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ACI 130R-19 Report On The Role of Materials in Sustainable Concrete Construction
ACI 130R-19 Report On The Role of Materials in Sustainable Concrete Construction
Materials in Sustainable
Concrete Construction
Reported by ACI Committee 130
ACI 130R-19
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Subcommittee Members
Eckart R. Buhler Per A. Jahren James Don Powell James R. Van Acker
Yogini S. Deshpande Sam R. Johnson Farshad Rajabipour Thomas J. Van Dam*
Ashish Dubey Maria G. Juenger Kare Reknes Olafur H. Wallevik
Moetaz Maher El-Hawary Tyler Ley Andres Salas David Wan
Alfred Gardiner Darmawan Ludirdja Andrea J. Schokker Vicky Zajakowski
William Gaspar Sean Monkman Tim James Smith
Daniel J. Huffman Charles E. Pierce Michael D. A. Thomas
*Subcommittee Co-chair
Consulting Members
Cesar A. Constantino John D. Hull Martha G. VanGeem
Concrete has general properties, including versatility, resilience, rials includes efficient use of materials (conservation, substitution,
durability, and relatively low cost, that make it the most widely used reuse, repurposing, and recycling), materials life-cycle assessment,
building material in the world. Architects, engineers, researchers, replacement materials (scarcity, resource availability, and mate-
and concrete practitioners have immeasurable opportunities to rials economics), energy (materials to support alternative energy
incorporate sustainable development into their selection of mate- technologies, to mitigate problems with fossil-fuel technologies,
rials for the manufacture of concrete. The immediate and direct and to increase energy efficiency), mitigation of undesirable envi-
connection between sustainable development and concrete mate- ronmental impacts from technology and economic growth (corro-
sion, pollution, and toxic waste), and water purification. Informa-
tion is presented to assist in the development of practical knowledge
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, and Commentaries are and selection of materials used in concrete manufacture.
intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and
inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use Keywords: admixtures; aggregates; blended cement; non-portland binders;
of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance portland cement; recycled aggregates; reinforcing steel; supplementary
and limitations of its content and recommendations and who cementitious materials; waste reduction; water.
will accept responsibility for the application of the material it
contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall
not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract ACI 130R-19 was adopted and published January 2019.
Copyright © 2019, American Concrete Institute.
documents. If items found in this document are desired by
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by
the Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic
they shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation or mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual
by the Architect/Engineer. reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless
permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
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1.2—Scope ical reactions take place and form the mineral phases of port-
This report deals with the sustainability aspects of mate- land cement clinker. After cooling, clinker is then ground
rials selection in concrete production. Chapters 3 to 7 with a small amount of gypsum to regulate setting time. In
address each of the major material components of a concrete the United States, cement manufactured according to ASTM
mixture: cementitious materials, aggregates, chemical C150/C150M may also contain ground limestone and
admixtures, mixture water, and reinforcement. The sustain- processing additions to produce portland cement. Regional
ability impacts of a concrete mixture depend not only on specifications such as BS EN 197-1:2011 include a wide
the materials selected, but on their proportioning. Mate- range of cement types and allowable constituents.
rials selection can improve concrete sustainability through In portland cement production, the primary environmental
a range of metrics, including but not limited to reduced impact is typically considered to be carbon dioxide (CO2)
carbon impacts, enhanced material efficiency, improved emissions. CO2 is classified as a greenhouse gas (GHG), is
construction practices, and extended service life. Informa- naturally found in the atmosphere, and is an end-result of
tion providing an overview of each category is presented fuel combustion. In addition, during the pyroprocessing of
with observed effects reported for each group of materials. cement raw ingredients, calcination of limestone occurs.
The wide scope of concrete materials, the continued devel- Calcination is the process of converting calcium carbonate
opment and introduction of new or modified materials, and (CaCO3) to calcium oxide (CaO), releasing CO2 in the
the variations of effects with different concreting materials process. Approximately 40 percent of the CO2 emitted during
and conditions preclude a complete listing of all concrete pyroprocess is due to fuel combustion, with the remaining
materials and their sustainability impacts on concrete. 60 percent driven off of the limestone during calcination
(Marceau et al. 2007).
CHAPTER 2—DEFINITIONS In 2016, the Portland Cement Association published an
ACI provides a comprehensive list of definitions through Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) that estimated
an online resource, ACI Concrete Terminology. the cradle-to-gate carbon intensity of cement in the United
States to be 1.040 units of CO2 per unit of cement (PCA
CHAPTER 3—CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS 2016). The percentage of total annual CO2 from cement
production can fluctuate based on total CO2 emitted and
3.1—Portland cement cement production levels. In 2010, the U.S. Environmental
The term ‘cement’ is usually associated with portland Protection Agency (EPA) (2012) data showed the portion of
cement, the most common hydraulic cement. Although the total CO2 from cement production in the United States to
use of lime and pozzolans to produce concrete and masonry be approximately 1 percent, as shown in Fig. 3.1.1. A 2016
dates back to the Roman Empire, the invention of portland study of the global carbon budget estimated that cement
cement is relatively recent. It is credited to Joseph Aspdin, production accounts for 5.6 percent of anthropogenic CO2
a builder from Leeds, England. In 1824, he was awarded released globally (Le Quéré et al. 2016).
a patent for his process of grinding limestone, mixing it Although CO2 makes up a significant portion in GHG
with finely divided clay, burning the mixture in a kiln, and emissions, other compounds such as methane (CH4) and
finely grinding the resulting clinker. He gave his invention nitrous oxide (N2O) are also considered in assessing envi-
the name portland cement because of its resemblance to the ronmental impacts of a material. The combined impact of
natural building stone near Portland, England. This was the GHG emissions is commonly referred to as CO2 equivalents,
beginning of the modern cement industry, which in 2017 had or CO2e. CO2e is a measurement used to normalize the emis-
an estimated world-wide production of 4.5 billion tons (4.1 sions from various greenhouse gases based on their global
billion metric tons), including both portland and blended warming potential (GWP). CO2e are commonly expressed
cements (USGS 2018). as terragrams of carbon dioxide equivalents (a terragram
3.1.1 Cement manufacture and environmental impact— is 1 million metric tons). The CO2e for a gas is derived by
Concrete is expected to be strong, durable, safe, versatile, multiplying the tons of the gas by its associated GWP, thus:
and economical in all forms of construction, supporting TgCO2Eq = (Gg of gas) × (GWP) × (Tg/1000Gg). (Environ-
communities and infrastructure. Hydraulic cement is the mental Protection Agency 2012). For example, the GWP of
most important ingredient that gives concrete these qualities. CH4 is 24; that is, the impact of unit mass of CH4 may have a
Concrete has demonstrated its longevity, which is one factor similar impact on global warming over 100 years as 24 units
that contributes to sustainability, retaining its engineering mass of CO2.
properties for decades. With present technology, concrete 3.1.2 Improving cement manufacturing energy and envi-
is being used in 100-year-service-life structures in severe ronmental efficiency—The manufacturing of any construc-
exposure conditions. tion material results in environmental impacts. Conse-
As with all manufacturing processes, cement manufacture quently, manufacturers and researchers of cement have
has environmental impacts that in turn affect the environ- invested time and funding to reduce the impact of cement
mental impact of concrete. The manufacture of cement is production while maintaining the expected performance of
an energy-intensive process. Raw ingredients are mined and concrete. Impact reductions are found in several catego-
then ground, blended, and heated to approximately 2640°F ries, including pyroprocessing and mechanical processing
(1450°C). As a result of heating to this temperature, chem- (grinding/blending) cement formulations, and the inclu-
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Fig. 3.1.1—Quantifying greenhouse gas emissions from key industrial sectors in the United
States (Environmental Protection Agency 2008). (Note: Contribution to CO2e by manufac-
turing process segment per sector.)
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Fig. 3.1.2—Energy consumption data for U.S. cement industry from 1988 to 2010 (Port-
land Cement Association 2011).
sion of alternative energy and raw material sources. Each of Figure 3.1.2 shows the energy required to produce 1 ton
these options provides positive benefits, with potential side (0.907 metric tons) of clinker in the United States. Process
effects in reducing environmental impacts for a given level improvements have resulted in a 40.1 percent reduction in
of concrete performance: energy consumption since 1972 (Portland Cement Associa-
(a) Shifts from wet kilns to dry kilns tion 2011).
(b) Capturing what was considered waste heat through Europe, for example, has a long tradition of producing
preheater/precalciner technology blended hydraulic cements. Up to 85 percent slag has been
(c) More efficient grinding processes used for many years, and over the last three decades, the
(d) Use of alternative fuels ordinarily considered as use of fly ash blends and limestone as cement constitu-
by-products from consumers and other industries; over 65 ents has become common. Pozzolanic additions, such as
percent of U.S. cement plants integrate alternative fuel into perlite, have been common in Mediterranean countries for
their energy consumption strategy according to the Portland quite some time. Presently, most cements (19 of 27 types in
Cement Association (2011) BS EN 197-1:2011) in Europe are blended, and efforts are
(e) Bio-fuel use based on recent energy research and pilot continuously being made to reduce the GHG contribution of
projects and carbon sequestration (Business World Magazine hydraulic cement.
2012), as well as harvesting wind energy (Shafer 2009) 3.1.2.1 Use of alternative fuels and materials in cement
manufacturing—Cement manufacturing uses some
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REPORT ON THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (ACI 130R-19) 5
Fig. 3.1.2.1a—Portland cement plants that used blast-furnace or iron slag as a raw mate-
rial in 2010 (Portland Cement Association 2011).
Fig. 3.1.2.1b—Portland cement plants that used fly ash and/or bottom ash as a raw mate-
rial in 2010 (Portland Cement Association 2011).
by-product and recovered materials from other industries. bottom ash from electric power plants (Portland Cement
Waste oils and scrap tires are commonly used as fuels in Association 2011) (Fig. 3.1.2.1a and 3.1.2.1b).
cement manufacture. Identified as an EPA Best Practice, the Other materials used in cement manufacturing include
cement industry consumed 805,910 tons (731,109 metric copper slag, foundry sand, mill scale, sandblasting grit, and
tons) of scrap tires as fuel in 2017, according to the Rubber synthetic gypsum. The high volumes of raw materials used
Manufacturers Association (2018). Forty-one of the 111 to make cement and the detailed chemical analysis of raw
operating cement plants reporting in the United States in materials allow for chemically-efficient and beneficial use
2006 used blast-furnace or iron slag as a raw material (Port- of large volumes of these waste materials. These materials
land Cement Association 2011); 50 plants used fly ash or would otherwise be disposed of in landfills and, thus, their
beneficial use in cement manufacturing reduces the volume
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of these waste streams in addition to reducing the use of able development and the transfer of knowledge, experi-
virgin materials. ences, and best practices. WBCSD focuses on four areas:
3.1.2.2 Cement manufacturing and future planned (1) Energy and climate
actions—The U.S. cement industry committed to four major (2) Development
goals to improve its environmental impact (Portland Cement (3) The business role
Association 2011). The first major goal with a voluntary (4) Ecosystems
target date of 2006 relates to environmental management The Cement Sustainability Initiative of the WBCSD is
systems (EMS): a subgroup of cement companies dedicated to addressing
(1) Environmental management systems—A target by the sustainable development of cement. Approximately 70
2010 that at least 75 percent of U.S. cement plants would percent of the U.S. clinker-producing cement plants partici-
have implemented an auditable and verifiable EMS rising to pate in the WBCSD.
90 percent by the end of 2020. PCA reported that by the end 3.1.2.4.1 Energy Star Cement Manufacturing Focus—The
of 2010, 68 percent of the plants had implemented a program U.S. Department of Energy and the EPA sponsor the Energy
(Portland Cement Association 2011) Star Industrial Focus Program. One aspect of this program
The three remaining industry goals adopted a voluntary is to assist businesses in overcoming barriers to energy
target date of 2020 from a 1990 baseline to: efficiency by developing industry-specific energy manage-
(2) Reduce CO2 emissions by 10 percent per ton of ment tools and resources. The Cement Manufacturing Focus
cementitious product produced or sold began in 2003 and now includes over 65 percent of the
(3) Reduce by 60 percent the amount of cement kiln dust clinker-producing cement plants.
disposed in landfills per ton of clinker produced 3.1.2.5 White portland cement—White cement clinker
(4) Improve energy efficiency by 20 percent as measured is manufactured to limit the formation of compounds or
by total Btu-equivalent per unit of cementitious product minerals that darken the concrete. It can play an integral role
3.1.2.3 Specification revisions and potential reduction of in innovative sustainability strategies in numerous ways.
environmental impacts—Changes in cement specifications Because the properties of white cement are essentially the
have enabled further reductions in the environmental impact same as gray cement, with the exception of its color, concrete
of portland cement in addition to those already achieved in made with white cement retains all the properties and dura-
the process area. In ASTM C150/C150M and AASHTO M bility of standard gray portland-cement concrete. Concrete
85, two changes have had a significant impact: 1) permitting made using white cement can deliver architectural benefits
the use of up to 5 percent by mass of limestone to be used in that eliminate the need for less durable or volatile organic
cement; and 2) permitting use of up to 5 percent inorganic compound-emitting surface-applied coatings or covering
processing additions. In ASTM C595/C595M and AASHTO materials. White cement used in concrete facilitates a broad
M 240M/M 240, Type IL cement is permitted to use up to pallet of architectural colors and finishes, some of which
15 percent limestone by mass. ASTM C595/C595M and would otherwise be unachievable with typical gray cements.
AASHTO M240 ternary blended cement, Type IT, provides In addition, slag cement or other light colored supplemen-
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Type IP incorporates portland cement or portland cement ASTM C1157/C1157M is a performance specification
clinker and a pozzolan in amounts of up to 40 percent by for hydraulic cement and provides even greater flexibility
mass. The pozzolans used can include fly ash, natural in producing cements with lesser environmental impact.
pozzolan, or silica fume. Specification requirements are in place to ensure perfor-
Type IS cement combines portland cement or portland mance of these cements based on testing, rather than indi-
cement clinker with some form of slag cement. Type IS rect (prescriptive) limits. ASTM C1157/C1157M cements
cement can be blended, as is the case with portland cement are classified based on their potential application. For
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8 REPORT ON THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (ACI 130R-19)
example, GU is designated for general use and HE for high- Table 3.2.4a—Estimated kiln emissions savings
early-strength requirements. Other designations include MS potential (lb of emissions per ton of cement
(moderate sulfate resistance), HS (high sulfate resistance), production [kg per metric ton])*
MH (moderate heat of hydration), and LH (low heat of 5 percent CR† 20 percent CR† 35 percent CR†
hydration). SO2 0.30 (0.15) 1.16 (0.58) 2.04 (1.02)
3.2.4 Potential reduction of emissions—ASTM C595/
NOx 0.30 (0.15) 1.16 (0.58) 2.04 (1.02)
C595M and ASTM C1157/C1157M provide opportunities
for lessening the environmental impact of concrete. CO 0.06 (0.03) 0.20 (0.10) 0.36 (0.18)
Tables 3.2.4a and 3.2.4b give estimates of emission reduc- CO2 94.30 (47.15) 377.18 (188.59) 660.42 (330.21)
tions based on the amounts of noncalcined limestone or THC (total
SCMs used in cements, based on the approach of Nisbet 0.00 (0.00) 0.02 (0.01) 0.06 (0.03)
hydrocarbons)
(1996) and The Environmental Protection Agency (2014).
Following the approach of Nisbet (1996) and using The Environmental Protection
*
exhibit signs of thaumasite form of sulfate attack. (Hooton Table 3.3a—Embodied energy and embodied
et al. 2010). carbon of various binder components (Circular
3.2.6 Grinding aids—Traditional grinding aids are Ecology Ltd. 2011)
organic amino alcohols (such as triethanolamine [TEOA] Embodied energy, Embodied carbon, kg
or triisopropanolamine [TIPA]) or glycol materials added Component MJ/kg CO2/kg
at low dosages ranging from 0.02 to 0.05 percent to affect Cement 4.5 0.73
the process of dry grinding of most solid materials, reducing
Fly ash 0.10 0.008
overall grinding energy. Examples include all types of
portland cement, slag cement, clay cement, and chalk. Slag cement 1.60 0.083
Grinding aids adsorb onto the existing and newly created Ground limestone 0.62 0.032
cement particle surfaces, partially neutralizing the charges
present on the surface particles that develop during milling. Table 3.3b—Embodied energy and embodied
This reduces the surface-free energy of the material being carbon of various BS 8500-1:2015/40 MPa concrete
ground and enhances separating capabilities that will lead (general structural) mixtures (Circular Ecology
to increased production volume. Improved or higher cement Ltd. 2011)
production rates lead to lower specific energy consumption Embodied energy, Embodied carbon, kg
per unit of cement, reducing one of the most electricity- Binder MJ/kg CO2/kg
consuming processes in cement production (60 to 70 percent 100 percent cement 1.03 0.163
of the total electricity consumed in a cement plant). Use of
85 percent cement, 15
grinding aids also helps improve the flowability of cement. 0.97 0.152
percent fly ash
New performance-enhancing grinding aids such as polycar-
boxylate polymers, in addition to the traditional grinding aid 70 percent cement, 30
0.89 0.136
percent fly ash
function, are used to modify setting or strength properties
of concrete. These grinding aids also have shown enhanced 75 percent cement, 25
0.91 0.133
percent slag cement
particle dispersion and the ability to increase cement fine-
ness capabilities. Increasing fineness in blended cements 50 percent cement, 50
0.78 0.100
allows for higher clinker replacements with SCMs or lime- percent slag cement
stone, reducing the CO2 emissions in concrete.
and thus some of its environmental impact. Additionally, this
3.3—Supplementary cementitious materials may reduce both the rate of virgin resource use for cement
Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) are a production and disposal of industrial by-products.
class of materials that can be used to replace part of the The environmental footprint of concrete is sensitive to the
portland cement in concrete. Their application varies and binder composition (3.4). The relative embodied energy and
could depend on the type of SCM. In addition to replacing embodied carbon of different binder components can vary
a portion of the portland cement in a particular mixture widely (Circular Ecology Ltd. 2011) (Table 3.3a). Their rela-
proportion, they may be added to the total cementitious tive proportioning then impacts the embodied energy and
content in some cases. When properly proportioned, the use embodied carbon of concrete (Table 3.3b). These tables are
of SCMs can help achieve desired concrete properties for the provided for illustrative purposes only. Preference is given
anticipated use and exposure of the concrete. Though SCMs to specific quantitative comparisons using appropriate data.
can be incorporated in blended cements, they can also be Based on the included content, Tables 3.3a and 3.3b
added separately by a concrete producer at their batch plant should appear after each of fly ash, slag, and limestone have
or production facility. been mentioned.
Many SCMs are by-products of industrial processes Cement, slag cement, and fly ash all have European-related
and their use removes them from the waste stream. These organizations coordinating efforts to improve their respective
include fly ash, slag cement, silica fume, and rice husk ash. organization’s contribution to further sustainable construction.
Other SCMs, such as diatomaceous earth, volcanic ash, or In addition to the organizations for slag and fly ash, a silica
expanded shale, are classified as natural pozzolans. Some fume organization was organized and formally announced in
natural pozzolans require processing prior to use in concrete, early 2013. Similarly, in the United States there is the Slag
which may affect the degree to which they may reduce the Cement Association (SCA), the American Coal Ash Associa-
embodied environmental impact of the concrete. Depending tion (ACAA), and the Silica Fume Association (SFA).
on the type of natural pozzolan, the processing may include 3.3.1 Coal fly ash—Coal fly ash is an important pozzolan
grinding or, in some cases, thermal treatment. SCMs can because it is widely used in concrete. Fly ash is the mineral
enhance the performance and durability of concrete. The residue from the combustion of coal, typically in the genera-
particular SCM or the proportion of SCM used may be tion of electricity at a power plant. The physical and chem-
varied to help provide enhanced performance over a range ical properties of this type of fly ash can vary considerably
of exposures and applications of concrete. from power plant to power plant, due to the different sources
The judicious inclusion of SCMs in concrete can reduce the of coal used, as well as different combustion and emission
amount of portland cement used per unit volume of concrete, control systems. Coal fly ash performance can be influenced
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by its chemical and physical makeup. Standards in some carbon and methods to address its impact on concrete has
countries, such as CAN/CSA, classify the type of coal fly ash also been performed (Ley et al. 2008; Kulaots et al. 2003;
by its calcium content, reported as CaO. In the United States, Freeman et al. 1997).
fly ash is classified according to ASTM C618 as either Class Fly ash, as a by-product of coal combustion, would require
C (pozzolanic and cementitious) or Class F (pozzolanic) disposal if not used beneficially. This shortens the useful life
based on the sum of the oxides of silica, alumina, and iron of landfills and wastes a valuable material. Although widely
(SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3). available, the use rates of generated fly ash vary widely
The performance of a particular coal fly ash in concrete can within the United States and internationally. Usage rates
depend on a number of factors, including the combination of range from as low as 3.5 percent in India to as high as 93.7
materials in the concrete mixture, the proportion of the ash, percent in Hong Kong (Malhotra 2000). Although beneficial
and the characteristics of the ash. That said, properly propor- as an SCM, there are technical reasons that a particular fly
tioned concrete mixtures containing fly ash can enhance the ash may fall outside of specification limits, making it unsuit-
strength and durability of concrete, potentially extending the able for concrete use and, therefore, affecting use potential
service life, and therefore the sustainability, of the structure. and rates. According to the American Coal Ash Associa-
Coal fly ash can enhance the performance of concrete tion (2011), U.S. fly ash generation was 59.9 million tons
when compared to concrete manufactured with portland (54.3 million metric tons), of which 11.7 million tons (10.6
cement only. Long-term compressive strength may improve, million metric tons) were used directly in concrete, concrete
and some ashes are very effective in helping to reduce the products, or grout. Based on the previously stated carbon
effects of alkali-silica reaction and sulfate attack (Thomas intensity factor of 0.88 units of CO2 per unit of cement and
2009). In mass concrete applications such as mat founda- assuming a 1-to-1 replacement rate (fly ash to cement),
tions, heat generated during the concrete’s hydration can it could be estimated that the use of coal fly ash in those
cause heat gradients in the concrete that can lead to unac- applications avoided approximately 10.3 million tons (9.3
ceptable thermal cracking due to internal or external million metric tons) of CO2 emissions in 2011. An additional
restraint. Controlling the early heat of hydration is crit- 2 million tons (1.8 million metric tonnes) of fly ash was used
ical, and properly designed and proportioned mixtures can as a component of blended cement, or as in raw feed for
help to offset this. This may necessitate the use of higher- cement clinker production.
volume fly ash mixtures. The development of high-volume The use of coal fly ash as an SCM provides benefits related
fly ash concrete mixture proportions is typically attributed to sustainable concrete in enhancing concrete performance,
to Malhotra (1999), who developed mixtures with over 60 reducing the amount of material in the waste stream, and
percent cement replacement by fly ash. As with all mixtures helping lower the environmental footprint of concrete.
with high volumes of SCMs, attention should be paid to the 3.3.2 Slag cement—Slag cement is a by-product of the
concrete curing conditions to achieve the desired properties. steel industry, derived from granulated blast-furnace slag.
Prolonged wet curing or higher curing temperatures may Granulated blast-furnace slag is the glassy granular material
be required, depending on the mixture proportions. Further formed when molten blast-furnace slag is rapidly chilled,
curing information can be found in ACI 232.3R. as by immersion in water. This material is then ground
When used at high replacement levels, when placed at to produce slag cement. The first recorded production of
cold temperatures, or both, the relatively slower rate of blended portland blast-furnace slag cement was in Germany
strength development of fly ash concrete is a disadvantage in in 1892, and since the 1950s, use of slag cement as a sepa-
applications where high early strength is required. In some rate cementitious material has become widespread in many
applications, however, the concrete may not be loaded to its different countries (ACI 233R).
design value until months after its placement, and it may be Molten slag is handled in various ways at a steel mill. If
acceptable to specify 56- or 90-day strengths instead of the the molten slag is allowed to cool slowly, it crystallizes into
conventional 28-day strengths, provided that the concrete a solid mass. This air-cooled slag may then be crushed and
will receive sufficient curing. If normal strength develop- sized and sometimes used as an aggregate. In producing slag
ment is critical, accelerators are available to speed up the cement, the molten slag is rapidly cooled after leaving the
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hydration rates of fly ash concrete mixtures (Shi and Day furnace in a process called granulation. This essentially stops
1995; Shi 1998). the crystallization process and produces the glassy slag gran-
Coal fly ash may present some challenges for the concrete ules that can be ground into slag cement. It is only the rapidly
producer. Color may vary due to fluctuations in chemistry. cooled granulated slag that has a high cementitious potential.
Unburned carbon content can affect the ability to entrain Because the calcium-to-silicate ratio of the calcium-
air in concrete. The amount of the unburned carbon and its silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) formed from slag cement is lower
potential impact on the effectiveness of the air-entraining than that formed from portland cement, slag cement is able
admixture can be monitored by the concrete producer and to chemically bind a larger amount of alkali in the C-S-H.
mixtures adjusted to attain the desired result. The optimum cement replacement level varies depending on
The coal fly ash industry is working to improve quality application. Percentages from 20 to 50 percent have histori-
control and has developed technologies to help reduce the cally been used in concrete and sometimes in mass concrete
amount or offset the effects of the carbon content of fly ash. as high as 80 percent. As previously mentioned, the concrete
Other research to assess the surface area and amount of industry has also seen an increase in the use of ternary
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REPORT ON THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (ACI 130R-19) 11
cementitious systems—that is, a blend of ordinary portland guidance on the evaluation of the performance characteris-
cement, fly ash or other pozzolans, and slag cement. ASTM tics of these materials.
C595/C595M recognizes such systems for blended cement 3.3.5.1 Photocatalytic materials—A relatively novel tool
(Type IT), and concrete producers can also add the mate- in the effort to combat air pollution is the use of photocata-
rials separately at the batch plant or production facility. Slag lytic materials (Van Hampton 2007). These chemicals, most
cement may be a constituent of these cements or systems. notably titanium dioxide (TiO2) particles, can be mixed
The use of slag cement as an SCM also provides benefits with cement or added as a separate ingredient in concrete
related to sustainable concrete in enhancing concrete perfor- to give concrete an inherent ability to convert pollutants
mance, reducing the amount of material in the waste stream, such as carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide, NOx to nitrate,
and helping lower the carbon footprint of concrete. Like SOx to sulfate, and oxidizing some organics when exposed
other SCMs, when properly proportioned and cured, slag to sunlight or other ultraviolet light sources. The process is
cement improves many mechanical and durability properties somewhat analogous to photosynthesis. Because the photo-
of concrete and can generate less heat of hydration. catalytic materials are catalysts, they are not consumed in
3.3.3 Silica fume—Condensed silica fume is a by-product the reactions and will continue to work at reducing pollution.
of the silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloy industry and is These agents also help maintain the light-colored appear-
another example of beneficial use of an industrial by-product. ance of concretes that are referred to as self-cleaning. The
This siliceous material improves both strength and dura- breakdown of organic materials decreases staining of the
bility of concrete to such an extent that high-performance concrete, which reduces maintenance, while maintaining its
concrete mixture proportions often call for the addition of reflectance in supporting heat island mitigation.
silica fume. Although it is typically used in modest amounts
(approximately 5 to 8 percent by mass) and sometimes as an 3.4—Non-portland cement binders
addition to the cementitious material rather than a replace- 3.4.1 Concrete without portland cement—This section
ment, the potential to extend structural service life, optimize provides an overview of concretes in which the binder phase
strength and element sizing, and the fact that it is a recovered contains no portland cement. The non-portland cement
material, fits well in sustainable building. Silica fume acts binders discussed herein are alkali-activated slag cement,
both as a reactant as well as improving packing of the binder alkali-activated fly ash, calcium aluminate cements, and
particles. Its use is found in ACI 234R and ASTM C1240. calcium sulfoaluminate cements. Note that most of these
3.3.4 Other pozzolans—There are many different pozzo- binder systems have been used for specific applications
lans, most notably those considered natural ones. Among across the world for several decades. Recent concerns
these are metakaolin, expanded shale, expanded slate, about the environment, however, have created a renewed
expanded clay, pumice, rice husk ash, volcanic ashes, and interest in these lower-energy and CO2-intensive binder
materials such as diatomaceous earth. These materials may systems. Although the materials discussed in the following
require some form of processing before use in concrete. This are considered the most industrially viable alternatives to
may entail thermal processing as in the case of metakaolin, portland cement, this document does not claim to provide
or physical grinding in the case of mined pozzolans such a comprehensive list of all possible non-portland-cement
as diatomaceous earth. Such processing would add to, and binder materials.
need to be accounted for when assessing, the environmental 3.4.2 Alkali-activated slag and alkali-activated fly ash
impact of such materials. As with other SCMs, these pozzo- concretes—Slag cement is produced by finely grinding the
lans can be used in concrete to replace part of the portland glassy granular material formed when molten blast-furnace
cement, to enhance performance characteristics and poten- slag is rapidly chilled. As slag cement is a recovered material
tially extend service life. More information on natural from the iron industry, its intrinsic embodied energy is low.
pozzolans is found in ACI 232.1R. They are specified in An alkali-activated slag (AAS) concrete is one in which the
ASTM C618 as Class N pozzolans. binder phase is made of slag cement, water, and an alkali
--`,,`,`,,,,,````,``,,,,,,`,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3.3.5 Other materials—Along with historically used activator that triggers the chemical reactions involving
SCMs, there has been research on the potential use of other dissolution of slag and precipitation of calcium silicate and
materials as SCMs. These materials fall outside the ASTM calcium aluminosilicate phases that serve as the binder phase
definition of SCMs, such as slag cement, fly ash, or silica of concrete. These systems contain no portland cement.
fume. Many materials may possess chemical or mineralog- Although slag is cementitious and can self-activate, the reac-
ical properties that might be considered for use in concrete. tion is typically slow and requires external alkali activators
Wood ash and various types of nonferrous slags are just a to enhance reaction rates and form stronger products. Suffi-
few examples of these types of materials. Also, finely ground cient alkali content is also necessary for the development of
glass powder derived from recycled glass has been shown significant strength. Because slag is deficient in alkalis, these
to be an effective pozzolan (Tagnit-Hamou and Bengougam have to be supplied externally. These AAS also appear in the
2012; Jin 1998; Byars et al. 2004; Shao et al. 2000). Many literature with a variety of names such as alkali-activated
of these materials deserve closer attention because their use cements (Palomo and López dela Fuente 2003) and alkali-
as SCMs may be of benefit in concrete rather than being sent slag cements (Roy 1999).
to disposal. Refer to ASTM C1709 and CSA A3004-E1 for Alkali-activated fly ash is another potential substitute for
portland cement. Fly ash is a coal combustion by-product
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12 REPORT ON THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (ACI 130R-19)
and is primarily composed of aluminosilicate glass, which is There will be embodied energy in the activator system.
formed due to rapid cooling from the molten state within the For example, the energy to produce sodium hydroxide is
flu gas of a coal power plant. The alumina (Al2O3) and silica 20.5 MJ/kg (Hardjito and Rangan 2005) compared with 5.35
(SiO2) phases originate from clay impurities that are inter- MJ/kg for portland cement (Goggins et al. 2010). As acti-
mixed with coal during the natural process of coal formation. vators are used at approximately 10 percent mass of solid
Similar to slag, fly ash (ASTM C618 Class C and Class F) binder, the reduction in embodied energy for the binder
can be activated by an alkaline solution to promote dissolution system could be approximately 60 percent.
of fly ash and formation of a binder phase. Additional heat When specifying non‐portland-cement binders, users need
curing may be needed to ensure desirable early-age strength to consider and validate all performance characteristics,
and property development in alkali-activated fly ash concrete. such as workability, durability, and fire resistance of these
Some commonly used alkaline activating agents are portland cement substitutes to ensure they are suitable for
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3, the intended purpose (ASTM C1709).
also known as water glass) or combinations of these (Shi 3.4.3 Calcium aluminate cements—Calcium aluminate
and Day 1996; Krizan and Zivanovic 2002). A variety of cements (CACs) are a special class of cement containing
industrial by-products containing alkalis and sulfates such primarily aluminates and calcium. Small amounts of ferrite
as cement kiln dusts are also equally effective in activating and silica are also typically present. CACs were invented
slag (Chaunsali and Peethamparan 2011). Among the acti- in the early 1900s to resist sulfate attack. CACs are inher-
vators used, water glass is widely reported to give rise to ently rapid-hardening and can be rapid-setting and adjust-
rapid hardening and high compressive strengths (Oh et al. able with appropriate chemical admixtures. These cements
2010). Note that some of these activators are very corrosive are often used in refractory applications; self-leveling floor
alkaline liquids that require safety precautions during manu- compounds; as a component in grouts, mortars, bonding
facture of the concrete. agents and other adhesives; highly-abrasion-resistant appli-
The main hydration product in an AAS systems is C-S-H, cations; rapid repair; rehabilitation and construction of
with a low Ca/Si ratio regardless of the type of activator concrete flatwork such as sidewalks and overlays; and full-
used (Song et al. 2000; Wang et al. 1994; Richardson and depth pavement construction. The rapid-hardening prop-
Cabrera 2000; Davidovits 2008). In addition, an Al-modified erties; resistance to sulfate attack, acid attack, and alkali-
C-S-H is also present due to the alumina content of slag. aggregate reaction; and abrasion resistance make these
The morphology of the hydration products changes with the cements desirable in a wide range of special applications
activator and other hydration conditions (Wang and Scriv- (Scrivener and Capmas 1998). As there is no calcination of
ener 1995; Richardson et al. 1994; Ravikumar et al. 2010). limestone, the manufacturing process of CACs generates
In alkali-activated Class F fly ash, the primary binder phase significantly less CO2 than portland cement—roughly on the
is an alkali-alumino-silicate-hydrate (N-A-S-H) phase, also order of 50 percent less (Gartner 2004; Juenger et al. 2011).
known as geopolymer (Davidovits 1991). This geopolymer However, there is slightly more grinding energy required
phase, which has compositional similarities with natural (than portland cement) due to the increased strength of the
zeolites, serves as concrete binder. In addition to Class F fly clinker (Juenger et al. 2011; Scrivener and Capmas 1998).
ash, geopolymers can be produced using metakaolin or other The most widely discussed and controversial aspect of
aluminosilicate materials. Class C ash is compositionally in CACs is a process referred to as conversion. Conversion is
between Class F ash and slag, as it contains significant quanti- a process where metastable hydrates (CAH10 and C2AH8)
ties of lime, silica, and alumina (Duxson 2009). As a result of formed at low and moderate temperatures (41 to approxi-
alkali activation, Class C fly ash primarily forms an Al-modi- mately 158°F [5 to approximately 70°C]) convert to stable
fied C-S-H gel, which is also known as C-A-S-H gel. hydrates (C3AH6) formed at high temperatures (greater than
--`,,`,`,,,,,````,``,,,,,,`,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Alkali-activated concretes exhibit useful strength (Atis et 158°F [70°C]). This process leads to an increase in porosity
al. 2009), durability against chemical/acid attack, chloride and subsequent decrease in strength. Conversion is an inevi-
penetration (Fernández-Jiménez and Puertas 2002; Puertas table process and must be accounted for when designing the
et al. 2009), and a variety of other potentially valuable char- concrete mixture. The hydration process of CACs is thus
acteristics such as fire and wastewater resistance. A wide highly temperature-dependent and the time spent during
range of different alkali‐activated binder systems are avail- hydration within specific temperature ranges will dictate the
able and discussed in the literature. The performance with type and amount of metastable or stable hydrates, or both, that
respect to rheology, strength development, shrinkage, and are formed (Scrivener and Capmas 1998). Several building
durability performance varies widely. The performance of collapses in the 1970s were attributed to CAC conversion,
each product and the systems in place to ensure consistency and many structural codes subsequently banned its use.
and safety need to be carefully assessed before use. Since then, research has provided a greater understanding of
An advantage of alkali-activated concretes is that they CAC chemistry and behavior. Furthermore, a report by The
have a low CO2 emission rate embodied energy compared to Concrete Society (1997) revisited these landmark collapses
traditional portland cement concretes. This is because these and revealed that improper structural detailing, a lack of
systems do not require calcination and the energy-intensive, understanding about CAC properties, and not following
high-temperature clinkering processes involved during manufacturers’ guidance had led to most of the structural
production of portland cement. failures. Improved guidance for predicting long-term prop-
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REPORT ON THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (ACI 130R-19) 13
erties and a better scientific understanding of the material CSA cements, aside from further knowledge of its material
have seen resurgence in interest and use of this alternative properties, is the cost of raw materials. The high alumina
cementitious binder (The Concrete Society 1997; Juenger content demands the use of bauxite as a raw material, which
et al. 2011). There are several recommendations that have is not widely available and is expensive. Alternatively, the
been employed to keep the strength lost during conversion high sulfur and iron contents, when C4AF is included, allow
to a minimum. This includes keeping the water-cementitious for the use of many types of industrial by-products as raw
material ratio (w/cm) below 0.40 and including a minimum materials, reducing the cost of the clinker, both in terms of
cement content of 675 lb/yd3 (400 kg/m3). More information the economy and the environment (Palou and Majling 1995;
on CACs can be found in Juenger et al. (2011), Scrivener Phair 2006).
and Capmas (1998), The Concrete Society (1997), Fentiman 3.4.5 Recycled glass-based cements and concretes—One
et al. (2008), and Gosselin et al. (2010). incentive behind using recycled soda-lime glass, such as
--`,,`,`,,,,,````,``,,,,,,`,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3.4.4 Calcium sulfoaluminate cements—Calcium bottles and windows in concrete, is the prohibitive costs of
sulfoaluminate (CSA) cements are receiving increasing shipping recycled glass from collection points to remelting
examination from the cement industry and researchers as facilities that manufacture new glass products. Another
a lower-energy, lower-CO2 alternative to portland cement. incentive is use of glass powder as a pozzolanic material,
Such cements are not new; they contain as a primary phase given that access to a quality pozzolan may be limited in
Ye’elimite, Ca4Al6SO16 or C4A3S̄ in cement chemistry some locations. As of 2003 in the United States, approxi-
notation, sometimes called Klein’s compound because it mately 600,000 tons/year (544,000 metric tons/year) of
was used by Alexander Klein in the 1960s as an expansive recycled glass is landfilled or stockpiled in hopes that future
additive to portland cement (Klein 1966). China has been technologies would allow a profitable use of this material
industrially producing these cements since the 1970s and (Reindl 2003). Pulverized glass can be used in concrete as
their annual production may exceed 1 million tons (907,000 fine aggregates or as cement replacement. Aggregate appli-
metric tons) (Glasser and Zhang 2001). CSA cements are cations are more developed and have been commercialized
used for some structural applications, but they are especially in the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia. Desir-
well-suited for the precast and cold-weather applications able strength and workability of concretes containing glass
that take advantage of the rapid strength gain of these mate- sand have been achieved by proper mixture proportioning
rials (Su et al. 1997). Their mechanical properties and dura- (Polley et al. 1998). The main challenge of the use of these
bility are reported to rival portland cement (Quillin 2001), materials is the alkali-silica reaction (ASR) of glass parti-
but much work is needed to fully understand the long-term cles leading to cracking and deterioration of concrete. ASR,
material performance. however, has been successfully controlled by:
CSA cements lack standardized composition or perfor- a) Use of fly ash or other suitable SCMs (Shafaatian et al.
mance criteria. They are distinguished by the presence of 2013)
C4A3S̄ as the primary cementing phase, belite (C2S) as b) Use of glass aggregates finer than No. 50 (0.3 mm)
a secondary phase, and the absence of alite (C3S). Other sieve (Jin et al. 2000)
phases that are commonly present include C4AF, C2AS, CA, c) Annealing crushed glass before use in concrete (Rajabi-
and CS̄, and gypsum is added for hydration control as in pour et al. 2010; Maraghechi et al. 2012)
portland cement. Because ettringite is the primary reaction Lithium admixtures and use of glass powder as a cement
product of C4A3S̄ with gypsum and water, these cements supplement may also be effective in mitigating ASR in these
can exhibit rapid setting, rapid strength gains, and expan- materials (Shayan and Xu 2006).
sion. These properties, however, can be controlled through In comparison, the use of glass powder as a cementitious/
manipulating the composition of the cement and through pozzolanic material has not been sufficiently developed
the addition of chemical retarders. Mechanical properties despite its promise as a pozzolan with reliable compositional
and dimensional stability similar to portland cement can be consistency. Due to a high concentration of amorphous silica
achieved (Juenger and Chen 2011). (approximately 70 percent wt.) soda-lime glass can react
The reputation of CSA cements as environmentally friendly pozzolanically with portlandite in a glass-portland cement
comes from reductions in energy use and CO2 emissions system and produce low Ca/Si C-S-H. At moderate (up
during manufacturing. CSA clinkers can be made at lower to 30 percent wt.) replacement levels of ordinary portland
kiln temperatures than portland cement clinkers (2280°F cement, glass powder has been found to improve compres-
[1250°C] instead of 2460 to 2640°F [1350 to 1450°C]), and sive strength beyond 28 days; however, early strengths can be
are more porous and friable, thereby requiring less energy reduced when using the same w/cm (Shao et al. 2000; Shi et
for grinding (Mehta 1980; Glasser and Zhang 2001). The al. 2005). Fineness of glass powder has a significant impact
lime (CaO) content of C4A3S̄ is low (36.7 wt. percent) on its reactivity; glass finer than 38 µm satisfies the strength
compared to that of C3S (73.7 wt. percent); therefore, much activity index of ASTM C618 (greater than 75 percent at 7
less limestone is calcined in the production of CSA cements, days) (Shao et al. 2000). By further increasing glass fineness,
leading to lower CO2 emissions. CSA cements may be able to heat curing, or both, concretes with 3-day strengths surpassing
reduce limestone use by 40 percent and energy by 25 percent that of PC concrete can be prepared (Shi et al. 2005).
compared to portland cement (Sharp et al. 1999). One of 3.4.6 Hydraulic fly ash cements (HFACs)—These cements
the primary challenges facing the widespread adoption of use high-calcium fly ash (HCFA) along with a functional
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14 REPORT ON THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (ACI 130R-19)
additive. This approach produces performance character- physical properties of the mixture, depending on the aggre-
istics in concrete similar to portland and other hydraulic gate properties (Stark 2006; Thomas 2011).
cements in terms of strength, durability, and rate of curing Most of the concrete aggregates are natural or crushed
or of hydration (Hicks 2010). Depending on the mixture and can consist of many types of minerals (Barksdale 1991).
proportion, HFAC materials will meet or exceed the perfor- Some aggregates come from natural deposits such as sand
mance specifications contained in ASTM C1157/C1157M. and gravel and are used as-mined, after washing, or in some
These cements can be used to produce concretes, grouts, cases, after crushing. With environmental concerns at the
mortars, flowable fills, and other specialty mixture propor- forefront, it is becoming more difficult to obtain approval
tions. The functional additive consists of some combination to mine natural aggregates near rivers and waterways where
of activator and setting retardant (SR). The activator/retar- they are indigenous. Depletion of readily accessible sources
dant enhances the hydraulic activity of the calcium alumi- of natural aggregates has also led to a reduction in their use.
nosilicates contained in HCFA while the SR helps to control Most crushed aggregates come from stone that is quarried
the rate of reaction. and then processed in mechanical crushers. Crushed and
The activator/SR additive is near neutral pH while fresh nontraditional aggregates including synthetic, lightweight,
activated HFAC mixture is slightly more basic (pH of 7 to recycled/reused aggregates, and mineral fillers will likely be
9). This is lower than in an OPC mixture. The main reaction used more frequently in the future due to the environmental
products are calcium aluminosilicate hydrates. The set time concern of mining sand and gravel. There has been an
and strength development of HCFA concrete can be adjusted increased use of nontraditional aggregates, some of which
by changing the concentration of SR. By controlling setting are otherwise derived from diverted waste materials, and
time, these cements can meet ASTM C1600/C1600M stan- their use strongly contributes to sustainability by reducing
dards. These cements are commercialized and have been the embodied energy and CO2 emissions and eliminating
used in numerous projects (Patel and Kinney 2013; Diaz waste materials as long as similar or improved concrete
Loya et al. 2013). performance can be achieved.
As shown in Fig. 4.1 (USGS 2011), it is predicted that
CHAPTER 4—AGGREGATES AND FILLERS crushed aggregates will increase in use in relation to natural
aggregates in the future of the U.S. concrete industry; this
4.1—Introduction trend will likely occur in many other parts of the world as
Aggregates are a widely used construction material. well. The use of crushed aggregates poses some challenges.
Concrete pavements, bridges, foundations, dams, utili- Due to their angular shape, workability is generally decreased
ties, buildings, and other structures would not be possible (Graves 2006). The dust of fracture or microfines of those
without aggregates. Aggregates are produced in most materials that pass the 75 μm sieve and are produced in the
regions worldwide because transportation costs often exceed crushing operation often require the use of admixtures to yield
the on-site cost of aggregate production. They are among the concrete with the desired workability (Graves 2006; Fowler
least expensive building materials, and even when used in and Rached 2011). The use of nontraditional aggregates,
concrete as 75 or 80 percent of the total mixture, aggregates which may be angular in shape, also can affect concrete prop-
are usually still less expensive than the binder. The produc- erties such as workability, pumpability, strength, and modulus
tion of aggregates may require less energy than cement, of elasticity, depending on the aggregate properties. The use
and because they occupy the greatest volume in concrete, of admixtures and mixture design can help overcome or limit
reduced energy in production may reduce the embodied these effects (Mindness et al. 2002).
energy and CO2 emissions, thereby contributing to sustain- Given that transporting aggregates long distances uses
ability. Calculations should be made to determine conclu- additional energy and produces more CO2 compared to local
sively if using a greater percentage of aggregates reduces aggregates, local aggregates should be used when feasible,
the embodied energy and GHG emissions, depending on the including recycled materials to promote sustainability. The
production and transportation-related emissions and energy impact of materials should be looked at holistically over
of individual components such as cementitious materials the life of the structure; an overall reduced environmental
and aggregates. impact can be achieved by using materials with a larger
The aggregate type can dramatically change fresh and embodied energy and CO2 emissions, if they significantly
hardened concrete properties. Aggregates that are well- increase the service life or substantially reduce cementitious
graded can decrease the quantity of cementitious materials material requirements.
required while allowing the concrete to perform as desired
(Graves 2006). The use of larger maximum-size aggre- 4.2—Natural sand and gravel
gates, when feasible, is effective in reducing cementitious Historically, natural aggregates have been the most widely
materials and shrinkage. Without durable aggregates, long- used aggregates in the production of concrete; however,
lasting, durable concrete is much more difficult to produce. the production of natural aggregates is declining and is
Durability issues with local aggregates can often be miti- predicted to continue to do so in relation to crushed aggre-
gated using blended cements, pozzolans, admixtures, or fine gates (USGS 2011) (Fig. 4.1). When properly proportioned,
lightweight aggregate (LWA), by changing the chemical and both natural sand and gravel are capable of producing high-
quality, sustainable concrete (Graves 2006). Natural aggre-
--`,,`,`,,,,,````,``,,,,,,`,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Research has shown that the microfines can be success- fill with water within the first few hours to few days of expo-
fully used in much larger percentages—as much as 15 percent sure to moisture. Interior pores often fill extremely slowly,
or more of the total fine aggregate than permitted by ASTM with many months of submersion required to approach full
C33/C33M—to produce concrete with excellent strength and water absorption and are essentially non-interconnected;
durability when the mixtures are properly designed and the a small fraction remains unfilled after years of immer-
microfines do not contain a significant amount of clay (Fowler sion (ACI 213R). Commercially, LWA is most commonly
et al. 2006; Fowler and Rached 2011). Research has also prewetted by sprinklers or by vacuum saturation before it
shown that abrasion resistance is generally greater when up is used for internal curing or when the lightweight concrete
to 15 percent microfines are used compared to concrete made will be pumped. When crushed, ESCS tends to absorb water
with good-quality natural sand (Fowler and Quiroga 2004). more quickly.
The microfines can be considered as part of the total powder The embodied energy to manufacture ESCS includes
content—that is, ordinary portland cement and supplementary mining, manufacturing, and transporting the material to the
cementing materials—and, in some cases, the cement can be job site or building product manufacturer. The use of ESCS
reduced by 20 percent or more and still achieve the same or has been a design choice in thousands of existing struc-
greater strength. Under these conditions, the use of suitable tures as the cost of the embodied energy is often paid back
microfines in concrete, instead of being removed from the in a very short period of time due to reduction in material
fine aggregate and wasted, strongly supports sustainability resulting from reduced loads. Reduced dead loads allow
(Juenger et al. 2006). The use of performance specifications for smaller columns, beams, and foundations, resulting in
should be encouraged to enable the use of higher amounts of less overall material being used. Lighter concrete improves
microfines than those permitted in ASTM C33/C33M. thermal performance, lower transportation costs, and reduc-
Crushed stone quarries can be reclaimed into usable farm- tion of labor costs associated with the building elements,
land or pasture, or converted into landfills, lakes, and other especially when these elements are handled by workers,
recreational sites. These reclamation areas support wildlife such as with concrete masonry (Friggle and Reeves 2008;
in many cases to a greater extent than before the mining Holm et al. 1984).
operations commenced. ESCS structural LWA concrete contributes to sustain-
ability by:
4.4—Lightweight aggregates (a) Reducing the concrete unit weight by 25 to 30 percent,
Lightweight aggregate (LWA) has a long history, with leading to a higher strength-to-weight ratios that requires
the first known use dating back 2000 years to the Clas- less concrete and, hence, less dead load to be carried by the
sical Roman period from which there are several remaining structure
lightweight concrete structures in the Mediterranean region. (b) Greater fire resistance, resulting in thinner sections
The first modern use of high-performance LWA concrete when used for fireproofing
came when lightweight concrete ships (1917 to 1921) were (c) Internal curing provided by water absorption in the
built in which specified compressive strengths of 5000 psi porous LWA, which improves hydration, reduces shrinkage,
(35 MPa) were obtained with a unit weight of less than 110 and reduces cracking; the lower weight resulting from
lb/ft3 (1760 kg/m3), using rotary-kiln-produced expanded the addition of LWA also contributes to reduced cracking
--`,,`,`,,,,,````,``,,,,,,`,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
shale and clay LWA. Commercial normalweight concrete (ESCSI 2007)
strengths of that time were approximately 2500 psi (17
MPa) (ESCSI 1971). After 80 years of floating in seawater, 4.5—Recycled/reused aggregates
core samples verified that the lightweight concrete strength There are many recycled and reused materials that have
was over 8000 psi (55 MPa) and the samples were in good been used for aggregates in concrete. These include recycled
condition (Sturm et al. 2002). concrete, crushed returned concrete aggregate, screenings,
Expanded shale, clay, and slate (ESCS) structural LWAs blast-furnace slag, crushed glass aggregate, waste plastic
are produced in manufacturing plants from suitable raw aggregate, recycled scrap tire aggregates, and recycled
materials. ESCS is made using the pyroprocessing method asphalt pavement aggregates.
that includes a rotary kiln in which raw material is fed into 4.5.1 Recycled concrete—In-service concrete can be
a long, slowly rotating, slightly inclined cylinder where removed and recycled as aggregate for concrete. Recy-
it’s fired to approximately 2000°F (1100°C), resulting in cling concrete is a sustainable practice because it redirects
approximately 1.34 MBtu/yd3 (1.85 GJ/m3) or 2.16 MBtu/ the demolished materials, including concrete and rein-
ton (2.07 GJ/ton) of energy consumed. This manufacturing forcing steel, from landfills to new construction. Recycling
process, which is similar to that of portland cement, produces concrete contributes to reduced environmental impacts of
a uniform, high-quality ceramic aggregate that is structurally land disturbance, especially at a time when the numbers of
strong, stable, and durable, yet also lightweight and insula- adequate disposal sites are diminishing and the sources of
tive (Holm and Ries 2007). good-quality aggregates are rapidly becoming depleted. In
ESCS LWAs contain a uniform distribution system of most urban areas in the United States, where there is a high
pores that have a size range of approximately 5 to 300 μm, concentration of in-service concrete, the lack of disposal
embodied in a continuous high-strength vitreous phase. Pores sites can substantially increase disposal costs and environ-
close to the surface of some LWA are readily permeable and mental costs, including land use and longer transportation
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REPORT ON THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (ACI 130R-19) 17
distances. The use of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) can controlled gradation can be successfully used as a fine
be economical and sustainable, particularly in metropolitan aggregate or powder component in concrete, resulting in
areas, when there are higher costs of virgin aggregate mate- similar or improved concrete properties. Potential benefits
rials and higher transportation costs to dispose the removed may include reduction in cementitious content, improved
concrete and deliver the virgin aggregate. durability, increased volume of aggregate per unit volume
Fresh concrete produced with RCA can be batched, mixed, and increased abrasion resistance (Fowler and Rached 2011;
transported, placed, and compacted in the same manner as Juenger et al. 2006). Concrete using these products as a fine
conventional concrete. However, mixture proportions for aggregate constituent can be proportioned, mixed, placed,
structural concrete produced with RCA should be adjusted and finished using traditional methods and materials.
to account for differences in the physical properties of RCA 4.5.4 Blast-furnace slag—Blast-furnace slag is a nonme-
compared to crushed stone. RCA is produced from construction tallic material produced in the production of iron. Iron ore,
debris, which makes the possibility of contamination from rein- iron scrap, and fluxes such as limestone, dolomite, or both,
forcing bar, oils, deicing salts, and other building components are charged into a blast furnace along with coke for fuel.
higher. Contamination can be deleterious to the performance The coke is combusted to produce carbon monoxide, which
of RCA in concrete. In many European countries, the use of reduces the iron ore to a molten iron product. This molten
20 percent RCAs in structural concrete is standard practice iron can be cast into iron products but is most often used as
(Federal Highway Administration 2004; RILEM 2005). a feedstock for steel production. Approximately 20 percent
4.5.2 Crushed returned concrete aggregate—Every year, by mass of iron production is slag. The molten slag, which
it is estimated that an average of 5 percent of the estimated absorbs much of the sulfur from the charge, consists primarily
455 million cubic yards (348 cubic meters) of ready mixed of silicates, aluminosilicates, and calcium-aluminosilicates.
concrete produced in the United States (est. 2006) is returned Different forms of slag products are produced depending
to the concrete plant. A common approach to recycling on the method used to cool the molten slag. These products
returned concrete is to first discharge the returned concrete include air-cooled blast-furnace slag (ACBFS), expanded
from the concrete truck in an appropriately designated area of or foamed blast-furnace slag, pelletized blast-furnace slag,
the concrete plant. When hardened, the discharged concrete and granulated blast-furnace slag. Air-cooled blast-furnace
can be subsequently crushed by a crusher, and the crushed slag can be crushed and screened in a process similar to
concrete aggregate (CCA) can be used as a portion of the crushed stone.
aggregate component in new concrete. CCA is prepared from Expanded or foamed blast-furnace slag results if the molten
concrete that has never been in service and thus is not contam- slag is cooled and solidified by adding controlled quantities
inated from in-service exposure, as compared to RCA. of water, air, or steam; the process of cooling and solidifi-
In research conducted by the National Ready Mixed cation can be accelerated, increasing the cellular nature of
Concrete Association, CCA was produced at a ready mixed the slag and producing a lightweight expanded or foamed
concrete plant at three strength classes (Obla et al. 2007). product. Foamed slag is distinguishable from ACBFS by its
The properties of coarse and fine CCA were found to be relatively high porosity and low bulk density.
different than that of virgin aggregates. It was determined Pelletized blast-furnace slag results when the molten
that although the use of CCA had impacts on the concrete slag is cooled and solidified with water and air quenched
properties, these could be addressed through mixture design in a spinning drum; pellets, rather than a solid mass, are
and testing. produced. By controlling the process, pellets can be made
The use of returned concrete aggregate strongly contrib- more crystalline, which is beneficial for aggregate use or
utes to sustainability by diverting an otherwise waste mate- more vitrified (for example. glassy), which is more desirable
rial from landfills. Its use in concrete eliminates the need for in a cementitious application.
producing an equal volume of natural or crushed aggregate, Granulated blast-furnace slag is rapidly cooled by large
which reduces or eliminates fuel requirements and associ- quantities of water to produce a sand-like granule. While
ated emissions. (Obla et al. 2007; Kim and Bentz 2007). most granulated slag is further processed by grinding into
4.5.3 Screenings—Crushed stone screenings are a fine a cementitious material commonly known as slag cement
aggregate by-product from the crushing, screening, and (Chapter 3), unground granulated blast-furnace slag can be
washing of coarse aggregate sizes. These products typically used as an aggregate material. In Australia, granulated blast-
range in size from minus 3/8 or 1/4 in. (9 or 6 mm) and may furnace slag has been used as a partial replacement for fine
include fines as small as 2 µm. aggregate in the production of portland-cement concrete.
These materials are produced in the same processes used Another aggregate application in Australia is the incorpo-
to produce the coarse sizes, therefore using the same energy ration of 20 percent by volume of granulated slag with 80
per unit. It is advantageous to find uses for these by-products percent by volume dense graded ACBSF crushed aggregate
so that the energy expended for production is not wasted. base. The granulated slag acts as a binder material in the
The use of screenings leads to sustainability because the fine production of a high-quality bound aggregate base course
particles are not washed from the aggregate and, therefore, (Australasian Slag Association Inc 2002). According to the
are not wasted. USGS, 69 percent of blast-furnace slag in the United States
Research has shown that some of these products having was air cooled with 49.7 percent of this portion being used
suitable mineralogy, consistent physical properties, and
--`,,`,`,,,,,````,``,,,,,,`,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- in road base applications (USGS 2015c). The proportion of
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18 REPORT ON THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (ACI 130R-19)
ACBFS currently being produced, however, is decreasing concrete after years of seemingly satisfactory service. The
relative to granulated and pelletized blast-furnace slag complexity of this phenomenon makes it difficult to prede-
production. The production of expanded blast-furnace slag termine whether a specific aggregate is potentially reactive
is no longer favored and is being replaced by the pelletizing or not. If soda lime glass, the common material of household
procedure. and beverage containers, is used as aggregate in concrete,
ACBFS has been used as an aggregate for concrete, there is reasonable certainty that ASR-induced damage will
concrete masonry, asphalt pavement, and road bases. Many occur, provided there is sufficient moisture available to drive
specifying agencies consider ACBFS to be a conventional the reaction.
aggregate, thereby recognizing a by-product of iron produc- The recommended methods for mitigating ASR in
tion in everyday construction. Pelletized blast-furnace slag concrete using glass aggregate alone or in combination are
has been used as LWA and for cement manufacture. Foamed (Jin et al. 2000):
slag has been used as an LWA for concrete. (a) Grind the glass fine enough to pass No. 100 (0.149
4.5.5 Crushed glass aggregate—There are demonstrated mm) mesh
sustainable uses of post-consumer glass aggregate for (b) Use pozzolans such as metakaolin as a coating on glass
commodity products that divert waste glass into concrete, or additive to concrete, fly ash, slag cement, or fine LWA
including concrete masonry block units and paving stones (c) Apply a protective coating to the glass—for example,
with up to 100 percent glass aggregate. Concrete mixtures zirconium as for alkali-resistant glass fibers
with 100 percent glass aggregate and 28-day compressive (d) Modify the glass chemistry to make it less reactive
strengths exceeding 15,000 psi (103.5 MPa) have already (e) Seal the concrete to prevent moisture ingress
been made using standard procedures (Jin et al. 2000; Meyer (f) Use a low-alkali cement
1999). More than 12 million tons (10.9 million metric Note that ASR is an extremely complex phenomenon.
tons) of glass products are discarded in the United States Even small changes in glass chemistry can make large
on an annual basis, and almost three-fourths of this waste differences in the reactivity. Each concrete product and
stream is landfilled at significant cost to the public (EPA glass source needs to be evaluated and tested thoroughly to
2009). As more beneficial applications are developed, a ensure an acceptable quality and durability of the concrete
higher volume of post-consumer glass can be integrated into produced with such glass. Also, replacing natural aggregate
concrete. There is a wide variety of architectural and decora- with glass aggregate has significant repercussions on the
tive concrete applications that could be produced with glass mixture design and concrete production technology, particu-
aggregate, including architectural concrete blocks, building larly if fully automated production processes are used.
façade elements, wall tiles, panels, partitions, stair treads, 4.5.6 Waste plastic aggregate—There has been a tremendous
countertops, and outdoor furnishings. increase in waste plastics, and many uses have been proposed.
Crushed glass has special properties that are beneficial for There has been a moderate level of research conducted on
its use as aggregate to produce sustainable concrete. Because the use of post-consumer plastic aggregate in concrete. Post-
of the lack of water absorption and the smooth surfaces of consumer plastic aggregate can be used as an alternative LWA
glass particles, the flow properties of fresh concrete with source to achieve a more sustainable concrete. A reduction in
glass aggregate are improved compared to fresh concrete unit weight of concrete lowers the total dead load within a
with crushed stone. This means that either workability can structure. At the same time, lightweight concrete containing
be improved at given a w/cm, or the w/cm can be reduced plastic aggregate can have reduced heat loss and improved
to achieve a specified workability, which in turn increases thermal insulation properties, which can lead to a reduction in
mechanical strength and durability properties. The smooth energy consumption and costs.
surfaces of crushed glass have so far not been shown to Post-consumer plastic can be derived from numerous
negatively affect the mechanical properties of concrete. products and can consist of different polymers. The most
Glass also has high hardness and abrasion resistance, which common source that has been studied is shredded polyeth-
makes it a suitable aggregate for paving stones, floor tiles, ylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, which requires minimal
and other applications subject to long-term surface wear. processing and therefore less cost to produce. Its use can
Glass powder has pozzolanic properties when finely ground, become cost-effective, especially in urban areas with a large
so the finest fraction of crushed glass aggregate is excellent volume of disposed plastic bottles. Experimental concrete
as a filler because of its bond to the surrounding matrix. has been produced with 100 percent shredded PET aggre-
With reduced water requirements and improved long-term gate, but with reduced strength and modulus of elasticity
properties, crushed glass aggregate can contribute to a more mechanical properties. Replacement of less than 50 percent
sustainable concrete. seems to have much less effect on mechanical properties
The use of glass as an aggregate for concrete was contem- when compared to a control mixture.
plated decades ago, but alkali-silica reaction (ASR) caused Eight different plastics representing those found in munic-
an insurmountable problem (Philips et al. 1972; Johnson ipal solid waste streams and in industrial waste plastics were
--`,,`,`,,,,,````,``,,,,,,`,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1974). ASR can occur with aggregates that contain reactive investigated for use as aggregate in concrete (Vishwakarma
amorphous silica. In the presence of moisture, the resulting 1994). Slump was not affected when 1 percent plastic was
ASR gel swells and can cause severe concrete cracking. used regardless of particle size and shape; for 4 percent addi-
This is a long-term problem that may manifest itself in tions, the slump reduced by 10 to 77 percent, depending on
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REPORT ON THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (ACI 130R-19) 19
the shape and size. When very fine plastic vent dust was 4.6—Mineral filler
used, the cohesiveness was greatly improved. Concrete Mineral filler (MF) is a finely divided mineral product, at
strength was greatly influenced by size and shape of filler, least 65 percent of which passes the No. 200 (75 μm) sieve.
but strength was always reduced. Strength reduction was Gradation is given by ASTM C1797, clay/smectite content
generally less when the filler size and shape was similar to is indicated by AASHTO T 330, and chloride content by
the coarse aggregate than for finer sizes. Impact resistance ASTM C1218/C1218M (optional).
on concrete specimens made with plastic filler as measured In general, there are two different categories of MF:
by the Los Angeles abrasion test was improved for only one siliceous base and carbonate base. The siliceous MF is a
plastic, high-density polyethylene fines. Concrete made with by-product of crushing siliceous stone and is captured as dry
six of the eight plastics showed an increase in abrasion resis- fines or wet fines in aggregate quarry ponds. Most quarries
tance when the amount of plastics was increased from 1 to 4 producing crushed siliceous rocks will produce by-product
percent. The use of the plastics in concrete resulted in equal fines. Production of this MF will vary among quarries
or lower scaling resistance (Akçaözoğlu et al. 2010; Yesilata depending on the type of rock and processing equipment.
et al. 2009; Remadnia et al. 2009; Marzouk et al. 2007; Vish- In general, siliceous materials are higher in hardness (Mohs
wakarma 1994; Sander 1993). hardness 7 or higher) and have high resistance to crushing.
4.5.7 Recycled scrap tire aggregates—Millions of scrap The use in concrete will help to reduce by-product and pond
automotive tires are landfilled each year. They pose a fire fines, and therefore improves sustainability. The energy to
hazard and a habitat for mosquitoes. Scrap tires in the form produce siliceous MF is similar to that required for crushing
of crumb rubber have been proposed as aggregates for the siliceous stone and will depend on the type of rocks and
concrete. They have been used as a fine aggregate replace- equipment being used.
ment and as an additive to the concrete mixture. With The carbonate MF, also called ground calcium carbonate
--`,,`,`,,,,,````,``,,,,,,`,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
For fresh concrete, chemical admixtures are typically used Note, however, that processing of the constituent materials
to reduce mixture water content, entrain air, increase work- can be more complex than just blending, which can result
ability, reduce segregation, control rate of bleeding, reduce in a potentially higher environmental footprint upstream.
rate of slump loss, improve pumping, improve finishing, An admixture Environmental Product Declaration (EPD)
control time of setting, or a combination of these. The poten- captures all the environmental impacts from all processes
tial benefits of chemical admixtures in the hardened state from raw material extraction through final manufacturing.
include increased strength, impact and abrasion resistance, With respect to application, chemical admixtures generally
improved aesthetics, reduced drying shrinkage and perme- constitute a very small fraction of the total volume or mass
ability, and an overall increase in durability (ACI 212.3R). of concrete—usually less than about 0.2 percent of concrete
Chemical admixtures are governed by several industry volume for most admixtures and up to about 3.0 percent for
standards, but the predominant and most widely used stan- some corrosion inhibitors and permeability-reducing admix-
dards are ASTM C260/C260M and ASTM C494/C494M. tures. Therefore, the contribution of chemical admixtures to
A review of their benefits shows that chemical admixtures the environmental impact of a concrete mixture is typically
play an important role in the construction of environmen- low relative to other concrete-making materials.
tally friendly, sustainable concrete structures, while helping Although chemical admixtures fall below typical cutoff
to conserve natural resources. Admixtures can contribute criteria by mass or energy use for a life-cycle assessment
to the embodied energy and emissions or consume raw (LCA) of concrete, they may still contribute to a concrete’s
materials. The typical dosage used, however, is low and environmental impact. The European Federation of Concrete
the benefit in terms of fresh or hardened properties of the Admixture Associations (EFCA) has reported environmental
concrete is significant. Accordingly, the sustainability bene- impacts of chemical admixtures through EPDs for different
fits of their use can be great. The benefits of chemical admix- types of chemical admixtures taking into consideration the
tures with respect to sustainability in concrete construction environmental impact from cradle-to-gate production (EFCA
are discussed in the sections that follow. 2015). Table 5.3a provides results for some of the key envi-
ronmental impacts from chemical admixture production per
5.2—Materials used in admixture formulations unit of admixture, while Table 5.3b reports the key environ-
Materials used in chemical admixture formulations vary mental impacts from chemical admixture production per unit
depending on type and may be derived from natural material of concrete produced. The environmental impacts in terms of
sources, by-products of other manufacturing processes, or global warming potential (GWP), depletion potential of the
synthetic. For example, the basic ingredients used in water- stratospheric ozone layer (ODP), acidification potential of
reducing and retarding admixtures—corn syrup and ligno- land and water (AP), and formation potential of tropospheric
sulfonates—have for decades been obtained from corn or ozone photochemical oxidants (POCP) are included. Note
wood. In addition, lignosulfonates are by-products from the that the EFCA-validated declarations exclusively apply to
production of wood pulp using the Kraft Process (Driessen plants operated in Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Nether-
et al. 2000; Mockos et al. 2008). Polycarboxylate ethers lands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and the
and polyvinyl copolymers, the primary materials currently United Kingdom by EFCA National Association members
used in the high-range water-reducing admixture formula- and are provided only for informational purposes.
tions and pozzolanic-based cement activators are synthe- Chemical admixtures in and of themselves contribute
sized materials. Details on the types of raw materials used in very little to the total environmental burden of concrete.
chemical admixtures are given in ACI 212.3R. This addition is dwarfed by the net reduction in the environ-
mental impacts of concrete that use of chemical admixtures
5.3—Environmental impact can provide.
Chemical admixtures can affect the environment both The data show that on a cubic meter basis, the GWP, for
during their manufacture and in concrete mixtures. The example, associated with chemical admixtures is small. Even
manufacture of a chemical admixture typically only requires at the high end of the typical dosage range, the potential CO2eq
blending of its constituent materials prior to shipment. emissions associated with a hardening accelerator admixture
--`,,`,`,,,,,````,``,,,,,,`,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
--`,,`,`,,,,,````,``,,,,,,`,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
through partial replacement of portland cement with SCMs,
such as fly ash and slag cement. To offset the potential water consumed in concrete production and, as such, will
adverse effects of increased levels of SCMs on time of setting contribute to water conservation while maintaining fresh,
and early-age strength development, chemical admixtures— hardened, and plastic concrete properties. As required
specifically mid- and high-range water reducers in conjunc- by ASTM C494/C494M, normal and high-range water-
tion with accelerating admixtures—are typically used. reducing admixtures must reduce mixing water content by
In high-strength concrete applications, high-range water- a minimum of 5 and 12 percent, respectively. Most high-
reducing admixtures are needed to produce workable range water-reducing admixtures, however, provide up to 30
concrete mixtures at the low w/cm required to achieve the percent water reduction and, depending on type and applica-
desired strengths. The use of high-strength concrete can tion, up to 40 percent water reduction for polycarboxylate
result in smaller member sizes that would invariably require ethers in self-consolidating concrete, for example. The data
less concrete; less concreting materials overall; and, conse- in Fig. 5.4.2 show that high-range water-reducing admix-
quently, conservation of natural resources, even though tures have provided increased levels of savings in mixture
cementitious materials content in a mixture may be higher. water use within the U.S. concrete industry since the mid-
5.4.2 Reduction in water use—Concrete is a very efficient 1980s. The data plotted in Fig. 5.4.2 were estimated using
material in terms of water use at approximately 3 L/liters per industry data for concrete production and high-range water-
kg (Ashby 2012); however, the large quantity of concrete reducing admixture usage, and assuming a modest water
used globally makes reducing this quantity important. The reduction of 20 percent. The data do not include the mixing
use of water-reducing admixtures is one way to reduce the water content savings derived from the use of normal and
mid-range water-reducing admixtures.
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22 REPORT ON THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (ACI 130R-19)
Research has shown that typical gray concrete, without ened properties of the blended concrete are dependent on the
added pigments, can meet USGBC LEED (United States percentage of concrete returned used and its age (Lobo et al.
Green Building Council Leadership in Environmental and 1995; Lobo and Gaynor 1998). The use of HCAs to stabilize
Engineering Design) requirements for solar reflective index returned plastic concrete diverts such concretes from being
(SRI) (Marceau and VanGeem 2007). Liquid-coloring disposed of in landfills or more energy-intensive recycling
admixtures and pigments, which are used in concrete for of hardened concrete. Hydration-controlling admixtures can
aesthetic purposes, can also be used to further increase the also be used to stabilize concrete washwater in truck drums.
SRI of concrete, depending on the specific color or pigment. The stabilized washwater can then be used in subsequent
As an alternative to the use of white cement or high-slag loads, with a corresponding reduction in the mixture water
cement, titanium dioxide (TiO2) has also been used to batched into the concrete. In addition to reducing or elimi-
lighten gray cement and increase the SRI of concrete. TiO2 nating the disposal of concrete washwater, stabilization of
is one of the four most common types of pigments used in concrete washwater also uses less water than is typically
coloring concrete with the others being iron oxide pigments, required to clean the drums of concrete trucks.
chrome oxides, and cobalt blue pigments. Most manufac- The use of HCAs to stabilize fresh concretes for long-
turers provide an SRI value for pigments used in concrete. haul applications, returned plastic concrete for same-day or
overnight applications, and concrete washwater effectively
5.5—Reducing concrete waste helps to reduce construction waste while addressing envi-
The disposal of returned plastic concrete and concrete ronmental issues associated with the disposal of concrete
washwater is an environmental challenge for concrete waste and washwater, thereby reducing landfill waste.
producers. According to the National Ready Mix Concrete
--`,,`,`,,,,,````,``,,,,,,`,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Similar performance, within limits set in the specifica- Table 6.2a—Concrete performance requirements
tion, compared with a control concrete mixture containing for mixing water
potable water should be attained. The water source should Limits Test methods
be tested before initial use. Optional limits for the combined
Compressive strength,
mixing water exist for alkalis, sulfates, chlorides, and total minimum percent control at 90
ASTM C31/C31M,
solids by mass (Table 6.2b) where warranted by anticipated C39/C39M
7 days
exposure conditions and type of construction.
Time of set, deviation from From 1:00 earlier ASTM C403/
Testing frequency is permitted to be reduced to once every control, h:min to 1:30 later C403M
month when the results of 2 months of consecutive tests
indicate compliance with the requirements of Table 6.2a.
Table 6.2b—Optional chemical limits for combined
Testing frequency to qualify water increases as mixing water
mixing water (ASTM C1602/C1602M)
with higher solids content (specific gravity greater than 1.0)
--`,,`,`,,,,,````,``,,,,,,`,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
be instances where providing a very durable structure are concrete industry should still be consistent with durable and
justified. In these instances, reducing the w/cm may improve sustainable concrete products.
durability characteristics as well reducing the demand for
water in the concrete mixture. In addition, specifying high- CHAPTER 7—REINFORCEMENT
performance concrete may allow the designer to reduce
the size of members, which in turn reduces total amount of 7.1—Introduction
materials, including water that is consumed. Reinforcing materials are an integral part of most concrete
(d) Incorporate water-reducing admixtures in the mixture structures. While fiber-reinforced polymers are well
proportion, which is currently the most common strategy for described (ACI 440R), most structures use steel reinforce-
reducing the water content of concrete. ment. In reinforced concrete structures, the reinforcement is
(e) Incorporate internal curing in the process. Use nonpo- necessary to overcome the low tensile strength of concrete.
table mixing water in place of potable mixing water. Sources Although modern steel typically contains a high percentage
of nonpotable water include recovered and reused process of recycled material, this reinforcement still adds its own
water from the concrete production and batching process. environmental impacts to concrete structures. An example is
The topic of recovering and reusing nonpotable water from embodied energy as shown in Fig. 7.1.
the concrete operation is discussed in detail in Chapter 6. Typically, most reinforcing materials consist of deformed
steel bars and wires. More recently, however, new materials
6.4—Summary such as stainless steel deformed bars, glass fiber bars, and
6.4.1 Reducing water consumption—The basic sustain- carbon fiber sheets have been used in several applications.
ability challenge is that the best water for concrete is the Additionally, small fibers of steel, glass, and other synthetic
water used for human consumption, which is in diminishing materials uniformly dispersed through the concrete matrix
supply. Despite the low unit water consumption in the manu- have been successfully used to produce desired properties,
--`,,`,`,,,,,````,``,,,,,,`,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
facture and use of concrete, reducing the amount water used often together with steel reinforcement. Generally, rein-
in the process of manufacturing concrete through reuse of forcement should have the following properties for durable
process water and other nonpotable sources increases its concrete construction:
sustainability. (a) High strength
6.4.2 Solutions—The concrete industry has the poten- (b) Sufficient bond to the concrete matrix
tial to reduce the volume of potable water used in concrete (c) Thermal compatibility to the concrete matrix
mixtures by using available nonpotable water sources, (d) Durability from elements in the concrete matrix and
aligning design parameters to the intended use and expected from elements to which the concrete could be exposed
life of the structure, and by implementing various equip- ACI 318 and ACI 301 provide code requirements for rein-
ment use technologies and production processes at produc- forcing amount, spacing, concrete cover, and best practices
tion facilities to create new sources of nonpotable water. The to minimize cracking of the concrete and prevent corro-
policies, procedures, methods, and materials adopted by the sion of the reinforcing material. Corrosion of reinforcing
materials is a major cause of concrete deterioration. Many
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26 REPORT ON THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (ACI 130R-19)
materials and strategies are available to designers to protect ASTM A1035/A1035M is for a relatively new series of
internal reinforcing from corrosion. very-high steel reinforcing materials. ACI 318 has adopted
In this chapter, different types of reinforcing and their the limited use of ASTM A1035/A1035M Grade 100 (yield
corrosion-resistant properties are discussed. strength of 100 ksi [700 MPa]) material for use as confinement
reinforcement such as ties or spirals in compression elements.
7.2—Steel reinforcement The use of higher-strength Grade 80 (yield strength of 80
Steel reinforcement typically contains a high percentage ksi [560 MPa]) and Grade 100 (yield strength of 100 ksi [700
of recycled material content and is highly recyclable at the MPa]) reinforcing products can, in some instances, allow
end of the usable service life of the structure. The ability reductions in the required cross-sectional area of reinforcing
to recycle steel reinforcement easily enables the manufac- steel. If such replacements can be accomplished, financial
turing of new steel products from old steel reinforcement, and environmental impact savings can be realized, resulting
thus minimizing waste. from the reduction in material requirements and in fabrica-
The Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (2009) has tion and transportation logistics from the potential reduction
provided the following information regarding the recycled in structural mass (if member size can be reduced).
content of steel reinforcement: 7.3.1 Corrosion protection strategies—Corrosion protec-
tion of concrete structures is a system of strategies aimed at
The vast majority of domestically produced, minimizing the exposure of the reinforcing steel to corrosive
conventionally available reinforcing steel has a elements, improving the corrosion protection of the concrete
recycled material content typically greater than matrix, and the use of coatings or alternate chemistries to
97 percent (ASTM A615/A615M, ASTM A706/ protect the reinforcing steel. Proving durability from corro-
A706M). Specialty reinforcing steel products, such sion can significantly increase the life cycle of a concrete
as ASTM A1035/A1035M low-carbon, chromium structure, increasing its service life and reducing the impacts
steel, and ASTM A955/A955M stainless steel, have of costly and disruptive repairs.
a recycled content typically greater than 75 percent. Coatings specified by ASTM A775/A775M and ASTM
A934/A934M provide a barrier to protect the reinforcing steel
Welded wire reinforcement is typically produced with 92 bars from corrosive elements and to interrupt the formation
to 97 percent recycled material content. of corrosive galvanic cells. ASTM A767/A767M specifies
the coating of reinforcing bars to provide both a sacrificial
7.3—Steel reinforcing bars protective layer and a barrier to corrosive elements, thereby
The standard specifications for steel reinforcement protecting the underlying steel. ASTM A1055/A1055M
published by ASTM International are generally accepted for incorporates a thermally sprayed zinc coating and an epoxy
construction in the United States. ASTM A615/A615M and coating to provide an additional level of protection using two
ASTM A706/A706M are presently the most common steel different strategies for protecting the reinforcing steel.
reinforcing bars used for reinforced concrete construction. Stainless steel reinforcing bars specified by ASTM A955/
Both ASTM A615/A615M and ASTM A706/A706M spec- A955M are made from steel alloys that are significantly
ifications include Grade 60 (yield strength of 60 ksi [420 more resistant to the corrosive elements, mainly chlorides
MPa]) and Grade 80 (yield strength of 80 ksi [560 MPa]) and and carbonation, typically associated with reinforcing
Grade 100 (yield strength of 100 ksi [700 MPa]); however, steel. Stainless-steel-clad reinforcing bars, which are not
Grade 60 (yield strength of 60 ksi [420 MPa]) material is covered by ASTM specifications, have limited availability.
currently the most commonly used strength grade, repre- As these materials are currently not produced in the United
senting over 90 percent of all grades of reinforcing steel States, transportation logistics and associated environmental
products (Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute 2009). ASTM impacts should be carefully evaluated.
A615/A615M does include Grade 40 (yield strength of 40
ksi [280 MPa]), a material predominantly used in residential 7.4—Welded-wire reinforcement
construction, and Grade 75 (yield strength of 75 ksi [525 Welded-wire reinforcement is used to control crack widths,
MPa]) which, after a transition period, will be replaced by resulting in lower maintenance for concrete slabs. As stated
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Grade 80 (yield strength of 80 ksi [560 MPa]). previously, the recycled content of steel reinforcement is typi-
ASTM A996/A996M is for unique materials that are cally 92 to 97 percent. Produced in accordance with ASTM
produced by reusing, rather than recycling, steel rails and A1064/A1064M, welded-wire reinforcement is available
train axles. The rails and axles are simply reheated and in yield strengths between 60 to 80 ksi (420 to 560 MPa).
rerolled into reinforcing steel products. Rail-steel and axle- Using material with higher yield strength, it may be possible
steel reinforcing bars are not generally available except in a to reduce the total amount of reinforcing steel needed, thus
few areas of the country. In those areas where such bars are reducing the environmental impacts resulting from material
currently available, not all bar sizes and grades are produced savings, and reduced production and transportation logistics.
and furnished. Before specifying ASTM A996/A996M 7.4.1 Corrosion protection strategies—Steel conforming
reinforcement, local availability should be investigated to ASTM A884/A884M incorporates a protective barrier to
(Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute 2009). corrosive elements and interrupts the formation of corrosive
galvanic cells to protect the underlying steel. Stainless steel
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REPORT ON THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (ACI 130R-19) 27
bars that conform to ASTM A1022/A1022M are also avail- these materials have a relatively low melting point, which
able and can be used as part of a corrosion protection strategy. makes them vulnerable when exposed to elevated tempera-
tures, as in the case of fire. However, melting fibers has been
7.5—Fiber reinforcement shown to increase resistance to explosive spalling in fires by
Steel bars or welded wire have been the common rein- providing pathways for steam to escape.
forcement materials for more than a century; however, a 7.5.3 Glass fibers—Glass fibers are very popular in the
bar reinforces the concrete only in the direction in which façade element industry, but glass and similar amorphous
it is oriented. Numerous uniformly dispersed and randomly compounds tend to be attacked by the alkaline cement
oriented short fibers, on the other hand, strengthen the mate- matrix, which is similar to alkali-silica reaction, thus weak-
rial in any direction more or less equally, literally changing ening and eventually fracturing the fibers. To make glass
the properties of the composite material itself (Chawla et al. fibers more alkali-resistant (AR-glass), manufacturers typi-
2013; Chawla 2016). cally add zirconium to the glass melt.
Most fiber reinforcement dosages are 1 percent of the 7.5.4 Basalt fibers—Basalt fiber is obtained by drawing
concrete volume or less. At such dosages, the strengthening the molten natural occurring basalt rock into thin continuous
effect of fibers is not substantial, and if the elastic modulus glassy filaments of 9 to 15 μm diameter. Despite their brittle
of the fiber is less than that of the concrete, such as with nature, the small size of the fibers limits the dimension of
polypropylene fiber, it can be negative. Once a crack of the flaws in the material so that tensile strengths as high as 215
concrete matrix opens, it is likely to be bridged by only a to 430 ksi (1500 to 3000 MPa) can be obtained. Although
small number of fibers with a combined strength unlikely their availability is still limited, the high strength, high-
to exceed that of the concrete matrix. However, the large temperature resistance, and low cost are expected to increase
amount of work needed to either fracture the fiber reinforce- their popularity.
ment or to pull the fibers out of the matrix can increase the 7.5.5 Natural fibers—Natural fibers are renewable, having
ductility and fracture energy by an order of magnitude. This a minimum amount of embodied energy, and instead of
is particularly true if the fiber aspect ratio and other design releasing CO2 into the atmosphere, they can actually absorb or
parameters are carefully selected to result in multiple cracks sequester carbon. Some of the materials that have been used
forming along a single fiber and thereby provide strain as reinforcement of concrete are sisal, kenaf, hemp, coconut,
hardening. In this case, the composite is referred to as high- jute, flax, sugar cane bagasse, and bamboo as individual
performance fiber-reinforced cement composite (Naaman fibers, strips, and bars. All these natural materials are vulner-
and Reinhardt 1996). able to chemical reactions with the alkaline cement matrix,
In these materials, the primary function of the fibers is moisture, or both, deteriorating their material properties over
to control cracking, and not to increase the compressive time. These fibers require protection against such reactions by
or tensile strength of the composite. By keeping the cracks suitable treatments. ACI 544.1R contains a summary and an
small, the permeability and, therefore, the durability of the extensive reference section on natural fibers.
composite is greatly improved, which in turn increases its
sustainability. Another way to increase the durability of the 7.6—Nonferrous reinforcement
fiber composite is to combine two or more different types of 7.6.1 Carbon fiber reinforcement—A recent development
fibers, each of which controls cracking of the cement matrix in nonferrous reinforcing is the development of carbon-fiber
on a different length scale (ACI 544.1R). reinforcing. Made of thin fibers of carbon (0.005 to 0.010 mm
Fiber dosages exceeding 1 percent by concrete volume are in diameter), carbon fiber has a very high tensile strength of
likely to impair the workability of the mixture and potentially 250 ksi (1.75 GPa), or approximately four times the tensile
increase fiber balling. To counteract these negative effects, the strength of conventional reinforcing bars. Previously, carbon
fibers may be preplaced within the formwork, with cement fiber was used primarily in the aerospace and sports equip-
slurry added afterward to infiltrate all void spaces. The result ment industries. Now it is manufactured in sheets or grids/
is the so-called slurry-infiltrated fiber concrete. mesh for the concrete industry. The grids or mesh are manu-
7.5.1 Steel fibers—Steel fibers are among the most widely factured by using epoxy to hold carbon fibers interlaced
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used short fibers. Steel fiber-reinforced concrete fails only together in two directions. Carbon fiber’s noncorrosive and
after the fibers break or are pulled out from the cement matrix. nonconducting properties provide greater potential for more
By changing their aspect ratio (that is, length-to-diameter sustainable concrete design and construction. Examples for
ratio) or by changing their surface properties, it is possible to common uses are shown in 7.6.1.1 through 7.6.1.3.
control the failure mode. Shorter fibers may be used and still 7.6.1.1 Precast insulated sandwich wall panels—Carbon
delay fiber pullout by adding hooks at the fiber end, crimping fiber grid is cut into strips to tie an outer wythe of concrete to
the fibers, or adding other deformations that increase the an inner wythe of concrete with a middle layer of insulation
bond strength between the fibers and cement matrix. ACI 318 sandwiched between. Previous methods using steel trusses
allows the use of steel fibers for shear reinforcement. required more concrete cover to protect against corrosion
7.5.2 Synthetic fibers—There exist a multitude of and the steel trusses themselves are a source of thermal
synthetic fibers, most of them of polymeric in nature. The bridging that reduces the overall insulating value of the
most common materials are polypropylene, polyethylene, wall panel. Precast sandwich wall panels with carbon fiber
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), nylon, and polyester. Most of ties are being manufactured with thinner concrete sections
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28 REPORT ON THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (ACI 130R-19)
that reduce materials, energy consumed, and energy associ- AASHTO M 240M/M 240:2018—Standard Specification
ated with transportation by the corresponding reductions in for Blended Hydraulic Cement
weight. Reduction in thermal bridging also results in higher AASHTO T 330-07(2015)—Standard Method of Test for
thermal performance of the building envelope, which lowers The Qualitative Detection of Harmful Clays of the Smectite
the HVAC energy used by the building. Group in Aggregates Using Methylene Blue
7.6.1.2 Precast double tees in parking structures—Some
precast double-tee members commonly used in parking American Concrete Institute
structures are now using carbon fiber mesh for the flange ACI 211.1-91—Standard Practice for Selecting Propor-
deck reinforcement in place of traditional steel mesh. Carbon tions for Normal Weight Concrete
fiber’s noncorrosive properties enable the double-tee flange ACI 212.3R-16—Report on Chemical Admixtures for
to be thinner, thus saving concrete and lightening the overall Concrete
structure, which may also reduce the size of the required ACI 213R-14—Guide for Structural Lightweight-Aggre-
support and foundation. Reduced damage due to corrosion gate Concrete
in a parking deck also means that the structure will be more ACI 232.1R-12—Report on the Use of Raw or Processed
durable and have a longer life cycle. Natural Pozzolans in Concrete
7.6.1.3 Seismic retrofitting and repairs—Carbon fiber ACI 232.3R-14—Report on High-Volume Fly Ash
sheets and wraps can be applied to existing concrete struc- Concrete for Structural Applications
tures with epoxy. Glass fiber can also be used in this method. ACI 233R-17—Guide to the Use of Slag Cement in
It is being used to strengthen existing concrete columns Concrete and Mortar
to resist earthquake forces and for repair of deteriorating ACI 301-16—Specifications for Structural Concrete
concrete structures. By repairing structures and extending ACI 318-14—Building Code Requirements for Structural
their life, the improved life cycle of concrete greatly contrib- Concrete and Commentary
utes to sustainability. ACI 440R-07—Report on Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
(FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures
CHAPTER 8—CONCLUSION ACI 544.1R-96(09)—Report on Fiber Reinforced Concrete
The initial selection of construction materials may depend ACI 234R-06(12)—Guide for the Use of Silica Fume in
on numerous complex and often intangible factors, but the Concrete
total initial and long-term cost of using any construction
material is one of the most important parameters. Environ- ASTM International
mental and economic evaluations are necessary components ASTM A615/A615M-18—Standard Specification for
in identifying, assessing, and selecting building material. Deformed and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars for Concrete
When used in combination with service life performance Reinforcement
requirements, these factors provide a balance of economic, ASTM A706/A706M-16—Standard Specification for
environmental, and societal impacts for material selection. Deformed and Plain Low-Alloy Steel Bars for Concrete
Infrastructure and building systems represent an enor- Reinforcement
mous investment of materials, energy, and capital, resulting ASTM A767/A767M-16—Standard Specification
in significant environmental impacts and social costs. Devel- for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete
opment of innovative materials, construction practices, and Reinforcement
employment of appropriate inspection and maintenance strat- ASTM A775/A775M-17—Standard Specification for
egies is critical to ensure reduced environmental impacts, Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars
adequate safety, serviceability, and extended service life that ASTM A884/A884M—Standard Specification for Epoxy-
minimizes the risk of failure for structures and infrastruc- Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Reinforcement
ture. Design, construction, maintenance, climate adaptation, ASTM A934/A934M-16—Standard Specification for
and resiliency are all considerations that contribute to the Epoxy-Coated Prefabricated Steel Reinforcing Bars
overall sustainability of new assets. Hence, enhancing the ASTM A955/A955M-18—Standard Specification for
resilience of infrastructure through designed robustness, Deformed and Plain Stainless Steel Bars for Concrete
durability, longevity, disaster resistance, and safety should Reinforcement
also be a priority for the designer and engineer. ASTM A966/A966M-15—Standard Practice for Magnetic
Particle Examination of Steel Forgings Using Alternating
CHAPTER 9—REFERENCES Current
Committee documents are listed first by document number ASTM A1022/A1022M-16—Standard Specification for
and year of publication followed by authored documents Deformed and Plain Stainless Steel Wire and Welded Wire
listed alphabetically. for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A1035/A1035M-16—Standard Specification for
American Association of State Highway Transpiration Deformed and Plain, Low-Carbon, Chromium, Steel Bars
Officials for Concrete Reinforcement
AASHTO M 85:2018—Standard Specification for Port- ASTM A1055/A1055M-16—Standard Specification for
land Cement Zinc and Epoxy Dual-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars
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--`,,`,`,,,,,````,``,,,,,,`,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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BS EN 197-1:2011—Cement―Composition, Specifica- http://www.businessworld-magazine.com/business-profiles-
tions and Conformity Criteria for Common Cements and-featured-articles/construction-industry-articles/st-mary-
cement-group/ (posted Feb. 21, 2012).
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30 REPORT ON THE ROLE OF MATERIALS IN SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION (ACI 130R-19)
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