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Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Marine Bioinvasions (19–21 January 2016, Sydney, Australia)
Research Article
Joel Christopher Creed 1,2, * , Andrea de Oliveira Ribeiro Junqueira 1,3 , Beatriz Grosso Fleury 1,2 ,
Marcelo Checoli Mantelatto 1,4 and Simone Siag Oigman-Pszczol 1
1
Associate Researcher, Projeto Coral-Sol, Instituto Brasileiro de Biodiversidade - BrBio, Brasil, CEP 20031-203, Centro,
Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
2
Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, CEP 20550-900, Maracanã, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
3
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto de Biologia, Ilha do Fundão, CEP 21941-913, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
4
Programa de Pós Graduação em Ecologia e Evolução, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, CEP 20559-900, Maracanã,
Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
E-mail addresses: jcreed@uerj.br (JCJ), aerdnajunqueira@gmail.com (AORJ), bgfleury@gmail.com (BGF),
marcelomantelatto@gmail.com (MCM), simone@brbio.org.br (SSO)
*Corresponding author
Received: 8 June 2016 / Accepted: 13 September 2016 / Published online: 24 November 2016
Handling editor: Joana Dias
Editor’s note:
This study was first presented at the 9th International Conference on Marine Bioinvasions held in Sydney, Australia,
January 19–21, 2016 (http://www.marinebioinvasions.info/previous-conferences). Since their inception in 1999, ICMB
series have provided a venue for the exchange of information on various aspects of biological invasions in marine
ecosystems, including ecological research, education, management and policies tackling marine bioinvasions.
Abstract
In the 1980s two invasive azooxanthellate corals, Tubastraea coccinea Lesson, 1829 and Tubastraea tagusensis Wells, 1982
(Dendrophyllidae) invaded the Southwest Atlantic. In Brazil, they were first reported from fouling on oil platforms’ and have
expanded their range along 3,500km of the coastline. The Sun-Coral Project (PCS) was launched in 2006 as an outreach program
aimed at the restoring marine ecosystems, mitigating the environmental damage and redressing the social and economic impacts
caused to coastal communities by the sun corals. We train collectors to manually remove the corals from the seabed and earn extra
income by selling the skeletons, which are used in craftwork sold to tourists. Engaging human coastal communities in management
allowed it to contribute to local sustainable development. The aim of this study was to critically evaluate the first ten years of PCS as
a management initiative. We 1) analysed the contribution of PCS to scientific knowledge by carrying out a systematic literature
search; 2) reviewed the contribution of the regional and community monitoring program to management planning; 3) analysed
management results; 4) identified social-economic effects of extra-income; 5) synthesized information regarding the structure of
PCS and the role of environmental education, capacity building, training and communication. PCS is structured into training,
environmental restoration, extra income and sustainability, communication, monitoring and research programs. Environmental
education is present across all programs. A hotline receives new records, a task force is available for first response management and
training, a Visitor’s Center was created for communication and as a field base, and a National Sun Coral Records Database was
created to gather all information. The PCS Database compiled historical records and demonstrated that the sun corals continued to
expand along the Brazilian coastline during the study period (2006–2016). PCS’s Research, Development and Innovation (R&D&I)
Network (14 institutions, 35 members) contributed to knowledge producing 70% of publications dealing with the sun corals in
Brazil. Monitoring was able to map distribution and range expansion at 326 monitored sites over four regions. Twenty five different
types of outreach actions were identified which directly affected 143,000 people. Two hundred and thirty thousand sun-coral
colonies (8.5 T) have been manually removed through 165 control and eradication actions. Eighty six percent of the 22 collectors
and their 80 family members said their lives improved due to the extra income. The results presented here demonstrate that PCS has
created a science-based, community supported, conservation initiative which provides information for government, the scientific
community and stakeholders, as well as extra-income, methods and human resources for monitoring and managing the sun corals
invasion.
Key words: control, environmental education, eradication, extra income, management, monitoring, sun corals
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J.C. Creed et al.
Introduction
Biological invasions are recognized as a major threat
to marine and coastal ecosystems (Bax et al. 2003).
Invasive species have the potential to cause change
in ecosystems resulting in loss of biodiversity,
decline of native and commercial species and
changes in the function and structure of communities
and ecosystems (Carlton 1985; Carlton and Geller
1993; Ruiz et al. 1997; Mack et al. 2000). They may
also increase costs or loss of livelihood (Pimentel et
al. 2005) which may cause social impacts.
In Brazil the Ministry of the Environment considers
58 marine species to be non-indigenous (NIS) of
which nine are listed as invasive (Lopes et al. 2009):
two phytoplankton (diatom Coscinodiscus wailesii
Gran and Angst, 1931; dinoflagellate Alexandrium
tamarense (Lebour) Balech, 1995); a green macro-
algae (Caulerpa scalpelliformis (R. Br. Ex Turner)
C. Agardh var. denticulata (Decaisne) Weber-van
Bosse, 1898); two corals (Tubastraea coccinea
Lesson, 1929 and Tubastraea tagusensis Wells, 1982),
two bivalves (Isognomon bicolor (C.B. Adams, 1845)
and Myoforceps aristatus (Dillwyn, 1817)) one crab
(Charybdis hellerii (A. Milne-Edwards, 1867)) and
one ascidian (Styela plicata (Lesueur, 1823)). From Figure 1. The sun corals (Tubastraea spp.) A) Tubastraea coccinea
2008 to 2015, 15 more NIS have been reported but on a rocky reef in the shallow subtidal at Ilha Grande, Brazil and
these were not necessarily new introductions: some B) Tubastraea sp. on the gas production platform Peroá (PPER)
on the Abrolhos Bank, Espírito Santo, Brazil. Photographs by Joel
had previously been considered native or cryptogenic Creed (A) and Leonardo Bueno (B, used with permission).
(i.e. of unknown or uncertain origin) whereas one
sponge considered NIS was re-classified as crypto-
genic. Therefore, the updated number is 72 alien State of Rio de Janeiro, a region considered to be
species on the Brazilian coast (Junqueira, unpublished relatively biodiverse for Brazil (Creed et al. 2007).
data). The region has intense movement of oil platforms
Sun coral (coral sol in Portuguese) is the popular and other shipping due to the presence of a shipyard,
name given to species of the genus Tubastraea. docking facilities, an oil terminal and anchorage, the
Tubastraea coccinea and T. tagusensis (Scleractinia: latter being the probable first point of introduction to
Dendrophylliidae) are the first scleractinian corals the Brazilian coast (Silva et al. 2014). Subsequently
that are NIS in the Southwest Atlantic (de Paula and they have established on and invaded tropical and sub-
Creed 2004). They are native to the Pacific and tropical rocky shores and coral reefs along the Brazilian
Indian Oceans, and Pacific Ocean, respectively, but coastline and are expanding their range (Ferreira
while T. coccinea has a widespread distribution T. 2003; Mantelatto et al. 2011; Sampaio et al. 2012),
tagusensis has a small native range (Galapagos including into marine protected areas (Silva et al.
archipelago) (Carlos-Júnior et al. 2015a, b; Creed et 2011). They have also been found on numerous
al. 2016). mobile artificial structures that can act as vectors,
The genus Tubastraea is azooxanthellate and was such as oil or gas rigs, drilling ships, monobuoys and
first reported in Brazil in the 1980s as fouling riser support buoys (Creed et al. 2016; Figure 1).
organisms on oil and gas platforms in the Campos Where established they are also increasing their
Oil Basin, off the State of Rio de Janeiro (Castro and abundances over large areas (Silva et al. 2014).
Pires 2001). The two sibling species which have Currently the sun corals occur in 21 coastal
been reported for Brazil (de Paula and Creed 2004) municipalities and have also been recorded on 25
co-occur to the extent that their colonies may grow mobile artificial structures and three shipwrecks along
on one another and intermingled. At the end of the more than 3,500 km of the Brazilian coastline
1990s the sun corals began to invade native (Creed et al. 2016). The invasion history of T.
communities on rocky shores at Ilha Grande Bay, coccinea includes, besides the Brazilian coast, the
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Sun-Coral Project—a social-environmental management initiative
Caribbean, Florida and Gulf of Mexico (Fenner 2001; hereafter PCS) was established. PCS was initiated as
Fenner and Banks 2004; Sammarco et al. 2004). a proposal developed by the first scientists to study
Tubastraea spp. present high growth rates, an early the biological invasion of Tubastraea spp. in Brazil.
reproductive maturity and produce a large number of They recognised the need for action and prepared
larvae throughout their life cycle (Ayre and Resing the proposal under the joint auspices of the State
1986; Glynn et al. 2008; de Paula et al. 2014). These University of Rio de Janeiro and a non-governmental
species affect the structure and function of the native organization concerned with marine conservation,
communities (Lages et al. 2011). Both sun coral today the Instituto Brasileiro de Biodiversidade. The
species produce chemicals such as alkaloids (Maia et initial objectives, based on the research and
al. 2014a, b) which have antifouling properties and observations which had been carried out to date
are deterrent to predation by fish (Lages et al. 2010a, b) were to restore and conserve the marine biodiversity
and invertebrates (Lages et al. 2010a, 2012; Santos of the affected areas, generate extra income for local
et al. 2013); they also lack generalist predators within communities, provide biological and ecological know-
their invaded range (Moreira and Creed 2012). They ledge for conservation and management, develop
use a suite of different reproductive strategies, which additional innovative solutions which add value to
results in high fecundity and precocious reproduction the management of the invader, develop an environ-
(de Paula et al. 2014), contributing to their rapid mental education program and contribute to policy
establishment and range expansion. and legislation regarding the prevention and
With their expansion, the sun corals are causing management of the sun corals in Brazil.
serious ecological, economic and social impacts in In 2006 PCS was initially structured as a research
Brazil. One major impact is the change in biodiver- and outreach project linked to the State University of
sity as they have been proven to be harmful to native Rio de Janeiro, organized with Academic and Research,
rocky shore and reef populations and communities Student and Community Coordinators. Initial funding
(Creed 2006; Lages et al. 2011, 2012, 2015; Mantelatto was provided by the State Foundation for Research
et al. 2011; Mantelatto and Creed 2015; Miranda et in Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ), the National Council
al. 2016). They compete with and cause necrosis to for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq)
native species (Creed 2006, de Paula 2007; Hennessey and the University—traditional research funding
and Sammarco 2014; Precht et al. 2014; Miranda et sources. Due to its innovative proposal (of replacing
al. 2016) and also grow among and over commercially illegal trade in native coral with a legal trade in
exploited mussel beds and farms (Mantelatto and invasive corals, removing them and creating extra
Creed 2015). Lages et al. (2011) estimated that with income) PCS was one of ten winners of the 11th Banco
increased cover of the sun corals the native community Real Universidade Solidária Contest, providing
structure and function is lost. Silva et al. (2014) funding which allowed the start of training of coral
demonstrated that after ten years in 60% of sites collectors and management actions. Further sponsorship
where the sun corals were occasional or rare they by the Petrobras Environmental Program (2009–2012)
became abundant or dominated. They estimated an allowed a restructuring of PCS into Training, Environ-
expansion rate of 2.1 km.yr-1. mental Restoration, Extra income and sustainability,
Brazil is signatory to the Convention on Biological Communication, Monitoring and Research Programs,
Diversity, which states that consenting parties should with Environmental Education as a cross programs
prevent the introduction of alien species and control theme. A hotline (canal@coralsol.org) was created
or eradicate those already present which threaten to receive new records of the corals in Brazil, a task
ecosystems, habitats or species (Brasil 1998). Brazil force was set up for first response management and
also has a National Strategy on Exotic Invasive Species training, a Visitor’s Center for communication and as
which incorporates and details 15 guidelines and a field base and a National Sun Coral Records Data-
action steps for their implementation (CONABIO base created to gather all the quantitative and quali-
2009). However, traditionally little has been done to tative information on distributional records, research,
stop, prevent, control and eradicate invasive marine monitoring, environmental education and management
species along the Brazilian coastline. actions. In 2013 PCS was once again restructured to
After years of research and no purposeful action include an ample R&D&I Network as well as
to tackle the growing problem of the sun corals on Management and National Monitoring working groups.
the Brazilian coast, in 2006 a management initiative, The aim of the present study is to critically
lead by a non-government organization, involving evaluate the PCS as an NIS management initiative
academia, government agencies and volunteers, called through an analysis of the organization and the
the Sun Coral Project (Projeto Coral-Sol in Portuguese, results of the first ten years of action.
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J.C. Creed et al.
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Sun-Coral Project—a social-environmental management initiative
along the Brazilian coast. These actions include A field sheet is used in each management action
eradication of smaller populations in recently onto which are logged: 1) GPS coordinates; 2) amount
invaded sites and control measures to slow the spread of corals removed by species (or mixed, when the
and reduce propagule pressure so as to prioritize the two species colonies grow on one another intermin-
protection and recovery of sensitive areas such as gled); 3) number of participants; 4) time and date of
marine protected areas. PCS trained a group for the the beginning and end of the action; 5) destination of
management of the sun corals which consisted of removed corals; 6) removal method (snorkeling or
stakeholders, local managers and interested scientists. SCUBA); 7) elimination method (fresh water or
All received theoretical and practical training by the smothering) and 8) other observations. Subsequently,
technical team of the PCS. the data are included in the National Sun Coral
The sun corals eradication or control is achieved Records Database, maintained by PCS. In the present
by the physical removal of the invasive corals study we analyze these data.
Tubastraea spp. performed by divers (through
SCUBA or snorkeling) using procedures in manuals Extra income
and protocols developed by PCS (resources availa-
ble at https://www.facebook.com/projeto.coral.sol/). In order to engage and train coral collectors, we
Divers use suitable clothing and gear to swim in the selected the local coastal community of Abraão
sea and follow the usual health and safety rules for Village, Ilha Grande Bay, Rio de Janeiro state as the
diving. The invasive corals are removed with a first group of sun coral collectors in Brazil. This site
chisel and a lump hammer (Figure 2). The chisel is was chosen because: 1) there was a large amount of
positioned at the coral base, which is detached from invasive corals near the village; 2) the greater
the substrate by a hit with the lump hammer on the affinity of the residents with the sea; 3) the facility
other end of the chisel. This precise procedure does to carry out the work; 4) the village is the main
not impact the local biota (Figure 2). The largest gateway for tourism destination on Ilha Grande
corals are easily removed and thus are most often Island, so most of the residents work in boating
collected and extracted from the sea, which is efficient related nautical tourism, which is highly seasonal.
since these have the greatest breeding potential. In Furthermore, as the majority of its activities and jobs
the case of small individuals (< 1 cm) these are are related to the sea, the local coastal community
eliminated directly on site, crushed with the chisel. are those who mostly suffer consequences of environ-
Removed corals are killed by immersion in fresh mental degradation and impacts from bioinvasion.
water for two hours (Moreira et al. 2014) or enclosed The sun coral collectors were trained through
in bags (smothering method) for seven days theoretical and practical training about the history of
(Mantelatto et al. 2015). Dead corals are then the invasion, their impact, marine biology and ecology,
returned to the sea in order to feed the detritus food oceanography, snorkelling techniques, basic oceano-
chain (returning materials and energy to the ecosys- graphy, first aid basics, as well how to safely
tem) or the skeletons are used by PCS artisans to recognise and remove the corals, in addition to
create “souvenirs”. learning how to quantify and treat them after removal.
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J.C. Creed et al.
100
Others Brazil 70
90
Number of studies
70 Gulf of Mexico 50
60 Caribbean
40
50
Native
40 30
Figure 3. Number of studies and 30
their proportion carried out by 20
researchers involved in the sun 20
coral project (PCS) and other 10
10
researchers, by region, using data
from an analysis of the literature 0 0
available on Tubastraea coccinea 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
and T. tagusensis Compiled from
data in Table S1. Year
Collectors performed removals of the invasive corals of Science did not. Of the total of 74 relevant studies,
near Abraão Village receiving an extra income to 26 dealt with both species, 46 dealt exclusively with
carry out such activities. T. coccinea and two exclusively with T. tagusensis
In order to investigate the socioeconomic impact (Table S1). With regard to region, by 2016 there
of PCS on the participant coral collectors after were more publications dealing with the species in
engaging with the management of the sun-corals at Brazil (n=33, 45%) than in other regions around the
Ilha Grande Bay, the PCS team conducted a world (Figure 3). The contribution to the knowledge
questionnaire in 2012 in accordance with local ethics produced by the PCS was 70% of all publications
guidelines. Data on socioeconomic characteristics of carried out in Brazil and was equal to the number of
interviewees, including, age, occupation, domicile, studies of the species carried out in the native regions
education, income, and also specific questions (31.5%, n=23 publications each). Eleven publications
concerning their experience/knowledge, environmental were produced in the Gulf of Mexico (15%) and six
concerns and behavioural change after engaging (8%) in the Caribbean. No publications were found
with PCS were registered from fourteen collectors. that dealt with T. tagusensis within its native range.
The studies published in journals by PCS were in
Organization, environmental education, capacity a wide variety (18) mainly international peer reviewed
building, training and communication journals dealing with biogeography, marine ecology
and biology, oceanography, chemistry or biological
In order to investigate how PCS was planned and invasion. This body of knowledge dealt with distri-
structured, the role of environmental education, bution (25% of studies), chemical ecology (14%),
activities of capacity building and training and commu- applied ecology (management), niche modelling and
nication, we compiled quantitative and qualitative species associations (11% each), community ecology,
information regarding structuring and activities from growth and reproduction and ecological interactions
a database of internal reports, abstracts and other (7% each) population ecology and taxonomy (4%
publications from the period 2006 to 2016. These data each). These studies served as a nucleus for attracting
were synthesized in a descriptive and quantitative further collaborative research projects and in 2013
table (Supplementary material Table S2). an umbrella group, the Sun Coral R&D&I Network,
was formed with 35 members from 14 different
Results institutions with the remit to provide further know-
ledge and innovative science based solutions.
Research At the national level the PCS National Database
compiled historical records and received new records
Scientific knowledge of the two species increased of the sun corals in Brazil up to 2016 (Figure 4).
from 1986 to 2016 (Figure 3). SciELO provided no These data demonstrate that the sun corals continued
records not provided by the Web of Science while to expand their distribution along the Brazilian
Google Scholar provided 10 references which Web coastline from 2006–2016.
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Sun-Coral Project—a social-environmental management initiative
Figure 4. Map of new occurrences of the sun corals (Tubastraea spp.) on natural substrata and shipwrecks (circles) and on vectors (crosses - oil and
gas platforms, drillships, monobuoys, riser support buoys, small pleasure craft) with year of record. A) Brazil and B) detail of the southeast region.
Records were taken from the Sun Coral Project National Database, compiled in Table S3). Gray ellipses indicate regions where PCS carries out
extensive monitoring.
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J.C. Creed et al.
Figure 5. Maps of the range expansion of Tubastraea coccinea and T. tagusensis at 144 sites at Ilha Grande Bay over an eleven year (2000 to 2011)
period as monitored by the DAFOR monitoring. In 2000 the two species were not treated separately.
Most coral collectors (86%) said their lives had concerned communication and environmental
improved in quality after they got involved with the education (Table S2).
PCS management activities. They stated that the
extra income allowed them to purchase previously Discussion
inaccessible goods such as microwave, mobile phone,
computers, furniture and books. The majority of the As an NIS management initiative, the first ten years
interviewees also got more involved in environmental of actions of the PCS have substantially advanced
matters (93%). All of them acquired new knowledge our knowledge of how to deal with marine invasive
and skills as they got involved with invasive species species in Brazil. The results presented here
management. In their answers about what new demonstrate that PCS has created a science-based,
knowledge they got while working with PCS, many community supported, conservation initiative which
of them identified information about invasive provides information for government, the scientific
species and their real negative influence on native community and stakeholders. Furthermore it has
marine biodiversity, as well as about native biodi- provided methods and human resources for moni-
versity and the importance of a healthy environment. toring and managing the sun corals invasion.
Another benefit identified by the interviews was that PCS is the first initiative to control invasive marine
PCS encouraged organization and local leadership in NIS in Brazil and the innovative proposal has
the protection of the marine environment. directly benefitted society by taking advantage of the
pest coral as a raw material. Coral skeletons are in
demand throughout the world (Green and Shirley
Environmental education, capacity building,
1999; Rhyne et al. 2012) and are usually supplied by
training and communication
producing countries, which exploit their native
Supplementary material Table S2 presents the main species (Green and Shirley 1999; Roelofs 2008). PCS
environmental education, outreach, training, capacity launched the proposal of commercially exploiting
building and communication actions of PCS. A total the sun corals as a sustainable way of carrying out
of 25 different types of actions were identified control and generating extra income for local people
which were developed with varying frequency. This most affected by the problem. PCS has become a
translated to a total of 289 actions directly affecting national model for the control of invasive marine
an estimated 143 thousand people. Most actions fouling species. It has also contributed to environ-
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Sun-Coral Project—a social-environmental management initiative
189
J.C. Creed et al.
Table 1. Sun Coral Project management actions and corals removed over the years. Tt = Tubastraea tagusensis; Tc = Tubastraea coccinea;
M = mixed (when both species grow together) and Tni = Tubastraea spp. not identified to the species level.
Figure 8. Sun Coral Project management sites: (A) on the Brazilian coast with the number of colonies of invasive corals removed per site and
(B) detail of Ilha Grande Bay where the size of the circles represents the amount (colonies, n) of corals removed and the green rectangle
Abraão Village.
and percent cover of coral colonies and efficient in sun corals to PCS and contrasted with researchers
describing change in benthic communities over time who were generally unwilling to report. The provision
(Lages et al. 2011). of anonymity was important when receiving reports
The regional mapping was coupled with informa- of contaminated vectors, which attested that the
tion from the National Sun Coral Records Database public had confidence in PCS and desired action. It
gained through the report hotline as well as published has been recognized that the way forward to dealing
and unpublished accounts. Engaging the public was with marine biological invasions is to engage citizen
extremely important in order to enhance a network scientists in detection and management efforts
of vigilance regarding the sun corals invasion in (Delaney et al. 2008), teach invasion science in formal
Brazil. We believe this to be especially important classroom settings and train decision makers
when considering the biological invasion of the (Crooks and Rilov 2009), all of which PCS engaged
marine realm from which we are necessarily removed, in from 2006–2016.
have minimal contact and limited opportunity to Crooks and Rilov (2009) stated that whatever the
observe. Sport and professional divers and MPA role of the invasion biologist, communication is key.
managers were the groups most likely to report the We identified that communication and public
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Sun-Coral Project—a social-environmental management initiative
participation was of utmost importance in order to accessible, recently detected populations at the range
fulfil the aims of PCS. As well as the provision of edge on several islands within the Tamoios
new records, the environmental education, capacity Ecological Station MPA (Gomes et al. 2015) as well
building, training and communication provided an as an isolated population at the São Sebastião
increased understanding of the problem of biological Channel, São Paulo state (Mantelatto 2012). Another
invasion. This, in turn, explained the desirability of focus is ongoing eradication programs in a number
eliminating the sun corals as a form of protecting of Brazilian MPAs. The same methods are being
native diversity, thus avoiding potential resistance used on reefs in the Flower Garden Banks National
by well-intentioned but misinformed local stake- Marine Sanctuary, Florida, by National Oceanic and
holders regarding the removal of the invasive corals. Atmospheric Administration of the United States
Finally, it was possible to increase popular support (NOAA) (Precht et al. 2014).
for the control of the sun corals as stakeholders took The eradication of the invasive corals is now
on roles within the initiative as volunteers, coral difficult in some localities, such as Ilha Grande Bay,
collectors and agents of change. Meireles (2015) Rio de Janeiro, but their control is imperative in order
critically evaluated the environmental education to decrease propagule pressure and to reduce spread.
actions of PCS. She identified that the actions of Most corals were removed by the sun coral collectors
PCS allowed the empowerment of stakeholders and from the coastal community of Abraão Village
society, involved directly or indirectly with the between 2011 and 2013, when management actions
problem, so they had sufficient information to had sponsorship. This contributed to local socio-
participate in decision making and assist in the economic development, while controlling populations
management of invasive species (Meireles 2015). of invasive corals. The community engagement in
Effective marine biosecurity is the science based PCS improved their quality of life from different
protection of native marine biodiversity and marine perspectives, including receipt of extra income and
ecosystems through effective management and information. The receipt of extra income, improve-
control of NIS (Hewitt et al. 2004, 2009). Our results ment of quality of life, new knowledge and the right
identified 33 published studies concerning the sun to participate was just, considering they are the main
corals produced in Brazil, showing that considerable stakeholders impacted by the corals.
knowledge exists that could be used to support Most management effort by PCS has, however,
management and control initiatives. Our results been dedicated to slowing the spread of Tubastraea
show that the first scientific studies of the sun corals spp. and enhancing ecosystem recovery through
in Brazil started approximately 20 years after the control. The removal of the coral colony in itself
probable time of their introduction; the first may be considered a valid management action as it
monitoring action coincided which the first scientific liberates space for native species, interrupts non-
studies in 2000. native-native interactions and eliminates the present
A very large number of corals were removed by and future production of propagules from that
PCS but prior to its initiation the delay in mana- individual. Lages et al. (2011) demonstrated that
gement actions allowed the sun corals to spread. when an invaded community reaches 45% cover of
Management only began with the start of activities Tubastraea spp. it is effectively a different com-
of the PCS, approximately 26 years after the munity, so uniqueness in community structure and
invasion. The delay to act allowed for the rapid ecosystem services are lost at that threshold. Despite
expansion (Ferreira 2003; Mantelatto et al. 2011; this, initial management targets were set previous to
Sampaio et al. 2012) and growth of populations of Lages et al. (2011) and the number of corals removed
the sun corals in Brazil. There is a consensus that it rather than those that remained was monitored.
is desirable to act as soon as possible regarding the Notwithstanding, early trials indicated that manual
invasion of NIS, as success of eradication increases removal reduced mean cover from 41.6% to 2.1%
when the populations are small and restricted (Myers (one month later); after one year, without further
et al. 2000), so the lack of scientific knowledge intervention, cover increased to 22.2%; with a
should not be used as a reason to delay eradication second removal six months later mean cover was
or control programs (Shine et al. 2000). The know- 5.7% after one year (de Paula 2007). It should be
ledge needed to make a quick decision is usually noted that these data are means, so mask the patchy
minimal and intensive population biological research nature of the spatial distribution of Tubastraea spp.,
does not guarantee a solution to the problem of NIS which can vary from 0–90% cover at the 1m scale.
(Simberloff 2003). Continued efforts to eradicate or control marine
Total removal of sun corals without reappearance species, coupled with clear and thorough reporting
(eradication) has been carried out in isolated, of both successes and failures in these efforts are
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J.C. Creed et al.
still rare and urgently needed (Crooks and Rilov independently as well as assume the responsi-
2009; Ojaveer et al. 2015). PCS and their partners bility of providing information so that those
have carried out both successful eradication and agencies recognised the problem and acted on it;
control actions. Manual removal proved to be 2) governmental agencies were slow to expedite
efficient in eliminating the invasive corals on rocky and renew management licences legally required
shores and coral reefs and is easy to apply without for PCS to act; 3) no funding was made available
damaging native species. A wrapping method from environmental agencies so other sources
(Mantelatto et al. 2015) and others are being develo- needed to be found. These facts resulted in tardy
ped as an alternative for sites with very high cover incursion responses and discontinuity of manage-
or difficult accessibility. ment actions;
6. There was an overlap of jurisdiction between the
Lessons learned and future directions Ministries of the Environment (fauna), and Fisheries
and Aquiculture (fisheries resource) regarding
With regard to the sun corals incursion in Brazil it is the authorization for commercial exploitation.
important to point out that: This resulted in a standoff regarding responsibility
1. The framework for action that integrated research, to authorise, expedite and renew licences legally
monitoring, environmental education, management required for the coral collectors to exploit the sun
and public policy was essential to reach the PCSs corals. In turn there was discontinuity in the
objectives; provision of extra income and in the subsidi-
sation of management costs through commerce,
2. For control it is necessary to set clear management resulting in less effective management;
targets (Hewitt et al. 2009; Green et al. 2014)
which should be based on three primary objectives 7. Although a body of research is not necessary to
1) rapid response and eradication of new foci due justify an incursion response, it was important to
to new incursions from vectors; 2) eradication of identify vectors and pathways of the invasion,
small isolated populations at the forefront of provide governmental agencies with information
range expansion of known introductions (in for developing policy and develop a toolbox of
order to slow the spread); 3) planned control methods for management;
actions within the invaded ranges to best use 8. Where eradication is possible it should be carried
financial and human resources to reduce density out; the exploitation and commercialization of
(reducing propagule pressure and promoting the sun corals as a management strategy should
ecosystem recovery); only be encouraged in areas where the sun corals
are well established and invasive; it should be
3. Different monitoring protocols contemplating carried out by trained persons and monitored by
different spatial and temporal scales should be governmental agencies;
designed and used for 1) early detection (port
surveys, etc.); 2) post incursion mapping; 3) quan- 9. Environmental education and communication
tifying negative change in benthic community were effective ways of raising public awareness
structure and function as a result of invasion and which resulted in: 1) stakeholders being informed
positive change resulting from management of the problem, their responsibilities and oppor-
programs; tunities; 2) the governmental agencies informed,
motivated and/or pressured to act; 3) the detection
4. New incursions will continue to occur and and communication by the public of new
management actions will be less effective if the incursion events;
vectors are not dealt with by their owner/operators
Regarding the future there is a need to provide
or governmental agencies (identified, cleaned
regular funding, continue developing new methods
and monitored);
for management and rapidly expedite and simplifying
5. The environmental agencies which are mandated licensing in order to encourage the model of extra
to deal with invasive species in Brazil were at income and its potential for becoming a popular
first insensitive to scientists warnings, unprepared occupation and thus a self-funding management
and slow to recognise and respond to the sun strategy. Recently the Brazilian government has
corals problem. This was compounded by a lack created a Working Group organized by the Ministry
of specific legislation and that a few scientists of Environment to provide technical advice in order
advocated a “do nothing, more research needed” to develop an upcoming National Sun Coral Control
approach. Consequently: 1) PCS needed to act and Monitoring Plan.
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Supplementary material
The following supplementary material is available for this article:
Table S1. Results of a literature search for journal articles about Tubastraea spp.
Table S2. Actions carried out by the Sun Coral Project 2005–2016, principal programs attended (environmental education,
capacity building, training, capacity building and/or communication), specific aims and quantity.
Table S3. Tubastraea spp. occurrences in Brazil: location name, coordinates (decimal latitude and longitude), first occurrence
(year), type of substrate and reference.
This material is available as part of online article from:
http://www.reabic.net/journals/mbi/2017/Supplements/MBI_2017_Creed_etal_Supplement.xls
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