Module 5

MOTIVATION IN THE WORKPLACE

Module Introduction
Motivation is essentially about the drive and commitment to doing something. From the
point of view of business, motivation is somebody’s willingness to work. However, it’s just not
about completing a job or working hard but rather it comes from enjoying the work that one is
doing and wanting to reach certain goals that one has set for himself/herself like getting a
promotion. Moreover, it might be something where someone feels a sense of satisfaction from
accomplishing something or having successful results after a very challenging situation. In
short, people's behavior can also be determined by what motivates them.
Since motivation is an integral part of human resource management, it plays a very
important role in the growth of the organization. Motivation is often used to lead employees to
become productive members of the organization because motivated employees are assets of
the organization.

Topic Outcomes
After reading and understanding this module, students will be able to:
1. Describe the theories of motivation; and
2. Analyze how motivation plays a big role in organizational behavior.

THE MEANING AND NATURE OF MOTIVATION

Motivation in the workplace is defined as the willingness to exert high levels of effort
toward organizational goals conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual needs
(Robbins in Mobbs and McFarland, 2010). It has been a focus of research by experts for more
than a century for the very reason that knowing what drives people to do what they do because
motivated employees results in better organizational performance. Likewise motivated
employees report to having higher levels of customer satisfaction and employee retention
(Campbell, n.d.).
Most HR and talent management professionals are aware of and have tried to apply
many of the motivation theories that have been introduced over the years. Most notable of them
are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Locke’s goal-setting theory, Skinner’s reinforcement theory,
Adam’s equity theory, and Vroom’s expectancy theory, to name just a few, all made their way
into management textbooks, all speculating on how to best motivate employees to increase
profits.

Theories of motivation
MOTIVATION theories can be distinguished between content and process motivation
theories. Content theories which are also called the need theories focus on WHAT, while
process theories focus on HOW human behaviour is motivated. Within the work environment
content theories which are the earliest theories of motivation have had the greatest impact on
management practice and policy, but are the least accepted in the academic community.
Though content theories cannot explain entirely what motivates and demotivates people, it tries
to identify what our needs are and relate motivation to the fulfillment of these needs. Process
theories are concerned with the occurrence of motivation and what influences the occurrence of
motivation.

The main content theories are: Maslow’s needs hierarchy, Alderfer’s ERG theory,
McClelland’s achievement motivation and Herzberg’s two-factor theory.

The main process theories are: Skinner’s reinforcement theory, Victor Vroom's expectancy
theory, Adam’s equity theory and Lock’s goal setting theory (Figure 1).

No single motivation theory explains all aspects of people’s motives or lack of motives. Each
theoretical explanation can serve as the basis for the development of techniques for motivating.

Exhibit 5.1.
Motivation theories

Maslow hierarchy of needs

This is the earliest and most widely known theory of motivation, developed by Abraham
Maslow (1943) in the 1940s and 1950s. According to Maslow, needs are classified into five
basic categories which are ordered in his hierarchy, beginning with the basic psychological
needs and continuing through safety, belonging and love, esteem and self-actualization (Figure
2). In his theory, the lowest unsatisfied need is the most significant needs and individuals seek a
higher need when lower needs are fulfilled.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is always shown in the shape of a pyramid where physiological
needs are at the bottom of the pyramid and the need for self-actualization at the top.
 Exhibit 5.2
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Source: Author's own figure)

1. Physiological needs (e.g. food, water, shelter, sleep)

Physiological needs are the most basic needs of humans to survive like water, air and food.
Maslow emphasized that our body and mind cannot function well if these needs are not
satisfied. A person who lacks food, safety, love (also sex) and esteem, would most probably
hunger for food (and also for money, salary to buy food) than for anything else.

2. Safety and security (secure source of income, a place to live, health and well-being)
If the physiological needs are relatively well contented, new needs will appear, the so called
safety needs. Safety needs refer to a person’s desire for security or protection.In reality, in real
dangers and traumas “ like war, murder, natural catastrophes, criminal assault, etc. -, the needs
for safety become an active, first-line and dominant mobilizer of human beings.

3. Belongingness and love (integration into social groups, feel part of a community or a
group; affectionate relationships) When both the physiological and the safety needs are fulfilled,
the affection, love and belongingness needs come next. Maslow claimed people need to belong
and be accepted among their social groups.

4. Esteem (respect for a person as a useful, honourable human being)

Esteem means being valued, respected and appreciated by others. People need to feel
significant, useful, or valued by others. People with low self-esteem often need respect from
others.

5. Self-actualization (individual’s desire to grow and develop to his or her fullest potential)
What humans can be, they must be. (Maslow, 1954)

Self-actualization reflects an individual’s desire to grow and develop to his/her fullest

potential. Maslow described this level as the need to accomplish everything that one can, to
become the most that one can be. Maslow believed that people must overcome their other
needs “ described above -, not only achieve them. However as one satisfies one level, people
will crave to satisfy the next level in the hierarchy and the next higher level and so on and so
forth.

Alderfer ERG theory: Existence needs, relatedness needs and growth needs

According to Alderfer (Furnham, 2008) there are three classes of needs: existence ,
relatedness and growth. Maslow’s physiological and safety needs belong together to existence
needs. Relatedness can be harmonised to belongingness and esteem of others. Growth is the
same as Maslow’s self-esteem plus self-actualization. Both Maslow and Alderfer tried to
describe how these needs, more or less important to individuals.

Existence Needs
These Include all material and physiological desires (e.g., food, water, air, clothing, safety,
physical love and affection). Maslow's first two levels.

Relatedness Needs
Encompass social and external esteem; relationships with significant others like family,
friends, co-workers and employers . This also means to be recognized and feel secure as part
of a group or family. Maslow's third and fourth levels.

Growth Needs
Internal esteem and self actualization; these impel a person to make creative or productive
effects on himself and the environment (e.g., to progress toward one's ideal self). Maslow's
fourth and fifth levels. This includes desires to be creative and productive, and to complete
meaningful tasks.

Alderfer agreed with Maslow that unsatisfied needs motivate individuals. Alderfer also
agreed that individuals generally move up the hierarchy in satisfying their needs; that is, they
satisfy lower-order before higher-order needs. As lower-order needs are satisfied, they become
less important, but Alderfer also said: as higher-order needs are satisfied they become more
important. And it is also said that under some circumstances individuals might return to a lower
need. Alderfer thought that individuals multiply the efforts invested in a lower category need
when higher categorized needs are not consequent.

McClelland Need for achievement, affiliation and power

In the early 1960s David McClelland built on Maslow’s work described three human
motivators. McClelland (Arnold et al., 2005) claimed that humans acquire, learn their motivators
over time that is the reason why this theory is sometimes called the Learned Needs Theory. He
concurred that people have three motivating drivers, and it does not depend on our gender or
age. One of these drives or needs will be dominant in our behaviour and this depends on our
culture and life experiences. Although each person has all of these needs to some extent, only
one of them tends to motivate an individual at any given time and whichever this need is would
characterize his or her behavior. This in turn results in diversified behavior of employees.
 These three motivators are:
1. Achievement
Achievement motivation refers to a person’s need for success or mastery of skills and is
related with a range of actions. Individuals seek achievement of challenging goals, and
furtherance in their job. Individuals with a high need for achievement like to receive regular
feedback on their progress and achievements; and often like to work alone; seek challenges
and like high degree of independence.Sources of high need for achievement can be: getting
praise for success, goal setting skills, one’s own competence and effort to achieve something,

2. Affiliation
Affiliation motivation is the need for love, belonging and relatedness. People with affiliation
motivation have a strong need for friendships and want to belong within a social group, need to
be liked and held in popular regard. They are team players, and they may be less effective in
leadership positions. High-need-for-affiliation persons mostly have warm interpersonal
relationships.

3. Power
Power motivation is a need to control over one’s own work or the work of others. These
persons have a strong need to lead and to succeed in their ideas.Persons with this type would
like to control and influence others. McClelland argues that with a strong need for achievement
people can become the best leaders. The problem with this type of people is that they expect
the other people around them to be as achievement-focused and result-driven as they are.

Herzberg Two factor theory

Herzberg’s Two Factor theory is also called motivation-hygiene theory. This theory says that
there are factors (motivating factors) that cause job satisfaction, and motivation and some other
also separated factors (hygiene factors) cause dissatisfaction (Exhibit 5.3). That means that
these feelings of satisfaction and dissatisfaction to these factors are not opposite of each other,
as it has always previously been believed. The opposite therefore of satisfaction is not
dissatisfaction, but rather, no satisfaction. According to Herzberg (1987) the job satisfiers deal
with the factors involved in doing the job, whereas the job dissatisfiers deal with the factors
which define the job context.

Exhibit 5.3
Herzberg’s view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction
 According to Herzberg’s there are five factors of job satisfaction (motivating factors) which
are the only factors that can motivate. Likewise there are also five factors of job dissatisfaction
that we need to achieve more efficient work. These are shown in the table below:

Factors of Job Satisfaction Factors of Job Dissatisfaction

achievement company policy and administration

recognition supervision

work itself salary

responsibility interpersonal relationships

advancement working conditions

Exhibit 5.4
Factors of Job Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

Hygiene factors are needed to ensure that an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation
factors are needed to ensure employee's satisfaction and to motivate an employee to higher
performance.

Exhibit 5.5
The Motivating and Hygeine Factors

Hygiene factors are needed to ensure that an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation
factors are needed to ensure employee's satisfaction and to motivate an employee to higher
performance.
 Exhibit 5.6
Summary of Content Theories of Motivation (Source: Author's own table)
Maslow Alderfer McClelland Herzberg
Physiological
Existence
Safety and security Hygiene
Belongingness and love Relatedness Need for Affiliation
Self-esteem Need for power
Growth Motivators
Self-actualization Need for achievement

Skinner's reinforcement theory

Behavior can be formed by its consequences (Gordon, 1987) according to Skinner’s operant
conditioning theory. ​Positive reinforcements​, for example verbal praise, appreciation, extra
vacation days, stock options or any other reward can increase the possibility that the rewarded
behaviour will happen again. Positive verbal feedback and high grade on examination that a
student receives will encourage the recurrence of the behavior that caused the rewards.
Negative reinforcement occurs for example when we try to reduce stress by altering employee
hours. In this case altering employee hours is a negative reinforcement because it reduces the
unpleasant state (state). Contrary to positive and negative reinforcement, ​punishment can be
undesired reinforcement, or reinforce undesired behaviour.
The reinforcement theory is included in many other motivation theories. Reward must meet
someone's needs, expectations, must be applied equitably, and must be consistent. The desired
behaviour must be clear and realistic, but the issue remains: which reinforcements are suitable
and for which person?

Vroom's expectancy theory

The expectancy theory places an emphasis on the process and on the content of motivation
as well, and it integrates needs, equity and reinforcement theories.
Victor Vroom's (1964) expectancy theory aims to explain how people choose from the
available actions. Vroom defines motivation as a process that governs our choices among
alternative forms of voluntary behaviour. The basic rationale of this theory is that motivation
comes from the belief that decisions will have their desired outcomes.
The motivation to engage in an activity is determined by appraising three factors. These
three factors are the following (Figure 4):
• ​Expectancy – a person’s belief that more effort will result in success. This means that
better performance will result if someone works harder.
• ​Instrumentality – the person’s belief that there is a connection between activity and goal.
If you perform well, you will get reward.
• ​Valence​ – the degree to which a person values the reward, the results of success.
The expectancy theory highlights individual differences in motivation and contains three
useful factors for understanding and increasing motivation. This theory implies equity and
importance of consistent rewards as well (Konig & Steel 2006).
The theory suggests that although individuals may have different sets of goals, they can be
motivated if they believe that:
 1. There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance,
2. Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward,
3. The reward will satisfy an important need,
4. The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile.

Adams' equity theory

The equity theory states that people are motivated if they are treated equitably, and receive
what they consider fair for their effort and costs.
The theory was suggested by Adams (1965) and is based on Social Exchange theory.
According to this theory, people compare their contribution to work, costs of their
actions and the benefits that will result to the contribution and benefits of the reference
person. If people perceive that the ratio of their inputs-outputs to the ratio of referent
other's input-output is inequitable, then they will be motivated to reduce the inequity
workers put inputs into the job, such as education, experience, effort, energy, and expect
to get some outcomes such as salary, reward, promotion, verbal recognition, and
interesting and challenging work each in equal amounts (Figure 6).

Exhibit 5.7
Examples for the inputs and outcomes in the equity theory
(Source: Author's own figure)

When inequity exists, a person might​…

• ​reduce his/her inputs, efforts, quantity or quality of his/her work
• ​try to increase his/her outputs
• ​adjust his/her perception of reference person or his/her outcomes or inputs
• ​change the reference person
• ​quit the situation.
Locke's goal-setting theory
Locke's (1990) goal setting theory is an integrative model of motivation just like the
expectancy theory.
It emphasizes that setting specific, challenging performance goals and the commitment
to these goals are key determinants of motivation. Goals describe a desired future, and
these established goals can drive the behaviour. Achieving the goals, the goal
accomplishment further motivates individuals to perform. Goals should be specific so
they can be measured, challenging so they would be more motivational and should
require involvement so it would be accepted.
The following guidelines have been useful in the goal-setting​:
• ​Set challenging but attainable goals​.
• ​Set specific and measurable goals.​
• ​Goal commitment should be obtained​.
• ​Support elements should be provided​.
• ​Knowledge of results is essential

Exhibit 5.8
Locke's goal-setting theory

Alienation at work
Alienation in the workplace happens when a worker can express individuality only when
they are producing work. Feelings of alienation can happen without the employee or employer
even realizing it. When they lose their independence and become just another part of a bigger
picture they feel emotionally separated from others and this is when they feel alienated. When
they begin to have this feeling from managers, co-workers and peers, they feel like they are just
objects of the organizations. As a consequence, since they do not feel appreciated and are not
needed in their jobs, they lose their loyalty to their company and are eager to look for other
jobs.

Types of Alienation
1. Alienation from production.
This type of alienation happens when the worker does not see the final product
they produce; rather, they focus only on a piece of what they are producing. As a
 result, workers don't understand what role they play in the entire process.

2. Alienation from the act of production.

This happens when an employee is only given a set of instructions to complete;
they do not get the instructions for the entire process. The employee never has a
role in the whole vision or planning, and they are made to feel that those who
create the vision are an elite class.

3. Alienation from themselves.

By nature, people want to be creative and then implement those ideas. This type
of alienation happens when people cannot maintain that part of their humanity;
they feel as though they cannot be themselves. They may even begin to feel like
they are not human.

4. Alienation from others.

This type of alienation tends to happen when workers specialize in a small piece
of a larger whole. While it may be good for employees to have a specialty, these
employees begin to feel like they are in a thankless job, and they also may feel
like they're missing out on bonding with others.

HOW EMPLOYEES FEEL ALIENATION

There are many ways companies alienate employees, sometimes without even realizing it.
That's why it's important to pay attention to the signs your employees are giving you.Here are
some ways you may be alienating your employees

1. Keeping them in the dark.

2. Not asking for their input.
3. Keeping them boxed in.
4. Ignoring their goals.
5. Working them too hard.
6. Playing favorites. Instead.
7. Not valuing them.

Work from Home and Other Alternative Work Arrangement

Managing Flexible Work Arrangements

(​https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/tools-and-samples/toolkits/pages/managingflexiblewor
karrangements.aspx​)

This article provides an overview of practices concerning the use of flexible work arrangements
as a strategic staffing management solution. It addresses the opportunities and challenges
associated with adopting and managing flexible work arrangements, the types of flexible work
arrangements, and the legal issues associated with such arrangements
Overview rotating days or weeks of emissions and
in-office presence with telework, workplace "footprints" in
The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic and phasing in return-to-work terms of creation of
has placed flexible work starting with a reduced schedule new office buildings.
arrangements, especially and transitioning back to
telework, in the spotlight. With full-time. ● Allowing for business
many states issuing continuity during
stay-at-home orders and Weighing the Opportunities and emergency
allowing only essential Challenges circumstances such as
businesses to keep their Many U.S. workers now consider a weather disaster or
physical locations open, work/life balance and flexibility to pandemic.
unprepared employers were be the most important factors in
forced to implement flexible work considering job offers. In fact, 80 A companywide Unilever policy
options on the fly. percent of employees said they permits more than 100,000
would be more loyal to their employees except factory
Eventually, social distancing employers if they had flexible production worker to work
orders will be lifted, and work options, according to a anytime, anywhere, as long as
businesses will reopen; 2019 survey by FlexJobs​. they meet business needs.
however, employee requests for Leadership identified the
flexible hours and remote-work However, offering flexible work following benefits when making
arrangements may be part of the arrangements can involve a the business case for the policy:
new normal. Now that many paradigm shift for organizations, ● Travel. Conferencing
employers have experienced especially smaller ones that may technology like Skype
how successful telecommuting not have the critical mass of would reduce travel
can be for their organization or technology, budget, expenses.
how work hours that differ from management and competitive
the normal 9-to-5 can be flexibility necessary to make ● Technology. Upgrading
adopted without injury to extensive use of flexible work technology would help
productivity, offering flexible arrangements. the company stay
work arrangements may become competitive and build
even more commonplace. OPPORTUNITIES Unilever's brand as a
Flexible work arrangements offer best place to work.
Even in the absence of a numerous benefits to both Costs would be offset
pandemic, flexible work employers and employees. Such by other savings.
arrangements can improve benefits include:
recruitment and retention efforts, ● Assisting in recruiting ● Real estate. Cubicles
augment organizational diversity efforts. and offices would be
efforts, encourage ethical converted to communal
behavior and help the ● Enhancing worker facilities, thereby
organization's efforts to be morale. reducing space
socially responsible. Employers requirements by 30
can experience cost savings, ● Managing employee percent. Sites would be
improved attendance and attendance and converted gradually as
productivity, and an increase in reducing absenteeism. leases expired.
employee engagement.
● Improving retention of ● Health. Onsite fitness
Supporting Working Parents good workers . facilities would increase
Whether allowing for flexible employee satisfaction,
work hours for employees with ● Boosting productivity. help reduce illness and
children at home during the cut insurance costs.
COVID-19 pandemic, or offering ● Creating a better
flexible work arrangements on work/life balance for ● Work/life balance.
an on-going basis, supporting workers. Empowering workers
working parents is an employee would enhance
engagement and satisfaction ● Minimizing harmful work/life balance.
necessity. In addition to the impact on global Satisfaction ratings
more-traditional work flex ecology. Certain flexible would rise, and
options discussed later in this work arrangements can recruitment would
article, employers may want to contribute to become easier.
consider creative options, such sustainability efforts by
as staggering employee shifts, reducing carbon ● Sustainability.
 Reducing travel, office ● Upper management's core hours within a specified
energy costs and resistance to change. period, allowing the employee
paperwork would greater flexibility in starting and
decrease the ● Control issues, ending times.
environmental footprint. especially in terms of
supervision of work. Examples of Different Flexible
● Retention and Work Arrangements
engagement. Flexibility ● Working as a team with ● Staggered hours within
would enhance the far-flung members and a fixed schedule:
employer value highly variant Employees establish
proposition, improving schedules. starting and ending
retention and times that differ from
supporting diversity. ● Maintaining safety and the department’s norm,
security of personnel but keep the same
CHALLENGES and data. schedule each day
Managers tasked with ● Core hours within a
implementing strategic goals Schedule Flexibility variable schedule:
related to flexible work Employees must be
arrangements need to keep There are several types of present during specified
many things in mind: schedule flexibility: core hours determined
● Keeping programs Not all types are manageable or by the
relevant to workers' real worthwhile for all sizes and types supervisor/manager,
needs/wants. of organizations, so every but may adjust their
employer considering this arrival and departure
● Focusing on the unique arrangement should undertake times each day. It is
needs of specific an organizational assessment to expected that the
groups of workers determine whether and what employee will work a
without creating a kind of flexible scheduling will set number of hours
second class of meet its needs. each week.
workers and without From an industry perspective,
engaging in unlawful Colorado-based HealthONE, a ● Variable day:
disparate treatment or hospital services alliance, Employees may work a
disparate impact discovered that flexible work consistent schedule of
discrimination. schedules could stem the loss of a different number of
employees unable to fit their hours each day as long
● Communicating broadly work around their children's as they achieve the
to achieve the benefits school hours. Certain school expected number of
of flexible work districts in Colorado hold classes hours within the week
arrangements. in a (e.g., Monday,
nine-weeks-on/three-weeks-off Wednesday ten hours;
● Exercising caution rotation, so HealthONE offered Tuesday, Friday eight
when eliminating a employees that same rotation in hours; Thursday six
program that is not their work schedules. This and a half hours).
working or is no longer approach was more
relevant to enough cost-effective than replacing ● MidDay Flextime:
workers. Any loss of a departing employees in an Employees may take a
benefit can impair extremely competitive market for longer scheduled break
morale, even if only a health care talent. than usual if they make
few workers had used up the extra time by
it. Employers should FLEXTIME starting work earlier or
consider phasing out Flextime is a type of alternative staying later
unproductive programs schedule that gives a worker
over time. greater latitude in choosing his
or her particular hours of work, COMPRESSED WORKWEEK
In addition, managing the or freedom to change work Compressed workweek is an
change from a traditional work schedules from one week to the alternative scheduling method
environment to one with more next depending on the that allows employees to work a
flexible work arrangements can employee's personal needs. standard workweek of 40 hours
create or throw a spotlight on Under a flextime arrangement, over a period of fewer than five
various managerial trouble an employee might be required days in one week or 10 days in
spots, such as: to work a standard number of two weeks. For example, some
employers implement a four-day
workweek of 10-hour days.
Employers get the same number
of working hours, but employees
have a three-day weekend every
week. Another approach is the
9/80 schedule, in which
employees work 80 hours in nine
days and have one day off every
other week. Among other
demographics, employees
whose family status involves
child care or elder care
responsibilities may find a
compressed workweek to be of
particular value. Employees
save time and commuting
expenses by reporting for duty
on fewer days. Employers that
convert their entire operation to
a four-day workweek may save
on the cost of utilities and other
overhead.
SHIFT WORK
Shift work has traditionally been
used in manufacturing
environments to maximize
productivity from fixed resources
and costs. More recently, shift
work has become a feature of
the 24/7 service economy and a
byproduct of globalization. For
example, supermarkets and
computer help desks are now
typically open 24 hours a day,
seven days a week. Nowadays,
a computer user calling for
technical support during regular
U.S. business hours is likely to
end up speaking with a
technician working the
"graveyard shift" in India.
Despite its extensive use in
certain environments, shift work
poses some practical challenges
for some employers.
Creating a motivating work setting
To some extent, a high level of employee motivation is derived from effective
management practices. To develop motivated employees, a manager must treat people as
individuals, empower workers, provide an effective reward system, redesign jobs, and create a
flexible workplace.
1. Empowering employees
Empowerment is based on the idea that providing employees with the resources,
authority, opportunity, and motivation to do their work, as well as holding them
PART-TIME JOBS
Part-time jobs are the most
traditional of flexible scheduling
options. This option is typically
used when a job requires fewer
than 40 hours of work per week.
Part-time work can be used to
attract a workforce that includes
students, parents of young
children, older workers and
others who need or want to work
but do not wish to work a
full-time schedule. Although
more commonly associated with
jobs in retail and food service,
some employers do have
part-time professional
employees. Part-time work can
help organizations retain
professionals who otherwise
would be lost.
JOB-SHARING
Job-sharing is the practice of
having two different employees
performing the tasks of one
full-time position. Each of the
job-sharing partners works a
part-time schedule, but together
they are accountable for the
duties of one full-time position.
Typically, they divide the
responsibilities in a manner that
meets both of their needs as well
as those of the employer. The
practice allows for part-time
schedules in positions that the
employer would not otherwise
offer on a part-time basis. It
requires a high degree of
compatibility, communication
and cooperation between the
job-sharing partners and with
their supervisor.
Like part-time jobs, job-sharing
arrangements may appeal
particularly to students, parents
of young children and
employees nearing retirement,
helping them balance careers
with other needs. For employers,
the practice may include
retention of skilled employees,
increased employee loyalty and
productivity, and a measure of
flexibility that can occur when
two people fill one job slot.
Location Flexibility
Location flexibility refers to
arrangements that make it
possible for employees to work
remotely from the main worksite.
There are several types of
location flexibility.
Telecommuting is the most
common. Other practices include
hoteling and so-called snowbird
programs.
TELECOMMUTING
Telecommuting, also known as
telework, involves the use of
computers and
telecommunications technology
to overcome the constraints of
location or time on work. In a
global economy, physical
location has become less
important than efficiency of
operations. Telework may occur
from home, a telework center, or
on an airplane or bus.
Telework is best suited for jobs
that require independent work,
little face-to-face interaction,
concentration, a measurable
work product and output-based
(instead of time-based)
monitoring. Nevertheless,
telecommuting is not unknown in
jobs—even HR jobs—that do
not fit this mold.
 accountable for their actions, will make employees happier and more proficient.
Empowering employees through the use of resources, extending authority, providing
opportunities and creating an environment with a sense of ownership and responsibility
will make employees motivated.

2. Providing an effective reward system

Studies have shown that employees are ultimately motivated by two goals, earning
money and being fulfilled within their job. By putting an effective employee reward
system both extrinsic and intrinsic in place to increase motivation, you are making sure
that they deserve to earn the rewards for their hard work and in turn you will have no
problem with their performance.

3. Redesigning jobs
The concept of job redesign, which requires a knowledge of and concern for the human qualities
people bring with them to the organization, applies motivational theories to the structure of work
for improving productivity and satisfaction. When redesigning jobs, managers look at both job
scope and job depth.

Redesign attempts may include the following:

● Job enlargement. Often referred to as horizontal job loading, job enlargement increases
the variety of tasks a job includes. Although it doesn't increase the quality or the
challenge of those tasks, job enlargement may reduce some of the monotony, and as an
employee's boredom decreases, his or her work quality generally increases.

● Job rotation. This practice assigns people to different jobs or tasks to different people on
a temporary basis. The idea is to add variety and to expose people to the dependence
that one job has on other jobs. Job rotation can encourage higher levels of contributions
and renew interest and enthusiasm. The organization benefits from a cross-trained
workforce.

● Job enrichment. Also called vertical job loading, this application includes not only an
increased variety of tasks, but also provides an employee with more responsibility and
authority. If the skills required to do the job are skills that match the jobholder's abilities,
job enrichment may improve morale and performance.

Job Characteristics Model (JCM) by Hackman and Oldham

According to The Job Characteristics Model the presence of five core job dimensions ensures
three psychological states. These psychological states in turn influence desirable work
outcomes like quality of work, job satisfaction etc. Below is the Job Characteristic Model as
presented by Hackman and Oldham..
 Exhibit 5.9
JCM by Hackman and Oldham

Critical Psychological States

The five core job dimensions stated below result in three different psychological states.
1. Experienced meaningfulness of the work: The extent to which people believe that their
job is meaningful, and that their work is valued and appreciated.

2. Experienced responsibility for the outcomes of work: The extent to which people feel
accountable for the results of their work, and for the outcomes they have produced.

3. Knowledge of the actual results of the work activity: The extent to which people know
how well they are doing.

Core Job Dimensions

1. Skill variety: This refers to the range of skills and activities necessary to complete
the job.

2. Task identity: This dimension measures the degree to which the job requires
completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.
 3. Task significance: This looks at the impact and influence of a job.

4. Autonomy: This describes the amount of individual choice and discretion involved
in a job.

5. Feedback: This dimension measures the amount of information an employee

receives about his or her performance, and the extent to which he or she can see
the impact of the work.

End of Chapter Test

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Answer the following statements correctly by selecting the letter of your
chosen answer.
1. Forces within a person, resulting in effort toward goal achievement.
A. Personality
B. Memory
C. Motivation
D. NOTA
2. It refers to the perceived connections between performance and outcomes.
A. Expectancy
B. Valence
C. Instrumentality
D. Value
3. The proponent of the Expectancy Theory is ______________________.
A. Alderfer
B. Vroom
C. McClleland
D. NOTA
4. Listed below are the hygienes as described by Frederick Herzberg except one.
A. Pay
B. Security
C. Working Conditions
D. NOTA
5. Equity theory was proposed by ___________.
A. Maslow
B. Adams
C. Alderfer
D. NOTA
6. Motivational concepts are stable differences that energize and maintain a person’s
behavior.
A. True
B. False
7. The following are motivators except _________.
A. Recognition
B. Status
C. Challenging work
D. NOTA
 8. The following are process theories of motivation except ______.
A. Expectancy
B. Equity
C. Goal-setting
D. NOTA

ESSAY. ​Briefly explain what is being asked in the following statement.

1. Using any of the theories of motivation discussed earlier, cite particular instances where
motivation plays a big role in the organizational behavior. And how do you think
management can increase motivation of employees?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

References
Books
Robbins, SP, 1994, Organizational Behavior, 6th edition, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi.

Management and Motivation, Vroom, V.H., Deci, E.L., Penguin 1983 (first published
1970)

[This book contains selected readings on "motivation"; Including Simon, Maslow, Herzberg,
Vroom, Lawler etc.]

Electronic References
Retrieved from
http://www.thehrpractice.in/prerana-archives/2017/5/20/a-motivation-theory-job-characteristics-
model-management-funda-v4-issue-3​, ​August 6, 2020

Retrieved from
https://www.businessnewsdaily.com. August 6, 2020

Retrieved from
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/principles-of-management/motivating-and-rewarding-e
mployees/motivation-strategies​, ​ August 6, 2020

Retrieved from
https://blog.smarp.com/empowerment-in-the-workplace-enable-your-employees​, ​August 6, 2020

https://www.getkisi.com/unlocked/rewards-for-employee-motivation​, ​August 6, 2020

Retrieved from
Video:​https://study.com/academy/lesson/workplace-motivation-theories-types-examples.html​,
August 7, 2020

Retrieved from
Video: ​ https://study.com/academy/lesson/hackman-oldhams-job-characteristics-model.html
(​http://execdev.kenan-flagler.unc.edu/blog/the-role-of-motivation-in-the-workplace​), August 7,
2020