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People of Malawi

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Ethnic groups and languages

Ten major ethnic groups are historically associated with modern Malawi—the
Chewa, Nyanja, Lomwe, Yao, Tumbuka, Sena, Tonga, Ngoni, Ngonde, and the
Lambya/Nyiha. All the African languages spoken are Bantu languages. From
1968 to 1994, Chewa was the only national language; it is now one of the
numerous languages used in print and broadcast media and is spoken by a
majority of the population. In 1996 government policy indicated that education
in grades 1–4 would be provided in the students’ mother tongue or vernacular
language; from grade 5, the medium of instruction would be English, which,
though understood by less than one-fifth of the population at independence in
1964, continues to be used widely in business, administrative and judicial
matters, higher education, and elsewhere. Other major languages include
Lomwe, Yao, and Tumbuka.

Religion

Some three-fourths of the population is Christian, of which the majority are

members of independent Christian or various Protestant denominations and
the remainder are Roman Catholic. Muslims constitute about one-fifth of the
population. Traditional beliefs are adhered to by a small proportion of the
population.
Settlement patterns

Although Malawi is one of the most densely populated countries in southern

Africa, it is also one of the least urbanized, with more than four-fifths of its
people living in rural locations. It is urbanizing at a very rapid rate, however,
with movement toward urban areas taking place at a pace far swifter than
either the African or global averages.
Malawi urban-rural (2018)

© Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

A rural village—called a mudzi—is usually small. Organized around the

extended family, it is limited by the amount of water and arable land available
in the vicinity. On the plateaus, which support the bulk of the population, the
most common village sites are at the margins of madambo, which are usually
contiguous with streams or rivers and are characterized by woodland,
grassland, and fertile alluvial soils. In highland areas, scattered villages are
located near perennial mountain streams and pockets of arable land. The
larger settlements of the Lake Malawi littoral originated in the 19th century as
collection points for slaves and later developed as lakeside ports.
Improvements in communications and the sinking of wells in semiarid areas
permitted the establishment of new settlements in previously uninhabited
areas. Architecture is changing: the traditional round, mud-walled, grass-
roofed hut is giving way to rectangular brick buildings with corrugated iron
roofs.
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Malawi
Lilongwe toc Table of Contents
Goods for sale at a crafts market in Lilongwe, Malawi.

Urban development began in the colonial era with the arrival of missionaries,
traders, and administrators and was further stimulated by the construction of
the railway. Important urban centres include Blantyre, Zomba, Mzuzu, and
Lilongwe. Although some district centres and missionary stations have an
urban appearance, they are closely associated with the rural settlements
surrounding them. Blantyre, Malawi’s industrial and commercial centre, is
situated in a depression on the Shire Highlands at an elevation of about 3,400
feet (1,040 metres). Zomba, the capital of Malawi until 1975 and now the seat
of the University of Malawi, lies at the foot of Zomba Mountain. Lilongwe,
Malawi’s capital since 1975 and a centre of agricultural industry, is located in
the central region. Mzuzu, long associated with the wood industry, is situated
farther north on the Viphya highlands.

Demographic trends

The population is growing at a rate above average for sub-Saharan Africa. The
birth rate is among the highest on the continent, but the death rate is also high,
and life expectancy for both genders is significantly lower than the average for
sub-Saharan Africa, primarily because of the incidence of HIV/AIDS. Nearly
half the population is younger than age 15, and about three-fourths of the
population is 29 or younger. A modest reduction in the country’s high fertility
rates in the late 20th and early 21st centuries may be attributed in part to
government policy aimed at improving female literacy and promoting more-
ff ti t ti th d Th Mi i t fG d Child W lf d
effective contraceptive methods. The Ministry of Gender, Child Welfare, and

Community Services, guided by the National Gender Policy, has played a major
role in this effort. (For background on the status of women in Malawian
society, see Sidebar: Gender Issues in Malawi.)

Economy
The backbone of the Malawi economy is agriculture, which in the 2000s
employed more than four-fifths of the working population and accounted for
about one-third of the gross domestic product (GDP) and the vast majority of
export earnings. Tobacco, the most important export crop, accounts for a
major portion of the country’s trade income; tea, sugar, and cotton—all mostly
grown in the estate sector—are also important.

Since the mid-1960s the government has sought to strengthen the agricultural
sector by encouraging integrated land use, higher crop yields, and irrigation
schemes. In pursuit of these goals, several large-scale integrated rural-
development programs, covering one-fifth of the country’s land area, have
been put into operation. These projects include extension services; credit and
marketing facilities; physical infrastructure such as roads, buildings, and
water supplies; health centres; afforestation units; and crop storage and
protection facilities. Outside the main program areas, advisory services and
educational programs are available. However, these schemes have brought
little benefit to the smallholders, real growth instead being largely
concentrated within the estate sector, which has been favoured by the
government. Many smallholders have remained poor and indebted, and
smallholder production has generally not increased enough to meet the
demands of the rapidly growing population.

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

Agricultural products constitute a large proportion of Malawian export
h i f h b d i
revenue; the most important of these are tobacco, sugar, tea, and cotton. Tea is

grown on plantations on the Shire Highlands; coffee is produced mostly in the

Shire Highlands and in northern Malawi, especially in the northeastern Viphya
Mountains, and near Rumphi and Misuku. Tobacco, by far the most important
export, is raised largely on the central plateau on large estates and by
smallholders in various parts of the country. With the rise of worldwide
campaigns against smoking, however, farmers have been increasingly
encouraged to diversify so as not to be wholly dependent on tobacco.

Corn (maize) is the principal food crop and is typically grown with beans, peas,
and peanuts (groundnuts) throughout the country by virtually all
smallholders. Other important food crops include cassava (manioc), bananas,
pulses, sweet potatoes, and rice; chickens, cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats are
raised.

Although the major share of commercial crop production is on large estates,

most farms are small, with the majority less than 2.5 acres (1 hectare) in size.
Until the early 1990s, smallholder cash crops were purchased and marketed
solely by the Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation (ADMARC),
which also dominated the fertilizer business. Because ADMARC kept a high
proportion of the profits, this arrangement was to the disadvantage of
smallholders, whose conditions improved little. In 1987 the ADMARC
monopoly over smallholder produce was ended. Through schemes such as the
United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Agricultural
Sector Assistance Program, the government liberalized the production and
marketing of smallholder tobacco. With greater control of their crop, growers’
income from tobacco sales was significantly increased.

Beginning in the early 1970s, the government sponsored the development of

several large timber and pulpwood plantations aimed at making the country
self-sufficient in construction grades of timber; pine and eucalyptus have also
been planted extensively in the northern Viphya Mountains to supply a large
pulp and paper project in the region. In spite of this, forest plantations account
for only a fraction of the total Malawian forest cover.

The rapid rate at which wooded areas have been disappearing in Malawi is a
source of grave concern. Between the early 1970s and the early ’90s, more than
half of Malawi’s forested area was depleted, and, although the deforestation
rate modestly decreased in the following decade, it nevertheless remained
extremely high by relative standards. The use of wood as fuel is one major
factor in the depletion of the country’s woodlands. In rural areas, wood has
always been used to provide fuel for cooking, and, as the population grows,
more of it is used; in the urban areas, charcoal is the main source of energy,
adding more pressure on woodlands. The heavily dominant tobacco industry
has resulted in further denudation of forests, as trees have been regularly
felled both as timber for the construction of sheds to dry or cure the crop and
to fuel the curing process itself. Another source of the problem is brick
making, which relies heavily on firewood to fire the kilns. The reduction of
casual labour and the number of civil service positions at the behest of the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank has meant forest
reserves no longer have personnel to guard them from abuse.

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Malawi: fish drying on platforms

Fish from the Shire River drying on platforms in southern Malawi.

Fishing is practiced for subsistence as well as by artisanal and commercial

fisheries. The lakes and rivers of Malawi provide a diverse catch. Lake Malawi
in particular is a rich source of fish within easy access for most of the country’s
population and accounts for some three-fourths of the country’s catch. Other
important sources include Lakes Chilwa, Malombe, and Chiuta and the Shire
River. Although aquaculture is practiced, much of the country’s total catch is
 g q p , y

obtained by capture, with artisanal fisheries accounting for the greatest

proportion of that take. Some fish are exported to neighbouring countries.
Since the late 20th century the fish population has dwindled because of
overfishing, the use of nets with a mesh size smaller than those recommended
by fisheries experts, and the disregard of the ban on fishing in the breeding
season. In response, natural resources committees have been formed in
lakeshore communities to participate in the management of fisheries and the
enforcement of fishing regulations.

Resources and power

Most of Malawi’s mineral deposits are neither extensive enough for

commercial exploitation nor easily accessible. Some small-scale mining of coal
takes place at Livingstonia and Rumphi in the north, and quarrying of
limestone for cement production is also an important activity. Precious and
semiprecious stones are mined on a small scale; these include agate,
aquamarine, amethyst, garnet, corundum, rubies, and sapphires. Exploration
and assessment studies continue on other minerals such as apatite, located
south of Lake Chilwa; bauxite, on the Mulanje massif; kyanite, on the Dedza-
Kirk range; vermiculite, south of Lake Malawi near Ntcheu; and rare-earth
minerals, at Mount Kangankunde northwest of Zomba. Deposits of asbestos,
uranium, and graphite are known to exist as well. Also under investigation are
base metals, gold rutile, and ilmenite sands.

Arable land is considered one of Malawi’s most significant natural resources,

although it is strained by both the country’s high population density and its
agriculture-based economy. Forests and woodlands cover about one-third of
the country, and almost 4,000 square miles (10,300 square km) are in state-
controlled forest reserves.

Malawi’s water resources are plentiful, although some rural areas are
inadequately supplied. Treated water for the major cities of Blantyre and
Lilongwe is supplied by the Walker’s Ferry Scheme and the Kamuzu Dam,
respectively. Most of the rivers are seasonal, but a few large ones, particularly
the Shire River along its middle course, have considerable potential for
irrigation and electricity generation. Power demands are met by hydroelectric
schemes, including those at Nkula Falls, Kapichira, and Tedzani Falls, and by
diesel plants. Major consumers of electric power include the industrial areas of
the south near Blantyre, where electricity consumption has steadily
multiplied, and the industrial area of Lilongwe; the vast sugar estates at
Nchalo and Dwangwa also consume much electricity. By contrast, only a
fraction of Malawians themselves have electrical access, and almost all
domestic energy needs are met by firewood.

Power availability has been hindered by different factors. The drying of rivers
due to deforestation near their sources and along their courses has resulted in
a reduction of water flow into Lake Malawi, which in turn has adversely
affected the currents of the Shire, on which the Nkula and Tedzani
hydroelectric plants are located. The devaluation of the Malawi kwacha has
also had some effect on electricity supply in the country, as spare parts can be
expensive and difficult to obtain. These factors have at times led to load
shedding of electricity and therefore an irregular availability of power.

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Manufacturing

Malawi’s small industrial sector is geared largely to processing agricultural

products and to the manufacture of import substitutes (goods produced locally,
often from imported materials, meant to replace products that were once
purchased from abroad); construction and mining (mainly lime for cement
and some coal) are also pursued. Although only a fraction of the workforce is
employed in the sector, it accounts for some one-fifth of the Malawian GDP.

Development of the country’s industrial base was accorded high priority at

independence, and Malawi now satisfies much of its own domestic need for
products such as cotton textiles, canned foodstuffs, beer, edible oils, soaps,
sugar, radios, hoes, and shoes. However, the cost of machinery parts,
equipment, and other imports needed for use in industry has made some of
the locally manufactured items particularly expensive. Furthermore, an easing
of import restrictions has led to an influx of cheaper goods, which have
effectively competed against local products The textile industry has
effectively competed against local products. The textile industry has

particularly suffered from imported secondhand clothes, which many

Malawians find more affordable than those produced domestically.

Finance

The Reserve Bank of Malawi is the central bank of the country; it issues the
national currency, the Malawian kwacha, and advises the government on
monetary policy. In addition, there are a number of commercial banks, the
majority of which are centred in Blantyre. There are several insurance
companies operating in the country, the largest of which, NICO Holdings
Limited (formerly the National Insurance Company), was privatized in 1996.

The Malawi Stock Exchange (MSE), established in 1994 with aid from the IMF,
the World Bank, and a development bank with links to the Dutch government,
opened its doors to traders in 1996. A member of the African Securities
Exchange Association, the MSE has a diverse supervising committee, including
government and central bank representatives.

Trade

More than two-fifths of Malawi’s foreign-exchange earnings are derived from

exports of tobacco, of which Malawi is a leading producer. Sugar, tea, and
cotton are also major exports.

Principal imports include chemicals and chemical products, petroleum

products, consumer goods, machinery and transport equipment, and food.
South Africa is Malawi’s most significant trading partner. Other trading
partners include China, the United States, India, and neighbouring African
countries.
Services

Services contribute substantially to Malawi’s GDP, and this sector grew

consistently in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Malawi’s natural wealth—
including its parks and reserves, biodiversity, and pleasant climate—is
considered a source of great tourism potential. A variety of sites have been
marked by the government for development as ecotourism destinations.

Labour and taxation

More than four-fifths of labourers work in the agricultural sector. All

Malawians except those employed in the army or police force are permitted to
join unions. Trade unions and employer associations are connected with
enterprises such as the tea, sugar, and tobacco plantations and the building
and construction industry. Since the early 1990s, trade unions have increased
in number, and their umbrella organization, the Malawi Congress of Trade
Unions, has become an effective voice for workers in the country. The Ministry
of Labour plays a significant role in maintaining good relations between
employers and employees.

Tax revenue is derived from multiple sources: employees pay an income tax,
local companies pay taxes at a fixed rate of chargeable income, and companies
incorporated outside Malawi pay an additional tax. In the execution of
monetary policy, the IMF and the World Bank have been working with the
Malawi government to ensure fiscal discipline, including a more efficient way
of collecting tax revenue; the Malawi Revenue Authority was established to
oversee the latter.

Transportation and telecommunications

Malawi has road connections to Lusaka, Zambia, by way of Mchinji and

Chipata, Zambia; to Johannesburg, South Africa, by way of Mwanza and Tete,
Mozambique, and Harare, Zimbabwe; and to several points on the
Mozambique border. The backbone of the road system is represented by a
road running from Blantyre in the south to Lilongwe in the centre and through
to Mzuzu in the north, where it joins a lakeshore road that ran roughly parallel
to it until that point. From Mzuzu the road continues on to Karonga and
crosses the Songwe River into Tanzania, where it connects with the highway to
Dar es Salaam. During the Mozambican civil war, the Dar es Salaam–Karonga
route was used to transport cargo, especially oil, which was transferred to lake
barges at Chilumba and then shipped south to Chipoka and Monkey Bay. The
feeder roads, most of which are in the rural areas, are not as developed as the
main highways. Almost half of all roadways in the country are paved.

Of Malawi’s two railway links to the sea, the first stretches from Lilongwe
eastward to Salima on the Lake Malawi shore and southward through Blantyre
to the port of Beira on the Mozambique coast; an extension from Lilongwe to
Mchinji, on the Zambia border, was completed in 1980. The second railroad
joins the Salima-Blantyre line at Nkaya Junction to the south of Balaka and
travels due east to link with the Mozambique Railways system at Cuamba,
Mozambique, whence it continues to the port of Nacala. Increased guerrilla
activity in Mozambique after 1981, including attacks on these rail lines, forced
Malawi to seek alternative, much longer routes to the sea, first through South
Africa and then through Tanzania, adding substantially to its freight transport
costs. With the end of the civil war in Mozambique in the early 1990s, traffic
through that country slowly resumed as rehabilitation of the infrastructure
was undertaken.

zoom_in
 Malawi: Shire River
Shire River at Mpatamanga Gorge, Malawi.

Of the rivers, only the Shire is partially navigable, all others being broken by
rapids and cataracts. Lake Malawi has long been used as a means of
inexpensive transportation. A passenger and cargo service that operates on the
lake is linked to the Chipoka railway junction about 17 miles (27 km) south of
Salima. The main ports on the lake include Monkey Bay, Nkhotakota, Nkhata
Bay, Likoma Island, Chilumba, and Karonga.

Air Malawi, the national airline, provides foreign and domestic service. There
are several airports in the country, including the primary international airport
at Lilongwe and the Chileka airport, situated just north of Blantyre.

The domestic telephone system consists mostly of landlines and microwave

radio links and radio communication stations. For international linkages,
satellite earth stations are used. Within Malawi there is a serious shortage of
landlines, and it is difficult to maintain the infrastructure; both issues are
exacerbated by the theft of cables, and efforts to bring information technology
to the more remote parts of the country have been hindered. Although mobile
cellular telephone use is on the increase, service is generally limited to urban
areas.

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