Basic Computer training skill including printing and photocopying

Short term Training Manual

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COURSE BREAKDOWN

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INTRODUCTION
On any given day, most of what you do will involve computer systems. The Television channels
you watch, the radio stations that you listen to, the car that you drive in, and even the cash
register at the local grocery store are all controlled in some way by computer systems!
Welcome to this training on Computer basic skills including printing and Photocopying , this
training provide for unemployment person and small enterprise, The training targets people who
would like to start and run a Computer basic skills including printing and Photocopying business.
Computers have become one of the fastest growing technologies in the world. Today people use
computer to stay in touch with friends and family, to share stories and photographs in social
media, to carry out financial transactions and so on.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents
COURSE BREAKDOWN...............................................................................................................i
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS...............................................................................................................iii
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................8
1. Applying 5S Procedures..............................................................................................................8
1.1. Prepare for work................................................................................................................8

1.1.1 Observing OHS Requirements throughout the Work................................................9

1.1.2. Workplace hazards.......................................................................................................10
1.2. Sort items............................................................................................................................10

1.2.1. Explanation of the first pillar – Sort............................................................................10

1.3. Set all items in order...........................................................................................................11

1.4. Perform shine activities......................................................................................................11

1.5. Standardize 5S....................................................................................................................11

1.6. Sustain 5S...........................................................................................................................11

CHAPTER TWO...........................................................................................................................11
2. Connect Hardware Peripherals..................................................................................................11
2.1. Confirm requirements of client...........................................................................................11

2. 1.1 Understanding history, generation and types of computers.....................................11

2.1.2. Characteristics of computer.........................................................................................12
2.1.3. Generation of computer...............................................................................................13
2.2. Obtain required peripherals................................................................................................19

2.2.1. Storing Peripherals according to vendor manual guidelines.......................................20

2.3. Connect hardware peripherals............................................................................................21

2.3.1. Configuring operating system to accept the new peripherals..................................23

2.4. Connect workstation to the internet....................................................................................24

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 2.4.1. Selecting the right type of internet service provider....................................................24
CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................25
3. Operate Personal Computer.......................................................................................................25
3.1. Start the computer...............................................................................................................25

3.1.1. OHS standards.............................................................................................................30

3.2. Access basic system information........................................................................................30

2.1 Navigate operating system..............................................................................................31

3.3. Navigate and Manipulate desktop environment.................................................................32

3.4. Organize basic directory/ folder structure and files............................................................35

4.1 Attributes of Directories..................................................................................................37

3.5. Organize files for user and/or organization requirements..................................................37

5.1 Accessing Most common types of files in the directories..............................................38

5.2 Copying Files to disks.....................................................................................................38

3.6. Printer installing..................................................................................................................39

1.2 Types of printers.............................................................................................................40

1.3 Installing printer software...............................................................................................40

Change printer to default setting...............................................................................................42

CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................45
4. Install Software Application......................................................................................................45
4.1. Determine software and upgrade requirements..................................................................48

4.2. Obtain software or software upgrade..................................................................................50

4.3. Install or upgrade software.................................................................................................56

CHAPTER FIVE...........................................................................................................................61
5. Protect Application or System Software....................................................................................61
5.1. Ensure user accounts are controlled...................................................................................61

5.2. Detect and remove destructive software.............................................................................67

5.3. Identify and take action to stop spam.................................................................................76

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 5.4. Perform workplace duties following written notices..........................................................80

CHAPTER SIX..............................................................................................................................82
6. Operate word-processing applications.......................................................................................82
6.1. Apply OHS practices..........................................................................................................82

Ergonomics strategies................................................................................................................82

6.2. Create documents................................................................................................................83

Adjust page layout.....................................................................................................................86

6.4. Format documents..............................................................................................................86

6.5. Create tables........................................................................................................................87

Insert table on document............................................................................................................87

6.6. Add images.........................................................................................................................88

6.7. Print documents..................................................................................................................90

CHAPTER SEVEN.......................................................................................................................91
7. Operate Spreadsheet Application..............................................................................................91
7.1. Create spreadsheets.............................................................................................................92

Edite column and row within the spreadsheet...........................................................................99

7.2. Customize basic settings.....................................................................................................99

7.3. Format spreadsheet...........................................................................................................106

7.4. Incorporate object and chart in spreadsheet......................................................................110

4.1 Create a chart using selected data in the spreadsheet.............................................111

7.5. Print spreadsheet...............................................................................................................118

CHAPTER EIGHT......................................................................................................................122
8. Access and Use Database Application....................................................................................122
8.1. Create database objects.....................................................................................................122

8.2. Add record on table..........................................................................................................134

8.3. Customize basic settings...................................................................................................138

CHAPTER NINE.........................................................................................................................143

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9. Maintain Inventories of Hardware and Software and Documentation....................................143
9.1. Document and update inventory...........................................................................................143
9.2. Store technical documentation..............................................................................................150
9.3. Assess quality of receive articles..........................................................................................157
CHAPTER TEN..........................................................................................................................162
10. Create a simple markup language document.........................................................................162
10.1.1. Selecting Markup Language Based on Organizational Standards...........................165
10.2. Create document structure..............................................................................................176

10.3. Writing Simple Markup Language.....................................................................................206

Reference.................................................................................................................................215

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List of tables and figures
Figure 1:- At-risk workers without appropriate safety equipment................................................12
Figure 2 mouse with two buttons and a scroll wheel.....................................................................30
Figure 3 Keyboard Layout.............................................................................................................31
Figure 4 Windows 10 screen.........................................................................................................33
Figure 5 Desktop Components......................................................................................................35
Figure 6 Different Icons.................................................................................................................35
Figure 7Desktop Icon Settings.......................................................................................................36
Figure 8 eject a disc......................................................................................................................41
Figure 9 Select Set as Default Printer to make this printer the default.........................................45
Figure 10allows you to change print settings................................................................................46
Figure 11 select cell.......................................................................................................................98
Figure 12 enter formula.................................................................................................................99

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 CAPTER ONE

1. Applying 5S Procedures

1.1. Prepare for work

Using Work Instructions to Determine Job Requirements
A Job can be defined as:
A piece of work, especially a specific task done as part of the routine of one's occupation or
for an agreed price.
A post of employment; full-time or part-time position
Anything a person is expected or obliged to do; duty; responsibility
An affair, matter, occurrence, or state of affairs.
The material, project, assignment, etc., being worked upon.
The process or requirements, details, etc., of working.
The execution or performance of a task.

The requirements for a job vary according to the nature of the job itself. However, a certain work
ethic must be cultivated to succeed in any job and this is fundamental to an individual’s sense of
himself as a worker, as part of production relations and a fundamental economic being. The basic
requirements for a job remain the same no matter what the job is, where it is located or what
professional and educational qualifications are required for it. These are as follows:

Discipline: Nothing is possible without discipline. Any job requires a fundamental core of
discipline from the worker or the employee and this is a quality which is independent of age,
post, stature, job and so on. Discipline is absolutely indispensable and provides the impetus for
work that can be strenuous, repetitive, boring and even unsatisfactory at times.

Enthusiasm: Enthusiasm for work is also a pre-requisite for any job. An innate love for the job,
which in modern parlance is known as job satisfaction, is a core requirement for any job. The
drive to succeed, to innovate, to do well and to make one’s profession into one’s livelihood is a
critical drive which needs to be present in the employee or cultivated as soon as possible. No job,

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however perfectly carried out, can evoke the feeling of satisfaction of a job well done without the
instinct for success.

Qualifications: This is a more material, tactile need for a job which can be conveyed through
degrees and certificates. However education is not limited to what is taught in colleges or
vocational training courses. It is the burning desire to learn more, to reach the depths of
knowledge about a particular field of interest, to complete the job and learn from it that marks
the true enthusiast and the truly learned.

Soft Skills: Soft skills include those skills which ensure that a job is executed well, and the
employee can carry himself in the proper manner too. For example, good and smooth
communication, computer skills, proficiency in language if needed, presentable appearance, the
ability to manage crises are all soft skills which are fundamentally important in any job and
which must be cultivated consciously.

1.1.1 Observing OHS Requirements throughout the Work

OHS requirements are legislation/regulations/codes of practice and enterprise safety policies and
procedures. This may include protective clothing and equipment, use of tooling and equipment,
workplace environment and safety, handling of material, use of firefighting equipment,
enterprise first aid, hazard control and hazardous materials and substances.

Personal protective equipment include those prescribed under legislation/ regulations/codes of

practice and workplace policies and practices. Safe operating procedures include the conduct of
operational risk assessment and treatments associated with workplace organization. Emergency
procedures include emergency shutdown and stopping of equipment, extinguishing fires,
enterprise first aid requirements and site evacuation.

Occupational safety and health (OSH) also commonly referred to as occupational health and
safety (OHS) or workplace health and safety (WHS) is an area concerned with the safety, health
and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. The goals of occupational safety and
health programs include fostering a safe and healthy work environment. OSH may also protect
co-workers, family members, employers, customers, and many others who might be affected by
the workplace environment. In the United States the term occupational health and safety is
referred to as occupational health and occupational and non-occupational safety and includes
safety for activities outside work.

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1.1.2. Workplace hazards
Although work provides many economic and other benefits, a wide array of workplace hazards
also present risks to the health and safety of people at work. These include "chemicals, biological
agents, physical factors, adverse ergonomic conditions, allergens, a complex network of safety
risks," and a broad range of psychosocial risk factors.

Figure 1:- At-risk workers without appropriate safety equipment

1.2. Sort items.

1.2.1. Explanation of the first pillar – Sort
A. Definition of Sort

Sort, the first pillar of 5S, means classifying items in the workplace in to two categories –
necessary and unnecessary - and removing all the unnecessary items that are not needed for
current operations. It corresponds to the just in time (JIT) principle of “only what is needed, only
in the amount needed, and only when it is needed.” The workplace is full of unused machines,
jigs, dies, rejects, work-in-process, raw materials, supplies, parts, shelves, containers, desks,
workbenches, files, carts, racks, pallets and other items.

People tend to hang onto parts, thinking that they may be needed for the next time. They see an
inappropriate machine or equipment and think that they will use it somehow. In this way,
inventory and equipment tend to accumulate and get in the way of everyday activities. This leads
to a massive build of waste in companywide or in the whole workshop. An easy rule is to remove
anything that will not be used within the next 30 days. A ceiling on the number of necessary
items should be established.

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B. Benefits of sort activity
Implementing this first pillar creates a work environment in which space, time, money, energy,
and other resources can be managed and used most effectively. Sorting can lead to a much safer
workplace. By clearing out the items you no longer need, people will have more room to work
and things like trip hazards and items falling off shelves will be greatly reduced. Sorting also
improves work flow since there is less clutter to deal with and will most definitely increase
productivity in both production and office environments

1.3. Set all items in order.

Set in order means arranging necessary items so that they are easy to use and labelling them so
that anyone can find them and put them away. The key word in this definition is “anyone”. Set
in order can be implemented only when the first pillar- sort is done first. No matter how well you
arrange items, set in order can have little impact if many of the items are unnecessary and not
sorted. Similarly, if sorting is implemented without setting in order, it is much less effective.
Where necessary items should be placed should be made clear for anyone to immediately find
them and return them easily. Hence, Sort and Set in order work best, when they are implemented
together.

Setting in order is important because it eliminates many kinds of waste from operations in a
workplace. These include searching time waste, waste due to difficulty in using items, and waste

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due to difficulty in returning items. In general, the following problems and wastes are avoided
when set in order is well implemented.
1. Motion wastes
2. Searching time wastes
3. The waste of human energy
4. The waste of excess inventory
5. The waste of defective products
6. The waste of unsafe conditions

1.4. Perform shine activities.

The third pillar of 5S is shine. Shine means sweeping floors, wiping off machinery and generally
making sure that everything in the factory stays clean. In a manufacturing company, shine is
closely related to the ability to produce quality products. Shine also includes saving labor by
finding ways to prevent dirt, dust, and debris from piling up in the workshop. Shine should be
integrated in to daily maintenance tasks to combine cleaning checkpoints with maintenance
checkpoints.

Cleaning is so important because when we clean an area, we are also doing some inspection or
checking of machinery, equipment, and work conditions. An operator cleaning a machine can
find many mal-functions. When a machine is covered with oil, soot, and dust, it is difficult to
identify any problems that may be developing. While cleaning the machine, however, one can
easily spot oil leakage, a crack developing on the cover, or loose nuts and bolts. Once these
problems are recognized, they are easily fixed.

It is said that most machines breakdowns begin with vibration (due to loose nuts and bolts), with
introduction of foreign particles such as dust (due to the crack on the cover, for instance), or with
inadequate oiling and greasing. For this reason shine is useful to make discoveries while
cleaning machines. Hence, shine means cleaning the workplace’s floors, equipment and
facilities, provide inspection at the same time, and ensure that they are in good operating
condition.

1.5. Standardize 5S.

Standardize, the fourth pillar of our visual workplace, differs from Sort, Set in Order, and Shine.
This is because it is the method- you use to maintain the first three pillars of 5S. Building on this
definition, we may define Standardize the result that exists when the first three pillars-Sort, set in
order and Shine-are properly maintained.

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Benefits from Standardize
1. Lead to workplace standardization
 prevent setbacks in the first three pillars
 Make implementing them a daily habit
 Ensure that all the three pillars are maintained in their fully implemented state.
2. Lead to work standardization
 Muda elimination
 Quality improvements
 Cost improvements
 Delivery time improvements
 Process improvements
Here are some of the problems that result when we do not implement Standardization well:
 Conditions go back to their previous and undesirable levels even after a companywide 5S
implementation campaign.
 At the end of the day, piles of unneeded items are left from the day's production and lie
scattered around the production equipment.
 Tool storage sites become disorganized and must be put back in order at the end of the
day.
 Cutting shavings constantly fall on the floor and must be swept up.
 Even after implementing Sort and Set in order, it does not take long for office workers to
start accumulating more stationery supplies than they need.

These problems and others reveal backsliding in gains made from implementing Sort Set in
Order, and Shine Activities. The basic purpose of the Standardize pillar is to prevent setbacks in
the first three pillars, to make implementing them a daily habit, and to make sure that all three
pillars are maintained in their fully implemented state.

How to Implement Standardize

The three steps to making Sort, Set in Order and Shine activities (the three pillars or 3S) a habit
are:

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1.6. Sustain 5S.
The fifth pillar is Sustain. In the context of the five pillars, to sustain means to make a habit of
properly maintaining correct procedures. In your life in general, what do you mean when you
talk about sustaining something? Usually, you think of it as drawing on something from inside
yourself in order to maintain a course of action-even when forces in your life challenge in this
effort.
 Means making a habit of properly maintaining correct procedures

Problems Avoided by Implementing Sustain

Here are some of the things that happen in a company when Commitment to the five pillars is not
sustained.
1. Unneeded items begin piling up as soon as sorting is completed
2. No matter how well Set in Order is planned and implemented, tools and jigs do not get
returned to their designated place after use.
3. No matter how dirty equipment becomes, little or nothing is done to clean it.
4. Terms are left protruding into walkways, causing people to trip and get injured.
5. Dirty machines start to malfunction and produce defective goods.
6. Dark, dirty, disorganized workplaces lower workers' morale.

These 5S related problems and others are likely to occur in any factory or office that lacks a
commitment to sustain the five pillar gains over time.
Why Sustain Is Important

Usually you commit yourself to sustain a particular course of action because the rewards for
keeping to the course of action are greater than the rewards for departing from it (see figure
above). Viewed another way, the consequences of not keeping to the course of action may be
greater than the consequences of keeping to it. For example, suppose you want to start an exercise
program –say you decide you want to work out at a gym three times a week. You probably have
difficulty sustaining this course of action. This is because forces in your life, such as limits on your
time and energy as well as the power of inertia, challenge this plan. However, if the rewards of
sticking to your exercise program (for example, feeling and looking better) are greater than the
rewards of not sticking to it (for example, having more time for other things that you need to do),
your commitment will increase and you will probably sustain this program over lime.

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Figure 2 The sustain pillar holds the first four pillars together.
The same principle applies in your 55 implementation. Without your commitment to sustain the
benefits of the 5S activities, implementation of the first four pillars quickly falls apart (see Figure
above). However, if the rewards of implementing the first four pillars are greater for you than the
rewards of not implementing them, sustaining them through the fifth pillar should be some- thing
you take to naturally.

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CHAPTER TWO

2. Connect Hardware Peripherals

2.1. Confirm requirements of client
2. 1.1 Understanding history, generation and types of computers
Definition of computer
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or "data." It has the ability to
store, retrieve, and process data. You can use a computer to type documents, send email, and
browse the internet. You can also use it to handle spreadsheets, accounting, database
management, presentations, games, and more for beginning computer users.

Data is a collection of unorganized facts & figures and does not provide any further information
regarding patterns, context, etc. Hence data means "unstructured facts and figures".

Information is a structured data i.e. organized meaningful and processed data. To process the
data and convert into information, a computer is used. Computers consist of two basic parts:

Hardware is any part of your computer that has a physical structure, such as the computer
monitor or keyboard.

Software is any set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. It is what guides the
hardware and tells it how to accomplish each task. Some examples of software are web browsers,
games, and word processors such as Microsoft Word. Anything you buy for your computer can
be classified as either hardware or software. Once you learn more about these items, computers
are actually very straightforward.

2.1.2. Characteristics of computer

A computer has a lot of features or characteristics but in all those characteristics 5 are the most
popular.

Speed: computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take
hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions
(1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second. Therefore, we determine the speed of
computer in terms of microsecond (106 part of a second) or nanosecond (109 part of a second).
From this you can imagine how fast your computer performs work.

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Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistent. Computer gives us accurate result or
calculation. Error occurs in result for any calculation in a computer is only due to wrong program
or instruction, inaccuracy in input data etc. You can directly say that errors in computers can
happen only due to human beings. Otherwise, the accuracy of a computer device is constantly
high.

Consistency: Computer is a consistent machine; it means that computer never gets tired of
working more. You can use computer to perform your task without any error for any number of
hours, any number of hours means you can use your computer system continuously for 24 hours
a day and 365 days a year.

Storage: The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You
can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside your
computer and can be carried to other computers.

Flexibility: means that a computer can work in many areas like you can use your computer
system to:

 Watch movies or videos

 Listen sounds or music’s
 Play games
 See pictures
 Write textual documents and save
 Open and read anything

2.1.3. Generation of computer

Generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper
more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. The various generations of computers an
listed below

First Generation (1946 to 1954): In 1946 there was no ‘best’ way of storing instructions and
data in a computer memory. The digital computes using electronic valves (Vacuum tubes) are
known as first generation computers. The first ‘computer’ to use electronic valves (i.e. vacuum
tubes). The high cost of vacuum tubes prevented their use for main memory. They stored
information in the form of propagating sound waves.

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Limitations of First-Generation Computer

Followings are the major drawbacks of First generation computers.

 They used valves or vacuum tubes as their main electronic component.

 They were large in size, slow in processing and had less storage capacity.

 They consumed lots of electricity and produced lots of heat.

 Their computing capabilities were limited.

 They were not so accurate and reliable.

 They used machine level language for programming.

 They were very expensive

Second-generation computer (1955 to 1964): - used transistors for CPU components. They
used high-level languages such as FORTRAN; ALGOL & COBOL.I/O processor was included
to control I/O operations. Around 1955 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky Vacuum
tubes in the first-generation computer. Transistors are smaller than Vacuum tubes and have
higher operating speed. They have no filament and require no heating. Manufacturing cost was
also very low. Thus, the size of the computer got reduced considerably.
Advantages of second-generation computers
Here are some of the main advantages of using second generation computer at that time:
 Smaller in size as compared to the first-generation computers
 The second-generation computers were more reliable
 Used less energy and were not heated
 Wider commercial use
 Better portability as compared to the first-generation computers
 Beta speed and could calculate data in microseconds
 Used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disks, printer etc.
Disadvantages of second-generation computers
 Cooling system was required
 Constant maintenance was required

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  Commercial production was difficult
 Only used for specific purposes
Third Generation computer (1964 to 1975)
Now another new technology named integrated circuits that is ICs came into existence and
therefore the third-generation computer was also came into existence. The third-generation
computers used the integrated circuits (ICs).
Benefits of using all those computers that was made up on the third generation over second
generation:
Less costly  Highly sophisticated Technology
Small in size was required for the manufacturing
Consume less power of IC chips
Highly reliable

Advantages of third generation

computers
Following are some main advantages of
using third generation computers:

 Smaller in size as compared to

previous generation
 More reliable
 Used less energy
 Better speed and could calculate data
in nanoseconds
 Used fan for heat discharge to
prevent damage
Disadvantages of third generation
computers

Following are some main disadvantages of

using third generation computers:

 Air conditioning was required

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Fourth Generation Computer (1975 to present)
Fourth generation computer starts from the year, 1971. At that time there was an invention of
microprocessor chip that has created a revolution in the computer world.
The fourth-generation computers started with the invention of microprocessor. The
microprocessor contains thousands of ICs. The size of modern microprocessors is usually 1
square inch. It can contain millions of electronic circuits.
Advantages of fourth generation of computers
Following are the advantages of using those computer machines that are based on fourth
generation over previous generation:
 Much faster
 Less expensive
 More powerful and reliable than previous generations
 Small in size
 Uses advanced techniques
 Have greater data processing capacity than equivalent size previous generation computer
that is third generation computers
 Fast processing power with less power consumption
 Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold
 No air conditioning required
Fifth Generation Computer (Present to beyond)
Scientists are working hard on the fifth-generation computers with quick of few breakthroughs. It
is based on the technique of artificial intelligence (AI).
All computer machines that will made on the basis of 5th generation computer will use parallel
processing techniques and artificial intelligence. Parallel processing techniques and artificial
intelligence are basically similar to the one used by our brain that is human brain.
Types of computers

Computers can be categorized on the basis of: size and data handling capabilities. Further, on the
basis of data handling capabilities, computers can be divided into three types:
1. Analogue computer: They are designed so that they can process the analogue data. The data
that can change continuously and do not have discrete values such as temperature, current, speed
and pressure is known as Analogue data. The continuous changes that physical quantity goes

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through are measured by analogue computers. The output rendered by them is generally in the
form of a reading on a dial or scale.
Analogue computers don’t wait for the data to get converted into codes and numbers and rather
accept the data from the measuring device directly. Mercury meter and speedometer are the
examples of analogue computer.
2. Digital Computers: They are designed to perform logical operations and calculations at a
high speed. A digital computer accepts raw data as numbers or digits and then, to produce
output, it processes it with the programs stored in its memory. The modern computers like
desktops and laptops fall under the category of digital computers.
3. Hybrid Computer: It contains the features of both Digital and Analogue computers. It has
accuracy and memory like digital computers and is fast like Analogue computers. It can process
both discrete and continuous data and hence it is widely used in specialized applications where
both digital and analogue data is processed, example being a petrol pump where a processor is
used to convert the measurement of fuel flow into price and quantity.
On the basis of size, computers can be classified into four types
1. Microcomputer: It is also known as Personal Computer. This general-purpose computer is
mainly designed for individual use. It consists of a microprocessor, which works as the
Central Processing Unit, storage area, memory, and input and output unit. The most famous
examples of Microcomputers are Desktop computers, Laptop computers and palmtop.
2. Min computer: It is a multiprocessing computer of midsize. It has the capacity of entertaining
4 to 200 users at one given time and consists of 2 or more processors. Mini computers are
mostly used in departments and institutes for the tasks like inventory management, billing and
accounting.
3. Mainframe computer: They have the capacity of supporting hundreds or thousands of users
simultaneously and they can also support multiple programs at the same time. This means that
different processes can be executed simultaneously by a Mainframe Computer. Hence,
organizations that need to process and manage high volume of data find mainframe computers
ideal for them. Telecom and banking sectors are examples of such organizations. Mainframe
computers are useful for tasks related to:

 Census taking  Transaction processing

 Industry and consumer statistics  e-business and e-commerce
 Enterprise resource planning

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4. Super/Macro computers: They are the fastest in speed and the biggest in size and specialize
in processing a huge amount of data. A supercomputer contains thousands of interconnected
processors that help it process trillions of instructions in just a second. Supercomputers are
used for complex tasks, such as:
 Weather forecasting

 Climate research

 Scientific simulation

 Oil and gas exploration

 Quantum mechanics

2.1.4. Basic concept internal and external hardware components

External hardware components
External describes a hardware device that's installed outside of the computer. For example,
a printer is an external device because it connects to the back of the computer and is outside
the case. However, a video card is an internal device since it is found inside of the computer
case.
Keyboard: It is one of the most important tools used to enter the information and numbers and
different characters to the computer to address and get the results.
Mouse: It is a tool used to mark or identify certain information that appears on the computer
screen, and it needs a person or an assistant to manage it correctly.
Microphone: A device that specializes in receiving sounds and inserting them into the computer
in order to modify or retain them. It also contributes greatly to the various voice conversations on
the computer.
Scanner: A device that helps to insert various images and graphics into a computer, converting it
from its graphic nature to another digital nature.
Printer: Used to output information, data, such as numbers, letters, and images printed on paper.
Plotters: Used in the output of geometric drawings, and in various sizes, and then printed on
paper.
Camera: which works to capture different images and keep them in the device.
Internal Hardware components
Internal describes a device that's installed inside the computer. For example, a video card is
an internal device and a printer is an external device. When referring to a drive, an internal

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drive (e.g., internal hard drive) is any drive inside the computer. In the picture is an example of
computer memory and an example of internal hardware. Below are additional examples of
internal hardware in a computer.
Identifying and categorizing computer software
Software: means instructions that tell a computer what to do when to do and how to do the
hardware part of the computer. Software comprises the entire set of programs, procedures, and
routines associated with the operation of a computer system. There are different types of
software that can run on a computer: system software, utility software, and application software.

System Software is a set of programs that control and manage the operations of computer
hardware. It also helps application programs to execute correctly. System Software’s are
designed to control the operation and extend the processing functionalities of a computer system.
System software makes the operation of a computer faster, effective, and secure. Example:
Operating system, programming language, Communication software, etc . Utility Software is
system software that helps to maintain the proper and smooth functioning of a Computer System.
It assists the Operating System to manage, organize, maintain, and optimize the functioning of
the computer system. Utility Software performs certain tasks like virus detection, installation,
and uninstallation, data backup, deletion of unwanted files, etc. Some examples are antivirus
software, file management tools, compression tools, disk management tools, etc.

Application Software is a type of computer program that performs specific functions. These
functions, performed by application software, can be personal, business as well as educational.
Thus, application Software is also known as end-user software or productivity software. This
application software includes: Microsoft products such as Office, PowerPoint, Word, Excel,
Outlook, etc.

Documenting and reporting client requirements

If the peripheral is an essential part of the computer system (for example mouse, keyboard or
monitor) it is logical to record information about the device within the documentation for the
computer to which it is connected. Individual computer inventories will often contain detailed
information about the computer’s related hardware and software. It may also be more practical to
record information about the peripheral inside the computer’s record, if the device is also
permanently connected to a computer (for example a printer or scanner).

Table 1 Details of computer specification

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 Manufacturer: Dell

Model: OptiPlex GX280MT Minitower—Power

Operating System: Windows 10
Serial number: 12345
RAM: 4GB
Hard disk space: 500 Gb
Monitor: Dell OptiPlex 7010
Printer: HP LaserJet d402
Keyboard: Dell USB keyboard
Pointing device: Dell USB 2-button optical mouse with scroll

2.2. Obtain required peripherals

The first step in obtaining a peripheral device is to locate suppliers of that device. Then, there are
factors you need to consider about the supplier and the devices on offer, such as support
provided and purchase price. This will help you to compare and choose the most appropriate
supplier and the exact model of the device according to client requirements. Finally, you are
ready to place an order for your organization or client to purchase the device.

Locate suppliers

There are many ways to find a supplier of peripheral equipment. Some ways include:
 Searching the Internet
 PC magazines
 Newspapers
 Brochures/advertising material
 Telephone directory
 Contacting the manufacturer directly
Choosing a supplier

With so many choices of suppliers available, how do you find the right one? There are a few
factors to consider:
 How long has the supplier been operating?

 Does the supplier offer suitable support and training?

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  Does the supplier offer competitive pricing?

 Is the supplier a preferred supplier for your organisation?

Selecting a peripheral

Once you have selected suitable suppliers you need to contact each supplier. Information you
should find out from the supplier includes:
 price of each model

 Availability of each model.

2.2.1. Storing Peripherals according to vendor manual guidelines

Peripheral devices need to be located in a suitable environment; otherwise, there may be
potential problems. It is a good idea to refer to the manufacturer’s manual to determine what
guidelines should be followed. When storing peripherals, it is important to:

Make sure equipment is kept in ideal working conditions

Adhere to current Occupational Health and Safety guidelines
Ensure the electrical safety of the device
Consider security of the device.

Keeping equipment in ideal work condition

Each manufacturer will have their own recommendations on how to store their peripheral
equipment. In order to guarantee that a peripheral will function correctly throughout its life it is
important to follow guidelines that have been recommended by the manufacturer. Some common
recommendations may include:

 Keep equipment in the correct position

 Keep equipment away from weather, dust and other harmful
 Do not expose equipment to extreme temperatures and high humidity
 Avoid storing the device in direct sunlight
 Do not expose equipment to water or moisture

Ensuring electrical safety

Some tips to ensure electrical safety are:

 Never use damaged plugs or leads.

 If possible, ask an electrician to check the safety of your system.

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  Position electrical leads where they will not cause tripping hazards to people.

Physical security

In many situations it is important to consider the physical security of the peripheral devices.
Some devices, such as digital cameras, data projectors and USB drives, may not be permanently
connected to a computer so it will be necessary to find a secure location to store the device.
Make sure that these kinds of devices are secured in a lockable storage cupboard, cabinet or safe
when not required. Some organizations install security devices onto desks to guarantee that
computers are secure and will not be able to be taken from their position unless unlocked.

2.3. Connect hardware peripherals

One of the most important considerations when installing a new hardware peripheral is to try and
install the device with the least amount of timeframe for installation, environmental
consideration and OH&S standards. A client may not be very happy if you install a piece of
hardware equipment while they are creating an urgent report, if may take time to install it the
peripheral devices and also the interconnection of the devices creates un-proper/un-safe/ working
condition at the work place within any organization. It is important to schedule installation time
and OHS standards that are: -

Also suitable to the client’s or computer user’s

Sufficient length to install and thoroughly test the hardware device and
Create attractive working place for the clients

To achieve this, make sure that you are aware of: -

• Common organizational procedures/guideline/ that regularly need to be performed on the

computer (for example, end of month processing or weekly backups) and plan installations
outside these periods and the way to create save work place.

• Current working condition, deadlines and schedules of the client/user. Therefore, the
installations and the OHS standards should be scheduled for the times such as:

• Quiet periods (for example, during holiday periods)

• Before or after normal office hours

• While the client/user is out of the office

• When the client will not need their computer.

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 Environmental Consideration

It can be difficult to work out how long it will take to install a peripheral device. It will vary
according to the type of device, current environmental consideration, problems requiring
troubleshooting and the experience of the installer/technicians/. If you will be regularly
performing installations, keeping a log of installations, nothing that create disruption to the users
are required and problems experienced, could help to estimate the time spent on future
installations and create safely work place at any organization.

All computer users important to understand safely connect hardware peripherals devices
according to vendor instructions with a minimum of down time to the system and ensure that you
adhere to the OH&S regulations relating to working with electrical equipment’s as well as
environmental consideration like dust, temperature, humidity, electric system, working tables
and so on.
 Connecting Peripherals
 Connect the hardware
 Install the software drivers
 Test the peripheral
 Peripheral Software Drivers
 Driver software: allows computer to recognize new hardware
 windows have it for common hardware e.g., modem
 if comes with ‘disk’ use it as it is more recent
 if on internet check ‘readme.txt’ file first – latest drivers
 peripheral manual guides to installation process OR ‘control panel’
 Installing the Drivers for Peripheral Configurations
Drivers for monitors on windows drivers otherwise you wouldn’t be able to see. But if specific,
install by: -
 Plug and Play
Computer will recognize new device when turned on and connected  on-screen wizard –
choose between automatic/manual installation.
 Automatic detection
If monitor not plug and play compatible  Control panel

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2.3.1. Configuring operating system to accept the new peripherals
With the large variety of computer systems, operating systems, peripheral device types and
features, and manufacturers, each peripheral device will have its own individual installation
procedures. It is important to refer to manufacturer guidelines and manuals when installing any
hardware device to ensure that all procedures are correctly followed. Procedures which are
generally followed when installing any new peripheral device include:

• Plugging in the cables between the device and computer system

• Installing driver software for configuration

• Troubleshooting device installation when necessary

• Customizing the device and updating drivers

• Testing the device for satisfying required conditions of clients

Whenever you install a hardware peripheral device, you may also have to install a driver
depending on types of devices. A device driver is a software program that allows the hardware
device to talk to the operating system and create an interface between users and devices.

Generally, device driver software will be included within the packaging of a new device.
Sometimes operating systems, such as Windows XP, Windows 7, automatically provide their
own drivers if you don’t provide one. At times it may be necessary to find a newer version of a
driver than the one that has been provided by the manufacturer. It is a good idea to regularly
check the manufacturer’s website to see if any new drivers have been developed for the specific
peripheral devices.

 Plug and play is a hardware technology that enables many operating systems to
automatically recognize new hardware devices and configure them automatically. Most
USB devices support plug and play (PnP devices). Plugging in the cables between the
device and computer system
To make your computer work, you need to connect all the hardware peripherals to the ports
at the back of the system unit case. Before connecting all the peripherals to its corresponding
ports, check it that the power cord was unplug into the power source to prevent electrical
related injury. You should be able to connect the Mouse, Keyboard, Monitor, Printer,
Scanner, Speaker and power up your computer by connecting the power cord to the power
supply. After doing so, you can now start using your computer. Some examples as follows:-

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  Before powering up your Pc, make sure that the power cable was connected to the power
supply

Figure 3 power supply with its cable

 Connecting Mouse and Keyboard

There are two standard connectors for mice and keyboards; PS/2 connectors and the more
modern USB connectors. Plug the mouse and keyboard in the appropriate slot.

PS2 Cable

 To connect the scanner to the PC, you will use also use the USB cable.

USB Cable
 To connect the Printer to the PC, you will use the cable below via printer port. A USB
able is now also being use to connect the new printer to the computer especially the
colored and laser printer.
 Steps to installing and configuring a printer
Printer cable

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Step1. Obtain the correct printer cable
In many cases a printer won’t automatically have a cable included with the original purchase.
Check the printer specifications; you will probably need to buy either a parallel or USB cable.
Step2. Plug in the cable
 Turn off the power of both printer and computer system
 Plug the printer cable into the correct port of the computer but depending on the type of
printer the port will most likely to be either a USB or a parallel port located on the back
of the computer system. If you are plugging the cable into a parallel port connection you
will need to secure the cable by either tightening small screws or snapping in wire
connectors.
Steps3. Install ink cartridges of printers
Depending on the printer you have you may need to install an ink cartridge (for inkjet printers)
or toner cartridge (for laser printers). Turn the computer’s power on and follow the
manufacturer’s guidelines to install a new cartridge.
Steps4. Install the printer driver
At some point the computer will either recognise that new hardware has been installed (for
example if the operating system is plug and play compatible) or you will need to tell the
computer that a new device has been added. In other case, you will work at some stage be asked
for the printer model and a printer driver. Make sure you install the printer driver at this stage.
Sometimes the installation CD will automatically run, installing the printer driver at the same
time.
Steps5. Print a test page
Often at the end of the driver installation you will be asked if you would like to print a test page.
This is a good idea because you can quickly determine if the printer is working correctly. If not
you can troubleshoot the installation.
Customizing the printer

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Depending on your client’s needs, there may be a need to alter the default printer settings. Some
settings that may be customised include:
 Changing the page layout: - a page may need to be printed in either landscape or
portrait orientation.
 Changing the paper source/size/:- depending on the complexity of the printer there
may be a variety of trays the printer has available to use.
 Changing the print quality: - depending on the printer use, a client may require best,
normal or draft quality of print.
 Setting the default printer: - if there is more than one printer attached to a computer,
you may need to change the settings so that the newer model is considered the
default model.
2.3.1. Testing and confirming hardware peripherals
In addition to ensuring a device is able to perform a basic task (such as printing a test page or
scanning an image) it is also necessary that all functionality required by the client is tested.
When new peripheral equipment is not tested for critical functions before being used, it can lead
to malfunction, causing large disruptions to clients and potentially damage other parts of a
computer system.
Ensure that all new installations are thoroughly tested after initial setup and prior to use by the
client. Printers need to be routinely tested, as components such as the ink cartridges and toner
can cause deterioration of print quality and may require maintenance and/or cleaning.
All tests should be completed according to a documented test plan.

Some suggestions of functions that may be tested for a printer, scanner and digital camera
devices are included as follows: -

Printer: - Printer functions that may be tested are: -

 Can the printer handle different paper types?
 Will the printer work successfully on different computers?
 Will the printer work successfully with different software packages (for example, word
processing, spread sheets and desktop publishing)?
 Is black and white print quality acceptable to clients?
 Is colour print quality acceptable to clients?
Test plan

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A test plan is used to work out a structured process to ensure that a new device will work under
all expected circumstances. It logically describes: -
 Functions that need to be tested
 An example test case scenario
 Expected results for each scenario
2.4. Connect workstation to the internet
An ISP (internet service provider) is a company that provides individuals and organizations
access to the internet and other related services. An ISP has the equipment and the
telecommunication line access required to have a point of presence on the internet for the
geographic area served. The most important factors to consider when selecting an internet
service provider are availability, speed, price, and internet connection type. Internet service
providers connect your personal or business computer, laptop, mobile device etc. to the internet.
ISPs may be commercial, non-profit, privately owned or community owned companies.

Most providers offer the same types of internet services to customers, including:

 internet access
 email access
 domain name registration
 web hosting
 co-location (or data center services)

2.4.1. Selecting the right type of internet service provider

When selecting an ISP, you should carefully determine your ISP requirements. You should
consider:

 the type of services you need

 the costs and quality of services
 the number of users needing an internet connection
 the location of the users
 the bandwidth capacity
 contention ratios and other terms and conditions of the service
You should also determine if, either now or in the future, you might need:
 Virtual Private Network (VPN) access
 email access
 website hosting services

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  domain registration
 e-commerce facilities
 access to cloud technologies

To connecting computers to the internet connection for accessing information over a network
either by using connection based or connectionless internet infrastructure the user must be
connected to the internet access through internet service providers (ISP). There are three types of
connection such as: -
Dialup connection

Dial-up internet access is a form of Internet access that uses the facilities of the public switched
telephone network (PSTN) to establish a dialed connection to an Internet service provider (ISP)
via telephone lines. Allows you to connect to the internet via a local server using a standard 56k
modem
Advantages of dial up internet connection
 Very economic and widely available
 Hardware cost are minimal since it uses a standard modem
 Easy configuration
 Convenient for one computer or small network
Disadvantages of dial up internet connection
 The slowest connection
 Since it uses a 56k modem, it transfers 56 kilobits a second (7 KB) of data
 The average webpage size is about 50Kbyte
 So, it takes 7 seconds to load a webpage
 Your telephone line will be busy when connected
Leased connection

A leased line is a dedicated data connection with a fixed bandwidth. It enables small, medium,
and large businesses to connect to the internet in a secure, reliable, and highly efficient manner,
with maximum download capacity, resilience, and uptime.

Leased internet connection can be found in many forms the popular two are: -

ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line or DSL for short) is a high-speed Internet access
service that utilizes existing copper telephones lines to send and receive data at speeds that far

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exceed conventional dial-up modems. The fastest dial-up modems are rated at 57 kilobits per
second (Kbps), and usually operate at about 53 Kbps under good conditions. By comparison,

1. ADSL allows data stream speeds from 1.5 to 8 megabits per second (Mbps), depending on
the grade of ADSL service purchased.
ADSL uses standard telephone lines to transmit upstream and downstream data on a digital
frequency, which sets these data streams apart from the analog signals telephones and fax
machines use.
Asymmetric DSL (ADSL) is currently the most commonly used DSL technology.
 Has a fast downstream speed, typically 1.5 Mbps.
 Upload rate of ADSL is slower.
 Not the best solution for hosting a web server or FTP server
DSL Types

Table 1 types of ADSL and Description

No. Type Description

1 ADSL Asymmetric DSL is most common. Downstream speed from 384 Kbps to 6
Mbps. Upstream speeds lower than downstream speeds

2 HDSL High Data Rate DSL provides equal bandwidth in both directions.

3 SDSL Symmetric DSL provides the same speed, up to 3 Mbps, for uploads and
downloads

4 VDSL Very High Data Rate DSL is capable of bandwidths between 13 and 52
Mbps downstream, and 16 Mbps upstream

5 IDSL ISDN DSL is DSL over ISDN lines. Uses ordinary phone lines. Requires
ISDN adapters

Advantage of ADSL
 Always on
 Transfer data and voice at the same time

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  Fast
Disadvantages of ADSL
 Does not available everywhere
 Additional hardware cost, since it needs a special modem called ADSL modem
Cable Connection

In telecommunications, cable Internet access, often called simply cable Internet, is a form
of broadband Internet access that uses the cable television infrastructure. Like digital
subscriber line, cable Internet access provides network edge connectivity (last mile access)
from the Internet service provider to an end user. It is integrated into the cable
television infrastructure analogously to DSL which uses the existing telephone network.
Cable connection has the following characteristics
 It uses a separate cable than phone line to transfer data
 Very fast and reliable
 Fixed monthly fee
Advantage of cable connection
 Very fast
 Always on
 Doesn’t affect to make/receive a phone call, since it uses a separate cable
Disadvantages of cable connection
 Doesn’t available everywhere
 It needs a special modem called cable modem
Wireless connection (Wi-Fi network Connection)

Wireless is a term used to define telecommunication and data transmission without wires. In a
broad sense, wireless refers to any telecommunications or data transfer in which electromagnetic
waves -- rather than some form of wire or cable -- carry signals over all or part of the data
communication path. A
WLAN, or wireless LAN, is a network that allows devices to connect and
communicate wirelessly. Unlike a traditional wired LAN, in which devices communicate
over Ethernet cables, devices on a WLAN communicate via Wi-Fi.

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WLAN diagram with connected devices
Launching internet browser software
Now a time there are so many different types of internet browsers that used to access different
information on the internet. From time to time all users to access information from the internet,
any client installs and updating the internet browsers that to be uses. But all users/clients make
sure that the modem is switched on and connected to a live internet line connection and make
sure your connection software is configured properly.
Choose your web browser
 Google Chrome
 Mozilla Firefox
 Microsoft Edge
 Internet Explorer Safari

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CHAPTER THREE

3. Operate Personal Computer

3.1. Start the computer
An electronic device that can store, retrieve and process data, and can be programmed with
instructions that it remembers. The physical parts that make up a computer (the central
processing unit, input, output and memory) are called “hardware”. Programs that tell a computer
what to do are called “software”

A computer (also referred to as a PC) can be used for various functions, e.g., word processing,
spreadsheets, databases, business accounting, desktop publishing, accessing the Internet, sending
email, playing games, movies, music, etc.

Identify the parts of computer

A peripheral device is defined as a computer device connects to a computer system to add

functionality. Such as a keyboard or printer, that is not part of the essential computer (i.e., the
memory and microprocessor). These auxiliary devices are intended to be connected to the
computer and used.there are many different models of personal computers. They include desktop
personal computers (PC), notebooks and Laptops but they all have the same basic hardware
parts:

 keyboard
 mouse/touch pad/trackball
 monitor (screen)
 System unit.

1. Monitor (or Screen or VDU - Visual Display Unit)

The monitor (or screen) enables the operator to view data (and to alter it before printing it out).

2. Keyboard: The computer keyboard has the standard QWERTY layout with
extra keys for specific functions.

3.Speakers: The speakers play sound when on-capable features are accessed on
the computer.

4.Mouse: A mouse is used to select menu options, text and graphics displayed on the monitor.

5. Printer: A printer is used to print text and graphics onto paper.

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6. System unit containing CPU (Central Processing Unit)

A chip (called a Central Processing Unit) within the system unit processes data and relays
messages to and from the keyboard, monitor, disk drives and printer.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of your computer. It is a “chip” where your
computer interprets and processes information.

7. Hardware: The physical components of a computer system - everything that you can touch -
are called hardware.
8. Software: The programs used on a computer are called software. This includes system
software and application software such as MS-Word, MS-Excel, etc. System software is
necessary in order to run a computer and all applications within it.

9. Hard Disk and CD ROM Drives

Drives are used to store and access data. A hard disk drive is a permanent storage device within
your computer. CD-ROM drives allow you to read data from portable media (CD).

10. Video card

A video card fits inside your computer and determines the resolution (fineness of information)
and number of colors your monitor can display. In addition to some video cards allow the
display of graphics such as graphs, circles and geometric designs as well as text.

11. Memory

The memory is not a permanent storage place for information. It is only active while your
computer is turned on. To avoid losing your work you should save data on a disk (i.e., hard disk
or floppy disk) for permanent storage.

A. Compute component

The computer system needs people, data, hardware and software to operate. The process for
getting data in, processing the data and getting the information out is known as
input/process/output.

1.Input: - is the data that is entered into the computer. It is entered through input devices. Some
examples of input devices are:

mouse joy stick

touch pad

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 MP3 player
Digital video player (plays DVDs
keyboard
microphone

Scanner
digital camera

i. Using the mouse

One of the most useful tools for working on a computer is the mouse. The mouse is used to move
a pointer or cursor around the screen, in order to select a button or icon to perform a particular
task, or to access, move or copy data.
Mouse pointer: the arrow will match the movement on the screen. To move the mouse pointer,
move the mouse across the mouse pad and watch the pointer on the screen move in the same
direction.
Some common ways that you can use a mouse with two buttons include:
 Single Click = quick click of the LEFT Mouse Button
 Double Click = two quick clicks of the LEFT Mouse Button.
 Triple Click = three quick clicks of the LEFT Mouse Button.
 Right Click = quick click of the RIGHT Mouse Button.
 Drag and Drop = Pressing and HOLDING the LEFT Mouse Button and SLIDING the
pointer across the screen.

Scroll = Rolling the Scroll wheel when the Window is showing a more than one page of
information. A mouse may also have the additional feature—a scroll wheel—that enables you to
use the mouse to scroll up and down a window instead of using the window’s scroll bars

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 Figure 4 mouse with two buttons and a scroll wheel
ii. Keyboard: - A keyboard is a peripheral device that enables a user to input text into a
computer or any other electronic machinery. A keyboard is an input device and is the
most basic way for the user to communicate with a computer.

Figure 5 Keyboard Layout

2.Output: - is what the computer displays as a result of processing data (e.g., calculations or
instructions). Some examples of output devices are:
1. Printers

2. Speakers

3. monitor/screen

3. Process: - refers to the computer performing operations and calculations (using the data
that has been input and software). This processing of data is done by the central processing
unit (CPU) that is housed in the system unit.

Table 2Components of Computer system

Hardware Software

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 Peripherals: Operating System
Microsoft Windows
Application Software
Microsoft Word
Mouse External CD Writer Microsoft Excel
Monitor Printer Microsoft PowerPoint
Keyboard Scanner Computer Games
3.1.1. OHS standards
Occupational Health and Safety (OHS): - A planned system of working to prevent illness and
injury where you work by recognizing and identifying hazards and risks. Health and safety
procedure is the responsibility of all persons in the computer and technology industries.

Purpose of OHS

The purpose of the Health and Safety policies and procedures is to guide and direct all
employees to work safely and prevent injury, to themselves and others. All employees are
encouraged to participate in developing, implementing, and enforcing Health and
Safety policies and procedures.

1.2.2 Categories of hazards

i. Biological. Biological hazards include viruses, bacteria, insects, animals, etc., that can
cause adverse health impacts.

ii. Chemical. Chemical hazards are hazardous substances that can cause harm. Gases, dusts,
fumes, vapors and liquids.

iii. Physical: Slippery floors, objects in walkways, unsafe or misused machinery, excessive
noise, poor lighting, fire.

iv. Ergonomic: poor design of equipment, workstation design, (postural) or workflow,

manual handling, repetitive movement.

1.2.3 Basic workplace hazards in IT

The most common hazards in IT are Ergonomics. It is the study of people at work that aims to
reduce the physical stress and resulting injuries associated with working, such as overuse
injuries, poor posture and more serious muscle skeletal disorders. Ergonomics aims to reduce
such injuries by designing work spaces, tools, tasks and equipment that help maintain the
physical health of workers.

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3.2. Access basic system information
Insert user name and password

An operating system allows your computer to manage software and perform essential tasks. It is
also a Graphical User Interface (GUI) that allows you to visually interact with your computer’s
functions in a logical, fun, and easy way. Interact with your computer’s functions in a logical,
fun, and easy way. The first screen appears after you turn on the power of computer is a desktop

Figure 6 Windows 10 screen

If it is a shared PC; more than one user uses it, or one user with password protected, you will
arrive at Welcome Screen you can select the proper username and enter password

2.1 Navigate operating system

Once your computer has finished starting up, the first thing you'll see is the desktop. You can
think of the desktop as the main workspace for your computer. From here, you can view and
manage your files, open applications, access the Internet, and much more.

1. Working with windows

Whenever you open a file, folder, or application, it will appear in a new window. You can have
multiple items open at the same time in different windows. it's important to know how to switch
between open windows, how to move and resize windows, and how to close windows when
you're done using them.
2. Parts of a window

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 You'll see the same three buttons in the upper-right corner of almost every window. These
buttons allow you to perform several functions, including these below.
A. Click the Minimize button to hide the window. The window will
be minimized to the taskbar. You can then click the icon for that
window on the taskbar to make it reappear.
B. Click the Maximize button to make the window fill the entire screen.

C. If the screen is maximized, the Maximize button will be temporarily replaced by

the Restore button. Just click it to return the window to its original size.

3.3. Navigate and Manipulate desktop environment

The desktop is the background screen that appears as soon as the computer has finished starting
up. The desktop is part of the operating system software, so its appearance is controlled by
system settings.
There are several useful items on the desktop including:
i. Basic desktop icons

The Desktop is where you’ll find icons (small pictures) for many of your most frequently used
programs. You’ll most likely see icons for This PC, Network, Recycle Bin.

1. Computer: - Allows you to see what drives are attached to your computer (for example, your
local hard disk drive, your CD/DVD drives, any networked shared drives, and external drives,
such as a USB flash drive).

2. Documents: - Supplies a ‘catch-all’ place for your personal files. Within here you can see your
files, any shared files from other computer users and any music or pictures you may have stored.

3. Recycle Bin: - Stores any files you delete until you empty it.

ii. The Desktop components

The desktop consists of many main components

1. Desktop that contains many components like icons "file, folder, shortcut. Etc…)

2. Task Bars

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 Figure 7 Desktop Components

Icons: An icon is a graphic image, a small picture or object that represents a file, program, web
page, or command. Icons help you execute commands, open programs or documents quickly. To
execute a command by using an icon, click or double-click on the icon. It is also useful to

recognize quickly an object in a browser list. For example, all documents using the same
extension have the same icon.
We can classify icons as the following

Figure 8 Different Icons

What is the difference between a file, a folder, and a shortcut?
files store data, on the other hand, is a collection of data. stored in one unit, identified by a
filename. They can be documents, programs, libraries, and other compilations of data. File name
consists of two-part name and extension. while folders store files and other folders. The folders,
often referred to as directories, are used to organize files on your computer.
A shortcut is a link that points to a program on the computer. Shortcuts allow users to create
links to their programs in any folder, Start bar, Taskbar, Desktop or other locations on their
computer. A shortcut in Windows is commonly identified by a small arrow in the bottom corner
of the icon

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 The task bars
The Task bar is a horizontal bar at the very bottom of the desktop. It shows any applications or
windows that are open.
The Start menu
The Start menu where you can access system information and change display settings (in the
Control Panel), and open the application programs. You can left-click the Start button on the
Task bar to see the Start menu. This menu allows you to:

 access information about the computer system you are using

 access controls for changing the way that information is displayed
 access application programs that are installed on the computer.
Next, we’ll look at the settings you can access in the Control Panel. The Control Panel can be
selected in the Start menu. 3.2.1 Change Your Desktop Icons

Icons like This PC, Network, Recycle Bin, and your user folder are all considered “desktop
icons,” even though modern versions of Windows don’t show them all on the desktop.

In Windows 10, you can access this window through Settings  Personalization Themes
Desktop Icon Settings. Use the checkboxes in the “Desktop icons” section to select which
icons you want on your desktop. To change an icon, select the icon you want to change and then
click the “Change Icon” button.

Figure 9Desktop Icon Settings

3.2.2 Change folder icons

Changing the icon for a folder is not only a good way to pretty things up, but also to call
attention to important items. To change a folder icon, right-click the folder you want to change
and then choose “Properties.”

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3.4. Organize basic directory/ folder structure and files
Data files such as word documents can be kept on a computer for future uses such as editing and
printing. To find documents you will need to store them in an organised fashion in the same way
you might file documents like lesson notes, bills, letters and bank statements at home. Just as you
might use folders to organise your personal or business documents, you also store your computer
documents in folders. A folder is only a device for grouping files in the same location, not a data
file. Folders and files can be stored on a computer’s desktop or on a storage device which will
be able to store hundreds or thousands of documents.
Folders can be created or moved so that they sit within another folder, and so on. Other terms for
describing this structure of files and folders grouped within folders are directory and sub-
directory.
You will need to decide where you want to save files. There are several types of storage devices
that may be an option for you, depending on your computer setup.
Storage devices
Hard disk drive (HDD)

Your computer will have a hard disk drive. The hard disk drive is in the system unit. The hard
drive is where the operating system and application programs are kept. If you are using a
Microsoft Windows operating system, there is also a location called My Documents on the hard
drive for storing your data files. You can also have a removable hard disk drive which has the
advantage of being able to store a large amount of data and be transported and connected to other
computers.
Memory stick/flash drive/thumb drive/pen drive/USB drive

All these terms refer to a small drive that you plug into a USB port (an input connection on the
system unit). They are small (about the size of a disposable lighter) and can be carried easily.
They hold more data than a floppy disk.

 CDs (compact disk)

 CD-R: (compact disk read-only) are read-only format which means you can read the data
but you can’t write (add) data to the CD. They often have application programs or music
stored on them.
 CD-RW: (compact disk read-write) another forms of CD that you can read and write to.
This means you can add or copy data to this type of CD. You will need a CD burner to do
this.

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Arranging icons
 The icons on the desktop can be arranged so it is easy to find them. This is a good way to
group programs together that you use a lot.
 The long way to do this is to drag each icon with the mouse to a place on the desktop.
A quicker way to arrange icons is to let the computer do it for you.
Arranging icons on the desktop

Follow these steps to arrange the icons on the desktop:

1 Go to the desktop.
2 Right click an empty space on the desktop. A shortcut menu will appear.
3 Select Arrange Icons from the shortcut menu.
4 Click on by Name.
5 The icons will arrange themselves neatly in alphabetical (A-Z) order. You can also
arrange them by type, size or date.
Icons such as Computer, documents, network and the Recycle Bin never change their position
when you choose this command. You can only move them around by dragging them with the
mouse.

Using desktop shortcuts

Some of the icons are automatically placed on the desktop when Windows is installed. You
can also create shortcuts. Shortcuts are icons that represent files, folders or programs. They are
really only a link to the real file or program. In other words, they are like a nickname that
stands for a person's real name. All shortcuts have a little arrow in the lower-left corner of the
icon. This indicates that the icon is a shortcut. Any file, folder or program on your computer
can be a shortcut. They do not use up much room on your hard disk. It is a good idea only to
make useful shortcuts. They should be used for the files or programs that you regularly use.
Drive contains three folders under Documents:
1. Customers
2. Staff
3. Warehouse.
To create more folders at the same level as this, keep selecting New Folder until you have all the
folders you need. To create one or more folders inside one of the new folders, repeat the above
steps.

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In this way you can create a hierarchy of folders according to a hierarchical structure. The new
directory will be set up and ready to save or copy any documents into. In other ways You can
create folders from:
 the desktop (right click the mouse, choose new, then folder)
 My Documents or
 Microsoft Word
In My Documents the main heading is called a directory. The sub-folders are called sub-
directories.

Follow these steps to create a new folder

Step 1 Open Documents

Step 2 Click on File in the top toolbar

Step 3 down to New on the menu

Step 4 Click on Folder from the sub-menu

Step 5 Give the folder a name

4.1 Attributes of Directories

Sometimes you will need to check the attributes of a file or folder to ensure you use it
appropriately. Or you may wish to set attributes to read-only so that data is not lost or changed
by someone.
Attributes define the type of file or directory which could be:
 read-only
 hidden
 archive
 system

3.5. Organize files for user and/or organization requirements

Use the Taskbar Search Bar for a General Search
The search bar permanently located at the bottom of the screen is the go-to search method for
most people, and it's effortless to use. Go this route if you have no clue where to find a file or if
you need to open an app or email.

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1. Press the WIN key, or select the search bar from the bottom-left corner of the taskbar, near
the Start button.

2. Start typing the name of the file, app, or another item you’re looking for, but don’t press
Enter just yet.

3. Select the item you want to open. You can do this via touch, the mouse, or by highlighting it
with the up and down arrow keys and pressing Enter.
Search a different directory
The search will be done on whatever folder is selected in the Look in: field. To search a
different directory, click on the arrow next to the Look in: field to get a menu of all the drives
you have access to. Scroll down to the very end of this list and select Browse. Then you can
search the directory tree to find a specific folder to search. Click on the name of the folder you
want to search and then click OK.
5.1 Accessing Most common types of files in the directories
5.1.1 Accessing files Regularly
There may be files that you regularly need to access, for example, to update a database or use a
document template.
In Microsoft Windows you can create shortcuts to files so that you can quickly access them
under the Favourites menu. To do this:
1. Use any of the above methods to find the file you regularly use.
2. Click on the file name to select it.
3. On the window Toolbar click on the Favourites menu.
4. Click on Add.
You can now access the file from the Favourites menu (on any window’s Toolbar) by clicking on
Favourites and selecting the file.
5.2 Copying Files to disks
To create a conventional music CD (CD Audio), use Microsoft's Windows Media Player or
other software to create your disc. A disc containing MP3 files is not the same as CD Audio
and it will not play in older audio players that do not recognize MP3 audio.

1. In Windows, search for and open File Explorer.

2. Click This PC.

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 3. Right-click the name of the disk drive and select Eject. Remove any discs from the
drive that may have ejected at this time.

Figure 10 eject a disc

4. Insert a blank disc into the drive and close the drive. The amount of free space
displays below the drive icon and the icon changes to reflect the type of disc that
was inserted.

3.6. Printer installing

1.1.1 Basic printer concepts

A printer is an output device of a computer, it prints the output data and information of a
computer on paper, plastic, wood metal or any hard surface depending on what printer one is
using. In simple language, a computer printer is an external hardware device responsible for
taking computer data and generating a hard copy of that data. Different types of printers print
differently, the quality and speed of printing differ from one printer type to another. They are one
of the most commonly used peripherals on computers and are commonly used to print text,
images, and photos.

A different type of printer has different interfaces or ways of connecting to the computer. The
interfaces of include: Ethernet port: Cat5 or Cat6, fire wire port, MPP-1150, parallel port, SCSI,

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 serial port, wireless, Bluetooth or through a USB port. Today the most common way a printer
connects to a printer is through a USB port.

1.2 Types of printers

They are different types of computer printers: all-in-one (AIO) printer, dot matrix printer, inkjet
printer, laser printer, multifunction printer (MFP), thermal printer, LED printer, etc. Today, the
most common printers used with a computer are Inkjet and Laser printers.

Printers are all together divided into two main categories: impact printers or character printers
and non-impact printers.

Impact Printer: With this category, hammers or pins strike against a ribbon and paper to print
the text. This mechanism is known as electro-mechanical mechanism. The examples of Impact
printers are Daisywheel and Dot matrix printers.

Character Printer: It prints only one character at a time. It has relatively slower speed. For
instance, the dot matrix printers.

Non-Impact Printer: Use non-Impact technology such as ink-jet or laser technology. There
printers provide better quality of operations at higher speeds. Non-impact printers are of two
types, the: Inkjet printers and laser printers.

1.3 Installing printer software

The following sections provide instructions for installing the printer software on various operating
systems.
To install a printer driver
To install the printer software for Windows NT 4.0, you must use the Add Printer Wizard.
1. Click Start, and then point to Settings.
2. Click Printers.

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 3. Double-click Add Printer.
4. Select the port that the printer is connected to, and click Next.
5. Click Have Disk. Click Browse.
6. On the CD-ROM, browse to the driver you want to install as follows:
a. Select your language from the directory list, and double-click.
b. Select drivers from the directory list, and double-click.
c. Select your operating system from the directory list, and double-click.
d. Select the driver from the directory list, and double-click.
e. Click OK to select the INF file.
f. Click HP LaserJet 1160 or HP LaserJet 1320 series printer, and click OK to begin the
installation.
7. Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the software installation.
To install printer software for all other operating systems
Insert the software CD that came with the printer into the computer CD-ROM drive. Follow the
on-screen installation instructions.
Note If the Welcome screen does not open, click Start on the Windows task bar, click Run, type
D:\setup (where D is your CD drive letter), and click OK.
Selecting the default printer

Printers that you can access from your computer may be directly connected to your PC or you
may have access to printers over a network. A network printer could serve many computers,
so you may not be the only person sending jobs to a printer.
Check printers you can access

If printing over a network, there may be more than one printer you can access. To check the
printers that you have access to:
1. Click on Start and then select the Control Panel.
2. Double-click on Printers and Faxes to open this item.
3. In Printers and Faxes, you see the names of the computer/s that you should be able to
access.

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Check printing preferences for a printer
Printing preferences include options for printing such as:
 The size of the paper you are printing to
 Whether the document you are printing has a horizontal (landscape) or vert portrait layout
 Whether you want to print on both sides or only one side of the paper
 How many copies of the document you want to print?
You can change these options every time you send a document to the printer but you can also set
default options so that your preferred options are the default until you change them.
To check or change the default printing preferences for your printer: -
1. In the Printers and Faxes window right-click on the name or icon of the printer.
2. Select Printing Preferences from the menu.
Change printer to default setting
If you have access to more than one printer, then one of those printers will be the default printer.
This means it is automatically selected when you send a job to print. In Figure 6.3 . you can see
that the default printer has a tick on it.
To set a printer as the default printer:
1. In the Printers and Faxes window right-click on the name or icon of the printer.
2. Select Set as Default Printer from the menu.

Figure 11 Select Set as Default Printer to make this printer the default.
\Print document

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You can send a document to the printer from the desktop or from within the application program
that created the document.
To print one or more documents from the desktop:

1. Open a folder that contains one or more documents.

2. Click on the name of the file you want to print.
3. To print more than one file, hold down the Control (Ctrl) Key on your keyboard and keep
clicking on files to add them to the selection.
4. When all the files are selected, right-click on one of the selected files. Select Print from
the menu. All the files you selected will be sent to the printer.
Print a web page
To practice printing a document from within an application program, try printing a page from a
website. Your computer needs to be connected to the Internet and have a web browser such as
Internet Explorer.
 Double-click on the Internet Explorer icon on the desktop to
open the program. (If your web browser is not on the desktop
you may need to open the program from Start then the All-
Programs menu.) When the browser program is open you will
see the Internet Explorer menus at the top of the window.
 Click on the File menu then select Print from this menu.
The Print box allows you to change the printer and change the printing preferences for the
job. (Note that any changes here do not permanently override the default settings)

Figure 12allows you to change print settings

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When you have made any changes to the print options click on Print to send the page to the
printer or click on Cancel if you don’t want to print the page. You can print a document from
within any application program in the same way. That is:

1. Open the document you want to print (Double-click on the filename if it is not already open.)

2. Click on the File menu then select Print.

3. In the Print box check the printing preferences for your job.

4. Click on Print.

CHAPTER FOUR

4. Install Software Application

Introduction to Computer Software
Computer software is a collection of computer programs and related data that provide the
instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. In other words, software is a
conceptual entity which is a set of computer programs, procedures, and associated
documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system. We can also say
software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer
for some purposes. In other words software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and its
documentation.

Computer software has facilitated the interaction between human beings and computers. What
are the different kinds of software? Software refers to the computer programs, procedures and
documentation that perform certain tasks on a computer system. Following is an extensive list of
examples of the different kinds of software.

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I. Application Software: Application software is that, which is designed for the end-users
and hence known as end-user programs. It employs the capabilities of a computer to execute the
tasks that the user wishes to perform on a computer system. Look at the various examples of
application software.

II. Educational Software: They are used to deliver tests and track progress. They are used for
educational purposes. Training management and classroom management software are some
examples of educational software. The software used for purposes of edutainment, a form of
entertainment that aims at educating the masses, is also a form of educational software.

III. Enterprise Software: It caters to the needs of organization processes and data flow.
Customer relationship management and supply chain management software are the well-known
examples of enterprise software. Enterprise infrastructure software supports the enterprise
software systems.

IV. Information Worker Software: It caters to the needs of an individual to manage

information pertaining to a project or a single department. Resource management software and
documentation tools are some of the popularly used information worker software.

V. Media Development Software: They are used for the generation of print and electronic
media in the educational and commercial sector. Image organizers and image editing

I. software, animation software like Flash, audio and video editors as well as the web
development software are some well-known examples of media development software.

II. Product Engineering Software: This software is used in the development of hardware
and software products. Application programming interfaces and integrated development
environments are the well-known examples of product engineering software. Program
testing tools, debuggers, compilers and CAD are some of the other instances of product
engineering software.

III. Simulation Software: They are used for the simulation of physical and abstract
systems. Computer simulators that are used for simulating scientific concepts and social
ideas, battlefield, vehicle and flight simulators are some of the popular examples of
simulation software.

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 IV. Programming Software: Programming Languages are used to write programs that
control the functioning of a computer system. They are the building blocks of computer
applications. Go through the complete list of the different programming languages.

V. System Software: It is computer software that manages and controls hardware in order
to enable application software to perform its tasks. System software performs the
functions like transferring data from memory to the disk or delivering text onto a
display device.

VI. Device Drivers: They are computer programs, which facilitate the interaction of high-
level computer programs with the hardware devices. Drivers also provide interrupt-
handling mechanisms.

VII. Network Managers: They check computer networks, data transfers and log events.

VIII. Virus Scanners: They scan for viruses on a computer system. They are widely known
as antivirus software.

IX. Content-Control Software: It refers to the software designed for controlling the
content that is permitted for the user to access. It can determine what content will be
available on a particular machine or network. Content-control software is commonly
used at homes and in schools to restrict the content that can be accessed over the net by
the students.

X. Data Recovery Software: Apart from the facilities of copying of data files, data
recovery software supports the user needs of backing up important computer data. It
allows the user to specify what is to be backed up and when.

A. Types of Computer Software

The two major types the computer software
I. System Software: It helps in running the computer hardware and the computer system.
System software is a collection of operating systems; device drivers, servers,
windowing systems and utilities. System software helps an application programmer in
abstracting away from hardware, memory and other internal complexities of a
computer.
II. Application Software: It enables the end users to accomplish certain specific tasks.
Business software, databases and educational software are some forms of application

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 software. Different word processors, which are dedicated for specialized tasks to be
performed by the user, are other examples of application software.
B. Types of Application Software
What is application software? What are the different types of application software? Know it all
along with some interesting examples of application software.
Application software utilizes the capacities of a computer directly to a dedicated task.
Application software is able to manipulate text, numbers and graphics. It can be in the form of
software focused on a certain single task like word processing, spreadsheet or playing of audio
and video files.
Different Types of Application Software are:
i. Word Processing Software:
This software enables the users to create and edit documents. The most popular examples of
this type of software are MS-Word, WordPad, Notepad and some other text editors.
ii. Database Software:
Database is a structured collection of data. A computer database relies on database software to
organize the data and enable the database users to achieve database operations. Database
software allows the users to store and retrieve data from databases. Examples are Oracle,
MS Access, etc.
iii. Spreadsheet Software:
Spreadsheet software allows users to perform calculations. They simulate paper worksheets by
displaying multiple cells that make up a grid. Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 and Apple Numbers are
some examples of spreadsheet software.

4.1. Determine software and upgrade requirements

To be used efficiently, all computer software needs certain hardware components or other
software resources to be present on a computer. These pre-requisites are known as system
requirements and are often used as a guideline as opposed to an absolute rule. Most software
defines two sets of system requirements: minimum and recommended.
i. Minimum specifications are the absolute minimum requirements for hardware you
should have in your system in order to install and run the OS you have chosen.
ii. Recommended hardware specifications are what you should have in your system to
realize usable performance.

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 iii. Always try to have the recommended hardware (or better) in your system. If you don’t,
you may have to upgrade your hardware before you upgrade your OS.
iv. Make sure you have a good margin between your system’s performance and the
minimum requirements.
v. Always run Windows on more hardware, rather than less!
vi. Recommended requirements are almost always of a significantly higher level than the
minimum requirements, and represent the ideal situation in which to run the software.
Generally speaking this is a better guideline than minimum system requirements in
order to have a fully usable and enjoyable experience with software.
A. Hardware Requirements
The most common set of requirements defined by any operating system or software application
is the physical computer resources, also known as hardware. A hardware requirements list is
often accompanied by a Hardware Compatibility List (HCL), especially in case of operating
systems. A hardware compatibility list is a database of hardware models and their compatibility
with a certain operating system. An HCL lists tested, compatible, and sometimes incompatible
hardware devices for a particular operating system or application.
The following sub-sections discuss the various aspects of hardware requirements.
i. Architecture
All computer operating systems are designed for particular computer architecture. Most
software applications are limited to particular operating systems running on particular
architectures. Although architecture-independent operating systems and applications exist,
most need to be recompiled to run on a new architecture.
ii. Processing Power
The power of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) is a fundamental system requirement for any
software. Most software running on x86 architecture define processing power as the model
and the clock speed of the CPU. Many other features of a CPU that influence its speed and
power, like bus speed, cache, and MIPS are often ignored. This definition of power is
often erroneous, as AMD Athlon and Intel Pentium CPUs at similar clock speed often
have different throughput speeds.
iii. Memory
All software, when run, resides in the Random Access Memory (RAM) of a computer.
Memory requirements are defined after considering demands of the application, operating
system, supporting software and files, and other running processes. Optimal performance

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 of other unrelated software running on a multi-tasking computer system is also considered
when defining this requirement.
iv. Secondary Storage
Hard-disk requirements vary, depending on the size of software installation, temporary files
created and maintained while installing or running the software, and possible use of swap
space (if RAM is insufficient).
v. Display Adapter
Software requiring a better than average computer graphics display, like graphics editors and
high-end games, often define high-end display adapters in the system requirements.
vi. Peripherals
Some software applications need to make extensive and/or special use of some peripherals,
demanding the higher performance or functionality of such peripherals. Such peripherals
include CD-ROM drives, keyboards, pointing devices, network devices, etc.

B. Software Requirements
Software requirements deal with defining software resource requirements and pre-requisites that
need to be installed on a computer to provide optimal functioning of an application. These
requirements or pre-requisites are generally not included in the software installation package and
need to be installed separately before the software is installed.
i. Platform
In computing, a platform describes some sort of framework, either in hardware or software,
which allows software to run. Typical platforms include a computer's architecture,
operating system, or programming languages and their runtime libraries.
Operating system is one of the first requirements mentioned when defining system
requirements (software). Software may not be compatible with different versions of same
line of operating systems, although some measure of backward compatibility is often
maintained. For example, most software designed for Microsoft Windows XP does not run
on Microsoft Windows 98, although the converse is not always true.
ii. APIs and Drivers
Software making extensive use of special hardware devices, like high-end display adapters,
needs special API or newer device drivers. A good example is DirectX, which is a
collection of APIs for handling tasks related to multimedia, especially game programming,
on Microsoft platforms.

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 iii. Web Browser
Most web applications and software depending heavily on Internet technologies make use of
the default browser installed on system. Microsoft Internet Explorer is a frequent choice of
software running on Microsoft Windows, which makes use of ActiveX controls, despite
their vulnerabilities.
4.2. Obtain software or software upgrade
Once a need for software has been identified a requirement specification should be created to
specify what software is required.
For example a business identifies that they need some office productivity software that will do
word processing and spreadsheets. The requirements specification will detail all relevant
information as to how word processing and spreadsheets need to work for the business. Once you
have this information you can then start looking for software.
Once your supervisor has checked and approved the client's software requirements you will need
to obtain the software.

A. Source of software’s
Information available on software products can be accessed from many sources. These sources
have varying degrees of objectivity ranging from the authoritative to the informal. Some of
common sources of information for searching a product are:
 Computer magazines
 Newspapers
 The Internet
 IT consultants
 IT department
 Computer suppliers
Other sources of information may include industry colleagues, contacts and organisations similar
to your own.
Depending on the size and the type of your organization, you will choose one of several different
ways of collecting the software. For example, large organizations usually have a section or a
department which controls purchases and deals only with a selected number of suppliers. In such
cases, you will be provided with a catalogue of available products from which to choose.

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Such organizations also use a Purchase Requisition document (usually called a PR book)
provided by the administrative department. You will need to fill in and submit a Purchase Order
which also needs to be signed by your supervisor.
If an organization allows purchases to be made from any supplier, then you will be expected to
obtain two quotations from different suppliers and attach them to your purchase order.
Smaller organizations may require some additional tasks. For example, you may be asked to
create a Purchase Order form using a word processor and then submit it to a supplier. Therefore,
it is essential that you know the organizational guidelines regarding the purchase of software.
Every piece of software installed in a computer has clearly specified system requirements. These
requirements define an environment for correct operation of the software. In general, features
which describe such an environment may include:
 Operating system requirements (whether Windows or Macintosh or Unix or other)
 Minimum size of RAM required
 Minimum size of free disk space on a hard disk required
 Depending on the type of software, there could be a list of additional requirements
such as CDROM, sound card, specified screen resolution and so forth.
Note: Before you proceed with software installation, you need to ensure that the client's
computer satisfies all system requirements.

B. Verification of Technical Specifications

To help determine if the new software is suitable we will need to research the technical
specifications and functionality.
Software Prerequisites

Prerequisites are conditions that will ensure the correct running of a software application.
Software prerequisites may include:
 Specific system requirements such as hardware or operating systems [but these are
listed as system requirements]
 The prior installation of another software package
 Services such as security and access systems, networks, Internet connections, and
so on.
Here are some examples of software prerequisites:

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'To browse the World Wide Web using Netscape or other Web browsers, you must have a
connection to an ISP (Internet service provider).'

A. System Requirements
To ensure the correct operation of their software, most software manufacturers will specify
preconditions to the functioning of their software by recommending a minimum system
configuration. The system requirements may include:
 The hardware platform
 The operating system
 Resource requirements (CPU, memory)
 Storage capacity for the software and data
 Hardware devices such as a mouse, CD ROM drive, printer, backup device, modem.
 Minimum specifications for hardware such as screen resolution
These system requirements ensure that software is installed and run in an appropriate
environment. Many software applications can run in many different environments, but usually
software manufacturers will only guarantee their software in a limited range of environments.

B. System Incompatibilities
System incompatibilities are mismatches between the software and the system configuration and
or other installed software. System incompatibilities may prevent the software being installed or
prevent the software from operating as expected.
For example, many applications are only available for a single operating system. Some of the
powerful graphic design tools can only be run on the Macintosh platform, whilst many Windows
based applications that you are familiar with do not have versions that can be run on Macintosh
or Linux systems.
Another example is programs that have been written for a specific computer chip. For example
Windows programs are designed and built to run on Intel processors. In order to run on
alternative processors like the Power PC or Alpha processors, the software needs to be ported
and compiled for that machine.
During your investigation of minimum system requirements and prerequisites, it is important to
recognize any incompatibilities with your target systems.

C. Contacting Vendors

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The information collected on vendors and products can be extensive. To reduce the information
to something manageable, it is assessed against the business requirements specification for
software. This process identifies those products that are suitable to the business. The aim is to
discard any products that are irrelevant and leave a smaller selection of products for further
investigation. This usually results in two or three vendors and products that best meet the
software requirements.
Information required from vendors will include:
• A list of prerequisites for installation and operation of the product
• A list of system requirements
• Support and maintenance services, requirements or arrangements
• Vendor details including history and client list for references
• Licensing details and options
• Product pricing and costs (including ongoing)
• Any conditions regarding evaluation of the software (installation restrictions etc)
It is also good practice to send your requirements specifications to the vendor and have them
respond with how their software product addresses each requirement.
Licensing requirements
Verification of licensing requirements

Whenever you install a piece of software on a computer you must ensure that you comply with
the legal obligations outlined in its license agreement. Since a particular piece of software can be
installed in many different environments and used by several users, licensing rules may also vary
to accommodate each environment.

A. Software Licensing
 Is a legal instrument (by way of contract law) governing the usage or redistribution of
software
 Allowing an individual or group to use a piece of software. Nearly all applications are
licensed
 Some are based on the number machines on which the licensed program can run whereas
others are based on the number of users that can use the program
Role of Software Installation Instructions and Manuals

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A wizard - is a user friendly interactive program designed to simplify and control software
installation. Before you attempt to install any software you must carefully read the installation
instructions provided with the software. Information included in the installation instructions
always lists a detailed description of steps required for correct installation.
It may also contain a list of parameters you will need to supply during installation. For example,
you may be asked to provide an alternative name for a folder where you wish to install the
software or which currently installed programs you would like to link with the new software.
Knowing what is expected from you during installation always simplifies and speeds up the
actual installation process. Installation instructions now are being replaced by installation
"wizards".
A wizard is capable of checking technical features of a computer on which it is installed, and
making appropriate changes without user intervention. It is also able to inform you about
detected limitations of the computer system which may cause problems during the installation or
operation of the software. Its interactivity is very basic. That is, it uses simple dialogue boxes
where the user can make a selection, type text or just click a button.
Dialog boxes demonstrate the type of interactivity provided by installation wizards. It is not a
full sequence of an installation wizard but a set of selected screens with options typically
provided by an installation wizard.
Readme file - contains additional information about the software. (Usually it is saved as Readme
or Readme.txt).
It is recommended that you be familiar with the content of this file because it usually contains
information about nonstandard features of the software and the latest information not available
when software was developed; that is, changes implemented in the very late stage of the software
development.
The software developer should also provide a user manual. A manual can be provided in printed
or in electronic form. To reduce software cost and speed up software availability, many software
developers offer only an electronic version. However, a printed version can be purchased for
some additional cost. You can also create your own manual by printing out the content of an
electronic version.
Policies and Obligations of Software Suppliers

Help Desk Staff: Provide timely advice to users (over the phone).

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 All software developers provide some kind of support for users of their product. The levels of
support vary; some suppliers offer free support, and others may charge some fee for their service.
Also, the same software developers may offer different level of support for each product they
sell.
If the software requested by your client is a commercial product, it is recommended that you
check the level of provided support prior to purchasing the software.
To be entitled to any form of support you need to register the software with its developer. To do
this, you can fill in the registration form provided with the software or you can do it online.
Online registration is much faster and much more convenient. However, your customer must
have connection to the Internet. Online registration is often a part of the installation process.
You also have to be aware that whenever you accept conditions specified in the software user's
policy you also agree with the software developer's indemnity. It means that the software
developer is not liable for any damages which could be caused by the software.
It also means that known problems with the software can very likely be resolved by appropriate
advice from the user support section. However, if some unknown problems appear (and that can
happen any time), it is best to report them to the user support team (or Help Desk Staff) and hope
that they will find a solution.

4.3. Install or upgrade software

The term upgrade refers to the replacement of a product with a newer version of the same
product. It is most often used in computing and consumer electronics, generally meaning a
replacement of hardware, software or firmware with a newer or better version, in order to bring
the system up to date. Common software upgrades include changing the version of an operating
system, of an office suite, of an anti-virus program, or of various other tools.

A. Risks of Upgrading

Although developers produce upgrades in order to improve a product, there are risks involved—
including the possibility that the upgrade will worsen the product.

Upgrades of hardware involve a risk that new hardware will not be compatible with other pieces
of hardware in a system. For example, an upgrade of RAM may not be compatible with existing
RAM in a computer. Other hardware components may not be compatible after either an upgrade
or downgrade, due to the non-availability of compatible drivers for the hardware with a

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specific operating system. Conversely, there is the same risk of non-compatibility when software
is upgraded or downgraded for previously functioning hardware to no longer function.

Upgrades of software introduce the risk that the new version (or patch) will contain a bug,
causing the program to malfunction in some way or not to function at all Upgrades can also
worsen a product subjectively. A user may prefer an older version even if a newer version
functions perfectly as designed.

B. When Should You Upgrade Your PC Software?

With new versions of the software being released regularly; one of the questions we get often
is how someone should decide whether they should upgrade their software to the current
version. In addition to the cost of the upgrade, which seems to be rising steadily, there is
the hassle factor in using new software - learning the new features or interface, the bugs
that inevitably there and the resulting temporary loss of productivity. When we are
talking about software, we are referring to both the software drivers that guide the
operation of the computer components as well as the application software, such as a word
processor or spreadsheet.
We generally separate software upgrades into two categories:
 Service releases or bug fixes and
 New software versions.
For service releases or bug fixes, we tend to upgrade as soon as they are released since they
usually make the software more stable and reliable.
For new software versions, we should use four criteria to determine whether we want to upgrade:
C. Is our current version no longer supported?
As software manufacturers release new software, they no longer support the older versions.
Most software companies support the most recent old version and perhaps one more past
version, but rarely more than two old versions. To check if your version is supported, you
can go to the software maker's website and check the support area.
D. Does the new version have some features that will make my work more efficient?
Almost every software release includes new features designed to make work more efficient or
easier. We should examine the list of new or changed features to see if any will really
benefit me. Most people never use more than 10-20% of the features of a software
package, so new features in that unused 80% are of less interest.
E. Has the software been out long enough to detect any significant problems?

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 We will usually wait 6-12 months after a major new software version is released before
upgrading. In the first few months, the software company finds bugs that they didn't find
when testing it and they prepare a service release or minor upgrade to fix those problems.
Usually wait until that first service release is available until you upgrade. This reduces
the risk of upgrading and running into significant problems.
F. Will I run into file format compatibility issues?
If a software application has changed the file format that the information is saved in, the new
files may not be compatible with the old version of the software. This can cause problems
when sharing files with colleagues or partners. If the file format has changed, I will wait
longer to upgrade in order to ensure that most of the people I will share files with have
upgraded and we will reduce the risk of running into file compatibility problems.
Installing Software

Some software can be executed by simply copying it to a computer and executing it with no
further argument; no installation procedure as such is required. Other programs are supplied in a
form not suitable for immediate execution, and require an installation procedure. Installation may
include unpacking of files supplied in a compressed form, copying them to suitable locations,
tailoring the software to suit the hardware and the user's preferences, providing information
about the program to the operating system, and so on. The installer may test for system
suitability and available mass storage space.
Some software is designed to be installed simply by copying their files to the desired location,
and there is no formal installation process. This was once usual for many programs running
under MS-DOS, Mac OS, Atari TOS, and Amiga OS. This is the "de facto" standard in Mac OS
X applications and is also used for many Windows applications. Windows applications that do
not require installation are often times called "portable," as they do not require an installation to
run, and may be run for many different computers with only the executable. There are versions
of some operating systems which do not require installation and can be run directly from
a bootable CD, DVD, or USB drive. This allows one to test out the operating system without
altering the existing setup.
Installation usually implies that once installed, the program can be executed again and again,
without the need to reinstall before each execution. Some software does not need installation at
all. There is server-based software that mimics locally-installed software, and can be run inside

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of a web browser, using only the local system's cache. This allows portability among computers
with access to the server. This technique is often referred to as cloud computing.
Common operations performed during software installations include creation or modification of:
 Shared and non-shared program files
 Folders/directories
 Windows registry entries
 Configuration file entries
 Environment variables
 Links or shortcuts
The operating system of your computer is an important factor to be considered when you install
any software. The operating system is the program that is contrived to run the computer software
on your computer. The operating system is responsible for managing the computer software and
hardware. Before you install computer software, the first important step is to check the
configuration of your computer. Also, check the hardware and software requirement of the
software you are installing. The configuration of your computer must match the requirements of
the software to be installed. Sometimes, the software to be installed is compressed in a .RAR
or .ZIP file. In these cases, before you install the software you have to uncompressed all the
installation files and folders. To uncompressed the files and folders, ensure that you have a
decompression software application installed on your computer.
Every computer software comes with a 'Read me' file. This 'Read me' file contains all the
instructions that are required to install the software on your computer. Sometimes, when you
install a software, the software may ask you to install another program that is required for the
proper execution of the software to be installed. The computer may even prompt you to install
the supporting software after you complete the installation. When you install any software
program on the computer, it is advisable to close all other programs and utilities. Some antivirus
software applications may require you to turn off the firewall and disable the antivirus in order to
install the software. When installing software applications related to computer networking or
web browsing, it is recommended to disable the antivirus and the firewall. Finally, to complete
the installation, restart your computer system.
Types of Installations
A. Silent Installation

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 Installation that does not display messages or windows during its progress. "Silent
installation" is not the same as "unattended installation", though it is often improperly
used as such.
B. Unattended Installation
Installation that is performed without user interaction during its progress or, in a stricter sense,
with no user present at all, except eventually for the initial launch of the process. An
installation process usually requires a user who "attends" it to make choices at request:
accepting an EULA, specifying preferences and passwords, etc.

C. Self-Installation
Unattended installation, without the need of initial launch of the process (i.e. Vodafone
Mobile Connect USB Modem or Huawei E220's Mobile Partner software that self-installs
from the USB port).
D. Clean Installation
Given the complexity of a typical installation there are many factors that may interfere with
its successful completion. In particular files that are left over from old installations of the
same program or an unstable situation of the operating system may all act to prevent a
given program from installing and working correctly. An installation performed in
absence of such interfering factors (which may vary from program to program) is called
a clean installation.
E. Flat Installation
An installation of a program performed from a copy (called a flat copy) of its original media
contents (mostly CDs or DVDs) to a hard drive, rather than directly from the media. This
may help in some situations where the target machine isn't able to cope with random
access reads from CD/DVD at the same time as performing the CPU-intensive tasks often
required by an installation, or where the target machine does not have an appropriate
physical drive.
F. Network Installation
An installation of program from a shared network drive. This may simply be a copy of the
original media (as in a Flat Installation), but frequently, software publishers which offer site
licenses for institutional customers provide a version intended for installation over a network

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5. Protect Application or System Software

5.1. Ensure user accounts are controlled
Introduction on user access control

User access control (UAC) is defined as the capacity of an organization and its systems to allow or
deny a user or an object access to its systems and resources. A user can be restricted from
accessing a program, database or file. An object in this definition represents passive entities
such as a system or a process. Systems and processes under the UAC are also restricted from
accessing other processes and programs.
User Account Control (UAC) helps prevent malware from damaging a PC and helps organizations
deploy a better-managed desktop. With UAC, apps and tasks always run in the security context
of a non-administrator account, unless an administrator specifically authorizes administrator-
level access to the system. UAC can block the automatic installation of unauthorized apps and
prevent inadvertent changes to system settings.
UAC allows all users to log on to their computers using a standard user account. Processes launched
using a standard user token may perform tasks using access rights granted to a standard user.
For instance, Windows Explorer automatically inherits standard user level permissions.
Additionally, any apps that are started using Windows Explorer (for example, by double-
clicking a shortcut) also run with the standard set of user permissions. Many apps, including
those that are included with the operating system itself, are designed to work properly in this
way.

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Other apps, especially those that were not specifically designed with security settings in mind, often
require additional permissions to run successfully. These types of apps are referred to as legacy
apps. Additionally, actions such as installing new software and making configuration changes to
the Windows Firewall, require more permissions than what is available to a standard user
account.
When an app needs to run with more than standard user rights, UAC allows users to run apps with
their administrator token (with administrative groups and privileges) instead of their default,
standard user access token. Users continue to operate in the standard user security context,
while enabling certain apps to run with elevated privileges, if needed.
Components of User Access Control

The UAC comprises three main components. Each of these components are governed by a set of
UAC policies forming management policy. The three components are:
 Identification and authentication are two processes that determine who or what, if at
all, has access to any of the systems and resources. Without proper identification and
authorization, policies dictate that absolutely no access to the system or resource is
granted. Without a valid passport, unique to an individual, the visa is not granted.
 Authorization determines what an authorized user or object can access and the scope of
that access. As a non-immigrant you can shop at any mall or store but you do not have
right to access the free national health care system as a national would.
 Accountability identifies and establishes exactly what the user or the process did within
the system once access was granted.
User Access Control Policies
These policies detail the specifics which are used in enforcing the restrictions by the user access
controls on the systems.
A. Identification Policies
1. User access—users must reveal their identity to the system. This means that the user needs to
tell the system who he/she is. This is done by using a username.
2. Object access—the system must identify the object requesting access to the system using a
matching identifier previously stored within its database. Identification is achieved by the use of
identifiers such as computer names, MAC addresses, IP (Internet Protocol) addresses, or Process
Identification (PI) numbers.
Required identification policies must:

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  uniquely identify the user or object. The identifying parameter must be unique to that
individual or process alone. There cannot be two people with the same username, e.g.
''jackie27,'' existing on the system.
 not identify the users based on the relative importance (designation) with respect to the
organization.
 not be a commonly used or shared account name such as ''user'', ''process'', ''admin'',
''sysadmin'' or ''root.''
B. Authentication Policies
Required authentication policies must:
 be based on something known and personal to the user such as a secret password or
unique identification number. This should be information known only by the owner of the
account. Passwords must be set according to the management's password policies.
Stricter password policies dictate the contents of the password and they must not contain
groups or letters or words identical to the user name. For example, the user name
''Jackie27'' will not be permitted to have a password ''Jackie279.'' This is considered to be
a very weak password. Password policies also dictate the minimum number of characters
with addition security rules including the mandatory use of a number and a capital letter.
 be based on an authenticating piece of hardware used to unlock the account; such as a
smart card or token which is always in sole possession of the owner.
 be based on some physical characteristic or biometric identification. Science has
established that no two people are perfectly identical. As such, characteristics such as
fingerprints, iris recognition, and voice recognition have become internationally accepted
characteristics for authentication.

User account control process and interaction

User Account Control (UAC) is a fundamental component of Microsoft's overall security vision.
UAC helps mitigate the impact of malware.

Each app that requires the administrator access token must prompt for consent. The one
exception is the relationship that exists between parent and child processes. Child processes
inherit the user's access token from the parent process. Both the parent and child processes,
however, must have the same integrity level. Windows protects processes by marking their
integrity levels. Integrity levels are measurements of trust. A "high" integrity application is one

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that performs tasks that modify system data, such as a disk partitioning application, while a
"low" integrity application is one that performs tasks that could potentially compromise the
operating system, such as a Web browser. Apps with lower integrity levels cannot modify data in
applications with higher integrity levels. When a standard user attempts to run an app that
requires an administrator access token, UAC requires that the user provide valid administrator
credentials.
Logon process

The following shows how the logon process for an administrator differs from the logon process
for a standard user.

By default, standard users and administrators access resources and run apps in the security
context of standard users. When a user logs on to a computer, the system creates an access token
for that user. The access token contains information about the level of access that the user is
granted, including specific security identifiers (SIDs) and Windows privileges.
When an administrator logs on, two separate access tokens are created for the user: a standard
user access token and an administrator access token. The standard user access token contains the
same user-specific information as the administrator access token, but the administrative
Windows privileges and SIDs are removed. The standard user access token is used to start apps
that do not perform administrative tasks (standard user apps). The standard user access token is
then used to display the desktop (explorer.exe). Explorer.exe is the parent process from which all
other user-initiated processes inherit their access token. As a result, all apps run as a standard

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user unless a user provides consent or credentials to approve an app to use a full administrative
access token.
A user that is a member of the Administrators group can log on, browse the Web, and read e-
mail while using a standard user access token. When the administrator needs to perform a task
that requires the administrator access token, Windows 10 or Windows 11 automatically prompts
the user for approval. This prompt is called an elevation prompt, and its behavior can be
configured by using the Local Security Policy
Password Strength Checkers and Validation Tools

Of course, you should only use password strength checkers which you can trust. Obviously, a
trustworthy validation tool should never store your passwords in any capacity; they should only
process your passwords in the browser. Again, you should never input your password into sites
you don’t trust.
Another important note is that almost all of these password strength checkers and validation tools
call themselves educational tools; they provide non-binding advice and exist primarily to help
users understand what they need to improve their passwords. Therefore, you should use these
password strength checkers as intended—to demonstrate why typical passwords don’t suffice in
modern identity management. Provide them to your employees to help them determine how best
to write strong passwords and push them away from weaker ones. Additionally, you can use
them to help you formulate your own password policies. We cultivated a clear list of password
vaults we believe to be secure. However, you should do your own evaluation of these sites to
ensure your users’ credentials’ safety.

Utilities to check strength of passwords and its complexity rules

A. Comparitech Password Strength Test

The Comparitech Password Strength Test provides a strong baseline for other password strength
checkers. For example, the test can demonstrate how long hackers need to crack the inputted
password.
This test evaluates passwords based on complexity, length, and can determine whether the
password appears in the list of most commonly used passwords. As a bonus, this test hashes the
passwords automatically, which isn’t always the case.

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 B. My1Login Password Strength Test

Much like the password checker above, the My1Login Password automatically hashes the
password inputted; this helps establish trust with the validation tool. Also, it too gives an
estimate on the time needed to crack the password.
However, My1Login offers much more conservative timeframe estimates. A super complex
password labeled as 13 sextillion years to crack only requires hackers two years to crack,
according to this tool. If anything, this could be a sobering reminder of the relative security of
passwords.
C. Thycotic Password Strength Checker

The Thycotic Password Strength Checker can also recognize the most common passwords and
warns against them. Further, it can identify dictionary words, recognizes repeated patterns of
characters, and suggest ways to improve password strength.
D. LastPass: How Secure Is My Password?

From one of the most prominent of password managers, we wanted to include LastPass to
emphasize the potential of password management. Such tools when paired with other identity
and access management solutions can help employees deal with the myriad password demands
of their day-to-day business processes.
Identify Security Gaps
Authenticating Users

Before a user can log on to a computer running Windows, connect to a shared folder, or browse a
protected Web site, the resource must validate the user’s identity using a process known as
authentication.

Windows supports a variety of authentication techniques, including

 the traditional user name and password,

 smart cards, and
 third-party authentication components.

In addition, Windows can authenticate users with the local user database.

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Authentication is the process of identifying a user. In home environments, authentication is often
as simple as clicking a user name at the Windows 10 logon screen. However, in enterprise
5.2. Detect and remove destructive software
What is destructive software’s

Destructive software is referred to as malware (malicious software) and the term includes
viruses, worms, logic bombs, rootkits, Trojan horses, adware, key stroke loggers and
spyware. Malware is software designed to in filtrate a computer system without the
owner's informed consent; hostile, intrusive, or annoying software.

Data-stealing malware isa threat that divests victims of personal or proprietary information
with the intent of monetizing stolen data through direct use or distribution. This type of
malware includes key loggers, screens crapers, spyware, adware, backdoors and bots.
Malware's most common path way from criminals or malicious developers to users is
through the Internet: primarily by email and the Worldwide Web.
The target of malicious software can be a single computer and its operating system a network
or an application.
The Common Types of Destructive Software

The common types of destructive software are:

 Virus
A computer virus is a piece of malicious code that has been designed to replicate itself when
introduced into any computing environment (its host). This host could be another computer
program, the computer's operating system partition, a document, or a removable drive. The virus
may be knowingly or unknowingly spread by the user or administrator of the infected system.
Once the virus has successfully infiltrated the system, it may replicate itself in a way that
adversely affects the system's available space and performance. It also may infect other programs
or software installed on the host, causing system disruptions, instability, unauthorized
modifications, or disability of core functions and processes. Viruses can also copy, delete, or
encrypt files. Some viruses lay dormant, waiting to be triggered by some user or system action.
Others are activated immediately and commence the corruption of system programs and software
in the various ways described above.
A computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer. The term "virus" is also
commonly but erroneously used to refer to other types of malware, adware, and spyware
programs that do not have the reproductive ability.

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  Worm
Write Once, Read Many (Write One, Read Multiple or WORM); a software program capable of
reproducing itself that can spread from one computer to the next over a network; WORMs take
advantage of automatic file sending and receiving features found on many computers; self-
replicating Malware computer program
 Logic Bomb
Set of instructions inserted into a program that are designed to execute (or `explode') if a
particular condition is satisfied; when exploded it may delete or corrupt data, or print a spurious
message, or have other harmful effects; it could be triggered by a change in a file, by a particular
input sequence to the program, or at a particular time or date.
 Rootkit
A type of malware that is designed to gain administrative-level control over a computer system
without being detected
 Trojan Horse
A Trojan, as the name implies, secretly carries often-damaging software in the guise of an
innocuous program, often in an email attachment.
 Adware
Adware is software that loads itself onto a computer and tracks the user's browsing habits or
pops up advertisements while the computer is in use. Adware and spyware disrupt your privacy
and can slow down your computer as well as contaminate your operating system or data files
 KeyLogger
The practice of tracking (or logging) the keys struck on a keyboard, typically in a covert manner
so that the person using the keyboard is unaware that their actions are being monitored
 Spyware
Software that obtains information from a user's computer without the user's knowledge or
consent
 Screen Scrapers
To extract data from (a source such as a webpage) by picking it out from among the human-
readable content
 Backdoor
An undocumented way to get access to a computer system or the data it contains
 Bots

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Also known as Crawlers or Spiders, bots are search engine programs that perform automated
tasks on the internet – they follow links, and read through the pages in order to index the site in a
search engine.
Virus Origin, History and Evolution

History of Viruses

One of the most recognized terms in the world of cyber security is computer virus. Like any
dangerous biological virus brings alarm to a scientist, the term computer virus brings fear to the
administrators or users of any computer system. Viruses are never a pleasure. So where did
viruses come from? Where and when did they start? How did they grow to become as menacing
as they are today?
1940-1966: The Birth of Replicating Automata

Replicating Automata is a mechanism that has the ability of self-multiplication. Its birth came
from mathematical and intellectual curiosity and not from malicious intent. This thought was
initiated in the 1940s and subsequently published in a 1966 paper by mathematician John von
Neumann. In this paper, he documented the possibilities of developing a piece of code that could
copy itself, infect its host just like a biological virus, and cause any number of threats to the host
system.
1971: The Creeper Program

In 1971, Bob Thomas of BBN created the very first virus, the Creeper Program. It was the first
actual test of the Replicating Automata concept to see whether it was possible. He was successful
and it worked. On each new host it infiltrated, it replicated itself, infected the hard drive, and
tried to remove itself from its previous host.
1974: The Rabbit Virus
In 1974, the Rabbit Virus was developed. This time malicious intent was ingrained in its code.
The virus replicated itself within its host and caused system disruptions that adversely affected
overall system performance. This continued until complete system failure or crash was achieved.
1975: The First Trojan
In 1975, John Walker, a computer programmer, created the first Trojan. A Trojan is a computer
virus that cannot replicate itself but instead, propagates itself by attaching to user programs, files,

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or games that are transmitted or exchanged. It is then executed primarily through end-user
activity.
Around this time, there were a number of popular games called Animal Games. These games
used a set of questions to decipher what animal a user was thinking of. John Walker created a
version of this game that became very popular among his friends and colleagues. With no
internet and smart devices at that time, it was distributed using magnetic tapes. Walker used this
avenue to distribute the Pervade virus embedded in the game. Once the virus was installed on the
host, it proceeded to snoop around and copy itself to all the directories on the existing host's file
system. Although this was done without the host's knowledge or permission, its effects were not
destructive.
1986: The Brain Boot Virus
In 1986, there was a computer store in Pakistan run by two brothers: Basit and Amjad Farooq. In
their mounting frustration from people illegally copying their software, they developed a piece of
malicious code called the Brain Boot Virus which would alter the boot sector of any floppy disk
used to copy their software. This became known as the first PC virus, due to the increased
development and use of the personal computer at that time.
Computer viruses and attacks have proliferated across the internet in recent years, as more
people are becoming accustomed to using the World Wide Web as a vehicle of communication
and file exchanging. Computer viruses were first termed simple ‘bugs' when systems were
found to be crashing or incurred various technical problems. In the early 1940s, this wasn't a
problem that could spread to other computers so easily since networking and linking computers
through a large-scale computer communication system was not developed.
As more people became comfortable with developing programs and computer software on their
own, it also became easier to share files and results with other people. Programmers and
developers began to save information and code on disks, package it as software, and send it out
to other users for small fees or free of charge. Opening these files and running the programs on
independent computer was more acceptable without any scanning or checking; instead, at this
time, computers were potentially vulnerable to a variety of threats and conditions.
The rise of hackers in the early 1980s became paramount as the U.S. government discovered
various security breaches and Trojan horse programs attacking the country's important computer
networks. In 1983, Fred Cohen of the University of Southern California termed the concept of a
‘computer virus' as any program that could modify other programs and possibly self-replicate.
Virus defense techniques were then initiated by his research and other computer experts.

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As computer networks evolved and established into the personal and business sector during the
early 1990s, more people realized the need for the best antivirus software and shielding
networked computers from potential threats. The increase in computer users also resulted in an
increase of hackers and computer programmers who could develop and release malicious
software, programs, and code. Antivirus software companies began developing
counterattacks and highly secure software systems as early as 1995, and the Internet boom
that followed shortly thereafter resulted in multiple downloads of secure software.
In 1999, the ‘Melissa' virus was one of the first sets of viruses that reached epic proportions of
computer damage. At this time, thousands computer users began taking more control and
installing antivirus software and suite packages to protect themselves from infection. Between
2001 and 2003, several “famous” worms and viruses were released to the public in a variety of
forms; some were attached to frequently-downloaded images, while others were sent as e-mail
attachments from suspicious third parties. The Code Red worm, the Nimda virus, and the Klez
worm were just a handful of vicious viruses that spread throughout some of the top companies
and personal computers at record speeds. In 2004, the MyDoom email worm damaged millions
of computers by persuading people to open the e-mail attachment through a social engineering
initiative.

The History of Computer viruses has had a parallel history with the boom of the Internet, and as
more people are using the World Wide Web to stay connected, threats and security risks are on
the rise. E-mal attachments, visiting suspicious websites and downloading free software all pose
various risks depending on the security level of the computer. Norton antivirus programs can
scan a computer user's system periodically, detect viruses and other threats, and help to eliminate
and remove them from the system. The same programs can also prevent viruses and other forms
of Internet based threats to infect the system with its real-time protection.

Types of Viruses
Viruses are split into different categories, depending on what they do. Here are a few categories
of viruses:
 Boot Sector Virus
The Boot Sector of a PC is a part of your computer that gets accessed first when you turn it on. It
tells Windows what to do and what to load. It's like a "Things To Do" list. The Boot Sector is

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also known as the Master Boot Record. A boot sector virus is designed to attack this, causing
your PC to refuse to start at all!
 File Virus
A file virus, as its name suggests, attacks files on your computer. Also attacks entire programs,
though.

 Macro Virus
These types of virus are written specifically to infect Microsoft Office documents (Word, Excel
PowerPoint, etc.) A Word document can contain a Macro Virus. You usually need to open a
document in a Microsoft Office application before the virus can do any harm.
 Electronic Mail (Email) Virus
Email can be used to transmit any of the above types of virus by copying and emailing itself to
every address in the victim’s email address book, usually within an email attachment. Each time
a recipient opens the infected attachment, the virus harvests that victim’s email address book and
repeats its propagation process.
Virus Infection, Removal and Prevention
Virus Infection
The most common way that a virus gets on your computer is by an email attachment. If you open
the attachment, and your anti-virus program doesn't detect it, then that is enough to infect your
computer. Some people go so far as NOT opening attachments at all, but simply deleting the
entire message as soon as it comes in. While this approach will greatly reduce your chances of
becoming infected, it may offend those relatives of yours who have just sent you the latest
pictures of little Johnny!
You can also get viruses by downloading programs from the internet. That great piece of
freeware you spotted from an obscure site may not be so great after all. It could well be infecting
your PC as the main program is installing.
If your PC is running any version of Windows, and it hasn't got all the latest patches and updates,
then your computer will be attacked a few minutes after going on the internet! (Non Windows
users can go into smug mode!)
Nowadays, they utilized the use of removable storage devices to spread viruses. The most
common is the use of flash drive. Since removable drives like flash drive, CD/DVDs have the
auto run functionality, a simple command that enables the executable file to run automatically,

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they exploited and altered it so it will automatically run the virus (normally with .exe, .bat, .vbs
format) when you insert your flash drive or CD/DVDs.
Virus Infection Symptoms
Common symptoms of a virus-infected computer include

A computer program disappears from its memory, especially if there is no known

removal of the program.
Unfamiliar music or sounds unexpectedly starts playing through the speakers.
Icons appear on the desktop unrelated to any programs that are currently being
installed, or new icons seem to appear when no software has been installed.
An antivirus program will not run, or a new one will not install properly or at all.
Previously installed antivirus programs will suddenly disable and can not be restarted.
Files that have been recently opened suddenly have more than one extension, such
as .exe, .vbs, .gif, or .jpg.
Dialog boxes and menus seem to be distorted or different.
Unusual error messages will pop up.
Items are not printing correctly.
Disk drives or disks become inaccessible.
An application or applications are not working correctly.
The computer isn’t running as well as usual, or the computer reboots on its own.
The computer restarts continuously.
The computer locks up frequently or stops responding.
The computer seems to be losing processing speed.
Take caution with symptoms

All of these symptoms may be caused by viruses, worms, or Trojan horses; however, it’s not the
only thing that may be causing some of the individual symptoms. Some of the symptoms may be
because of faulty hardware or software. Or, they may be caused by overburdening the processes
(running too many programs at once) or the disk space (too many files on the computer). Or, an
older computer just may be wearing down with age, and/or not keeping up with newer software
and operating system.
Preventing viruses
There are several steps a person can take to make sure these symptoms do not appear on their
computer. These include:

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  Modify behavior – Most cybercriminals depend upon the ignorance of novice computer
users to perpetrate their crimes. Become educated on how cyber attacks can happen.
Never open an e-mail from an unfamiliar sender, and never forward on any chain-type e-
mails. Never give away login and password information, even if it seems to be coming
from a reliable source. And if a claim on a Web site sounds too good to be true, it
probably is – and is probably hiding a cybercriminal.
 Use reputable antivirus software – As mentioned before, even the best antivirus
software programs are fallible. However, they’re still the best method of preventing
malware attacks. They’re also hand if malware does pass through, especially if it comes
with removal and backup systems.
 Keep computers update – Make sure that all software, especially operating system
software and your preferred Internet browser, contain the most up-to-date patches and
updates. These are usually published to keep computers safe from the latest known
threats.

Having a multi-point plan that involves various layers of protection is the best way to stave off
attacks of viruses and other forms of malware.

Selecting and installing virus protection and scheduling

Installing virus protection

Installing virus protection or antivirus software is used to prevent, detect, and remove malware,
including but not limited to computer viruses, computer worm, trojan horses, spyware
and adware. This page talks about the software used for the prevention and removal of
such threats, rather than comput computer security implemented by software methods.

No matter how useful antivirus software can be, it can sometimes have drawbacks. Antivirus
software can impair a computer's performance. Inexperienced users may also have trouble
understanding the prompts and decisions that antivirus software presents them with. An incorrect
decision may lead to a security breach. If the antivirus software employs heuristic detection,
success depends on achieving the right balance between false positives and false negatives.
False positives can be as destructive as false negatives.

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False positives are wrong detection by an anti-virus where legitimate files were mistakenly
identified as viruses while False negatives are wrong detection by an anti-virus where legitimate
viruses were not detected as viruses.

Finally, antivirus software generally runs at the highly trusted kernel level of the operating
system, creating a potential avenue of attack.
Based on research, these are the best antivirus:
1.Norton 360 – Best antivirus for individual PC and Mac users. Delivers well-regarded internet
security that can include ID theft protection with LifeLock.
2.TotalAV – Best antivirus for web browsing protection. Actively scans for suspicious websites
and monitors for criminal use of your private information.
3.Intego Antivirus – Best web protection for Mac users. The company is a rarity, focusing its
services and builds primarily on OSX and iOS devices.
4.McAfee Total Protection – Offers well-respected protection for individuals or families.
5.VIPRE Antivirus – Consistently scores above more well-known brands in independent testing
lab analyses.
6.Bitdefender Internet Security – Maintains consistently reliable performance and includes a
webcam protection tool.

7. Kaspersky Lab Internet Security – Best selection of features. Includes a secure, encrypted
browser for online shopping.

8. Panda Antivirus – Among the only providers with an “unlimited devices” option for extensive
device protection.
9.ESET Internet Security – Provides a highly-awarded internet security tool for every major
operating system.
10. Avira Antivirus – Blocks phishing attacks on social media and email.
11. Avast – Analyzes app behavior for potential malicious activity
12. AVG Internet Security – Actively used by over 200 million people worldwide.
13. Trend Micro – Well-respected brand with a significant focus on business endpoint protection.
14. Sophos – Multi-device coverage with free option
15. Webroot – Incredibly feature-rich for the offered price.
16. Comodo Internet Security – No frills antivirus scanning and real-time protection
5.3. Identify and take action to stop spam
Definition of Spam

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Spam is any kind of unwanted, unsolicited digital communication that gets sent out in bulk. Often
spam is sent via email, but it can also be distributed via text messages, phone calls, or social
media.
What does spam stand for?
Spam is not an acronym for a computer threat, although some have been proposed (stupid
pointless annoying malware, for instance). The inspiration for using the term “spam” to describe
mass unwanted messages is a Monty Python skit in which the actors declare that everyone must
eat the food Spam, whether they want it or not. Similarly, everyone with an email address must
unfortunately be bothered by spam messages, whether we like it or not.
Types of spam
Spammers use many forms of communication to bulk-send their unwanted messages. Some of
these are marketing messages peddling unsolicited goods. Other types of spam messages can
spread malware, trick you into divulging personal information, or scare you into thinking you
need to pay to get out of trouble.
Email spam filters catch many of these types of messages, and phone carriers often warn you of a
“spam risk” from unknown callers. Whether via email, text, phone, or social media, some spam
messages do get through, and you want to be able to recognize them and avoid these threats.
Below are several types of spam to look out for.
A. Phishing emails

Phishing emails are a type of spam cybercriminals send to many people, hoping to “hook” a few
people. Phishing emails trick victims into giving up sensitive information like website logins or
credit card information.

Adam Kujawa, Director of Malwarebytes Labs, says of phishing emails: “Phishing is the
simplest kind of cyberattack and, at the same time, the most dangerous and effective. That is
because it attacks the most vulnerable and powerful computer on the planet: the human mind.”
B. Email spoofing

Spoofed emails mimic, or spoof, an email from a legitimate sender, and ask you to take some
sort of action. Well-executed spoofs will contain familiar branding and content, often from a
large well-known company such as PayPal or Apple. Common email spoofing spam messages
include:

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  A request for payment of an outstanding invoice
 A request to reset your password or verify your account
 Verification of purchases you didn’t make
 Request for updated billing information
Tech support scams
In a tech support scam, the spam message indicates that you have a technical problem and you
should contact tech support by calling the phone number or clicking a link in the message. Like
email spoofing, these types of spam often say they are from a large technology company like
Microsoft or a cybersecurity company like Malwarebytes.
If you think you have a technical issue or malware on your computer, tablet, or smartphone, you
should always go to the official website of the company you want to call for tech support to find
the legitimate contact information. Remote tech support often involves remote access to your
computer to help you, and you don’t want to accidentally give that access to a tech support
scammer.
C. Current event scams

Hot topics in the news can be used in spam messages to get your attention. In 2020 when the
world was facing the Covid-19 pandemic and there was an increase in work-from-home jobs,
some scammers sent spam messages promising remote jobs that paid in Bitcoin. During the same
year, another popular spam topic was related to offering financial relief for small businesses, but
the scammers ultimately asked for bank account details. News headlines can be catchy, but
beware of them in regards to potential spam messages.
D. Advance-fee scams

This type of spam is likely familiar to anyone who has been using email since the 90s or 2000s.
Sometimes called “Nigerian prince” emails as that was the purported message sender for many
years, this type of spam promises a financial reward if you first provide a cash advance. The
sender typically indicates that this cash advance is some sort of processing fee or earnest money
to unlock the larger sum, but once you pay, they disappear. To make it more personal, a similar
type of scam involves the sender pretending to be a family member that is in trouble and needs
money, but if you pay, unfortunately the outcome is the same.
E. Malspam

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Short for “malware spam” or “malicious spam,” is a spam message that delivers malware to your
device. Unsuspecting readers who click on a link or open an email attachment end up with some
type of malware including ransomware, Trojans, bots, info-stealers, crypto miners, spyware, and
keyloggers. A common delivery method is to include malicious scripts in an attachment of a
familiar type like a Word document, PDF file, or PowerPoint presentation. Once the attachment
is opened, the scripts run and retrieve the malware payload.
F. Spam calls and spam texts

Have you ever received a robocall? That’s call spam. A text message from an unknown sender
urging you to click an unknown link? That’s referred to as text message spam or “smishing,” a
combination of SMS and phishing.

If you’re receiving spam calls and texts on your Android or iPhone, most major carriers give you
an option to report spam. Blocking numbers is another way to combat mobile spam. In the US,
you can add your phone number to the National Do Not Call Registry to try to cut down on the
amount of unwanted sales calls you receive, but you should still be alert to scammers who ignore
the list.
How can I stop spam?

While it may not be possible to avoid spam altogether, there are steps you can take to help
protect yourself against falling for a scam or getting phished from a spam message:
 Learn to spot phishing

All of us can fall victim to phishing attacks. We may be in a rush and click a malicious link
without realizing. If a new type of phishing attack comes out, we may not readily recognize it.
To protect yourself, learn to check for some key signs that a spam message isn’t just annoying—
it’s a phishing attempt:

1. Sender’s email address: If an email from a company is legitimate, the sender’s email
address should match the domain for the company they claim to represent. Sometimes
these are obvious, like example@abkljzr09348.biz, but other times the changes are less
noticeable, like example@paypa1.com instead of paypal.com.
2. Missing personal information: If you are a customer, the company should have your
information and will likely address you by your first name. A missing personal greeting
alone isn’t enough to spot a phishing email, but it’s one thing to look for, especially in

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 messages that say they are from a company with whom you do business. Receiving an
email that says your account has been locked or you owe money is cause to worry, and
sometimes we rush to click a link in order to fix the problem. If it’s phishing, that’s
exactly what the sender wants, so be careful and check if the email is generic or
addressed specifically to you.
3. Links: Beware of all links, including buttons in an email. If you get a message from a
company with whom you have an account, it’s wise to log in to your account to see if
there is a message there rather than just clicking the link in the message without verifying
first. You can contact the company to ask if a suspicious message is legitimate or not. If
you have any doubts about a message, don’t click any links.
4. Grammatical errors: We all make them, but a company sending out legitimate messages
probably won’t have a lot of punctuation errors, poor grammar, and spelling mistakes.
These can be another red flag to indicate that the email could be suspect.
5. Too-good-to-be-true offers: Many phishing messages pretend to be from large, well-
known companies, hoping to ensnare readers who happen to do business with the
company. Other phishing attempts offer something for free like cash or a desirable prize.
The saying is often true that if something sounds too good to be true it probably is, and
this can be a warning that a spam message is trying to get something from you, rather
than give you something.
6. Attachments: Unless you are expecting an email with attachments, always be wary before
opening or downloading them. Using anti-malware software can help by scanning files
that you download for malware.
5.4. Perform workplace duties following written notices
Receiving and Following Instructions
Receiving Instructions from someone else, especially if they are speaking to you:
 Stop whatever else you are doing
 Focus on the person speaking
 If you can, make notes about the details
 When the person has finished, tell them what you understood from their instructions to
make sure you have understood them correctly
The instructions were not heard correctly due to:
 Too much noise around – ask to move to a quieter place

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  The person not speaking loudly or clearly enough – ask them to speak up
Not enough detail was given:
 Ask for more information– don’t assume you know what they mean
The meaning was unclear:
 Check the outcome and the purpose of the task
Written Information Sources
In the workplace, written information can take the form of:
 Letters
 Memos
 Informal Notes
 Faxes
 E-mails
 Text Messages
 Workplace Signs
 Instruction Manuals
The following points should help you to follow written instructions in a more effective way.
 Read through all the instructions or steps before beginning the task. This will give a
clear picture of what the whole tasks involves
 If diagrams are provided take the time to look at them carefully. As you work through
the task check the diagrams to make sure that your work matches the example given.
 If you are not sure of the meaning of any words or terms take the time to find out the
correct meaning. Ask your workplace supervisor if you guess correctly you may find
that you cannot complete the task or that the finished task is not done properly.
 Avoid the temptation to try to complete the task before reading all the instructions.
Although the job may take a little longer, it will save time in the long run as you may
avoid mistakes.
Following Spoken Instructions
 Spoken instructions are generally received face to face or via the telephone. The
following points should help you follow spoken instructions in a more effective way.
 When following spoken instructions, it is absolutely essential that you listen. Avoid
jumping to conclusions or assuming that you know how to complete the task. Use all
your listening skills to ensure that you receive the message accurately.

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  Ask questions if you are uncertain about particular steps. Sometimes people are afraid
to ask questions because they think they will look stupid. Remember questioning
shows that you are keen and interested and it is always better to ask questions rather
than make a mistake.
 Be sure that you understand all he words or terms being used.
 If you are receiving instructions over the telephone, always write down the
information accurately.
 Repeat the instructions back to the instructor to be sure that you have fully understood
all the details.
 It often helps if you can complete the task once with the instructor. This will give you
a chance to ask questions and check other things as you work through the job.

CHAPTER SIX

6. Operate word-processing applications

6.1. Apply OHS practices

Ergonomics strategies
Ergonomics is the study of people at work that aims to reduce the physical stress and resulting
injuries associated with working, such as overuse injuries, poor posture and more serious muscle
skeletal disorders. Ergonomics aims to reduce such injuries by designing work spaces, tools,
tasks and equipment that help maintain the physical health of workers. An ergonomic workplace
is essential for the health and wellbeing of all workers. Aching backs, carpal-tunneled wrists and
other ailments lead to employee discontent, an increase in sick days and overall lower
productivity.
Examples of Ergonomics
A. Poor Sitting Posture
B. Awkward Postures
C. Prolonged Stationary Position
D. Frequent, Repetitive Movements
E. Poor Lighting
Practice Ergonomic in workplace
It is the best ergonomic practices in the workplace: For office workers, a correctly adjusted work

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chair is essential. Adjusting your chair to the correct position is critical to avoid common posture
related hazards, and is the first steps to improving the overall ergonomic setup in your place of
work are:-
A. Seat height
B. Seat depth
C. Backrest height and lumbar support
D. Backrest angle & Tension
E. Armrests
F. Headrest
Organize work
Organize work are :-improving ergonomics in the workplace Adjusting your office chair is the
Best option practices in the workplace: For office workers, a correctly adjusted work chair is
essential to reduces ergonomic Adjusting your chair to the correct position is critical to avoid
common posture-related hazards, and is the first step to improving the overall ergonomic setup in
your place of work.

6.2. Create documents

Purpose of word-processing software
As the name suggests, word processors are designed to process large amounts of text and can be
used for writing letters, novels, reports, or articles. They are not designed to work with figures or
advanced layouts to any great degree, though a word processor will include options for
controlling text alignment and page margins. A word processor is to text what a spreadsheet
program is to numbers: a dedicated tool designed to make entering, editing, and exporting text
content as straightforward as possible.
function of word-processing software
Word processors have evolved from basic programs that emulated typewriters to software
programs that would have boggled the minds of the inventors of the Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer, the first general-purpose electronic computer. In addition to providing
document creation and storage tools, the editing and sharing options become more powerful each
year.
A. Create Documents
Word processors create documents in digital format. Instead of typing onto a page, the
information is stored in computer memory

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 B. Editing
Similarly, to document creation, word processors speed up the editing process and give greater
editing options.
C. Sharing
Since the word processor stores the document electronically, it can be output into a variety of
formats. In addition to simply printing finished documents, the electronic version can be shared
by email or other electronic transfer mechanisms.
D. Comparing
Many word processors give the option of making comparisons of documents. For instance, in the
case where several users may be working on nearly identical documents, comparison features
allow the differences in the documents to be easily viewed. This makes complex editing
procedures much more streamlined.
E. Web pages
In addition to conventional output options, word processors can take your document and turn it
into a webpage. In essence, the software in the word processor writes the HTML code necessary
to translate your text and formatting into a file that can be uploaded and viewed as a
conventional webpage.
use of word-processing software
Word processing means to use a computer to create, edit, format and print documents. The great
advantage of word processing over using a typewriter is that you can make changes without
retyping the entire document.

A word processor can be used for creating documents like :

 Memo
 Letters
 Examinations
 Books
 Invitations
 Invoices
 Postcard etc

Identifying information requirements

Source of Information
A. Agenda
An agenda is the version of the meeting plan shared with meeting attendees. A meeting agenda
may include a list of topics to discuss, a sequence of planned activities, or both. The simplest

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agendas are formatted as a short-bulleted list. More complicated agendas may include detailed
topic descriptions, including the expected outcomes for each item and reference material, such as
reports and proposals for review prior to the meeting. Formal agendas will also include timing
and presenter information for each agenda item.
B. Letter
Letter is a form of communication media in the form of writing, written between one person and
others, as well as institutions. There are several types of letters, namely personal letters, trade
letters, and invitation letters. An invitation letter is an official letter using straightforward and
polite language. This letter, in general, was made by a particular agency, institution or
organization aimed at another party. The making of this letter aims to invite a party.
C. Minutes
The minutes are a brief note related to the meeting. In addition, the note-taker also notes various
matters discussed during the meeting and the results of the meeting’s decision. The minutes of
the meeting can also be said as a concise note about the proceedings of the meeting. Minutes of
the meeting are discussion reports containing brief notes, as previously explained.
D. Memorandum
Memo or memorandum is a letter made by a superior to subordinates or officials who are on the
same level as officials who make memos. The memo contains a brief note on the subject matter
to show the message to be conveyed. This memo is a communication medium that is used in a
small scope and has an informal nature. Memo contains instructions, requests, notices, hopes or
instructions. Based on the opinion above it can be seen that the invitation letter is intended to
invite a person or party in an activity.

Opening word-processing application

To open MS Word on your personal computer Word processing package is mostly used in
offices on microcomputers. To open a new document, click on "Start" button and go to "All
Application" and click on "Microsoft Word".

Click on start → All Application→ Microsoft office word

We can open in Five Ways to Open Microsoft Word

1. Click the Start button. Type "word" without quotation marks into the search box. Click
“Microsoft Word 2016" in the list that appears.

2. Click the Start button. Over the mouse pointer over "All Programs." Scroll down to the
Microsoft Office folder and click it. Select "Microsoft Word 2016."

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Adjust page layout. Press the Windows key and "R" on the
keyboard at the same time to bring up
the Run dialogue. Type "Win
Word.exe" without quotation marks into the box.

4. Right-click on an empty area of the Windows 7 desktop. The mouse pointer over "New" in the
menu that appears. Click "Shortcut." Type or copy and paste "C:\Program Files\Microsoft
Office\Office14\WINWORD.EXE" into the box. Click "Next." Type "Word" into the box and
click "Finish." Double-click the Word shortcut that appears on the desktop to launch Word.

5. Open an MS Word file on your computer by double-clicking it. If you are asked to choose an
application to open the file with, select "Microsoft Word." You may close the file you have
opened if you do not want to use it now and open another one instead.

Creating and opening documents

Word files are called documents. Whenever you start a new project in Word, you'll need to
create a new document, which can either be blank or from a template. Sometimes you need to
create a new document when you are in the middle of typing another one. You can create a new
document even if you have not saved and closed the document you are currently working on.

To create a new document from a template Template is a predesigned document you can use to
create a new document quickly. Templates often include custom formatting and designs, so the

Customize basic settings to meet page layout conventions

Word offers a variety of page layout and formatting options that affect how content appears on
the page. You can customize the page orientation, paper size, and page margins depending on
how you want your document to appear

Page orientation

Word offers two-page orientation options: landscape and portrait. Compare our example below
to see how orientation can affect the appearance and spacing of text and images.
A. Landscape means the page is oriented horizontally.

6.4. Format documents

Format styles
Table 3 Function of commonly used buttons

Select the style to apply to Changes the font of the selected text
paragraphs

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 Changes the size of selected text Makes selected text and numbers
and numbers bold

Makes selected text and numbers Underlines selected text and numbers
italic

Aligns to the left with a ragged Centers the selected text

right margin

Aligns to the right with a ragged Aligns the selected text to

left margin both the left and right margins

Makes a numbered list or reverts Add, or remove, bullets in a selected

back to normal paragraph

Decreases the indent to the Indents the selected paragraph to the

previous tab stop next tab stop

Adds or removes a border around Marks text so that it is highlighted

selected text or objects and stands out

Formats the selected text with the color

you click

6.5. Create tables

Insert table on document

Table is a grid of cells arranged in rows and columns. Tables can be used to organize any type of
content, whether you're working with text or numerical data. In Word, you can quickly insert
a blank table or convert existing text to a table. You can also customize your table using
different styles and layouts

You can insert a table in Microsoft Word in several ways, but three ways are worth mentioning
in particular. You can add a table by inserting it automatically with a set size, or you can draw a

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 table manually using your mouse or track pad.

Alternatively, you can also copy and paste a grouping of cells from Microsoft Excel. Once
pasted, Word will convert these cells into the format of a table. The instructions below should
work for all recent versions of Word. There may be slight differences in older versions of Office,
however.

To add a table in Word, you’ll need first to open a blank or existing Word document and
press the Insert tab on the ribbon bar. From here, click the Table button.

This will display a drop-

down menu with various options. To insert a table automatically, select the size you want
from the grid. Once pressed, the table will be inserted onto the page using the number of

6.6. Add images

Insert images on document
Adding pictures to your document can be a great way to illustrate important information and
add decorative accents to existing text. Used in moderation, pictures can improve the overall
appearance of your document.

You can insert graphics and pictures that you have on hand into your document. For example,
you can insert an image made in another program, or a photo off a digital camera.

Insert a Picture

1. Click in your document where you want to insert your picture.

2. Click the Insert tab.

3. Click Pictures button.

Format images
When you crop a picture, you trim its horizontal and vertical sides. Cropping is useful when you
only want to include a portion of a picture, or when you need to adjust its proportions.

1. Select the picture.

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2. Click the Format tab in the Picture Tools ribbon group.

3. Click the Crop button.

Crop handles appear on the sides and corners of the image.

4. Click and drag the crop handles where you want to crop.

To crop all four sides of a picture or graphic at once while maintaining the graphic’s proportions,
press and hold down Ctrl as you drag the handles.

Click the Crop button again when you’re finished setting the crop area.

Operation title : Insert image in the document and format image

Purpose: -

 To know how to Insert image in the document and format image

Instruction: The Given necessary equipment, tools and materials you are follow the necessary
steps and operate each task. You have given 30minte for the task and you are expected to write
the answer.

Task1. Based on the below figure (6.5) to insert image in the document and the use appropriate
format tools to format the image. For this operation you have given 1 hour and you are expected
to provide the answer.

Tools and requirement: - ICT room, computer, Printer, A4 paper, Mouse and keyboard,
Monitor, Basic Software, Documents and pen/pencil.

Precautions: all ready the insert image known

Quality Criteria: based on the given information can add and format image

Procedures: -in doing the task

Step-1: Click on start → All Application→Click Microsoft office word → click blank document

Step2. Click in your document where you want to insert your picture.

Step3. Click the Insert tab.

Step4. Click Pictures button.

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6.7. Print documents
Preview document
Printing
Printing is a process for reproducing text and images, typically with ink on paper using a press. It
is often carried out as a large-scale industrial process, and is an essential part printing of
publishing and transaction printing.
To print is a computer transferring data to a computer printer and generating a hard copy of the
electronic data being printed.
Once you've created your document, you may want to print it to view and share your
work offline. It's easy to preview and print a document in Word using the Print pane.
access the Print pane

To Preview your document

1. Select File  Print.
To preview each page, select the forward and backward arrows at the bottom of the page.

1. Navigate to the Print pane, then select the desired printer.

Fig 7.2 select printer to print

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CHAPTER SEVEN

7. Operate Spreadsheet Application

A spreadsheet or worksheet is a file made of rows and columns that help sort, organize, and
arrange data efficiently, and calculate numerical data. What makes a spreadsheet software
program unique is its ability to calculate values using mathematical formulas and the data in
cells. An example of how a spreadsheet may be utilized is creating an overview of your bank's
balance. spreadsheet and worksheet mean the same thing. However, most people only refer to the
program as a spreadsheet program and the files it creates as spreadsheet files or worksheets.

7.1. Create spreadsheets

Purpose of spread sheet
The purpose of a spreadsheet is to organize and calculate information. Spreadsheets are utilized
by many different businesses and organizations to perform a variety of tasks. The most commons
tasks performed by spreadsheet software include functions, computations, statistical analysis,
and formatting. This text will focus on excel when discussing spreadsheets.

Spreadsheets are an essential business and accounting tool. They can vary in complexity and can
be used for various reasons, but their primary purpose is to organize and categorize data into a
logical format. Once this data is entered into the spreadsheet, you can use it to help organize and
grow your business.

Function of spread sheet

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A spreadsheet is a file that exists of cells in rows and columns and can help arrange, calculate
and sort data. Data in a spreadsheet can be numeric values, as well as
text, formulas, references and functions.
A spreadsheet is a computer program that can capture, display and manipulate data arranged in
rows and columns. Spreadsheets are one of the most popular tools available with personal
computers. A spreadsheet is generally designed to hold numerical data and short text strings. In a
spreadsheet program, spaces that hold items of data are called spreadsheet cells. These can be
renamed to better reflect the data they hold and can be cross-referenced through row numbers
and column letters.
Below are some other popular uses of spreadsheets.
A. Finance
Spreadsheets are ideal for financial data, such as your checking account information, budgets,
taxes, transactions, billing, invoices, receipts, forecasts, and any payment system.
B. Forms
Form templates can be created to handle inventory, evaluations, performance reviews, quizzes,
time sheets, patient information, and surveys.
C. School and grades
Teachers can use spreadsheets to track students, calculate grades, and identify relevant data, such
as high and low scores, missing tests, and students who are struggling.
D. Lists
Managing a list in a spreadsheet is a great example of data that does not contain numbers, but
still can be used in a spreadsheet. Great examples of spreadsheet lists include telephone, to-do,
and grocery lists.
E. Sports
Spreadsheets can keep track of your favorite player stats or stats on the whole team. With the
collected data, you can also find averages, high scores, and statistical data. Spreadsheets can
even be used to create tournament brackets.
Open, create spreadsheet files and enter numbers, text and symbols into cells
Open spreadsheet
Excel is a spreadsheet program that allows you to store, organize, and analyze information.
While you may believe Excel is only used by certain people to process complicated data, anyone
can learn how to take advantage of the program's powerful features. Whether you're keeping a

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budget, organizing a training log, or creating an invoice, Excel makes it easy to work with
different types of data.
Start All ApplicationMicrosoft OfficeMicrosoft Excel

• Name Box: Displays the currently selected sell.

• Formula Bar: Displays the number, text, or formula that is in the currently selected cell,
and allows you to edit it. It behaves just like a text box.
• Selected Cell: The selected cell has a dark border around it.
• Column: Columns run vertically (top to bottom).
• Column Label: Identifies each column with a letter. Clicking on a column label selects
the entire column.
• Row: Rows run horizontally (left to right).
• Row Label: Identifies each row with a number. Clicking on a row label selects the entire
row.
• Cell: The intersection of a row and column.
• Worksheets: The worksheets contained in the workbook are displayed at the bottom-left
of the screen. Click on a worksheet to view it.
• Scroll Bars: Used to view other parts of a worksheet when the entire worksheet cannot fit
on the screen.
• View Tools: See Status Bar next
Create formulas

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Formulas are one of the most commonly used features of Excel. They can be used to carry out
simple addition and subtraction or far more complex mathematical calculations
Mathematical operators
Excel uses standard operators for formulas, such as a plus sign for addition (+), a minus sign for
subtraction (-), an asterisk for multiplication (*), a forward slash for division (/), and a caret (^)
for exponents.

All formulas in Excel must begin with an equals sign (=). This is because the cell contains, or is
equal to, the formula and the value it calculates.
The order of operations
Excel calculates formulas based on the following order of operations:
1. Operations enclosed in parentheses
2. Exponential calculations (3^2, for example)
3. Multiplication and division, whichever comes first
4. Addition and subtraction, whichever comes first
A mnemonic that can help you remember the order is PEMDAS,
or Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally.
Click the arrows in the slideshow below to learn how the order of operations is used to calculate
formulas in Excel.
Operators – Operator is a sign or symbol that specifies the type of calculation such as; Addition
(+), Subtraction (-) and Multiplication (*).

Arithmetic Operator

Text Operator

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Operators

Comparison (Logical) Operators

Reference Operator

Text Operators (&) :-is an ampersand symbol that used to concatenate or connect two pieces of
text values in to a single combined text value. i.e the two text operands should be enclosed with
double quotation marks.
Example “Micro” & “Soft” produce the concatenate word “Microsoft”
Comparison or Logical Operators is using comparison operators you can compare two or more
operands and produce the logical value True or False.

Operators Symbols
- Equal to------------------------------------------------------------------ =
- Grater than--------------------------------------------------------------- >
- Less than---------------------------------------------------------------- <
- Greater than or equal than-------------------------------------------- >=
- Less than or equal to ------------------------------------------------- <=
- Not equal to ----------------------------------------------------------- < >
Reference Operator - References are actual cell address in the worksheet.
The basic MS-Excel reference operators are;
: (Colon) – a range reference that refers all cells or sheets between and including the two
references specified.
, (Comma) – a union operator that combines multiple non-adjacent references in to one
references.
Single Space – an intersection operator that produces one reference from the cells or ranges that
have references in common.
!(Exclamation Mark) – Used to separate sheet names from cell references.

There are two types of cell references: relative and absolute. Relative and absolute references
behave differently when copied and filled to other cells. Relative references change when a
formula is copied to another cell. Absolute references, on the other hand, remain constant no
matter where they are copied.

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A. To create and copy a formula using relative references:
In the following example, we want to create a formula that will multiply each item's price by
the quantity. Instead of creating a new formula for each row, we can create a single formula in
cell D4 and then copy it to the other rows. We'll use relative references so the formula calculates
the total for each item correctly.
1. Select the cell that will contain the formula. In our example, we'll select cell D4.

Figure 13 select cell

2. Enter the formula to calculate the desired value. In our example, we'll type =B4*C4.

Figure 14 enter formula

3. Press Enter on your keyboard. The formula will be calculated, and the result will be
displayed in the cell.
4. Locate the fill handle in the bottom-right corner of the desired cell. In our example, we'll
locate the fill handle for cell D4.
5. B. Absolute references
6. There may be times when you do not want a cell reference to change when filling cells.
Unlike relative references, absolute references do not change when copied or filled. You
can use an absolute reference to keep a row and/or column constant.
7. An absolute reference is designated in a formula by the addition of a dollar sign ($) before
the column and row. If it precedes the column or row (but not both), it's known as a mixed
reference.

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Creating a function
There are a variety of functions available in Excel. Here are some of the most common functions
you'll use:
 SUM: This function adds all of the values of the cells in the argument.
 AVERAGE: This function determines the average of the values included in the
argument. It calculates the sum of the cells and then divides that value by the number of
cells in the argument.
 COUNT: This function counts the number of cells with numerical data in the argument.
This function is useful for quickly counting items in a cell range.
 MAX: This function determines the highest cell value included in the argument.
 MIN: This function determines the lowest cell value included in the argument.
To create a function using the AutoSum command:
The AutoSum command allows you to automatically insert the most common functions into
your formula, including SUM, AVERAGE, COUNT, MIN, and MAX. In the example below,
we'll use the SUM function to calculate the total cost for a list of recently ordered items.
1. Select the cell that will contain the function. In our example, we'll select cell D13.

Select cell
Sometimes Excel comes across a formula that it cannot calculate. When this happens, it displays
an error value. Error values occur because of incorrectly written formulas, referencing cells or
data that don’t exist, or breaking the fundamental laws of mathematics.
#### Error
The #### error occurs when the column isn't wide enough to fit the cell data.
1. Double-click the line to the right of the column letter for the column containing the error.

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The column width automatically resizes to fit the widest string of text in the column, thus fixing
the error.
To resize all columns in the sheet at once, click the Select All button in the upper-left of the
worksheet before resizing a column’s width.
NAME Error
You'll see the #NAME? error when the text in the formula isn't recognized. Sometimes it's easy
to figure out the error, but other times you'll need help to determine what’s happening. For this
example, you’ll use Excel’s Error Checking feature to help fix the problem.
1. Select the cell with the #NAME? error.
2. Click the Formulas tab.
3. Click the Error Checking button.
The Error Checking dialog box opens. The left side of the dialog box shows the formula that’s
causing the error and gives a description of what’s happening.
4. Select an error checking option at the right and fix the error.
 Help on This Error: Displays information specific to the error type.
 Show Calculation Steps: Demonstrates all steps leading to the error.
 Ignore Error: Allows you to accept the formula as entered, without Excel
displaying the Error Checking Options smart tag.
 Edit in Formula Bar: Allows you to edit the formula that is generating the error
in the Formula Bar.
5. Close the dialog box.
Edite column and row within the spreadsheet
By default, every row and column of a new workbook is set to the same height and width. Excel
allows you to modify column width and row height in different ways, including wrapping
text and merging cells.
To modify column width:
In our example below, column C is too narrow to display all of the content in these cells. We can
make all of this content visible by changing the width of column C.
1. Position the mouse over the column line in the column heading so the cursor becomes
a double arrow.

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 7.2. Customize basic settings
In Microsoft Excel there are several ways you can alter and edit the layout your work sheet.to begin,
it is advisable to view your worksheet page layout view as this shows the margin and ruler as
well as how the worksheet will appear when printed.

The Toolbar is an area where you can add different commands or tools associated with excel. By
default, it is located above the ribbon with different tools and visible in the Excel window’s
upper right corner. To increase customer friendliness, toolbars have become customizable
according to the frequent use of different tools. Instead of a set of tools, excel gives us the option
to select and build a Quick Access Toolbar

It is a symbolical representation of built-in options available in Excel. By default, it contains the

below commands.

1. Save: To save the created workbook.

2. Undo: To return or step back one level of an immediate action performed.

3. Redo: Repeat the last action.

Use the Toolbar in Excel

The Toolbar in Excel is a shortcut tool to avoid searching for the commands you often use in the
worksheet. Using Toolbar in Excel is easy, and it helps us simplify access to the document’s
commands. Let’s understand the working of the Toolbar in Excel by some examples given
below.

Adding Commands to the Toolbar in Excel

To get more tools, you have the option to customize the Quick Access Toolbar simply by adding
the commands.

 Click on the downward-facing arrow at the end of the Toolbar in Excel. A pop up will be
shown as Customize Quick Access Toolbar.

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 Fig 2.3 custom quick access toolbar

 From the dropdown, you will get a list of commonly used commands. Click any of the
options that you want, and it will be added to the toolbar.

 In Microsoft Excel, a user can change the properties of text in any cell, including font
type, size, color, and make it bold, italic, or underlined. They can also change the color of
a cell's background and the border around a cell. The following picture is a graphic
illustration of the font and cell format bar in Excel with a description of each option.
 Font is a general computer term and refers to the style, size and colour of the text and
numbers in your worksheet.
Changing cell border
By default, a cell does not have a border. To change the cell border in a Microsoft Excel
spreadsheet, follow the steps below.
1. Select the cell you want to add a border.
2. Click the down arrow next to the cell border icon. It is usually displayed as a four-pane
window, as shown in the image above.
3. After clicking the down arrow for the cell border, select the border type you want to set
for the cell.

Fig 2.10 border

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 4. The cell border color, click the Line Color option at the bottom of the drop-down menu.
5. To change the cell border type, click the Line Style option at the bottom of the drop-
down menu

Change alignment and line spacing Text alignment

By default, any text entered into your worksheet will be aligned to the bottom-left of a
cell, while any numbers will be aligned to the bottom-right. Changing the alignment of
your cell content allows you to choose how the content is displayed in any cell, which
can make your cell content easier to read.

Click the arrows in the slideshow below to learn more about the different text alignment options.

Left Align: Aligns content to the left border of the cell

Center Align: Aligns content an equal distance from the left and right borders of the cell

Right Align: Aligns content to the right border of the cell

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 Top Align: Aligns content to the top border of the cell

Middle Align: Aligns content an equal distance from the top and bottom borders of the cell

Bottom Align: Aligns content to the bottom border of the cell

 You can apply both vertical and horizontal alignment settings to any cell.

Modify margin sizes

A margin is the space between your content and the edge of the page. Sometimes you may need
to adjust the margins to make your data fit more comfortably. You can modify page margins
from the Print pane.
1. Navigate to the Print pane.
2. Select the desired margin size from the Page Margins drop-down menu. In our example,
we'll select Narrow Margins.

Fig 2.11 print pane

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 3. The new page margins will be displayed in the Preview pane.

You can adjust the margins manually by clicking the Show Margins button in the lower-right
corner, then dragging the margin markers in the Preview pane.

View multiple spreadsheets concurrently

You can also arrange multiple worksheets to view them all at the same time.
View two worksheets in the same workbook side by side
1. On the View tab, in the Window group, click New Window.

2. On the View tab, in the Window group, click View Side by Side .
3. In each workbook window, click the sheet that you want to compare.

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 4. To scroll both worksheets at the same time, click Synchronous Scrolling in
the Window group on the View tab.
View two worksheets of different workbooks side by side
1. Open both of the workbooks that contain the worksheets that you want to compare.

2. On the View tab, in the Window group, click View Side by Side .

If you have more than two workbooks open, Excel displays the Compare Side by Side dialog
box. In this dialog box, under Compare Side by Side with, click the workbook that contains
the worksheet that you want to compare with your active worksheet, and then click OK.
3. In each workbook window, click the sheet that you want to compare.

4. To scroll both worksheets at the same time, click Synchronous Scrolling in

the Window group on the View tab.
View multiple worksheets at the same time
1. Open one or more workbooks that contain the worksheets that you want to view at the
same time.
2. Do one of the following:
 If the worksheets that you want to view are in the same workbook, do the
following:
i. Click a worksheet that you want to view.
ii. On the View tab, in the Window group, click New Window.

iii. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each sheet that you want to view.
 If the worksheets that you want to view are in different workbooks, continue with
step 3.
3. On the View tab, in the Window group, click Arrange All.
4. Under Arrange, click the option that you want.

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 5. If the sheets that you want to view are all located in the active workbook, select
the Windows of active workbook check box.
7.3. Format spreadsheet
Use format features and tools
Formatting in Excel means a trick that we can use to modify the data's appearance in a
worksheet. We can format the data in various ways, like we can format the font of the cells or the
table with the help of the styles and format tab present in the Home tab. Excel formatting is an
optional step following data preparation, or all of the data cleansing, structuring,
enriching, and standardizing necessary to prepare the data for analysis format cells is used to
modify the formatting of cell numbers without modifying the actual number. With the help of the
format cells, we can change the number, alignment, font style, Border style, Fill
options, and Protection.

Good formatting will improve our data in various ways:

 With the help of the formatting, we can present our data correctly; for example,
formatting as dates or currency will provide more value to our data.

 Merging and aligning our data is a vital aspect of making our data more readable.

 Formatting our text by increasing the Size, bolding, adding italics, or changing the
fonts will improve the overall appearance of our worksheet.

 Using styles (like table styles) can make our data stand out and helps the reader to focus
on crucial portions of the worksheet.

 Conditional formatting is a useful tool for highlighting crucial portions of our

worksheet graphically or visibly. These are dynamic tools. The Highlighted region
changes as our data changes.

Benefits of Data Formatting in Excel

The following are some of the benefits of Excel data formatting:

 The data appears to be more presentable.

 Data formatting saves a lot of time and effort.

 With the help of the chart, we can analyze the data.

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  With the help of the formatting, we can highlight specific data such as profit or loss in
business. Now,

In order to format data in Excel, we'll do the following things:

 The Font size is larger.

 We make the text of the column head bold

 Center aligning the data

 We will apply the outline border with the help of the shortcut that is (Alt+H+B+T),

 After selecting the full table (using Ctrl+A), use the shortcut key (Alt+H+O+I) to adjust
the column width.

 To alter the background, use the 'Fill Color' command in the 'Font' group on 'Home'

Insert headers and footers

The purpose of Header and Footer in Excel
The purpose is similar to that of hard copy documents or books. The headers and footers in Excel
help meet the standard representation format of the documents and/or worksheets. In addition,
they add a sense of organization to the soft documents and/or worksheets.

header and footer tools

Create a Header in Excel

Step1.First, click the worksheet where we want to add or change the header. Then, go to the “Insert
tab” -“Text” group – “Header & Footer.”

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 Fig 3.2 header and footer
Step2.Clicking on it would open a new window, as shown below.

header and footer text

Step3.As shown in the screenshot below, “Header & Footer Tools” has a “Design” tab containing
various text options to put as the header. The default is an empty text box wherein we can enter a
free text, e.g., “This is the header text.” The other options are “Page Number,” “Number of
Pages,” “Current Date,” “Current Time,” “File Path,” “File Name,” “Sheet Name,” “Picture,”
etc.

Fig 3.4 header name

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 Create Footer in Excel
Step1.We must first click the worksheet where we want to add or change the header. Then, go to the
“Insert” tab -> “Text” group -> “Header & Footer.”

header and footer

Step2.Clicking on it would open a new window, as shown. As shown in the screenshot below,
“Header & Footer Tools” has a “Design” tab containing various text options to put as the header.
The default is an empty text box wherein you can enter a free text, e.g., “This is the Footer text.”
The other options are “Page Number,” “Number of Pages,” “Current Date,” “Current Time,”
“File Path,” “File Name,” “Sheet Name,” “Picture,” etc.

footer name
Remove Header and Footer in
Step1.We must first launch the “Page Setup” dialog box from the “Page Setup” box under the “Page
Layout” menu.

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7.4. Incorporate object and chart in spreadsheet
Import an object into spreadsheet
In Microsoft Excel, the “Object Insert” option allows a user to insert an external object into a
worksheet. Embedding generally means inserting an object from another software (Word, PDF,
etc.) into an Excel worksheet. This option is useful for direct access to files related to your
worksheet data from within your worksheet space. In addition, the inserted object works as a
ready information source or reference for a dataset in an Excel worksheet.

Insert (Embed) an Object in Excel

1. We must first select “Text” from the “Insert” tab and then click “Object.”

object tab
2. Then, select “Create New” to embed a new blank file. Remember, only file types are
shown in “Object type” that can be embedded in the Excel worksheet.

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 Object type
3. Now, choose a file type to embed. For example, we have selected a “Microsoft Word
Document,” now click “OK.”

4.1Create a chart using selected data in the spreadsheet

Excel has several different types of charts, allowing you to choose the one that best fits your
data. In order to use charts effectively, you'll need to understand how different charts are
used.

type of chart
Excel has a variety of chart types, each with its own advantages. Click the arrows to see some of the different types
of charts available in Excel.

column chart
Column charts use vertical bars to represent data. They can work with many different types of data, but they're most
frequently used for comparing information.

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 line chart
Line charts are ideal for showing trends. The data points are connected with lines, making it easy
to see whether values are increasing or decreasing over time.

pie chart
Pie charts make it easy to compare proportions. Each value is shown as a slice of the pie, so it's
easy to see which values make up the percentage of a whole.

bar chart

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Bar charts work just like column charts, but they use horizontal rather than vertical bars.

area chart

Area charts are similar to line charts, except the areas under the lines are filled in.

surface are
Surface charts allow you to display data across a 3D landscape. They work best with large data
sets, allowing you to see a variety of information at the same time.

In addition to chart types, you'll need to understand how to read a chart. Charts contain several
different elements, or parts, that can help you interpret the data.

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 insert data in to worksheet
To insert a chart:
1. Select the cells you want to chart, including the column titles and row labels. These cells will be the
source data for the chart. In our example, we'll select cells A1:F6.

source data
2. From the Insert tab, click the desired Chart command. In our example, we'll
select Column.

chart command
3. Choose the desired chart type from the drop-down menu.

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 chart type
4. The Selected chart will be inserted into the worksheet.

select chart on worksheet

If you're not sure which type of chart to use, the Recommended Charts command will suggest
several different charts based on the source data.

Recommended chart
Chart and layout style
After inserting a chart, there are several things you may want to change about the way your data
is displayed. It's easy to edit a chart's layout and style from the Design tab.
 Excel allows you to add chart elements—such as chart titles, legends, and data labels
—to make your chart easier to read. To add a chart element, click the Add Chart
Element command on the Design tab, then choose the desired element from the drop-
down menu.

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 Fig 4.21 chart chart layout
To edit a chart element, like a chart title, simply double-click the placeholder and begin typing.

Fig 4.22 chart element

If you don't want to add chart elements individually, you can use one of Excel's predefined layouts.
Simply click the Quick Layout command, then choose the desired layout from the drop-down
menu.

Fig 4.23 Quick layout

Excel also includes several chart styles, which allow you to quickly modify the look and feel of your
chart. To change the chart style, select the desired style from the Chart styles group. You can
also click the drop-down arrow on the right to see more styles.

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 Fig 4.24 Chart style
You can also use the chart formatting shortcut buttons to quickly add chart elements, change
the chart style, and filter the chart data.
There are many other ways to customize and organize your charts. For example, Excel allows you
to rearrange a chart's data, change the chart type, and even move the chart to a different
location in a workbook.
To switch row and column data:
Sometimes you may want to change the way charts group your data. For example, in the chart
below Book Sales data is grouped by genre, with columns for each month. However, we
could switch the rows and columns so the chart will group the data by month, with columns
for each genre. In both cases, the chart contains the same data—it's just organized
differently.

7.5. Print spreadsheet

Previewing spreadsheet

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There may be times when you want to print a workbook to view and share your data offline. Once
you've chosen your page layout settings, it's easy to preview and print a workbook from Excel
using the Print pane.
1. Select the File tab. Backstage view will appear.

2. Select Print. The Print pane will appear.

Backstage
Click the buttons in the interactive below to learn more about using the Print pane.

print pan
Show Margins / Zoom to Page
The Zoom to Page button on the right will zoom in and out in the Preview pane.
The Show Margins button on the left will show the margins in the Preview pane.

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Selecting basic printer options to printing spreadsheet
1. Navigate to the Print pane, then select the desired printer.

Fig select printer name

2. Enter the number of copies you want to print.

Fig 5.5 enter number of copy

3. Select any additional settings if needed (see above interactive).

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4. Click Print.

click print

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CHAPTER EIGHT

8. Access and Use Database Application

8.1. Create database objects
Introduction to Database Systems
A database is an integrated collection of logically related records or files consolidated into a
common pool that provides data for one or more multiple uses.
One way of classifying databases involves the type of content, for example: bibliographic, full-
text, numeric, and image. Other classification methods start from examining database models or
database architectures.
The data in a database is organized according to a database model. The relational model is the
most common.
A Database Management System (DBMS) consists of software that organizes the storage of data.
A DBMS controls the creation, maintenance, and use of the database storage structures of
organizations and of their end users. It allows organizations to place control of organization-wide
database development in the hands of Database Administrators (DBAs) and other specialists. In
large systems, a DBMS allows users and other software to store and retrieve data in a structured
way.
Database management systems are usually categorized according to the database model that they
support, such as the network, relational or object model. The model tends to determine the query
languages that are available to access the database. One commonly used query language for the
relational database is SQL, although SQL syntax and function can vary from one DBMS to
another. A great deal of the internal engineering of a DBMS is independent of the data model,
and is concerned with managing factors such as performance, concurrency, integrity, and
recovery from hardware failures. In these areas there are large differences between products.
Database Design Principles

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Introduction to MS Access
MS Access is a database management tool that enables one
to store relevant data. This also has the capabilities to
retrieve, sort, summarize and report results
immediately and effectively. It can combine data from
various files (tables) through creating relationships.
Microsoft Access (MS Access) enables one to manage all important information from a single
database file. Within the file, one can use the different objects:
 Tables -Store your data in your database.
 Queries - Ask questions about information stored in your tables.
 Forms - A form is a type of a database object that is primarily used to enter or display
data in a database.
 Reports - Allow you to print data based on queries/tables that you have created

Basic Database Concept: In studying MS Access, it is but necessary to understand some basic
elements of a database before proceeding to it.
Database Elements:
 Data are raw facts. It tells the truth about something; a person, a place, an object, etc.
Example:

Name
“Girma” is a data. “Girma” is my name, so
Girma
it tells something about a person.
“Girma” is a Name

Gender
“Male” is Girma’s gender. So it tells something about “Girma”.
Male

 Information is a collection of data (raw facts) which is contained in 1 file (table in Access)
Example:
ID Number First Name Last Name Gender Birthday Address
Stud-0001 Girma Abebe Male 11-05-1978 Bishoftu
This is information about a person named “Girma”
Example of a table (file):
ID Number First Name Last Name Gender Birthday Address

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 Stud-0001 Girma Abebe Male 11-05-1978 Bishoftu
Stud-0002 Sintayehu Kifle Male 21-03-1980 Adama
Stud-0003 Abera Tekeba Male 5-01-1970 Bahirdar
Stud-0004 Tola Asfaw Male 25-12-1982 Jima
Stud-0005 Meron Aschalew Female 8-01-1985 Hawasa

Naming Convention
It is manner of naming files and variables. Having a poor naming convention can only add
confusion, so it's important that you start with a good scheme, and think about what the scheme
will mean to you. Here are the three things to consider in establishing a naming convention:
1. Does my convention make sense to me?
o Must be simple and understandable to you.
2. Will my convention make sense to other people?
o Time will come that other people will look into your database program, so they must
able to understand it.
3. Can I be consistent in implementing and enforcing my convention?
o All throughout my database work, your naming convention must not change.

Database Design Principles

Usability: Any information which we are storing in any organization should be meaningful for
that organization. If we are storing those factors which are actually not fit with organization’s
requirement then this is just waste of resources.
Extensibility: As we know that everyday new business requirements come up and every day
there is a need to change or enhance information system to capture new requirements. So
information design should be extensible so that it can adopt new requirements without much
efforts or without major breaking changes.
Data Integrity: Now at this point we understand that information is very much important for any
organization. Based on the historic information, every organization makes different strategies,
decisions for growth. One small mistake in data can lead to major issues with any organization’s
key decision and hence a big risk for growth.

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Entity Integrity: Involves the structure (primary key and its attributes) of the entity. If the
primary key is unique and all attributes are scalar and fully dependent on the primary key, then
the integrity of the entity is good. In the physical schema, the table’s primary key enforces entity
integrity.
Domain Integrity: It defines that data should be of correct type and we should handle optional
data in correct way. We should apply Nullability to those attributes which are optional for
organization. We can define proper data types for different attributes based on organization’s
requirement so that correct format data should present in system.
Referential Integrity: This defines if any entity is dependent on another one then parent entity
should be there in the system and should be uniquely identifiable. We can do this by
implementing foreign keys.
User defined integrity: There are few business rules which we cannot validate just by primary
keys, foreign keys etc. There has to be some mechanism so that we can validate complex rules
for integrity. We can implement these rules in following ways:
Performance: As we know that information should be readily available as requested.
Performance of the system should be up to the mark. As data in increasing day by day so at some
time there will be impact on performance if database design is poor or we’ll not take any actions
to improve performance.
Availability: The availability of information refers to the information’s accessibility when
required regarding uptime, locations, and the availability of the data for future analysis. Disaster
recovery, redundancy, archiving, and network delivery all affect availability.
Security: For any organizational asset, the level of security must be secured depending on its
value and sensitivity. Sometime organizations has suffered a lot because of data leaks which
results in loss of faith and tends to business risk. So security is one of the most important aspect
of good database design.

Design Process

 Determine the purpose of your database: This helps prepare you for the remaining steps.
 Find and organize the information required. Gather all of the types of information you might
want to record in the database, such as product name and order number.
 Divide the information into tables: Divide your information items into major entities or
subjects, such as Products or Orders. Each subject then becomes a table.

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  Turn information items into columns: Decide what information you want to store in each
table. Each item becomes a field, and is displayed as a column in the table. For example, an
Employees table might include fields such as Last Name and Hire Date.
 Specify primary keys: Choose each table’s primary key. The primary key is a column that is
used to uniquely identify each row. An example might be Product ID or Order ID.
 Set up the table relationships. Look at each table and decide how the data in one table is
related to the data in other tables. Add fields to tables or create new tables to clarify the
relationships, as necessary.
 Refine your design: Analyze your design for errors. Create the tables and add a few records
of sample data. See if you can get the results you want from your tables. Make adjustments to
the design, as needed.
 Apply the normalization rules: Apply the data normalization rules to see if your tables are
structured correctly. Make adjustments to the tables, as needed.

Database Objects
Database Objects

A database object in a relational database is a data structure used to either store or reference data.
The most common object that people interact with is the table. Other objects are indexes, stored
procedures, sequences, views and many more.
When a database object is created, a new object type cannot be created because all the
various object types created are restricted by the very nature, or source code, of the relational
database model being used, such as Oracle, SQL Server or Access. What is being created is
instances of the objects, such as a new table, an index on that table or a view on the same table.

The different type of Database objects

Tables: - Recently, we define it as a file but technically, it was defined as a container or a

worksheet-like container where the collection of data has been stored.
Tables - A table is a collection of data about a specific topic, such as products or suppliers
 Basic Component of a Table:
 Meta Data – Database Structure
 Field – Column – Data
 Fieldname
 Record - Row - Information

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 Metadata – is a “data about data” or synonymously called table structure that defines what
type of data your data is?
Queries –Queries used to view, change, and analyze data in different ways. You can also use them
as a source of records for forms, reports.
Forms - A form is a type of a database object that is primarily used to enter or display data in a
database. You can also use a form as a switchboard that opens other forms and reports in the
database, or as a custom dialog box that accepts user input and carries out an action based on the
input.
Reports - A report is an effective way to present your data in a printed format. Because you have
control over the size and appearance of everything on a report.
Data types in Microsoft Access
Every field in a table has properties and these properties define the field's characteristics and
behavior. The most important property for a field is its data type. A field's data type determines
what kind of data it can store. MS Access supports different types of data, each with a specific
purpose.

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  The data type determines the kind of the values that users can store in any given
field.
 Each field can store data consisting of only a single data type.
Table 1. 1 Common data types in Access

Type of Data Description Size

Short Text Text or combinations of text and numbers, Up to 255 characters.

including numbers that do not require
calculating (e.g. phone numbers).

Long Text Lengthy text or combinations of text and Up to 63, 999 characters.
numbers.

Number Numeric data used in mathematical 1, 2, 4, or 8 bytes (16 bytes if

calculations. set to Replication ID).

Date/Time Date and time values for the years 100 8 bytes
through 9999.

Currency Currency values and numeric data used in 8 bytes

mathematical calculations involving data
with one to four decimal places.

AutoNumber A unique sequential (incremented by 1) 4 bytes (16 bytes if set to

number or random number assigned by Replication ID).
Microsoft Access whenever a new record is
added to a table.

Yes/No Yes and No values and fields that contain 1 bit.

only one of two values (Yes/No, True/False,
or On/Off).
 If you use previous versions of Access, you will notice a difference for two of those
data types.
 In Access 2013, we now have two data types — short text and long text. In previous
versions of Access these data types were called text and memo.
 The text field is referred to as short text and your memo field is now called long text.

Type of Data Description Size

Attachment Files, such as digital photos. Multiple files Up to about 2 GB.

can be attached per record. This data type is
not available in earlier versions of Access.

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 OLE objects OLE objects can store pictures, audio, video, Up to about 2 GB.
or other BLOBs (Binary Large Objects)

Hyperlink Text or combinations of text and numbers Up to 8,192 (each part of a

stored as text and used as a hyperlink Hyperlink data type can
address. contain up to 2048
characters).

Lookup The Lookup Wizard entry in the Data Type Dependent on the data type of
Wizard column in the Design view is not actually a the lookup field.
data type. When you choose this entry, a
wizard starts to help you define either a
simple or complex lookup field.

Calculated You can create an expression that uses data
from one or more fields. You can designate
different result data types from the
expression.
You can create an expression
that uses data from one or
more fields. You can
designate different result data
types from the expression.

These are all the different data types that you can choose from when creating fields in a
Microsoft Access table.
Create Database Relationship
Table Relationship

Newcomers to the world of databases often have a hard time seeing the differences between a
database and a spreadsheet. They see tables of data and recognize that databases allow you to
organize and query data in new ways, but fail to grasp the significance of the relationship that
gives relational database technology & its name. Relationships allow you to describe the
connections between different database tables in powerful ways. Once you’ve described the
relationships between your tables, you can later leverage that information to perform powerful
cross-table queries, known as joins. A relationship is a logical connection between two tables.
Keys are fields that are part of a table relationship. There are two kinds of keys

A. Primary key
A table can have only one primary key. A primary key is used to identify each record that you
store in the table. It will not allow a duplication of the Primary Key thus make it unique.
Primary Key is the unique identification of one record. There is a uniquely identification number,
such as
 ID number

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  A serial number
 A code that serves as a primary key
B. Foreign key
A table can also have one or more foreign key. A foreign key contains values that correspondent
to values in the primary key of another table. You use table relationship to combine data from
related table

1.4.1. Types of Database Relationships

A. One to One Relationship
In a one-to-one relationship, each row in one database table is linked to 1 and only 1 other row in
another table. In a one-to-one relationship between Table A and Table B, each row in Table A is
linked to another row in Table B. The number of rows in Table A must equal the number of rows
in Table B.
To illustrate the one-to-one relationship consider the sample table design and data below:

Customer name table

cust_id (primary key - link to cust_id of customer details table)
first name
last name

Customer details table

cust_id (primary key - link to cust_id of customer name table)
height
weight
date of birth

cust_id firstname last name

0001 Abebe Tekalign

0002 Sintayehu Balcha

0003 Kebede Daba

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 0001 181 75 03/05/1960
0002 179 82 06/08/1974
0003 171 65 04/01/1955

0004 Simehar Belay 0004 185 93 05/05/1980

0005 Makida Teka 0005 168 71 09/09/1975

Notice that each row in the customer name table is related to 1 and only 1 other row in the
customer details table. Similarly, each row in the customer details table is related to 1 and only 1
other row in the customer name table.
However, if you think about it carefully, the above relationship does not really bring any design
benefits. In fact, it would cause performance overheads to the database engine for having to link
the table rows together to service user queries related to customers. The 2 tables can actually be
combined into a single table as illustrated below:

Customer name table

cust_id
First name
last name
height
weight
date of birth

cust_id firstname last name height weight dateofbirth

0001 Abebe Tekalign 181 75 03/05/1960

0002 Sintayehu Balcha 179 82 06/08/1974

0003 Kebede Daba 171 65 04/01/1955

0004 Simehar Belay 185 93 05/05/1980

0005 Makida Teka 168 71 09/09/1975

However, there are some situations in which the one-to-one relationship may improve
performance. For our example above, if the height, weight and date of birth columns are rarely
used, it may make sense to separate them out into a separate database table that is linked to the

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original table using a one-to-one relationship. This would reduce the overhead needed to retrieve
the height, weight and date of birth columns whenever a query is performed on the last name and
first name fields.

B. One to Many Relationships

In a one-to-many relationship, each row in the related to table can be related to many rows in the
relating table. This allows frequently used information to be saved only once in a table and
referenced many times in all other tables. In a one-to-many relationship between Table A and
Table B, each row in Table A is linked to 0, 1 or many rows in Table B. The number of rows in
Table A is almost always less than the number of rows in Table B.
To illustrate the one-to-many relationship consider the sample table design and data below:

Authors table Books table

author_id (primary key) book_id (primary key)

first name title
last name author_id (foreign key - link to author_id of author table)

author_id first name last name

book_id title author_id
0001 Abebe Tekalign b1 a database primer 0001
0002 Sintayehu Balcha b2 building data warehouse 0001
b3 teach yourself sql 0001
0003 Kebede Daba
b4 101 exotic recipes 0002
0004 Simehar Belay
b5 visiting ethiopia 0003

Notice that each row in the authors table is related to 0, 1 or many rows in the books table. This
makes intuitive sense because an author can write 0, 1 or more than 1 books. In our example
above, Aebe tekalign has written 3 books, Sintayehu balacha has written 1 book, Kebede daba
has written 1 book and Simhar belay has not written any books.
If you notice carefully, the above relationship between the authors table and the books table is a

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one-to-many relationship. Turning around, the relationship between the books table and the
authors table is a many-to-one relationship.

C. Many to Many Relationships

In a many-to-many relationship, one or more rows in a table can be related to 0, 1 or many rows
in another table. In a many-to-many relationship between Table A and Table B, each row in
Table A is linked to 0, 1 or many rows in Table B and vice versa. A 3rd table called a mapping
table is required in order to implement such a relationship.
To illustrate the many-to-many relationship consider the sample table design for a bank below:

Customers table

cust_id (primary key)

last name
first name

Products table

product_id (primary key)

name

Mapping table

cust_id
product_id

Assume that the bank has only 2 customers and 2 products:

Customer Table
cust_id firstname last name

0001 Abebe Tekalign

0002 Sintayehu Balcha

Products Table

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 product_id name
P0001 savings
P0002 credit card

Mapping Table
cust_id product_id

0001 P0001
0001 P0002
0002 P0002

Notice from the mapping table, Abebe tekalign has 2 facilities with the bank - a Savings account
and a Credit Card. Also, notice that both the customers own Credit Cards issued by the bank.
This means that with the way the database tables are designed:
1. One customer can have 0, 1 or many products
2. One product can be owned by 0, 1 or many customers
8.2. Add record on table
Add, Modify & Delete records
A. Ways to Add, Edit, and Delete records

There are several ways to update data in an Access database. You add a record to your database
when you have a new item to track, such as a new contact to the Contacts table. When you add a
new record, Access appends the record to the end of the table. You also change fields to stay up-
to-date, such as a new address or last name. To maintain data integrity, the fields in an Access
database are set to accept a specific type of data, such as text or numbers. If you don't enter the
correct data type, Access displays an error message. Finally, you can delete a record when it is
no longer relevant and to save space.
You use a form to manually update data. Data entry forms can provide an easier, faster, and more
accurate way to enter data. Forms can contain any number of controls such as lists, text boxes,
and buttons. In turn, each of the controls on the form either reads data from or writes data to an
underlying table field.

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 Data entry form

Datasheets are grids of data that look like Excel worksheets. You can change data by working
directly in Datasheet view. If you are familiar with Excel, datasheets should be relatively easy to
understand. You can change data in tables, query result sets, and forms that display datasheets.
Typically, you use datasheets when you need to see many records at once.

Datasheet view of the record

B. Understanding data entry symbols

The following table shows some of the record selector symbols you might see when updating
data and what they mean.
Symbol Meaning
This is the current record; the record has been saved as it appears. The current record is
indicated by a change in color in the record selector.
You are editing this record; changes to the record aren't yet saved.
This record is locked by another user; you can't edit it.
This is a new record in which you can enter information.
This is the primary key field and contains a value that uniquely identifies the record.

C. Lookup data-entry list in MS Access

Perhaps the best way to make sure that data is entered correctly is to create a data-entry drop-
down list. That way, anyone entering the data in your database table can do so by choosing an
item from the list, not by typing it in. This method saves time and prevents invalid data from
being entered. Access offers two ways to create the drop-down list:

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  Create the list by entering the items yourself: Go this route when you’re dealing with a
finite list of items that never change.
 Get the items from another database table: Go this route to get items from a column in
another database table. This way, you can choose from an ever-expanding list of items.
When the number of items in the other database table changes, so does the number of
items in the drop-down list because the items come from the other database table. This is
a great way to get items from a primary key field in another table.
Filed Properties Settings
The Field Properties settings safeguard data from being entered incorrectly. Following is a
description of the different properties (listed here in the order in which they appear in the Design
view window) and instructions for using them wisely. Which properties you can assign to a field
in Access depends on which data type the field was assigned.

A. Field Size

In the Field Size box for Text fields, enter the maximum number of characters that can be
entered in the field. Suppose that the field you’re dealing with is ZIP code, and you want to enter
five-number ZIP codes. By entering 5 in the Field Size text box, only five characters can be
entered in the field. A sleepy data-entry clerk couldn’t enter a six-character ZIP code by
accident.
For Number fields, select a value for the field size from the drop-down list.

B. Format

Click the drop-down list and choose the format in which text, numbers, and dates and times are
displayed.

C. Decimal Places

For a field that holds numbers, open the Decimal Places drop-down list and choose how many
numbers can appear to the right of the decimal point. This property affects how numbers and
currency values are displayed, not their real value. Numbers are rounded to the nearest decimal
point. The Auto option displays the number of decimal places permitted by the format you chose
on the Format drop-down list.

D. Input Mask

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For Text and Date field types, this feature provides a template with punctuation marks to make
entering the data easier. Telephone numbers, social security numbers, and other numbers that
typically are entered along with dashes and parentheses are ideal candidates for an input mask
(another ridiculous database term!). On the datasheet, blank spaces appear where the numbers
go, and the punctuation marks stand at the ready to receive numbers.

Input Mask Sample

In the Input Mask text box, enter a 0 where numbers go and enter the punctuation marks where
they go. For example, enter (000) 000-0000 or 000/000-0000 to enter an input mask for a
telephone number. You can also create input masks by clicking the three dots beside the Input
Mask text box. Doing so opens the Input Mask Wizard dialog box, where you can fashion a very
sophisticated input mask.

E. Caption

If the field you're working on has a cryptic or hard-to-understand name, enter a more descriptive
name in the Caption text box. The value in the Caption property appears as the column heading
in Datasheet view, as a label on forms, and on reports in place of the field name. People entering
data understand what to enter after reading the descriptive caption.

F. Default Value

When you know that the majority of records require a certain value, number, or abbreviation,
enter it in the Default Value text box. That way, you save yourself the trouble of entering the
value, number, or abbreviation most of the time because the default value appears already in
each record when you enter it. You can always override the default value by entering something
different.

G. Validation Rule

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As long as you know your way around operators and Boolean expressions, you can establish a
rule for entering data in a field. For example, you can enter an expression that requires dates to
be entered in a certain time frame. Or you can require currency figures to be above or below a
certain value. To establish a validation rule, enter an expression in the Validation Rule text box.
To use dates in an expression, the dates must be enclosed by number signs (#).
To get help forming expressions, click the three dots beside the Validation Rule text box to open
the Expression Builder and build an expression there. Try clicking the Help button in the
Expression Builder dialog box. Doing so opens the Access Help program, where you can get
advice about building expressions.

H. Validation Text

If someone enters data that violates a validation rule that you enter in the Validation Rule text
box, Access displays a standard error message. The message reads, “One or more values are
prohibited by the validation rule set for [this field]. Enter a value that the expression for this field
can accept.” If this message is too cold and impersonal for you, you can create a message of your
own for the error message dialog box. Enter your friendly message in the Validation Text text
box.

I. Required

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By default, no entry has to be made in a field, but if you choose Yes instead of No in the
Required box and you fail to make an entry in the field, a message box tells you to be sure to
make an entry.

8.3. Customize basic settings

Adjusting Page Layout and Settings
Understanding Layout view

Layout view is the most intuitive view to use for report modification, and can be used for nearly
all the changes you would want to make to a report in Access. In Layout view, the report is
actually running, so you can see your data much as it will appear when printed. However, you
can also make changes to the report design in this view. Because you can see the data while you
are modifying the report, it's a very useful view for setting column widths, add grouping levels,
or performing almost any other task that affects the appearance and readability of the report.

Understanding Views

There are multiple ways to view a database object. The two views for tables are Design View
and Datasheet View.
 Design View is used to set the data types, insert or delete fields, and set the Primary
Key
 Datasheet View is used to enter and view the data for the records
Switching Between Design View and Datasheet View:
Click the View arrow on the Home tab and click on either Datasheet View or Design View

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 Datasheet & Design Views

Open and viewing different tools

Access 2016 uses the Ribbon to organize commands, just like in Access 2013 and 2010. If
you've used these versions before, Access 2016 will feel familiar. But if you are new to Access
or have more experience with older versions, you should first take some time to become familiar
with the Access 2016 interface.

MS-Access Interface Elements

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The Ribbon
Access uses a tabbed Ribbon system instead of traditional menus. The Ribbon contains multiple
tabs, each with several groups of commands. For example, the Clipboard group on the Home tab
contains commands such as Cut, Copy, and Paste.

Ribbon
Some groups also have a small arrow in the bottom-right corner that you can click for even more
options.

Using the Tell me feature

If you're having trouble finding command you want, the Tell me feature can help. It works just
like a regular search bar: Type what you're looking for, and a list of options will appear. You can
then use the command directly from the menu without having to find it on the Ribbon.

Tell me feature
The Quick Access Toolbar

The Quick Access Toolbar, located above the Ribbon, lets you
access common commands no matter which tab you are on. By
default, it shows the Save, Undo, and Redo commands. If you'd like,
you can customize it by adding additional commands.

Backstage view

Backstage view gives you various options for saving, opening, and printing your database.

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 Back View of Access
Additionally, you can use the File menu to see information about your currently open file. This
means seeing the time it was created, last modified, the owner, as well as the file size and much
more. You can also use the Compact & Repair feature, or add password protection as the owner
of a file.

The Navigation pane

The Navigation pane is a list containing every object

in your database. For easier viewing, the objects are
organized into groups by type. You
can open, rename, and delete objects using the
Navigation pane.

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CHAPTER NINE

9. Maintain Inventories of Hardware and Software and Documentation

9.1. Document and update inventory

Defining asset and inventory items

An inventory is basically a detailed list of items. How assets and inventory items of a company
should be treated will ordinarily form part of the organizational guidelines.
A company item will be defined as either an asset or inventory item, that is, not all items will be
recorded in an inventory. For example, an expensive laser printer would not be placed in the
inventory but will be placed in the asset register of the organization.
Consumables, such as printer cartridges, would be placed in the inventory as ‘consumables’.
Some inventories allow for asset numbers to be recorded with the data of an inventory item to
allow that item to be associated with a specific asset.

Inventory Control

Inventory control, also called stock control, is the process of ensuring the right amount of supply
is available in an organization. With the appropriate internal and production controls, the practice
ensures the company can meet customer demand and delivers financial elasticity.
Successful inventory control requires data from purchases, reorders, shipping, warehousing,
storage, receiving, customer satisfaction, loss prevention and turnover. According to the
2017 “State of Small Business Report”, almost half of small businesses do not track their
inventory, even manually.
Inventory control enables the maximum amount of profit from the least amount of investment in
stock without affecting customer satisfaction. Done right, it allows companies to assess their
current state concerning assets, account balances and financial reports. Inventory control can

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help avoid problems, such as out-of-stock (stockout) events. For example, Walmart estimated it
missed out on $3 billion worth of sales in 2014 because its inadequate inventory control
procedures led to stockouts.
An integral part of inventory control is supply chain management (SCM), which manages the
flow of raw materials, goods and services to the point where the company or customers consume
the goods. Warehouse management also squarely falls into the arena of stock control. This
process includes integrating product coding, reorder points and reports, all product details,
inventory lists and counts and methods for selling or storing. Warehouse management then
synchronizes sales and purchases to the stock on hand.
Inventory management is a higher-level term that encompasses the complete process of
procuring, storing, and making a profit from your merchandise or services. While inventory
control and inventory management may seem interchangeable, they are not. Inventory control
regulates what is already in the warehouse. Inventory management is broader and regulates
everything from what is in the warehouse to how a business gets the product there and the item’s
final destination.
Inventory control practices and policies should apply to more than just finished and raw goods.
The following graphic shows all the things a business might manage using these practices.
How Inventory Control Can Improve Your Business
Implementing proper inventory control procedures can help ensure a business is running at
optimal financial levels and that products meet customers’ needs and expectations. According to
the 2015 “Global State of Multichannel Customer Service Report”, 62% of customers have
stopped doing business with a brand whose customer service was poor. Of those customer
service complaints, frustration over out-of-stock or backordered items is high on the list. In fact,
research about convenience stores shows that out-of-stocks could cause a store to lose one in
every 100 customers completely. Additionally, 55% of shoppers in any store would not purchase
an alternate item when their regular product is out-of-stock. Other areas where businesses incur
expenses or lose sales that inventory control practices and methods could address include:
 Spoilage
 Dead stock
 Excess storage costs
 Cost-efficiency
 Decreased sales
 Losing loyal customers

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  Excess stock
 Losing track of inventory
 Losing goods in the warehouse
According to David Pyke, co-author of Inventory and Production Management in Supply Chains,
now out in its fourth edition, and professor of operations and supply chain management at the
University of San Diego, “owners of small and emerging businesses would be stunned to see
how much help they can get and money they can save by wisely managing their inventory. Many
small businesses are not rolling in cash, and much of their funding is tied up in their inventory.
Good practices balance customer demand and management of inventory in the smartest possible
ways.”
Some businesses prefer to stick to the simple systems of keeping track of inventory. Other
companies plan for growth and scaling. You could also track inventory with:
 Advanced Software: Designed for tracking inventory, most of these targeted software
solutions can integrate with existing software, are scalable and provide analytics and
templates. Advanced software is now in reach for many small and midsize businesses
because it is no longer cost prohibitive.

Maintaining a hardware inventory

There is a very large array of hardware that can be used in a computer system. There are CPUs,
hard drives, network cards, printers, routers, monitors, video cards and cables, just to mention a
few. There are also many options within each of these broad categories.
Depending upon the organisational decisions that are made regarding the variety of devices that
will be used on the network, the detail of inventory items can be simplified or become extremely
complex. It is not your job to choose the method of inventory but to maintain the inventory. The
amount of detail you put into the descriptors of individual items may well be your choice. It is
critical that enough detail be included to clearly identify the class and capacity of items, but not
too much detail to slow the inventory search devices and increase the storage capacity required.

Computer Details

The Computers view is the details of the computers and their operating systems. Lists Below
provides the following details of the computers:
 Computer Name: The /DNS/ The Domain Name System is a hierarchical distributed
naming system for computers/

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  Hardware Name: Name of the hardware device.
 Hardware Type: Type of the hardware like processor, keyboard, port, etc.
 Manufacturer: Name of the manufacturer of that hardware device.
 Operating system: The operating system of the computer
 Service Pack: The service pack version of the operating system
 Version: The operating system version.
 Virtual Memory: Total virtual memory in kilobytes.
 Visible Virtual Memory: Total physical memory that is available to the operating
system.

Hardware Inventory Reports

 Computers by OS
Is the details of the computers by their operating system.
 Computers by Manufacturer
Is the details of the computers by their manufacturer.
 Computers by Memory
Is the details of the computers by their RAM size.
 Computers by Age
Is the details of the computers by their year of manufacturing.
 Computers by Device Type
Is the details of the computers based on their type like, Laptop, Portable,
Desktop etc.
 Computer by Disk Usage
Is the details of the computers along with their total and free hard disk spa
Hardware Inventory

Hardware Toshiba

CPU Core i3

RAM 8 GB

Operating System Window 10

Hard Disk 1 TB

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Maintaining and Updating licenses and Software inventory
Maintaining a software inventory

Software is classified into two broad classes: operating system software and application
software. Application software is further broken down into sub-classes such as office, database,
software development and so forth.
Many types of application software are written to run on specific operating system platforms.
Microsoft Office will not run on a Linux platform unless you have installed a Windows
emulator. Therefore the inventory might need to be segregated by platform. This is not your
problem as you are only required to maintain an inventory not create one. However, you should
be aware of the ramifications of accurately maintaining an inventory.
Detailed definition of the types of application software may need to be sought from a supervisor.
For example, are database and spreadsheet application software going to be place in the same
categories or are the various packages of Microsoft Office, eg Word, Excel, PowerPoint, going to
be placed in the same sections because they are part of the Office suite? On the other hand,
application software may be classified by the process it performs. Different versions of
application software offer different or improved features; in most cases they are designed to
work with a particular operating system. Are these versions going to be separated or not?
Depending on the organisational guidelines, you may or may not be required to make these
decisions.

Software Details

The Software Inventory provides the details of the software detected in the systems. You can
filter the view by Software Type, Access Type, or License. It provides the following details:
 Software Name: Name of the software.
 Version: The version of the software.
 Software Type: Can be either commercial or non-commercial.
 Vendor: The software vendor/seller.
 Licensed To: Refers to the person or the company to whom the software is licensed.
 License Expiry Date: Date of license expiry.
 Remarks: Remarks, if any.

Software Inventory Reports

 Software by Manufacturer

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 Is the details of the software installed in the scanned systems based on their vendors
along with the total number of copies installed.
 Recently Installed Software
Is the list of software installed recently.
 Software Usage by Computer
Is the list of software and their usage statistics in individual computers.
 Software Product Keys
Is the list of Product Keys that were used for installing the software.
Software Inventory

Microsoft Office 2019

Visual Studio Professional 2022

Adobe Photoshop 9.0

Adobe Acrobat Reader 11.3

Windows Midia Player 12

Recording and organizing storage of user documentation or technical manuals

User and Technical documentation

 User documentation is an important and necessary resource for the productive use of a
software application package. The amount of user documentation will depend upon the
nature of the user licensing. Some years ago, commercial entities complained to software
developers that too much user documentation was distributed to a business when multiple
copies of the software were purchased. The concept of site licensing was introduced.
 Technical manuals form an integral part of the management of the hardware devices and
should, therefore, be a main part of the inventory entry. For example, with modern
hardware devices the manuals are often placed on an accompanying CD in perhaps a PDF
file. Details and location of the CD may form part of the inventory item data. A decision
might be made to print a hardcopy of the manual or in another instance a manual might
be supplied. The locations of these hard copies should also appear as part of the inventory
item data.

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 Use of IT documentation

An IT organization or department will accumulate many technical papers, records and books.
Some documents and manuals may be easy to find, while others can be misplaced, lost or
damaged. To avoid the latter, methods similar to the inventory of hardware and software can be
applied to documentation.
In an IT support role, you may be called upon to provide a friendly information resource for
clients. You should be able to easily find and use the information they need.
You may otherwise need to advise clients on:
 What information is available and where it might be
 How it can be found and retrieved (different media and formats)
 How the information can be searched, stored or printed
 How it can be sent to them.
Think about the types of IT documentation and when it may be needed or requested. You will
need to answer requests quickly and effectively.
A customer may ask for:
 A software manual, so to install a program
 A manual to check compatibility with other hardware or software
 Instructions to perform a specific task.
A colleague may ask for work instructions such as how to:
 Reset a mainframe password
 Check a local area network (LAN) printer queue
 Set a computer for remote access.
A manager or auditor may ask for computer inventory records or software licensing records.

Types and attributes of documentation

A document is information and the supporting medium that carries the information. The medium
can be paper (hard copy), a magnetic, electronic, or optical computer disc, a photograph or
master sample, or a combination thereof. A set of documents, such as specifications, records,
manuals or plans is frequently called ‘documentation’.

Reference collections

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If your organization or department has a reference collection (and it should have) it could include
books, CDs, DVDs, technical manuals and online resources that staff and clients use to find
particular information. Reference items that may be kept on open shelving (but must still be
accounted for), include:
 procedural and technical manuals
 technical reference books and textbooks
 catalogues
 directories
 manufacturer’s specifications
 technical magazines, journals
 Training guides.
Software manuals on paper or CD ROM for a particular software program may be kept at the
workstation running the application

9.2. Store technical documentation

Storage of Basics

Equipment not being used should be stored. It may be new hardware and software in boxes, or
loose parts, or sensitive materials that need to be stored securely until installed or needed.
Valuable items such as memory chips or original software copies may need to be locked in a
safe.
An IT store can hold new hardware, spare parts, repaired equipment, extra copies of software,
daily and weekly backup copies of files as well as memory chips. It can also hold redundant
devices such as printers, modems, cables and tools. While the IT department may also keep
contracts, licences and other documents, some companies prefer to keep such documentation in
their Legal department (if there is one).
IT equipment is often delicate and expensive. The environment for IT hardware and software
storage should be:
 Lockable
 Dust-free
 Static-resistant
 Safe from water and humidity
 Well ventilated and light

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  At a constant temperature
 Separated from other perishable stores.

Guidance from technical manuals

Most IT equipment is fragile/easily broken and should be handled with care it can be damaged if
not packed correctly in storage. The technical manual that companies equipment will often
advise on packing and storage.
It is also advisable to access the website of the manufacturer. Often they update information
about equipment on their website, or add additional information on packing and disposing of
computer consumables and equipment.
Information from technical manuals needs to be recorded in the inventory for all stock (in
storage or being used) such as the expected lifetime of the product. Printer manuals, for instance,
will state how many pages can be printed before the toner cartridge or developer needs replacing.
Packed and unopened toner cartridges can be kept for quite some time, but developer has a more
limited shelf life.

Storing components, software originals and documentation

All information about storing components can also usually be found in technical manuals.
Generally, sensitive components will be stored as follows.

A. Memory chips

Each memory chip should be placed in a foam-protected, anti-static bag. Each bag is then placed
in an individual box or in a larger box that will have separate slots for each chip. Memory was
once very expensive and always stored in a safe. However, as the cost of memory has fallen,
memory is often stored alongside other components.

B. Expansion cards, motherboards and other spares

Expansion cards also must be placed in anti-static bags and each bag then placed in an individual
box or in a larger box that will have separate slots for each card. This box is then stored in the
storeroom, with care taken, if the box is cardboard, not to place other equipment on top of it.
Motherboards and other spares should be kept in boxing so that they are not stacked on one
another and also to avoid dust building up.

C. CD-ROM drives and hard disks

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CD-ROM drives are stored in stacks on a shelf in the storeroom. An obvious caution to take is
that the stack is not too high, as it may topple over. Hard disks should be placed in foam-
protected anti-static bags. Each hard disk needs to be stored in an individual box. The boxes can
be placed on top of each other in stacks (again, not too high).

D. Software originals

When an organisation purchases software, copies need to be made of all disks. Installation of the
software should be carried out with the copied disks and not the original. This ensures the
security of the original disks, and if there are any problems with the copied disks another copy
can be made.
The original disks need to be stored in a secure place such as a safe and preferably off site as a
form of assurance against any problems within the building, such as flooding from heavy rain or
fire damage.
Store securely technical documentation
Documentation

Documentation, including manuals that come with hardware and software, needs to be stored
correctly. Some manuals may need to be kept with the relevant computers if they are used
regularly. Generally, manuals are kept in a storeroom or IT library (which may be in the same
place). They are only used at times of installation and later on for troubleshooting. They should
be indexed in the inventory and labelled clearly on shelves or in cabinets. Documentation such as
licensing should be recorded and stored in a safe area, such as a locked filing cabinet. As
mentioned, in some larger companies, it may be kept the legal department or in a safe.

Technical documents

Technical information may need to be available throughout the organisation. Some documents
will have limited access, some may be found on the open shelves in the IT work area, and others
kept in client’s offices. In a highly developed business, images of documents can be online via
the IT network.

Document control

Working in an IT reference section you might be expected to handle changes to technical users’
manuals written by staff in your own IT department. Document control includes withdrawing old
versions, disposing of them and issuing updated copies. To do this job efficiently, your records
inventory must show who holds copies.

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 Levels of access and the currency of documents- General access

IT documentation can hold details of flow charts, program code, and technical reports, wiring
plans, testing results, measurements and system analysis. These documents need to be sorted and
identified with a key number and an emphasis on making the information accessible.
All documents have common requirements, they must be:
 Available when needed: As in all human endeavours, time is a constraint in IT;
documents must be available on request as most of the time the particular information
sought will help decision-making.
 Easy to find: In order to retrieve a document (to find a piece of information or update it)
efficiently, it must be stored under a classification scheme.
 Current (up-to-date): Normally, a document has an owner who is in charge of
maintaining it, but in order to update a document, a business process called ‘change
control’ must be followed.
Change control is the process of managing and controlling changes; requested or otherwise. It
ensures that all work is justified and that all work requested and approved is completed and
tested. In some organisations, no change can be made without an approved change control form.

Valuable originals and document security

Valuable original documents, possibly held in a protected place under the care of IT, may be:
 legal or historical papers
 signed forms
 Tender documents
 Contracts
 Agreements
 Warranties and licences.
These documents need to be sorted, identified with a key number, and filed (with a strong
emphasis on security). They need to be accessible on a ‘need to know Basis’ — this attribute is
very important for information in IT documents that is confidential or sensitive and restricted to
authorised access (specific individuals).
The objective of document security is to preserve the organisation’s information assets and the
business processes they support, by:

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  Confidentiality: where documentation is accessible only to those authorised to have
access
 Integrity: where accuracy and completeness of information contained in the documents
and processing methods are safeguarded
 Availability: when documentation and associated assets are accessible by authorised
users when required.
 Document and file properties
One simple way to protect a soft copy document is to use the built-in security file features, now
common to operating systems. Using this system, every object has a unique owner who has
control of and access to it. An object can be a folder, file (document) or a complete network
drive. The access provided by the owner can be ‘read’, ‘write’ or ‘no accesses. Owners can also
revoke access to users. Typically, the department or a section within an organization appoints the
owner. Normally, sensitive documentation is labeled ‘commercial-in-confidence’.
Access and disseminate technical documentation as required by clients
Accessing stock and inventory

A. Stock
Stock describes the goods that an organization currently holds. For example, if an organization
makes computers, they need to keep a stock of hard disks, system boards, network cards,
monitors, cabling and so on.

A person checking stock

B. Inventory

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Inventory is a list of what you actually have, and a description of it. For example, when you
insure the contents of your house you are usually asked to perform an inventory of the contents,
in order to calculate how much to insure it for.
Organisations need to keep track of how much stock they have so that they don’t run out of
stock, as well as for insurance reasons. In addition, once a year all items may be counted
manually to make sure that the computerised stock-control records correspond with what is
actually on the shelves, a process known as stock taking.

Document control and distribution

In an IT organization or department, the controlled distribution of documentation is of paramount

importance.

Levels of security and confidentiality

Security you should always store computer hardware and software in a secure place, in order to
prevent theft. Access to a storeroom must be restricted to authorized personnel. Security also
means protection against fire, flood, mound and insect pests. You must also make sure that there
are real connections between the stored stock and the inventory records. The inventory record of
any document should show the security level.
 High security — valuable originals

Some documents in the care of IT must be kept safe, perhaps in their original condition. They
may hold trade secrets or confidential information. Some documents are held in a form that is
liable to damage and must be kept in a secure area, not to be removed, with even authorised
people only able to access copies or images of them.
 High security — critical information and fragile media

Original documents that may have a critical value, or be recorded on a fragile medium such as
tape, should not be allowed to leave their secure storage place. Only copies should be taken out.
 Medium security — sensitive and restricted material

Some records contain sensitive material, and may not be seen by all employees. Each document
and each authorised user of a system should be assigned a security level. Unauthorised people
can be denied access to the whole system. If a person’s security level were lower than the
security level of a document or record, access would be denied.
 Low security — general access required

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Other documents might hold knowledge that is critical to the workings of IT equipment, but
copies or images can be freely distributed, so long as the version of the document is clearly
marked, and the reader has the necessary authority.

 Hard copy documents

If a document is in hard copy, and the user is authorized to access it, the lender’s details can be
recorded in a simple database to keep track of it.

 Soft copy documents

Distribution can be made secure and tracked by granting access to only the appropriate
documents (by pre-determined levels of security) and by sending documents by email and
filing/registering a copy of the email.
If the customer is off site, the email attachment must be in a compatible format. In the case of
intranet html documents, usage can be tracked by the number of times that the page has been
accessed, and privileges can be allocated of access needs to be restricted.

 Reporting, auditing and archiving documentation

Your manager could ask you for a report on who has been using the technical documents listed
in the index or inventory. You may need to show what’s been added, what’s been deleted, or
transferred. You may be asked to extract from your index or inventory a summary of who has
borrowed books, or taken, or even read various documents.
Technical records need regular auditing. You may be called on at intervals to check records and
manuals. If so, you would look for items missing, damaged, misplaced, borrowed for too long, or
materials that are out of date.
Some documents have to be kept, by law, for a certain amount of time and should be archived.
Records or books that have not had any activity for a while can be transferred to archives, freeing
up valuable space.

9.3. Assess quality of receive articles

Final Product Against Workplace
Overview

Technological advances have made computers an important part of every workplace. Many
companies store valuable data on computer systems, databases and networks, and most
workplace communication is done using computers and networks. Although computers allow

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businesses to streamline processes, distribute information quickly and stay competitive, it also
allows the potential for security issues that can ultimately affect business operations and
integrity.

 Benefits

Because most data is stored on computers and almost all communication is done on an
organization's computer network, the security of the data is crucial for the success of an
organization. Monitoring workplace computers can be done using a variety of software products
that monitor computer networks. This software can also be used to monitor or track employee
activity and productivity as well. This ensures data is secure by using the software to block
certain websites, alert information technology staff of potential threats, such as computer viruses,
as well as monitor computer and Internet usage by employees.

 Effects

Monitoring workplace computers can secure data stored on computer systems, as well as ensure
employees are using workplace computers for business purposes. Some monitoring software
comes highly recommended at a reasonable cost and can be customized to an organization's
needs. This requires some additional efforts by management or information technology staff, but
proves it's a valuable tool to ensure the security of business data and integrity. Although
computer workplace monitoring has become a necessity, employees often don't understand the
reasons for computer monitoring and may feel violated or micro-managed.

 Considerations

When considering using computer monitoring software in the workplace, do extensive research
on different products and services. Although some software is costly, it may be worth the
investment to protect the integrity of a business. If an organization decides to use this software--
inform employees. Allow employees to see the software and its capabilities by demonstrating its
features in a group setting. Be open and honest regarding how the software will be used and how
it will add security to the business. Talk to employees about their rights regarding computer
monitoring. The Texas Workforce Commission has policies for workplace computer monitoring
and employees should be aware of those policies. Also allow employees to ask questions in a
private setting if they wish.
Using appropriate measuring instruments

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If you've shopped around for just the right desk for your space, but haven't found exactly what
you're looking for, consider building your own. Counter top desks are a unique way to modify
your work area. Whether starting with a brand new section counter top, or repurposing old
counters after a remodel, counter top desks make a sturdy addition to your office furnishings. A
moderately simple do-it-yourself project, building a counter top desk is considerably less
expensive than having a custom desk built, and requires less than one day's work to complete
from start to finish.

 Instructions

 Make a space plan and measure the area where the desk will sit to ensure the right fit.
Decide whether the desk will be straight or a corner unit, and how the desk will be
supported, and plan accordingly. Straight desks are a simpler project, but corner units
afford more workspace and often allow for the best use of the available area.
 Purchase supplies for the project, including counter tops, support system, and any
brackets that may be required. Counter top can be cut at the time of purchase, or
ordered to fit, so be certain to have exact measurements to ensure a correct fit without
further cutting. Collect all tools needed for the project before beginning.
 Prepare your support system before assembling your desk. The simplest support
solution is to use kitchen cabinets, metal filing cabinets, or sturdy plastic or medal
drawers. This will make your desk both sturdy and easy to move and requires no tools,
cutting, or drilling. This support solution is particularly idea for granite, metal, or stone
counter top materials which are difficult to cut or drill.
 Install the chosen support system, ensuring that it is both the proper height, and level,
before applying counter tops. If you've chosen cabinets or other form of freestanding
support, be certain they're positioned at appropriate intervals to support the weight of
the counter top.
 Affix the counter top to the support system one section at a time. If your counter is a
heavy material, such as granite or stone, be certain the support system is sufficient to
harbor the weight before applying the next section of counter. Once all sections of
counter are installed, use a level to check that there the desk is even and level.
 Apply the end cap finishing kit where necessary and add any brackets that might be
required to anchor the counter top. This step is optional but may be necessary to ensure
your desk is both attractive and stable.

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Identifying all potential failure causes
When confronted with a systems failure, there is often a natural tendency to begin disassembling
hardware to search for the cause. This is a poor approach. Failed hardware can expose precious
information and safeguards are necessary to prevent losing that information from careless
remove procedures. One must know what to look for prior to disassembling failed hardware.
Faults that come and go are the worst ones to track down, since just when you think you know
the cause of the problem and intend to do something about it can disappear, leaving you
wondering whether or not it's cured.
The most serious random problem is a spontaneous reboot, which can be caused by a faulty, bad
mains interference, or overheating, particularly of the CPU. This is often caused by failure of the
CPU fan, but this is easy enough to check -- just open up the case and see if the fan is still
spinning. If your cooling arrangements are not broken but simply insufficient (this can happen,
particularly in the case of Athlon processors, which generate a lot of heat), you'll need to upgrade
your CPU heat-sink and/or fan to bring its top temperature down to a more sensible level.
However, your computer is most likely to go wrong when you've just changed something, for
instance when you've installed a new stick of RAM, a soundcard, hard drive, or a new CPU.
Even though this may work perfectly well, you may have disturbed one of the cables inside your
PC at the same time, giving you a completely unrelated problem; or if you've been overclocking
your CPU, it may stop working when a new PCI card is installed.

 Power Supplies

If your PC won't boot up, no LEDs illuminate on the PC's front panel, and you can't hear your
hard drives or cooling fans spin up, you may have a problem with your mains supply, or a faulty
or dead computer PSU (Power Supply Unit). Faulty power supplies can also cause random
reboots: these can also mean that your power supply is working properly but is under such a
heavy load that occasionally the voltages sag a bit, or even collapse.

 BIOS Beep Codes

If the power supply is working, booting your PC will light the front panel-power LED and let the
BIOS perform a Power-On Self-Test, or POST. This initializes system hardware; tests RAM the
keyboard, serial and parallel ports, initialize the floppy drive and hard disk controller, and
diagnose any basic problems. If none are found, you'll get one short beep from the internal PC

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speaker. A combination of long or short beeps signifies a problem, and in most cases your PC
will refuse to carry on. Although many 'beep codes' are similar from motherboard to
motherboard, you really need to refer to the manual to find out what each sequence of beeps
signifies.

 Cable Issues

Another source of sometimes weird hardware faults is internal cabling. For instance, if the IDE
cable connecting your motherboard and hard drive is not inserted correctly, your drive may not
be detected by the BIOS at all. One of the conductors on all IDE cables will either be colored red
or have writing printing on it, so make sure these identification marks match up with pin one on
your hard drive, and pin one on the motherboard socket.

 Summary on How to Fix and Avoid General Protection Faults

If you usually get a general protection fault when your computer has been running for a
certain length of time, then overheating is a likely cause. You may have to reduce the level of
over clocking or replace a fan that isn't working. When the problem occurs after the addition
of new memory, remove or replace it to see if this cures the problem. If you can't do any of
this yourself, get an engineer to do it for you.
 When the fault always occurs soon after turning on your computer, it may be caused by a
driver used by one of the programs that loads at start up or by Windows itself. You can try
a Windows install but choose the repair option, which will fix corrupt or missing files
without losing your data or programs. If the fault always happens when a particular
program is running, uninstall and then re-install it. Also, check the supplier's website for a
later version of the program or drivers and install them.
 Actually finding the cause of the general protection fault can be a time-consuming process
and you can speed this up by using a tool that will automate the task. One of the best I've
found for this is Registry Patrol, which, despite its name, does much more than just sort
out the PC's registry. It will, in fact, undertake a deep scan of the whole computer, sorting
out all the drivers and DLLs that are the most likely cause of general protection faults. As
a bonus, it will also fix all types of other problems so that you end up with a machine that
starts quicker, runs better and is less likely to crash.
 Registry Patrol comes with a guarantee that it will do what it promises and is available to
try as a free download from the company's website (www.registrypatrol.com). Once

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 you've installed it and run the scan, your PC will run as it did when it was new and general
protection faults will be a thing of the past.

CHAPTER TEN

10. Create a simple markup language document

Review requirements
The first step in building a simple website is to clarify why the website is needed and what
functions it needs to perform.

You need to understand the purpose of the website, the audience you are trying to attract and the
design elements that will be needed to meet these requirements. This information is included in a
requirements (or design) document.

Web site development includes steps to ensure that the site content meets the client’s needs. An
important final check is then done after development, before presentation to the client, to find
and resolve any last minute problems.

A web site is the public face of an organisation; its quality is seen to reflect the quality of the
organisation itself. The reputation of an organisation can easily be damaged by a thing as
seemingly-trivial as a broken link, spelling mistakes or inconsistent text. The consistency test, as
part of that final check, is usually the final opportunity to ensure client needs are met.

The standards against which a web site might be assessed are usually found in project
documentation such as:
 The project brief
 Style guide

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  Technical specifications.

Project documentation is developed in conjunction with the client and it outlines what the client
wants and the product should exist on completion. You should use project documentation as the
basis for designing your quality assurance checklist, while also including test criteria to ensure
that the web site complies with relevant web standards, such as those pertaining to HTML,
cascading style sheets (CSS), and the standards recommended for accessibility.

Project brief

The project brief is used to work out, define and clarify the client’s needs, and it is devised once
a contract is in place to develop a web site. Once the project brief is agreed to, the final product
must conform to it. To identify client needs the brief will answer questions such as:
 What is the purpose of the site?
 How is the ‘brand’ or image of the organisation conveyed?
 What is the user profile for the site?
 What are the needs of the site’s users or customers?
 What are the deadlines or milestones for developing the site?
 What is the environment of the web site users likely to be?

The project brief is also the starting point for a final check of the site.

Style guide

The style guide describes the desired ‘look and feel’ of the web site and lists the elements needed
to consistently produce the desired effect.

The project manager or team will have consulted with the client about the vision they have for
the web site. Often a web site’s design or look will be linked to the corporate style of the
organisation. For example, a bank that targets young and single customers might project a ‘cool’
youthful image and want an internet site with a funky look and feel, but will still use corporate
colours and logos. The bank’s intranet site, which would be primarily used by staff, on the other
hand, might be more formal and plain, but also retain the corporate colours and logos.

The style guide will set out requirements for design elements such as:
 colours, fonts and page layout
 the placement of logos or other significant graphics
 the style of multimedia and graphics.

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Attributes of text-based content that might be assessed against client requirements include:
 font type, size and colour for body text and headings
 colour of text hyperlinks
 colour of visited link
 colour of active links
 leading or line height
 kerning
 text justification.

Technical specifications

Technical specifications describe the technology the web site requires or should work on. The
quality assurance process must ensure that the web site functions correctly on each combination
of the technology specified. It may list requirements such as those outlined in Table 1 to follow.

Table 1.1: Examples of requirements for technical specifications

Security model for
Client requirements Server requirements
system
 Preferred web browsers  Software  User profiles
 Operating systems  Hardware  Roles
 Memory  Backup  Permission lists
 Internet connection speeds (min)  Administration  Operating system
 Preferred resolution  Redundancy and security
 Plug-ins recovery
Programming tools Programming languages
 Microsoft Visual Studio  Cold fusion
 Sun Microsystems Java Studio  Visual basic
 Cascading style sheets
 JavaScript

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10.1.1. Selecting Markup Language Based on Organizational Standards

This section will look at the different markup languages available for website development and
cover things to consider in the design of a website.
What is markup language?
A markup language is a combination of text and information describing the text. This extra
information explains how the text should be displayed on a page. Markup languages for the web
use tags to tell a browser how to display text on a page.
Markup Languages for the Web

A. HTML (HyperText Mark-up Language)

HTML is a very simple language used to describe the logical structure and layout of a web
document. It describes which parts of the text the web browser should emphasize, which text
should be considered body text and which text should be headings.
B. XML (Extensible Mark-up Language)
This very versatile metalanguage (a language that describes another language) is used to
describe what data is rather than just the way it looks. This means it is a semantic language
rather than just a presentation language (like HTML).
XML lets the coder create their own tags to describe the data. XML is a complement to
HTML. It can be used to describe the data, while HTML can be used to format and display
the data. Languages for handheld devices such as mobile phones are based on XML.
C. XHTML (Extensible HyperText Markup Language)
XHTML is a combination of HTML and XML. XHTML has begun to replace HTML. It is a
stricter and cleaner version of HTML. In fact the World Wide Web Consortium defines
XHTML as the latest version of HTML and it is almost identical to HTML 4.01.
D. DHTML (Dynamic HTML)
Not really a language in its own right, DHTML is actually a combination of HTML (or
XHMTL), JavaScript and Cascading Style Sheets. It is used to create web pages with
dynamic content such as animation, pop-up windows and drop down menus. A DHTML web
page can produce a response to a user’s action (such as a mouse click) without having to
communicate with the server to have the page resent to the user’s browser.
E. WML (Wireless Mark-up Language)

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 Used for handheld devices such as mobile phones and PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants).
F. SGML (Standard Generalized Mark-up Language)
SGML is a metalanguage – perhaps ‘the’ metalanguage, as all web mark-up languages are
based on it. HTML, XML and others are actually simplified applications of SGML, which is
very difficult to code with.
G. Other mark-up languages
There are many other specialised mark-up languages in use—each has been specifically
designed for a particular use. Some examples include:
 MathML—an application of XML for representing mathematical symbols and
formulae
 DocBook—for technical documentation
 SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics)—an application of XML for representing two-
dimensional vector graphics
 Open eBook—standard e-book format based on the XML format
 XBRL (eXtensible Business Reporting Language)—an emerging XML-based
standard to define and exchange business and financial performance information
 MusicXML—an open, XML-based music notation file format
 RSS—a family of XML file formats for Web syndication used by (among other
things) news websites and weblogs.
1.1.1 Choosing your mark-up language
With so many mark-up languages to choose from, how do you know which is the right one for
your web document? As with any project you undertake, you should start by looking at what is
needed and the options available to you.
A. Website purpose
The key element in choosing an appropriate mark-up language will be the purpose of the
website.
If you are building a single ‘brochure-style’ website that displays straightforward information
including graphics, some Flash animation and maybe some sound, you could use straightforward
HTML. Most smaller websites are constructed this way.
If however, your site contains financial or scientific information, you may consider employing
MathML in your site. Writing formulae (for example fractions and math equations) will be faster

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in a specialised XML-friendly application such as ‘MathType’ (from Design Science:
www.dessci.com) than trying to code in HTML.
If your site relies heavily on graphic design and animated menus and buttons you may consider
using DHTML to liven up the user experience with interactive elements.
The flexibility of XML allows developers to create their own unique tags and classes of
information. This is one of the reasons that XML in various forms is used in the creation of many
larger dynamic websites.
Remember that your mark-up language will work in tandem with the programming language you
choose (such as JavaScript, PHP, etc.) This aspect of web design is not covered in this learning
pack.
B. Stakeholders
Stakeholders are people who will be affected by your website and can influence it but who may
not be directly involved with doing the work. You must take the needs of stakeholders into
account when you are planning a website and choosing a mark-up language.
If you are employed by an organisation to build a web page the stakeholders may include:
 Management
 Marketing
 Technical support staff
 Legal advisors
 Audience of website users
Some or all of these people will help determine the specifications and appropriate mark-up
language by describing the kind of functions the website needs to perform. Access to technical
resources may also mean access to people with additional programming skills as well—can you
use these people in your web project?
Even if you are building a personal website just to show holiday photos to your distant relatives,
there are still stakeholders to consider—mainly your relatives. What are their needs?
Who are the stakeholders in your website?
C. Audience needs
Think about the audience of your web site. There are a range of basic questions you should ask
when planning a new site—these may include the following:
 Who are your website users?

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  What do your users want to do on your website (eg purchase goods, make bookings, find
information, etc.)?
 How comfortable are they with using the web?
 What kind of computer will your user have?
 How will accessibility for vision-impaired users be addressed?
 What about accessibility for users with slow modem connections?
 Are there any business advantages in using features such as animation and sound?
 Will the site need to be accessed using a range of devices (for example handheld devices
or mobile phones)?
 If your site requires the latest plug-ins (eg Flash) how will the user find them?
Determining how to meet your audience’s needs and expectations will help to define the
specifications and type of mark-up language you will need to use on your site.
D. Standards

You will need to comply with certain web standards if you want your site to be accessed by the
broadest possible range of users. Remember that you users will have a range of computer
platforms, operating systems and web browsers. The manufacturers of these different systems
will have made efforts to comply with agreed web standards.

Standards for the web are developed by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)—an
international group including input from member organisations, full-time staff, and the public.
W3C’s mission is: ‘To lead the World Wide Web to its full potential by developing protocols
and guidelines that ensure long-term growth for the Web’. The W3C website (www.w3.org) is
the hub for standards information and includes technical guidelines, educational information and
code-checking tools called ‘validators’ that allow developers to ensure their sites meet required
web standards.

You may also want to look at examples of current ‘best practice’ in web design. Take note of
websites that you like or are similar in function to the site you intend to build—think about the
technologies and mark-up they employ and their useability. Also take a look at sites showcasing
recent designs such as:
 Webby Awards: www.webbyawards.com
 Cool Home Pages: www.coolhomepages.com

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  NetGuide Australian Web Awards: www.netguide.com.au

E. Project constraints

Your choice of mark-up language will inevitably be affected by the resources you have at your
disposal. You will need assess and balance the amount of money, resources, time etc. that you
have available for your project. Starting up an XML project from scratch will require more
resources and planning than building a simple HTML site. However if you build in HTML
because of initial time constraints, but the site really requires XML and database integration, you
may have wasted your effort and need to rebuild your site anyway.

This is why it is important to fully assess you stakeholders’ and users’ needs before you start.

F. Available technology and skills

In a similar vein you need to assess what technology and skills you have available to you. You
may personally be a competent HTML programmer but have no knowledge of MathML or RSS
implementation. This does not necessarily make HTML the right choice for your project.

With a thorough analysis of the site requirements you may have identified that MathML and RSS
would greatly benefit the site. Use this to argue for more resources from within your organisation
or of you are working on your own—seek advice from programmers who are familiar with these
technologies and employ them if you can.

If you want to learn the required skills yourself and have the time, start a small project to
implement these skills. Take a course or make use of the extensive range of online tutorials and
references available free on the web. Software that assists in implementing different mark-up
languages (such as Dreamweaver: www.macromedia.com) often have tutorials built in to help
you get started.

Reviewing Document Structure

Once you have made a decision about the markup language you will use to create a website, you
need to consider how the website will be designed. There are two aspects of website design: the
folder structure for the website and the storyboard for the website.

Folder Structure

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Before starting out on a website project, you should create a folder structure to contain all the
files for your website. It is essential that all your web page files, graphics and other files are
collected in the same place right from the start of your project.

Minimum best practice for website development is that you have a 'root' folder to store your
pages and a separate folder under the 'root' folder, usually called images or graphics, where you
store all the graphics you use on the website. This minimum structure allows you to move the
website to a different location (for example your USB storage device or a web server) without
causing the links on your pages to stop working.

The larger the website the more complex the folder structure will be. Often there will be folders
to store related pages, style sheet files and other files such as animations.

Website Storyboard

It is best practice to create website storyboard before you start creating individual web pages. A
web storyboard is an outline of the pages required for the site (also called a website structure)
and the layout, content, navigation and design elements of the pages (also called page structure).

Each page in your site should have a descriptive file name (see example storyboard below) and
the home page should be called index.html or default.html.

Simple Site Structure

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Figure 1.2 below shows the layout, content, navigation and design elements of the pages. This
was also created using the drawing tools in Microsoft Word.

Figure 1.2 Web Page Layout

Absolute and relative addressing

When you create a link to a web page, or an image, or any file on the web, you could specify the
complete address of the file, such as:

<a href="http://www.example.com/users/jbrown/pics.htm">

This is an absolute address because the file can be located from anywhere on the Web. You
would use this form of addressing when the link is to a site somewhere outside of the server you
are using (i.e. it is on someone else's website).

If the page you wish to link to is located in the same folder as the originating page, you would
use relative addressing. For example, if you were the user (jbrown) in the example above, and
you wanted to link from your own "home.htm" page to your "pics.htm" file in the same folder, a
shorter way to refer to that HTML file would be:

<a href="pics.htm">

This is a relative address because it works as long as the new page is in the same folder on the
same server relative to the originating page. It is not complete enough to be used from anywhere
else on the Web.

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Another common form of relative addressing is linking to an image:

<img src="images/picture_01.gif">

This address says, "in the folder where you are, go into the folder called "images", and find the
file called "picture_01.gif"".

How do you go up a folder level? Take a look at the following example of a website folder
structure:

Figure 1.2: Folders within a website folder.

If you want to link from "project_01.htm" to "contact.htm", the link would look like this:

<a href="../contact.htm">
This address says "starting where you are, go up one level in the directories (that's the "../"), and
find the file "contact.htm"".

If you wanted link from "project_01.htm" in the "project_files" folder to a picture in the
"images" folder, the link would look like this:

<img src="../images/picture_01.gif">
This link says "go up one level and then look in the "images" folder for the file "picture_01.gif"

In addition, to direct the browser to start at the top level of the server's directory structure
regardless of where the page you are linking from may be, use "/" as shown in this example:

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 <a href="/project_files/project_01.htm">
This address says
 start at the top level of this website (that's the "/" symbol) and refers to the "www" folder.
 go into the folder called "project_files"
 find the file called "project_01.htm"

Note that this reference works from any page on this server (but not on the web), because it starts
by returning to the top level (the folder called "www" in the example above). This is a useful
technique on websites where there are many files and folders and where HTML files may be
moved around (for example, archiving news items)

Keeping your web site together

File and folder organisation is crucial to building a website. Your website must have a logical
structure that does not change when you move files from your own computer to the web server
where your files will be available on the web. The main reason is that if a file moves in relation
to another file that contains a link to it, that link will break.

Creating Folders

Take a look at this sample of a website folder structure (it was created in Windows XP but the
principle of folder structures will remain the same across all operating systems):

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 Illustration of folder structure for a simple website.

When building a web site, it is very important to think about keeping your own pages, images,
and other files as a unit. You must collect all of those files together into a single folder. This is
known as the "root" folder or "root directory". In the example above the website root folder
"www" is contained inside a bigger project folder called "my_website".

Within the website root folder "www", there may be other folders containing the images and
media files. The root folder will contain only the files you need your viewer to see on your
website. On the web server where the files will be made available on the internet, there will be
no "my_website" folder. The web server will contain only the files in the "www" folder.

You can control where these files are located in relation to each other. These links to your own
files will be relative links. You should be able to pick up your entire root folder ("www") full of
files and perhaps other folders, move it to another server and all the links within the site would
still work. None of the links can refer to the name of the server where the files live.

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You could test this by saving your root folder onto a USB flash memory stick or burning it to a
CD and taking it to another computer - once you open the home page in a browser, all the other
links should still work.

Make sure you collect all of your files together into a single root folder ("www") and organise
them first before starting to make links between them. If you link to an image and then move
it into a different folder, that link will break.
If you are pointing to someone else's file on another website, you have to indicate the complete,
absolute address of the file, since it most likely resides on another server.

Source files
Remember that your root folder ("www" in the example above) should contain only the files that
need to be made available on the website.
Your "source" files should be saved outside your website folder and do not need to be transferred
to the web server. In the example above the project folder "my_website" contains not only the
website folder "www" but also a folder for "source_files" and a folder for "website_admin".

Source files can include:

 Administration files (contracts, emails etc)
 Original Word documents (source documents for information)
 Original graphics files (Photoshop files, camera files etc.)

Using graphics as an example, digital camera files are often over 2MB in size. You will need to
reduce these significantly to fit on your web pages. The "optimised" files go in the "images"
folder before you link to them - the originals do not need to be saved in your website folder - so
you save them in the "source_files" folder. Similarly if you are creating graphics in Photoshop or
Flash, the working files are usually quite large - you will use only the exported files in your site.

Naming your files

There are many different types of computers and servers used across the web. You need to make
sure that your file names will be read the same on all systems. To do this there are a few simple
rules which you must follow when creating files and folders for websites:

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No spaces: Never use spaces in your file names - HTML will not read the code correctly. For
example, a file called "my pictures.htm" may be changed to "my%20pictures.htm" ("%20" is
code for a blank space) and your links may not work!

Use underscores or remove spaces: Call your file "my_pictures.htm" or "mypictures.htm"

Use lowercase: Most web servers are case-sensitive and it is too easy to get case-sensitive errors
(Mypage.htm VS. MyPage.htm). Also lowercase names are much easier to remember. This also
applies to your tags - start making your tags lowercase now because it will save you a lot of
problems if you go on to learn other web mark-up languages (such as XHTML).

No special characters: HTML uses characters like &, >, #, !, /, etc. as part of it's code and each
can signify something in other mark-up languages. Use basic numbers and letters for your
filenames.

Less than 32 characters: Again this is an older convention (comes from earlier versions of
Apple and Windows operating systems) but to ensure compatibility on all computers it is still a
good rule to stick to.

10.2. Create document structure

History of HTML
The "idea" for the world wide web began in 1945 with an article by Vannevar Bush called "How
we may think" where he described an imaginary computer-aided hypertext network he called the
"Memex". It would take over forty years for the idea to become reality.
HTML (HyperText Mark-up Language) was largely developed by Tim Berners-Lee in his work
for CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) from around 1989. The first websites
were launched in 1991 and the first graphical browser "Mosaic" was launched in 1993.
The huge growth in the web belies the very simple idea behind it. The idea of linking documents
together was a radical one that we now take entirely for granted. Other important ideas included
the concept that anyone could contribute to the network of documents and that it should be easy
and free to use.
HTML Overview
HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language, and it is the most widely used language to write
Web Pages.
 Hypertext refers to the way in which Web pages (HTML documents) are linked together.
Thus, the link available on a webpage is called Hypertext.

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  As its name suggests, HTML is a Markup Language which means you use HTML to
simply "mark-up" a text document with tags that tell a Web browser how to structure it to
display.
Originally, HTML was developed with the intent of defining the structure of documents like
headings, paragraphs, lists, and so forth to facilitate the sharing of scientific information between
researchers.
Now, HTML is being widely used to format web pages with the help of different tags available
in HTML language.
In simple terms, a Web page (or HTML document) is a plain text file that has been encoded
using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) so that it appears nicely formatted in a Web
browser. Here’s what HTML means, word-by-word:
 Hypertext: text that you click to jump from document to document. This is a reference to
the ability of Web pages to link to one another
 Markup: tags that apply layout and formatting conventions to plain text. Literally, the
plain text is “marked up” with the tags.
 Language: a reference to the fact that HTML is considered a programming language.
Note: HTML is an interpreted programming language. That means the program is distributed in
human-readable format to users, and the program in which it is opened takes care of running it.
The HTML code for Web pages resides in files. Each time your Web browser opens a Web page,
it processes the HTML code within the file.
HTML Document
Creating an HTML document is very similar to creating any other file. Although there are many
web page building programs available, you can create a web page using just a simple text editor
such as Notepad or WordPad (or SimpleText or TextEdit on a Mac).
You identify your file as being HTML by saving it with a special extension on the end of the file
name - '.htm' or '.html'. Both of these extensions tell a browser to begin interpreting HTML.
For example you could save your file as: 'index.htm' or 'home.html'.
Creating a web folder
Before starting out on a HTML project, you should start by creating a "root" folder - this is the
folder that will contain all your files for your website. It is essential that all your web files and
graphics are collected in the same place right from the start of your project. See the section at the
end of this reading, "Keeping your website together" for more information.
Rules of HTML layout
HTML is simple and follows a few standards. HTML tags define all content (text and images).
Tags consist of text surrounded by a less-than < and a greater-than > sign. For example, the <b>
tag indicates that text should be bold.

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Most tags in HTML are also completed with a similar tag with a slash in it to specify an end to
the formatting. This is known as opening and closing a tag.
<b> is an opening tag
</b> is a closing tag
For example, to emphasise some text, you could use the following HTML code:

this text is not bold <b>this text is bold</b> this text is not bold

To be more correct you could use the tag <strong> to bold your text. The code is shown below -
the page would look exactly the same.

this text is not bold <strong>this text is bold</strong> this text is not bold

Note: Although HTML tags are not case-sensitive it's a good idea to get in the habit of using
lowercase. This is because XHTML only recognises lowercase. Also get used to closing tags –
even ones that don't need to be closed for HTML such as <br>. XHTML requires all tags to be
closed. XHTML will eventually replace HTML as the major mark-up language on the web. To
find out more about getting ready for XHTML go to the W3 Schools website
(www.w3schools.com). Look for the "XHTML Tutorial and find the section on "Differences
between XHTML and HTML".

Choosing an HTML Version

Different versions of HTML use different tags for some types of content, although they more
similar than different overall, especially at the beginner level. Here’s a quick comparison of the
HTML versions you may encounter:
 HTML4 A very stable, universally accepted code set, which is also fairly forgiving of
small coding errors. Using HTML4 codes is desirable when compatibility with all
browsers is important.
 XHTML A strict, standards-based implementation of HTML4 created with XML
(eXtensible Markup Language). XHTML coding uses the same codes as HTML4, so it is
compatible with the same browsers as HTML4. (See the sidebar about XML on the next
page for more information.)
 HTML5 A revised code set that builds upon HTML4 to add new capabilities. HTML5
offers many dramatic improvements in the areas of application handling and multimedia,
but a lot of those features are beyond the scope of this book. In terms of basic coding,
which is what this book teaches, the biggest difference is that there are new specific
codes for different types of content that were previously handled with more general
codes. For example, HTML5 has <audio> and <video> tags for inserting multimedia

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 content, whereas HTML4 inserts all types of multimedia content via a generic <embed>
tag.
Minimum System Requirements
There are no minimum system requirements for developing HTML; you can do it in any text
editing program with any type of computer and any operating system. That’s the beauty of
HTML! We use Notepad as the text editor, but you can use any Text Editor that you like.
For testing your work, you will need an HTML5-Compliant Web browser application. The latest
versions of Google Chrome and Firefox (both freely available online) will work fine for this, as
will Internet Explorer 9 or higher.
Creating Basic Elements of Document
Basic HTML Document
In its simplest form, following is an example of an HTML document:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title> Web and Database Level I </title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is a heading</h1>
<p>Document content goes here.....</p>
</body>
</html>

Let's save it in an HTML file test.html using Notepad text editor. Finally open it using a web
browser like Internet Explorer or Google Chrome, or Firefox etc. It must show the following
output:

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 Figure : Web and Database Level I displayed on the title bar of the browser
HTML Tags
HTML is a markup language and makes use of various tags to format the content. These tags are
enclosed within angle braces <Tag Name>. Except few tags, most of the tags have their
corresponding closing tags. For example, <html> has its closing tag</html> and <body> tag has
its closing tag </body> tag etc.
Above example of HTML document uses the following tags:
Tag Description
<!DOCTYPE...> This tag defines the document type and HTML version.
This tag encloses the complete HTML document and mainly
<html> comprises of document header which is represented by
<head>...</head> and document body which is represented by
<body>...</body> tags.
<head> This tag represents the document's header which can keep other
HTML tags like <title>, <link> etc.
<title> The <title> tag is used inside the <head> tag to mention the
document title.
<body> This tag represents the document's body which keeps other HTML
tags like <h1>, <div>, <p> etc.
<h1> This tag represents the heading.
<p> This tag represents a paragraph.
To learn HTML, you will need to study various tags and understand how they behave, while
formatting a textual document. Learning HTML is simple as users have to learn the usage of
different tags in order to format the text or images to make a beautiful webpage. World Wide
Web Consortium (W3C) recommends to use lowercase tags starting from HTML4.
HTML Basic Tags
A. Heading Tags
Any document starts with a heading. You can use different sizes for your headings. HTML
also has six levels of headings, which use the elements <h1>, <h2>, <h3>, <h4>, <h5>, and

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 <h6>. While displaying any heading, browser adds one line before and one line after that
heading.
B. Paragraph Tag
The <p> tag offers a way to structure your text into different paragraphs. Each paragraph of
text should go in between an opening <p> and a closing </p> tag.
C. Line Break Tag
Whenever you use the <br /> element, anything following it starts from the next line. This
tag is an example of an empty element, where you do not need opening and closing tags, as
there is nothing to go in between them.
The <br /> tag has a space between the characters br and the forward slash. If you omit this
space, older browsers will have trouble rendering the line break, while if you miss the
forward slash character and just use <br> it is not valid in XHTML.
D. Horizontal Lines
Horizontal lines are used to visually break-up sections of a document. The <hr> tag creates a
line from the current position in the document to the right margin and breaks the line
accordingly.
Again <hr /> tag is an example of the empty element, where you do not need opening and
closing tags, as there is nothing to go in between them.
The <hr /> element has a space between the characters hr and the forward slash. If you omit
this space, older browsers will have trouble rendering the horizontal line, while if you miss
the forward slash character and just use <hr> it is not valid in XHTML.
E. Preserve Formatting
Sometimes, you want your text to follow the exact format of how it is written in the HTML
document. In these cases, you can use the preformatted tag <pre>.
Any text between the opening <pre> tag and the closing </pre> tag will preserve the
formatting of the source document.
F. Nonbreaking Spaces
Suppose you want to use the phrase "12 Angry Men." Here, you would not want a browser to
split the "12, Angry" and "Men" across two lines:
In cases, where you do not want the client browser to break text, you should use a
nonbreaking space entity &nbsp; instead of a normal space. For example, when coding the
"12 Angry Men" in a paragraph, you should use something similar to the following code:
<p>An example of this technique appears in the movie "12&nbsp;Angry&nbsp;Men." </p>
G. HTML Comments

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 Comment is a piece of code which is ignored by any web browser. It is a good practice to add
comments into your HTML code, especially in complex documents, to indicate sections of a
document, and any other notes to anyone looking at the code. Comments help you and others
understand your code and increases code readability.
HTML comments are placed in between <!-- ... --> tags. So, any content placed within
<!-- ... --> tags will be treated as comment and will be completely ignored by the browser.
Single line comments:
<!-- Document Header Starts -->
HTML supports multi-line comments as well:
<!--
This is a multiline comment and it can
span through as many as lines you like.
-->
Commenting Script Code
Though you will learn JavaScript with HTML, but here you must make a note that if you are
using Java Script or VB Script in your HTML code then it is recommended to put that script
code inside proper HTML comments so that old browsers can work properly. Example:
<script>
<!--
document.write("Hello World!")
//-->
</script>
Commenting Style Sheets
Though you will learn using style sheets with HTML in a separate tutorial, but here you must
make a note that if you are using Cascading Style Sheet (CSS) in your HTML code then it is
recommended to put that style sheet code inside proper HTML comments so that old
browsers can work properly. Example:
<style>
<!--
.example {
border:1px solid #4a7d49;
}
//-->
</style>
HTML Elements

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An HTML element is defined by a starting tag. If the element contains other content, it ends
with a closing tag, where the element name is preceded by a forward slash as shown below with
few tags:

Start Tag Content End Tag

<p> This is paragraph content. </p>
<h1> This is heading content. </h1>
<div> This is division content. </div>
<br />
So here <p>....</p> is an HTML element, <h1>...</h1> is another HTML element. There are
some HTML elements which don't need to be closed, such as <img.../>, <hr /> and <br />
elements. These are known as void elements (empty elements).
HTML documents consists of a tree of these elements and they specify how HTML documents
should be built, and what kind of content should be placed in what part of an HTML document.
A. HTML Tag vs. Element
An HTML element is defined by a starting tag. If the element contains other content, it ends
with a closing tag.
For example, <p> is starting tag of a paragraph and </p> is closing tag of the same paragraph
but <p>This is paragraph</p> is a paragraph element.
B. Nested HTML Elements
It is very much allowed to keep one HTML element inside another HTML element:
Example
<h1>This is <i>italic</i> heading</h1>
<p>This is <u>underlined</u> paragraph</p>
This will display the following result:

This is italic heading

This is underlined paragraph
HTML Attributes
We have seen few HTML tags and their usage like heading tags <h1>, <h2>, paragraph tag <p>
and other tags. We used them so far in their simplest form, but most of the HTML tags can also
have attributes, which are extra bits of information.
An attribute is used to define the characteristics of an HTML element and is placed inside the
element's opening tag. All attributes are made up of two parts: a name and a value:

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  The name is the property you want to set. For example, the paragraph <p> element in the
example carries an attribute whose name is align, which you can use to indicate the
alignment of paragraph on the page.
 The value is what you want the value of the property to be set and always put within
quotations. The below example shows three possible values of align attribute: left, center
and right.
Attribute names and attribute values are case-insensitive. However, the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C) recommends lowercase attributes/attribute values in their HTML4
recommendation.
A. Core Attributes
The four core attributes that can be used on the majority of HTML elements (although not
all) are:
a) Id
b) Title
c) Class
d) Style
a) The Id Attribute
The id attribute of an HTML tag can be used to uniquely identify any element within an
HTML page. There are two primary reasons that you might want to use an id attribute on
an element:
 If an element carries an id attribute as a unique identifier, it is possible to identify just
that element and its content.
 If you have two elements of the same name within a Web page (or style sheet), you
can use the id attribute to distinguish between elements that have the same name.
b) The title Attribute
The title attribute gives a suggested title for the element. They syntax for the title attribute
is similar as explained for id attribute:
The behavior of this attribute will depend upon the element that carries it, although it is
often displayed as a tooltip when cursor comes over the element or while the element is
loading.
<h3 title="Hello HTML!">Titled Heading Tag Example</h3>
Now try to bring your cursor over "Titled Heading Tag Example" and you will see that
whatever title you used in your code is coming out as a tooltip of the cursor.
c) The class Attribute
The class attribute is used to associate an element with a style sheet, and specifies the
class of element. You will learn more about the use of the class attribute when you will

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 learn Cascading Style Sheet (CSS). So for now you can avoid it. The value of the
attribute may also be a space-separated list of class names. For example:
class="className1 className2 className3"
d) The style Attribute
The style attribute allows you to specify Cascading Style Sheet (CSS) rules within the
element.
<p style="font-family:arial; color:#FF0000;">Some text...</p>
B. Internationalization Attributes
There are three internationalization attributes, which are available for most (although not all)
XHTML elements.
a) dir
b) lang
c) xml:lang
a) The dir Attribute
The dir attribute allows you to indicate to the browser about the direction in which the
text should flow. The dir attribute can take one of two values, as you can see in the table
that follows:
Value Meaning
ltr Left to right (the default value)
rtl Right to left (for languages such as Hebrew or Arabic that are read right to left)

<html dir="rtl">
When dir attribute is used within the <html> tag, it determines how text will be presented
within the entire document. When used within another tag, it controls the text's direction
for just the content of that tag.
b) The lang Attribute
The lang attribute allows you to indicate the main language used in a document, but this
attribute was kept in HTML only for backwards compatibility with earlier versions of
HTML. This attribute has been replaced by the xml:lang attribute in new XHTML
documents.
The values of the lang attribute are ISO-639 standard two-character language codes.
Check HTML Language Codes: ISO 639 for a complete list of language codes.
<html lang="en">
c) The xml:lang Attribute

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 The xml:lang attribute is the XHTML replacement for the lang attribute. The value of
the xml:lang attribute should be an ISO-639 country code as mentioned in previous
section.
C. Generic Attributes
Table 2.1: Attributes that are readily usable with many of the HTML tags.
Attribute Options Function
align right, left, center Horizontally aligns tags
Vertically aligns tags within an HTML
valign top, middle, bottom
element.
numeric, hexidecimal, RGB Places a background color behind an
bgcolor
values element
Places a background image behind an
background URL
element
Names an element for use with Cascading
id User Defined
Style Sheets.
Classifies an element for use with
class User Defined
Cascading Style Sheets.
Specifies the width of tables, images, or
width Numeric Value
table cells.
Specifies the height of tables, images, or
height Numeric Value
table cells.
title User Defined "Pop-up" title of the elements.
Depicting Document Structure of Markup Sections
HTML Document Structure
All HTML documents share identical underlying structure, a kind of backbone onto which you
build your unique page content. Most HTML tags come in pairs which define the content within
them. HTML refers to these as container tags. An HTML document’s basic structure is really
just a series of large containers, inside of which you define the two main sections of your page:
the document head and the document body.
A typical HTML document will have the following structure:

Document declaration tag

<html>
<head>
Document header related tags
</head>
<body>
Document body related tags
</body>

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 </html>

We will study all the header and body tags in subsequent sections, but for now let's see what is
document declaration tag.
The <!DOCTYPE> Declaration
The <!DOCTYPE> declaration tag is used by the web browser to understand the version of the
HTML used in the document. Current version of HTML is 5 and it makes use of the following
declaration:
<!DOCTYPE html>
There are many other declaration types which can be used in HTML document depending on
what version of HTML is being used.
1.1.1. HTML Header Section
This section will give a little more detail about header part which is represented by HTML
<head> tag. The <head> tag is a container of various important tags like
A. <title>,
B. <base>,
C. <link>,
D. <style>,
E. <script>,
F. <meta>, and
G. <noscript> tags.

A. The HTML <title> Tag

The HTML <title> tag is used for specifying the title of the HTML document. Following is
an example to give a title to an HTML document:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Title Tag Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<p>Hello, World!</p>
</body>
</html>

This will produce the following result:

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 B. The HTML <base> Tag
The HTML <base> tag is used for specifying the base URL for all relative URLs in a page,
which means all the other URLs will be concatenated into base URL while locating for the
given item.
For example, all the given pages and images will be searched after prefixing the given URLs
with base URL http://www.tutorialspoint.com/ directory:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Base Tag Example</title>
<base href="http://www.tutorialspoint.com/" />
</head>
<body>
<img src="/images/logo.png" alt="Logo Image"/>
<a href="/html/index.htm" title="HTML Tutorial"/>HTML Tutorial</a>
</body>
</html>

This will produce the following result:

http://www.tutorialspoint.com/images/logo.png and
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/home/html/index.htm

C. The HTML <link> Tag

The HTML <link> tag is used to specify relationships between the current document and
external resource. Following is an example to link an external style sheet file available in
CSS sub-directory within web root:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Link Tag Example</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/css/style.css" />
</head>
<body>
<p>Hello, World!</p>

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 </body>
</html>
D. The HTML <style> Tag
The HTML <style> tag is used to specify style sheet for the current HTML document.
Following is an example to define few style sheet rules inside <style> tag:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Style Tag Example</title>
<base href="http://www.tutorialspoint.com/" />
<style type="text/css">
.myclass{
background-color: #aaa;
padding: 10px; }
</style>
</head>
<body>
<p class="myclass">Hello, World!</p>
</body>
</html>
E. The HTML <script> Tag
The HTML <script> tag is used to include either external script file or to define internal
script for the HTML document. Following is an example where we are using JavaScript to
define a simple JavaScript function:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Script Tag Example</title>
<script type="text/JavaScript">
function Hello(){
alert("Hello, World"); }
</script>
</head>
<body>
<input type="button" onclick="Hello();" name="ok" value="OK" />
</body>
</html>
F. HTML <meta> Tag
A document’s head section often contains descriptive information about the document,
referred to as metadata. Using the <meta> tag and its various attributes, you can define such
document properties as the author, the expiration date, document keywords, and
descriptions. When search engines that support metadata read your document, they can use
this information to index it in order to return your page when someone does a search on
subjects matching the keywords you have defined.

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 The <meta> tag is used to provide such additional information. This tag is an empty element
and so does not have a closing tag but it carries information within its attributes.
You can include one or more meta tags in your document based on what information you
want to keep in your document but in general, meta tags do not impact physical appearance
of the document so from appearance point of view, it does not matter if you include them or
not.
Adding Meta Tags to Your Documents
You can add metadata to your web pages by placing <meta> tags inside the header of the
document which is represented by <head> and </head> tags.
Table: A meta tag can have following attributes in addition to core attributes:
Attribute Description
Name for the property. Can be anything. Examples include, keywords,
name
description, author, revised, generator etc.
content Specifies the property's value.
Specifies a scheme to interpret the property's value (as declared in the content
scheme
attribute).
Used for http response message headers. For example, http-equiv can be used to
http- equiv refresh the page or to set a cookie. Values include content-type, expires, refresh
and set-cookie.
Because the <meta> tag is an empty tag, To make the <meta> tag both XHTML-compliant
and still recognizable to browsers that don’t yet support XHTML, insert a space and forward
slash at the end of the tag.
Caution: If you repeat yourself by using the same or similar keywords, for example “stamp,
stamps, stamp collecting,” some search engines may view this as a spamming tactic and rank
your page low, or not at all.
Tips
 The object is not to supply every conceivable keyword you can think of but to tailor
your keywords to the specific information contained in the document. Keywords can be
single words as well as two- or three-word phrases.
 Work your keywords into your document titles and body text. The first word in your
document title should be referenced early in your list of keywords, too, so you probably
shouldn’t start page titles with words like “The.” Any keyword that appears in the text
of your document shouldn’t be repeated more than seven times in that page.
Following are few of the important usages of <meta> tag inside an HTML document:

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 <!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Meta Tag Example</title>
<meta name="keywords" content="HTML, Meta Tags, Metadata" />
<meta name="description" content="Learning about Meta Tags." />
<meta name="revised" content="Tutorialspoint, 3/7/2014" />
<meta http-equiv="refresh" content="30" />
<meta http-equiv="refresh" content="30; url=http://www.tutorialspoint.com" />
<meta http-equiv="cookie" content="userid=xyz; expires=Wednesday, 08-Aug-
15 23:59:59 GMT;" />
<meta ame="author" content="Mahnaz Mohtashim" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=Big5" />
</head>
<body>
<p>Hello, World!</p>
</body>
</html>
Specifying Keywords
You can use <meta> tag to specify important keywords related to the document and later
these keywords are used by the search engines while indexing your webpage for searching
purpose.
<meta name="keywords" content="HTML, Meta Tags, Metadata" />
Document Description
You can use <meta> tag to give a short description about the document. This again can be
used by various search engines while indexing your webpage for searching purpose.
<meta name="description" content="Learning about Meta Tags." />
Document Revision Date
You can use <meta> tag to give information about when last time the document was updated.
This information can be used by various web browsers while refreshing your webpage.
<meta name="revised" content="Tutorialspoint, 3/7/2014" />

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 Document Refreshing
A <meta> tag can be used to specify a duration after which your web page will keep
refreshing automatically.
<meta http-equiv="refresh" content="30" />
Page Redirection
You can use <meta> tag to redirect your page to any other webpage. You can also specify a
duration if you want to redirect the page after a certain number of seconds.
<meta http-equiv="refresh" content="30; url=http://www.tutorialspoint.com" />
Setting Cookies
Cookies are data, stored in small text files on your computer and it is exchanged between
web browser and web server to keep track of various information based on your web
application need.
You can use <meta> tag to store cookies on client side and later this information can be used
by the Web Server to track a site visitor.
<meta http-equiv="cookie" content="userid=xyz; expires=Wednesday, 08-Aug-15
23:59:59 GMT;" />
If you do not include the expiration date and time, the cookie is considered a session cookie
and will be deleted when the user exits the browser.
Setting Author Name
You can set an author name in a web page using meta tag. See an example below:
<meta ame="author" content="Mahnaz Mohtashim" />
Specify Character Set
You can use <meta> tag to specify character set used within the webpage. By default, Web
servers and Web browsers use ISO-8859-1 (Latin1) encoding to process Web pages.
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" />
To serve the static page with traditional Chinese characters, the webpage must contain a
<meta> tag to set Big5 encoding:
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=Big5" />

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 G. HTML <noscript> Tag
You can also provide alternative info to the users whose browsers don't support scripts and
for those users who have disabled script option their browsers. You can do this using the
<noscript> tag.
JavaScript Example:
<script type="text/JavaScript">
<!--
document.write("Hello JavaScript!");
//-->
</script>
<noscript>Your browser does not support JavaScript!</noscript>
VBScript Example:
<script type="text/vbscript">
<!--
document.write("Hello VBScript!")
'-->
</script>
<noscript>Your browser does not support VBScript!</noscript>
Default Scripting Language
There may be a situation when you will include multiple script files and ultimately using
multiple <script> tags. You can specify a default scripting language for all your script tags.
This saves you from specifying the language every time you use a script tag within the page.
Below is the example:
<meta http-equiv="Content-Script-Type" content="text/JavaScript" />
Note that you can still override the default by specifying a language within the script tag.
HTML Body Section Text Formatting
If you use a word processor, you must be familiar with the ability to make text bold, italicized, or
underlined; these are just three of the ten options available to indicate how text can appear in
HTML and XHTML.
A. Bold Text
Anything that appears within <b>...</b> element, is displayed in bold as shown below:
<p>The following word uses a <b>bold</b> typeface.</p>
B. Italic Text
Anything that appears within <i>...</i> element is displayed in italicized as shown below:
<p>The following word uses a <i>italicized</i> typeface.</p>

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 C. Underlined Text
Anything that appears within <u>...</u> element, is displayed with underline as shown
below:
<p>The following word uses a <u>underlined</u> typeface.</p>
D. Strike Text
Anything that appears within <strike>...</strike> element is displayed with
strikethrough, which is a thin line through the text as shown below:
<p>The following word uses a <strike>strikethrough</strike> typeface.</p>
E. Monospaced Font
The content of a <tt>...</tt> element is written in monospaced font. Most of the fonts are
known as variable-width fonts because different letters are of different widths (for example,
the letter 'm' is wider than the letter 'i'). In a monospaced font, however, each letter has the
same width.
<p>The following word uses a <tt>monospaced</tt> typeface.</p>
F. Superscript Text
The content of a ^... element is written in superscript; the font size used is the
same size as the characters surrounding it but is displayed half a character's height above the
other characters.
<p>The following word uses a ^superscript typeface.</p>
G. Subscript Text
The content of a _... element is written in subscript; the font size used is the
same as the characters surrounding it, but is displayed half a character's height beneath the
other characters.
<p>The following word uses a _subscript typeface.</p>
H. Inserted Text
Anything that appears within <ins>...</ins> element is displayed as inserted text.
<p>I want to drink <del>cola</del> <ins>wine</ins></p>
I. Deleted Text
Anything that appears within <del>...</del> element, is displayed as deleted text.
<p>I want to drink <del>cola</del> <ins>wine</ins></p>
J. Larger Text
The content of the <big>...</big> element is displayed one font size larger than the rest of
the text surrounding it as shown below:

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 <p>The following word uses a <big>big</big> typeface.</p>
K. Smaller Text
The content of the <small>...</small> element is displayed one font size smaller than the
rest of the text surrounding it as shown below:
<p>The following word uses a <small>small</small> typeface.</p>
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Bold Text Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<p>The following word uses a <b>bold</b> typeface.</p>
<p>The following word uses a <i>italicized</i> typeface.</p>
<p>The following word uses a <u>underlined</u> typeface.</p>
<p>The following word uses a <strike>strikethrough</strike> typeface.</p>
<p>The following word uses a <tt>monospaced</tt> typeface.</p>
<p>The following word uses a ^superscript typeface.</p>
<p>The following word uses a _subscript typeface.</p>
<p>I want to drink <del>wine</del> <ins>Fanta</ins></p>
<p>I want to drink <del>wine</del> <ins>Fanta</ins></p>
<p>The following word uses a <big>big</big> typeface.</p>
<p>The following word uses a <small>small</small> typeface.</p>
</body>
</html>

1.1.2. HTML Body Section Phrase Tags

The phrase tags have been desicolgned for specific purposes, though they are displayed in a
similar way as other basic tags like <b>, <i>, <pre>, and <tt>, you have seen in previous
chapter. This chapter will take you through all the important phrase tags, so let's start seeing
them one by one.
A. Emphasized Text
Anything that appears within <em>...</em> element is displayed as emphasized text.

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 <p>The following word uses a <em>emphasized</em> typeface.</p>
B. Marked Text
Anything that appears with-in <mark>...</mark> element, is displayed as marked with
yellow ink.
<p>The following word has been <mark>marked</mark> with yellow</p>
C. Strong Text
Anything that appears within <strong>...</strong> element is displayed as important text.
<p>The following word uses a <strong>strong</strong> typeface.</p>
D. Text Abbreviation
You can abbreviate a text by putting it inside opening <abbr> and closing </abbr> tags. If
present, the title attribute must contain this full description and nothing else.
<p>My best friend's name is <abbr title="Abhishek">Abhy</abbr>.</p>
E. Acronym Element
The <acronym> element allows you to indicate that the text between <acronym> and
</acronym> tags is an acronym. At present, the major browsers do not change the
appearance of the content of the <acronym> element.
<p>This chapter covers marking up text in <acronym>XHTML</acronym>.</p>
F. Text Direction
The <bdo>...</bdo> element stands for Bi-Directional Override and it is used to
override the current text direction.
<p><bdo dir="rtl">This text will go right to left.</bdo></p>
G. Special Terms
The <dfn>...</dfn> element (or HTML Definition Element) allows you to specify that you
are introducing a special term. It's usage is similar to italic words in the midst of a paragraph.
Typically, you would use the <dfn> element the first time you introduce a key term. Most
recent browsers render the content of a <dfn> element in an italic font.
<p>The following word is a <dfn>special</dfn> term.</p>
H. Quoting Text
When you want to quote a passage from another source, you should put it in
between<blockquote>...</blockquote> tags. Text inside a <blockquote> element is usually
indented from the left and right edges of the surrounding text, and sometimes uses an
italicized font.

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 <blockquote>XHTML 1.0 is the W3C's first Recommendation for XHTML, following on from
earlier work on HTML 4.01, HTML 4.0, HTML 3.2 and HTML 2.0.</blockquote>
I. Short Quotations
The <q>...</q> element is used when you want to add a double quote within a sentence.
<p>Amit is in Spain, <q>I think I am wrong</q>.</p>
J. Text Citations
If you are quoting a text, you can indicate the source placing it between an opening
<cite>tag and closing </cite> tag
As you would expect in a print publication, the content of the <cite> element is rendered in
italicized text by default.
<p>This HTML tutorial is derived from <cite>W3 Standard for HTML</cite>.</p>
K. Computer Code
Any programming code to appear on a Web page should be placed inside
<code>...</code>tags. Usually the content of the <code> element is presented in a
monospaced font, just like the code in most programming books.
<p>Regular text. <code>This is code.</code> Regular text.</p>
L. Keyboard Text
When you are talking about computers, if you want to tell a reader to enter some text, you
can use the <kbd>...</kbd> element to indicate what should be typed in, as in this example.
<p>Regular text. <kbd>This is inside kbd element</kbd> Regular text.</p>
M. Programming Variables
This element is usually used in conjunction with the <pre> and <code> elements to indicate
that the content of that element is a variable.
<p><code>document.write("<var>user-name</var>")</code></p>
N. Program Output
The <samp>...</samp> element indicates sample output from a program, and script etc.
Again, it is mainly used when documenting programming or coding concepts.
<p>Result produced by the program is <samp>Hello World!</samp></p>
O. Address Text
The <address>...</address> element is used to contain any address.
<address>388A, Road No 22, Jubilee Hills - Hyderabad</address>

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HTML Body Section Fonts
Fonts play a very important role in making a website more user friendly and increasing content
readability. Font face and color depends entirely on the computer and browser that is being used
to view your page but you can use HTML <font> tag to add style, size, and color to the text on
your website. You can use a <basefont> tag to set all of your text to the same size, face, and
color.
The font tag is having three attributes called size, color, and face to customize your fonts. To
change any of the font attributes at any time within your webpage, simply use the <font> tag.
The text that follows will remain changed until you close with the </font> tag. You can change
one or all of the font attributes within one <font> tag.
Note: The font and basefont tags are deprecated and it is supposed to be removed in a future
version of HTML. So they should not be used rather, it's suggested to use CSS styles to
manipulate your fonts. But still for learning purpose, this section will explain font and basefont
tags in detail.
A. Set Font Size
You can set content font size using size attribute. The range of accepted values is from 1
(smallest) to 7 (largest). The default size of a font is 3.
<font size="1">Font size="1"</font><br />
<font size="2">Font size="2"</font><br />
<font size="3">Font size="3"</font><br />
<font size="4">Font size="4"</font><br />
<font size="5">Font size="5"</font><br />
<font size="6">Font size="6"</font><br />
<font size="7">Font size="7"</font>
B. Relative Font Size
You can specify how many sizes larger or how many sizes smaller than the preset font size
should be. You can specify it like <font size="+n"> or <font size="-n">
<font size="-1">Font size="-1"</font><br />
<font size="+1">Font size="+1"</font><br />
<font size="+2">Font size="+2"</font><br />
<font size="+3">Font size="+3"</font><br />
<font size="+4">Font size="+4"</font>
C. Setting Font Face
You can set font face using face attribute but be aware that if the user viewing the page
doesn't have the font installed, they will not be able to see it. Instead user will see the default
font face applicable to the user's computer.
<font face="Times New Roman" size="5">Times New Roman</font><br />

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 <font face="Verdana" size="5">Verdana</font><br />
<font face="Comic sans MS" size="5">Comic Sans MS</font><br />
<font face="Bedrock" size="5">Bedrock</font><br />
Specify alternate font faces
A visitor will only be able to see your font if they have that font installed on their computer.
So, it is possible to specify two or more font face alternatives by listing the font face names,
separated by a comma.
<font face="arial, helvetica">
<font face="Lucida Calligraphy, Comic Sans MS,Lucida Console">
When your page is loaded, their browser will display the first font face available. If none of
the given fonts are installed, then it will display the default font face Times New Roman.
D. Setting Font Color
You can set any font color you like using color attribute. You can specify the color that you
want by either the color name or hexadecimal code for that color.
<font color="#FF00FF">This text is in pink</font><br />
<font color="red">This text is red</font>
E. The <basefont> Element:
The <basefont> element is supposed to set a default font size, color, and typeface for any
parts of the document that are not otherwise contained within a <font> tag. You can use the
<font> elements to override the <basefont> settings.
The <basefont> tag also takes color, size and face attributes and it will support relative font
setting by giving size a value of +1 for a size larger or -2 for two sizes smaller.
<basefont face="arial, verdana, sans-serif" size="2" color="#ff0000">
<p>This is the page's default font.</p>
<h2>Example of the &lt;basefont&gt; Element</h2>
<p><font size="+2" color="darkgray">
This is darkgray text with two sizes larger
</font></p>
<p><font face="courier" size="-1" color="#000000">
It is a courier font, a size smaller and black in color.
</font></p>

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1.1.3. HTML Body Section Backgrounds
By default, your webpage background is white in color. You may not like it, but no worries.
HTML provides you following two good ways to decorate your webpage background.
 HTML Background with Colors
 HTML Background with Images
Now let's see both the approaches one by one using appropriate examples.
A. HTML Background with Colors
The bgcolor attribute is used to control the background of an HTML element, specifically
page body and table backgrounds. Following is the syntax to use bgcolor attribute with any
HTML tag.
<tagname bgcolor="color_value"...>
This color_value can be given in any of the following formats:
<!-- Format 1 - Use color name -->
< body bgcolor="lime" >
<!-- Format 2 - Use hex value -->
< body bgcolor="#f1f1f1" >
<!-- Format 3 - Use color value in RGB terms -->
< body bgcolor="rgb(0,0,120)" >
B. HTML Background with Images
The background attribute can also be used to control the background of an HTML element,
specifically page body and table backgrounds. You can specify an image to set background
of your HTML page or table. Following is the syntax to use background attribute with any
HTML tag.
Note: The background attribute is deprecated and it is recommended to use Style Sheet for
background setting.
<tagname background="Image URL"...>
The most frequently used image formats are JPEG, GIF and PNG images.
<body background="/images/html.gif">
Patterned & Transparent Backgrounds
You might have seen many pattern or transparent backgrounds on various websites. This simply
can be achieved by using patterned image or transparent image in the background.

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It is suggested that while creating patterns or transparent GIF or PNG images, use the smallest
dimensions possible even as small as 1x1 to avoid slow loading.
1.1.4. HTML Body Section Colors
Colors are very important to give a good look and feel to your website. You can specify colors
on page level using <body> tag or you can set colors for individual tags using bgcolor
attribute.
The <body> tag has following attributes which can be used to set different colors:
 bgcolor - sets a color for the background of the page.
 text - sets a color for the body text.
 alink - sets a color for active links or selected links.
 link - sets a color for linked text.
 vlink - sets a color for visited links - that is, for linked text that you have already clicked
on.
HTML Color Coding Methods
There are following three different methods to set colors in your web page:
 Color names - You can specify color names directly like green, blue or red.
 Hex codes - A six-digit code representing the amount of red, green, and blue that makes
up the color.
 Color decimal or percentage values - This value is specified using the rgb() property.
Now we will see these coloring schemes one by one.
A. HTML Colors - Color Names
You can specify direct a color name to set text or background color. W3C has listed 16 basic
color names that will validate with an HTML validator but there are over 200 different color
names supported by major browsers.
W3C Standard 16 Colors
Here is the list of W3C Standard 16 Colors names and it is recommended to use them.

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 <body text="blue" bgcolor="green">
B. HTML Colors - Hex Codes
A hexadecimal is a 6 digit representation of a color. The first two digits(RR) represent a red
value, the next two are a green value(GG), and the last are the blue value(BB).
A hexadecimal value can be taken from any graphics software like Adobe Photoshop,
Paintshop Pro or MS Paint.
Each hexadecimal code will be preceded by a pound or hash sign #. Following is a list of few
colors using hexadecimal notation.

<body text="#0000FF" bgcolor="#00FF00">

C. HTML Colors - RGB Values
This color value is specified using the rgb( ) property. This property takes three values, one
each for red, green, and blue. The value can be an integer between 0 and 255 or a percentage.
Note: All the browsers does not support rgb() property of color so it is recommended not to
use it. Following is a list to show few colors using RGB values.

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 <body text="rgb(0,0,255)" bgcolor="rgb(0,255,0)">
D. Browser Safe Colors
Here is the list of 216 colors which are supposed to be safest and computer independent
colors. These colors very from hexa code 000000 to FFFFFF and they will be supported by
all the computers having 256 color palette.

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10.3. Writing Simple Markup Language
Validating Markup Language Document
A website must meet the particular requirements of the client. These specifications usually aim
to ensure consistency of organisational identity and may outline procedures to be followed in the
development process.
Web development also requires a variety of tests to ensure or "validate" that a web site will
function as expected in a number of computing environments and that the site is error-free. There
are a number of tests that can be performed to validate mark-up documents and web sites:
 Functional test
 Compatibility test
 Performance test
 Regression test
In practice these four stages may occur simultaneously or in separate, systematic steps. This will
depend on both the complexity of the product you are testing and the number of team members
involved in testing. The bigger the team, the more clearly defined the stages of progress need to
be documented.
Functional testing
Functional testing refers to:
 Confirming that the site meets client specifications.
 Testing for errors or mistakes in mark-up and in content
A. Meeting client specifications
A set of specification for your website should be agreed upon between you (or your
organization) and the client. Keep these in mind and check that your work complies as you
develop your mark up language documents.
Specifications could include:
 The style or formatting of elements such as text
 Style guidelines to fit in with organization 'branding'
 The positions of elements on the page
 The structure of the page
 Web browsers that the web page must work on
 Operating systems the web page must work with
 Size limits for files
Read the project documents carefully in order to identify specifications and communicate with
your supervisor or with the client to verify expectations.
Analysing these requirements will assist with setting up your testing stages.

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B. Validation tools
You need to "validate" your mark-up documents (such as CSS, HTML and XHTML) to ensure
that they are correct and error-free. The easiest and most thorough way to check that your mark-
up code is correct is to use one of the free validation tools available on the internet. These will
check your mark-up document and return a list of errors found so that you can correct them.
Some online validation tools are:
 World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) HTML, CSS and XHTML validators:
validator.w3.org
 Also see the "Validators" page at W3C: www.w3.org
 HTML validator from the Web Design Group: htmlhelp.org/tools/validator/

You can also download a number of standalone validation tools from the Tucows site:
www.tucows.com. Search for the term 'Validator'.
Note: Some applications for creating mark-up (such as Dreamweaver) also have their own built-
in mark-up language validators. Beware that even though they may be able to check your site,
they may not be 100% standards-compliant.
C. Common validation errors
A few common HTML/XHTML errors that you might encounter are:
 No DTD: You should make the first line of your HTML a 'document type definition'
(DTD) so that the validator knows what version and type of mark-up language you are
using—for example <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC '-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01
Transitional//EN'>)
 Missing alt tags - all graphics in your website should include "alt" tags to provide a text
alternative to users with vision impairment
 Improper nesting of elements - mark-up tags need to be opened and closed in the
correct order - i.e. the order they were opened in. For example <p><b> will be followed
by </b></p> (not </p></b>)
 Not closing tags - missing quote marks, brackets or colons
 Using spaces in document titles - use an underscore "_" instead
 Missing title - HTML/XHTML documents must have a "title" element in the head of the
document
 Using upper case tags - XHTML is case sensitive (use <body> not <BODY>)
 Missing quotes - attributes should have quotation marks surrounding them. For example
<font color="#003366">
On finding these errors you will need to address them and ideally re-validate your document
until you have eliminated all errors.

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D. XML validation
XML stands for eXtensible Markup Language. XML is a mark-up language but is different in
structure and intent than HTML.
XML was designed to describe data and to focus on what data is. HTML was designed to display
data and to focus on how data looks.
XML documents will need to be validated either against a Document Type Definition (DTD) or
against an appropriate XML Schema. For more information about getting started with XML and
validating XML documents, take a look at the W3 Schools website: www.w3schools.com. Start
with 'Learn XML' under 'Tutorials' specifically take a look at the section in the tutorial called
'XML Validation'. For in-depth technical discussions of XML, visit the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C): www.w3.org. W3C is the international standards body overseeing
development of most web mark-up languages.
QA Tracking
All of these testing phases are part of the larger process of Quality Assurance (QA). Ensuring
that a website or multimedia product is error-free and works to specification is crucial before the
product can be released.
It is essential; that QA processes are well documented. As you can see from the testing phases
mentioned above, QA will often mean that the whole product will be tested many times in
multiple computing environments. The more people involved in testing and the more complex
the site or product, the greater reliance will be placed on QA documentation.
QA documentation
QA documentation allows testers and developers to accurately ensure that all concerns have been
addressed and avoids unnecessary and time-consuming double-checking. Also good
documentation at all production stages can help ensure bugs and errors are caught early and fixed
well before production is almost complete. Documentation can also provide essential evidence in
the face of disputes between clients and developers.
Take a look at this sample Quality Assurance form. (This is also available for download from the
online "Reading" section of this learning pack). This form is a general QA document that covers
three areas:
 Design
 Editorial
 Functional
Note that there may be a separate procedure for each of these three areas of quality assurance.
For example, bug tracking during the development lifecycle of a multimedia product may be
handled by a custom-made database. The database should allow progress to be tracked along a
timeline - ensuring that all errors are re-checked and fixed before sign-off.

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Validating Markup Language Document in Different Browsers
Compatibility testing
Compatibility testing looks at a product to ensure that it will perform as expected in a range of
computing environments. For web developers this often means testing in a range of:
A. Browsers
B. Operating Systems (OS)
C. Display Resolutions
Preview your web documents in different computing environments (browser, platform, OS etc.)
regularly throughout the production process to catch errors early. Before delivering your product
to the client you will need to perform comprehensive compatibility testing.
Compatibility testing may show up "Bugs" in the site - unexpected behaviour in certain
computing environments. This is not the same as checking for simple errors in code - covered in
the 'Functional test' section of this Reading.
A. Browsers
Different bowsers can interpret mark-up code in different ways. It's important to be confident
that your mark-up documents will display correctly in all the browsers specified by the client.
Browser usage
At time of writing the most common browsers in use are:
 Internet Explorer - 87%
 Firefox - 8%
 Netscape - <2%
 Safari (Mac) - <2%
 Opera = <1%
There are a range of other specialised web browsers. For current information on browser usage,
go to the Market Share website: marketshare.hitslink.com. You can also read more at W3
Schools: www.w3schools.com.
Appearance across browsers.
Here is a sample of a simple HTML page shown side-by-side in two different browser windows
(Firefox Version 1.5 and Internet Explorer Version 6 - both on Windows XP).

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 Side-by-side comparison of same HTML page in two browsers
Both browsers display the page clearly but there are small differences, even in this very basic
mark-up document. The most noticeable differences include:
 Page margins - IE places the H1 text 2 pixels right and 7 pixels down from where Firefox
places the same text
 Paragraphs - paragraphs are spaced further apart in IE than Firefox
 Tables- table borders display slightly differently and table cells are more widely spaced
in IE.
For a professional web designer, these small differences can make or break a site design. There
are many strategies that designers use in their mark-up to ensure consistent appearance across
browsers (and platforms) using Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and occasionally specifying
different CSS to be delivered to different browsers.
For in-depth discussions on using CSS, go to the Front Page website: css-discuss.incutio.com.
This is a CSS discussion Wiki - maintained and contributed to by a range of web developers.
For specific and technical information on cross-browser bugs and CSS fixes, take a look at the
Position Is Everything site: www.positioniseverything.net
While the example shown above is quite simple, the same principles apply to all aspects of
creating mark-up documents. You need to check your mark-up across browsers during
development

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B. Operating Systems
The two main operating systems in use on personal computers are Windows and MacOS
(Macintosh Operating System - now Unix-based). Unix and variations of Linux are largely used
on servers rather than personal computers. At time of writing some of the most common
operating systems are:
 Windows XP - 80%
 Windows 2000 - 9%
 Windows 98 and NT - 4%
 Mac (all versions) - 4%
 Unix/Linux - 0.5%
For current information on operating system usage, go to the Market Share website:
marketshare.hitslink.com. You can also read more at W3 Schools: www.w3schools.com.
Once again the way that each of these operating systems interprets your mark-up will vary. You
need to test your product in a range of operating systems.
C. Display resolutions
A challenge for web and multimedia developers is to anticipate the screen resolution of their
user's computers. Computer resolution is measured in pixels.
At time of writing, the general trends for monitor settings are as follows (width x height in pixels
- percentage of all computer users):
 640 x 480 - 2%
 800 x 600 - 20%
 1024 x 768 - 55%
 Higher - 17%
 Unknown - 6%
You should allow for variations in these "screen real estate" settings when designing your
multimedia or web-based products. Keep in mind the following points:
 For most non-technical computer users, their monitor resolution will be the setting that
came with the computer when they bought it
 Vision-impaired users may adjust their resolution to make everything bigger (e.g. 640
x480)
 Tech-savvy users (and people with good eyesight!) often set their monitors to higher
resolutions to fit more stuff on screen.
 Larger LCD monitors also allow more screen space and therefore much higher resolution
than older CRT monitors.

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D. Standards
Some clients will specify that their website must comply with web standards. Even if your client
doesn't, there are good reasons for writing web documents using standards compliant mark-up
code. One reason is that you will save time trying to get your pages to display the same way in
different browsers. Various standards-compliant browsers will display your standards compliant
pages in mostly the same way.
By complying with web standards your web pages will be more accessible. They will be easier
and cheaper to maintain and update and their size will be smaller, reducing download time and
required bandwidth. Your web site will reach a larger audience because pages will be compatible
with a variety of browsers, platforms and devices. In addition, search engines such as Google
(www.google.com.au) will also find and index your site more easily.
E. DTD
Document Type Definition (DTD). This shows which international standard SGML and XML
documents should conform to and informs how browsers, search engines etc. should handle the
document. All SGML and XML documents (including HTML and XHTML) should include a
Doctype reference to a DTD. Doctype is short for 'Document Type Declaration' - here is an
example:
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/loose.dtd" />
This says that the standard that applies to this document is 'HTML 4.0 Transitional' and then
gives the URL where this standard can be found.
F. W3C
The recommendations from the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C): www.w3.org are widely
accepted as the international standards for web mark-up languages.
The W3C website contains vast resources for web developers. Much of the discussion of
evolving technologies and standards is highly technical. However there are also significant tools
for general web development such as validators for a variety of mark-up languages.
1.1.1. Performance testing
Performance testing is required for larger and more complex websites. It is also essential for
software and application developers. Performance testing may focus on:
 Server capacity
 Network capacity and connection speed
 Database functions
 Scalability
Performance testing will require a set of standards or benchmarks against which the site or
product will be tested.

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 Regression testing
Regression testing is the cycle of testing that continues throughout a product's development.
Specifically a 'regression bug' is a fault that may be introduced after programming code or mark-
up has been altered to fix another problem.
In practice, regression testing means that products are tested repeatedly through different
development stages for two reasons:
 to check that identified problems are fixed and remain fixed
 to make sure that 'fixes' does not introduce new errors.
Regression bugs are a common problem in multimedia and web development.
Validating Simple Markup Language Document
Accessibility
Complying with web standards and appropriate design. By complying with web standards your
site will be more accessible. File sizes on the site will most likely be smaller, that way reducing
download time and required bandwidth and the site will be easier and cheaper to maintain and
update. By being compatible with a variety or browsers, platforms and devices, the site will also
reach a larger audience. It may also be compatible with Internet enabled mobile phones and
PDAs. Google and other search engines will find your site more easily, if you have followed web
standards.
When web sites are not appropriately designed, people with disabilities including those affecting
their vision, motor skills or cognition can encounter problems using them. For example, many
visually impaired people use a screen reader to interpret web pages and these often encounter
problems if pages are not written using standard HTML.
Simple design elements like always providing a meaningful ‘ALT tag’ for images will make
your site more accessible and increase your audience.
Further information
Details of the requirements of the Commonwealth Disability Discrimination Act 1992, can be
found in the advisory notes for that Act provided by the Australian Human Rights and Equal
Opportunities Commission at:
http://www.hreoc.gov.au/disability_rights/standards/www_3/www_3.html
The Act states that all web sites must adhere to web content accessibility guidelines devised by
the World Wide Web consortium (W3C), which can be found at:
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG20/
1.1.2. Using a quality assurance checklist
The quality assurance process demands meticulous planning and execution. Every single detail
on each web page is checked for errors and consistency. The best way to ensure you don’t miss
anything is to prepare a checklist.

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Project documents can help identify the assessment criteria for your list. Useful criteria are set
out quite explicitly in the style guide and technical specifications described above. The project
brief can also reveal useful information. For example, the corporate image the organisation wants
to project can help you judge the appropriateness of the graphics.

Criteria for a checklist should include standards pertaining to HTML, XHTML and cascading
style sheets (CSS), and principles of accessibility. Recommendations from bodies such as the
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), mentioned above, and the International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO) are widely accepted as web standards that can be included in a checklist.

The checklist can be recorded in a database or spreadsheet. It should include space for recording
the recommended action or remedy to be taken, the name of the staff member to whom the
problem is referred, and progress in resolving the problem.

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Reference
 A book by Max Muller, April 2012, Essential of inventory Management.
 A book by Tonny Wild, 2018, Best practice in inventory Management.
 A book by C.Mercado, 2007, Hands on inventory Management.
 https://www.netsuite.com/portal/resource/articles/inventory-management/inventory-
management-asset-management.shtml#:~:text=Inventory%20includes%20products%2C
%20parts%20and,given%20time%20is%20usually%20stable.
 https://www.windowscentral.com/how-check-your-computer-full-specifications-
windows-10/5
 https://gocodes.com/difference-between-asset-and-inventory/
 http://www.differencebetween.net/business/difference-between-inventory-and-assets/
 https://clearlyinventory.com/resources/inventory-basics/
 https://www.infoentrepreneurs.org/en/guides/stock-control-and-inventory/
•Robert G. Fuller and Laurie Ann Ulrich. HTML in 10 Simple Steps or Less, Wiley Publishing,
Inc.
•Tutorials Point Pvt. Ltd, HTML 5 Tutorial, 2012, tutorialspoint.com
WEB Address
•https://web1.muirfield-h.schools.nsw.edu.au/technology/resources/vetit/

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