‘complicated relationships among emotions. 4 Managing emotions ~ the ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others. Therefore, the emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions, even negative ones, and manage them to achieve intended goals. 2,Daniel Goleman’s Mixed Model of Emotional Intelligence Goleman (1998) identified the five domains of Emotional Intelligence as: + Self-Awareness Emotional awareness: Recognizing one’s emotions and their effects. Acourate self-assessment: Knowing one’s strengths and limits. Self-confidence: Sureness about one’s self-worth and capabilities. 4 Self-Regulation Self-control: Managing disruptive emotions and impulses. Trustworthiness: Maintaining standards of honesty and integrity. Conscientiousness: Taking responsibility for personal performance Adaptability: Flexibility in handling change. Self-MotivationAchievement drive: Striving to improve or meet a standard of excellence, Commitment: Aligning with the goals of the group or organization. Initiative: Readiness to act on opportunities. Optimism: Persistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbacks. + Sovial Awareness Empathy: Sensing others’ feelings and perspective, and taking an active concerns. Developing others: Sensing what others need in order to develop, and bolstering their abilities. werest in their + Social Skills Communication: Sending clear and convincing messages. Leadership: Inspiring and guiding groups and people. Change catalyst: Initiating or managing change. Conflict management: Negotiating and resolving disagreements. Building bonds: Nurturing instrumental relationships, 3. Singh's Emotional Intelligence Model Singh (2005) has proposed a model of Emotional Intelligence in Indian context According to him, Emotional Intelligence is the ability of an individual to appropriately and successfully respond to a vast variety of emotional stimuli being elicited from the inner self and immediste environment. Emotional Intelligence constitutes three psychological dimensions which motivate an individual to recognize truthfully, interpret honestly and handle tactfully the dynamics of human behavior. ‘The description of these three dimensions is as follows’ % Emotional Competency is the capacity to tactfillly respond to emotional stimuli, It is élicited by various situations such as tackling emotional upsets, conflicts, inferiority complexes, emotional self-control, capacity to avoid emotional exhaustion such as stress, bumout, learning to avoid negativity of emotions and handling egoism. ¢ Emotional Maturity implies evaluating emotions of oneself and others, identifying and expressing feelings, balancing state of heart and mind, adaptability and flexibility, others point of view. ity involves being honest in interpersonal dealings, interpreting ‘emotional cues truthfully, realizing communicability of emotions, moods and feelings. It is about having an insight into how others evaluate and relate to you. Measurement of Emotional Intelligence The Levels of Emotional Awareness Seale (LEAS) The Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale is a self-report measure of emotional intelligence intended to assess theextent to which people are aware of emotions in both themselves and others given by Lane and Schwartz, 1989. ‘The Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SREIT) The Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test is a 33 item self-report measure of emotional intelligence developed by Schutte and colleagues (1998). ‘The Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI), which was created in 1999, and the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI), a newer edition of the ECL was developed in 2007. This tool developed by Goleman and Boyatzis provide a behavioral measure of the Emotional and Social competencies. Importance of Emotional Intelligence * Better social relations for adults — High emotional intelligence among adults is correlated with better self-perception of social ability and more successful interpersonal relationships while less interpersonal aggression and problems. Highly emotionally intelligent individuals are perceived more positively by others — Other individuals perceive those with high El to be more pleasant, socially skilled and empathic to be around. Better family and intimate relationships — High EI is correlated with better relationships with the family and intimate partners on many aspects. Better academic achievement — Emotional intelligence is correlated with greater achievement in academics as reported by teachers but generally not higher grades once the factor of IQ is taken into account. Better psychological well-being - Emotional intelligence is positively correlated with higher life satisfaction, self-esteem and lower levels of insecurity or depression.