1.

Introduction
The routing protocol is a process to select suitable path for the data
to travel from source to destination. The process encounters several
difficulties while selecting the route, which depends upon, type of
network, channel characteristics and the performance metrics.
The data sensed by the sensor nodes in a wireless sensor network
(WSN) is typically forwarded to the base station that connects the
sensor network with the other networks (may be internet) where the
data is collected, analyzed and some action is taken accordingly.
In very small sensor networks where the base station and motes
(sensor nodes) so close that they can communicate directly with
each other than this is single-hop communication but in most WSN
application the coverage area is so large that requires thousands of
nodes to be placed and this scenario requires multi-hop
communication because most of the sensor nodes are so far from the
sink node (gateway) so that they cannot communicate directly with
the base station. The single-hop communication is also called direct
communication and multi-hop communication is called indirect
communication.
In multi-hop communication the sensor nodes not only produce and
deliver their material but also serve as a path for other sensor nodes
towards the base station. The process of finding suitable path from
source node to destination node is called routing and this is the
primary responsibility of the network layer.

Routing challenges in WSNs

The design task of routing protocols for WSN is quite challenging
because of multiple characteristics, which differentiate them, from
wireless infrastructure-less networks. Several types of routing
challenges involved in wireless sensor networks. Some of important
challenges are mentioned below:
 It is almost difficult to allocate a universal identifiers scheme
for a big quantity of sensor nodes. So, wireless sensor motes
are not proficient of using classical IP-based protocols.
 The flow of detected data is compulsory from a number of
sources to a specific base station. But this is not occurred in
typical communication networks.
 The created data traffic has significant redundancy in most of
cases. Because many sensing nodes can generate same data
while sensing. So, it is essential to exploit such redundancy by
the routing protocols and utilize the available bandwidth and
energy as efficiently as possible.
 Moreover wireless motes are firmly restricted in relations of
transmission energy, bandwidth, capacity and storage and on-
board energy. Due to such dissimilarities, a number of new
routing protocols have been projected in order to cope up with
these routing challenges in wireless sensor networks.

MAC Protocol Used in Wireless

Sensor Networks
In Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), the Medium Access Control
(MAC) protocol is a set of guidelines that dictate how each node should
transmit data over the shared wireless medium. The primary objective of
the MAC protocol is to minimize the occurrence of idle listening, over-
hearing, and collisions of data packets. By efficiently managing access
to the wireless medium, the MAC protocol helps to reduce energy
consumption and optimize the use of network resources.

MAC Protocol Categories

 Contention based MAC
 Scheduled based MAC
 Hybrid MAC
 Cross-Layer MAC
Contention-based MAC
Contention-based MAC protocol is also known as a random access
MAC protocol. It allows all nodes to transmit data on the shared
medium, but they have to compete with each other to access the
medium. One example of contention-based MAC is CSMA/CA.
In CSMA/CA, each node senses the medium before transmitting the
data. If the medium is idle, the node can transmit data immediately.
However, if the channel is busy the node has to wait for a random time
also known as back-off time. This back-off time reduces the chances of
collisions.
Contention-based MAC Used in Wireless Sensor Networks
Sensor MAC (SMAC) is a contention-based MAC protocol that is
specifically designed for wireless sensor networks. The primary
objective of SMAC is to minimize idle listening, over-hearing, and
collisions of data packets. To achieve this goal, SMAC adopts a duty-
cycle approach, also known as a sleep-wakeup cycle. In this approach,
each node alternates between a fixed length of active and sleeping
periods based on its schedule.
To prevent collisions among packets, SMAC utilizes the Request to
Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS) packets before transmitting data
packets. This helps to ensure that only one node is transmitting data at a
time, reducing the likelihood of collisions and improving overall
network efficiency.
Scheduled-based MAC
Scheduled-based MAC is also known as a deterministic MAC protocol.
Where each node follows a predetermined schedule and transmits the
data according to its given time slot. The data collision is completely
nullified in scheduled-based MAC. An example of Scheduled based
MAC is TDMA(Time Division Multiple Access).
In TDMA the time is divided into fixed slots and each node is allocated
a specific time frame in which they can transmit the data. During this
time slot, other nodes remain silent.
Scheduled-based MAC Used in Wireless Sensor Networks
LEACH (Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy) is a TDMA-
based protocol that utilizes a clustering mechanism in wireless sensor
networks. A cluster comprises sensor nodes grouped together, with one
node designated as the cluster head and the others serving as members.
The cluster head is selected based on a probabilistic algorithm, which
ensures that power consumption is evenly distributed among the nodes.
Once the cluster is formed, a schedule is created for nodes to transmit
data within the cluster. Additionally, to mitigate inter-cluster
interference, each cluster head assigns a unique CDMA code to its
cluster.

Hybrid MAC
Hybrid MAC is a combination of different protocols such as contention-
based MAC and scheduled-based MAC to optimize the performance of
wireless sensor networks. For example, contention-based MAC
protocols, such as CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance), allow nodes to access the medium based on a
random backoff interval, which reduces collisions but may result in
inefficient utilization of the medium. On the other hand, scheduled-
based MAC protocols, such as TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access),
divide the medium into time slots and assign them to different nodes,
which can achieve high utilization but may not be flexible enough to
adapt to changing network conditions. Hybrid MAC solved the issue by
using other MAC protocols, During transmission of data if the channel is
idle or the channel has low traffic then Hybrid MAC switches to
contention-based MAC. If the traffic in the channel increases then it is
switched to scheduled-based MAC such as TDMA.
Hybrid MAC Used in Wireless Sensor Networks
The IEEE developed 802.15.4 as a standard for low-rate WPANs, which
outlines the PHY and MAC layers for low-power wireless
communication in the 2.4 GHz ISM band. It was specifically created for
applications that require low data rates, low power consumption, and
cost-effectivenesses, such as sensor networks, home automation, and
industrial automation.
The physical layer employs DSSS modulation with a data rate of 250
kbps and works in the 2.4 GHz ISM band that has 16 channels with 5
MHz bandwidth. Additionally, it uses FHSS to prevent interference from
other wireless devices.
On the other hand, the media access control layer implements a CSMA-
CA protocol to avoid device collisions. It supports different data packet
sizes, ranging from 9 to 127 bytes, and also offers error detection and
correction mechanisms.
Cross-Layer MAC
Cross-layer MAC allows the different layers in the protocol stack,
typically including physical, MAC, and network layers, to interact and
share information with one another. Firstly MAC layers gather
information about the state of the channel whether the channel is busy or
not. This information will be further used to control the other parameters
such as data transmission rate, packet loss rate, and delay.
Once the parameters have been determined, the MAC layer sends the
data packets to the PHY layer for transmission over the wireless
channel. After the data transmission, the PHY layer sends feedback to
the MAC layer about the success or failure of the transmission. If the
transmission was unsuccessful. Based on the feedback MAC layer
repeats the transmission
Overall, the working of Cross-Layer MAC involves the interaction
between the MAC and PHY layers to improve the efficiency of data
transmission and energy consumption in WSNs. By optimizing the
transmission parameters
Cross-Layer MAC Used in Wireless Sensor Networks
The IEEE 802.11e standard expands on the existing IEEE 802.11
WLAN standard by incorporating Quality of Service (QoS) support. It
utilizes a cross-layer approach, allowing the MAC layer to collaborate
with higher layers such as the network and application layers, to provide
specific services based on the application’s needs.
On the other hand, IEEE 802.16, or WiMAX, is intended for broadband
wireless access and utilizes a cross-layer design as well. This design
allows the MAC layer to communicate with the physical layer to adjust
to the changing channel conditions, such as interference, noise, and
fading.