DESIGN OF PASSIVE SOLAR-ENERGY HEATING SYSTEMS FOR BUILDINGS ‘A south-facing passive solar collector will be designed for a one-story residence in Denver, CO. Determine the area of collector required to maintain an average inside temperature of 70°F (21°C) on a normal clear winter day for a comer room 15 ft (4.6 m) wide, 14 f€(4.3 m) deep, and 8 ft (2.4 m) high. The collector is located on the 15+ft (4.6-m) wide wall facing south, and the 14-f (G.3-m) sidewall contains a 12-f? (L.L1 m®) window. The remaining two walls adjoin heated space and so do not transfer heat, Find the volume and surface area of thermal storage material needed to prevent an unsuitable daytime temperature increase and to store the solar gain for nighttime heating. Estimate the passive solar-heating contribution for an average heating season. Calculation Procedure: 1, Compute the heat loss The surface areas and the coefficients of heat transmission of collector, windows, doors, walls, and roofs must be known to calculate the conductive heat losses of a space. The collector area can be estimated for purposes of heat-loss calculations from Table 8. Table 8 lists ranges of the estimated ratio of collector area to floor area, g, of a space for latitudes 36°N or 48°N based on 4°F (2.2°C) intervals of average January temperature and on various types of passive solar collectors. Average January temperatures ean be selected from government weather data. Denver has an average January temperature of 32°F (0°C). Choosing a direct-gain system for this installation, read down to the horizontal line for 1, = 32°F (0°C), and then read right to the col- umn for a direct-gain system. To find the estimated ratio of collector area to floor area, use a linear interpolation. Thus for Denver, which is located at approximately 40°N, interpolate between 48°N and 36°N values. Or, (0.24 — 0.20/12 x (40 ~ 36) + 0.20 = 0.21, where 0.24 and 0.20 ate the ratios at 48°N and 36°N, respectively; 12 is a constant derived from 48 — 36; and 40 is the latitude for which a ratio is sought. TABLE 8 Estimated Ratio of Collector Area to Floor Area, 1 (65 ~ tf, for 36 to 48° North Latitude” Average January temperature —-Dieot gain Water wall Masonry wall 1,°BCC) 8 8 8 20(-6.2) 027-032 OSH064 069-081 24-44) 025-029 049-058 0.63-0.74 28 (-2.2) 022-027 0440.52 0.56-0.67 32 (0) 020-024 = 030.047 0 50-0.60 3642.2) 017-021 035-041 044-053 40.4.4) 015-018 = 030-035 0.38-0.45 HON 013-015 025-030 032-038 Far Sl temperature, use the relation g =f, 18.38 ~ 1 ie “Bred ona heat loss of 8 Btuiday ft -"F 1058 Wik? KD},Next, find the collector area by using the relation A, = (g)(A,), where A, = collector aren, FE (m2); g= ratio of collector area to floor area, expressed as a decimal; and A, =floor area, f(r") Therefore, A, = (0.21)(2.10) = 44 ft? (4.1 m?). To compute the conductive heat loss through a surface, use the general relation He = UA Ay where H, = conductive heat toss, Brush (W); U = overall coefficient of heat transmission of the surface, Bru/(h - £2 . °F)[Wi(m? - KJ; A = area of heat transmission surface, £2 (m®); and At temperature difference, °F = 65 ~1, (°C = 18.33 —1,), where , = average monthly temperature, *F CC’, The U values of materials can be found in ASHRAE and atchitectural handhooks. Since a direct-gain system was selected, the total area of glazing is the sum of the collector and noncoliector glazing 44 £2 (4.1 m2) + 12 ft? (1.1 m?)=56 ft (5.2 m*), Double glazing is recommended in ail passive solar designs and is found to have a U valuc of 0.42 Buu/(h - ft? - °F} [2.38 WA(m? - K)| in winter. Thus, the conductive heat loss through the glazing is H,.= UA Ar = (0.42)(56)(65 ~ 32) 716 Bulb (227.4 W). ‘The area of opaque wall surface subject to heat loss can be estimated by multiplying the wall height by the total wall Jength and then subtracting the estimated glazed areas fom the total exterior wall area, Thus, the opaque wall area of this space is (8)(15 + 14) ~ 56 = 176 f (16.3 m2), Use the same general relation as above, substituting the U value and area of the wall. Thus, U = 0.045 Buu/ (2: £8 *F) [0.26 W/m? - K)], and A = 176 £2 (16.3 m?), Then H..= UA Ar = (0.045\(176)(65 ~ 32) = 261 Btw (76.5 W), ‘To determine the conductive heat loss of the roof, use the same general relation as above, sub- stituting the U value and area of the roof. Thus, U = 0.029 Btu/(h - ft? °F) (0.16 Wm? K)} and A= 210 fe (19.5 m2), Then H, = UA Ar= (0.029)(210)(65 — 32) = 201 Btu/h (58.9 W). ‘To calculate infiltcation heat loss, use the relation 1, = Vi AWS5, where V= volume of heated Space, f¢° (ms); n = number of air changes per hour, selected from Table 9. The volume for this space is V= (15)(14)(8) = 1680 16 (47.6 mm). Entering Table 9 at the lett for the physical description of the space, tead (0 the right for 1, the number of air changes per hour. This space has windows on {wo walls, so n= 1. Thus, H,= (1680\(1)(65 — 32)/55 = 1008 Btuh (295.4 W) TABLE 9 Air Changes per Hour for Well-Insulated Spaces" OO ‘Number of air changes Description of space per hour n No windows or exterior doors 0.33 Windows or exterior doors on one side as? Windows or exterior doors on two sides 10 Windows or exterior doors on three sides 1.33, "Thove figures are based on spaces with weatherstripped doors and windows ‘or sates with storm windows or doors. I the space docs not have these feat, increase the value listed for n by 50%. The total heat loss of the space is the sum of the individual heat losses of glass, wall, roof, and infiltration. Therefore, the total heat loss for this space is H, = 776 + 261 + 201 + 1008 = 2246 Btu/h (658.3 W). Convert the total hourly heat loss to daily heat loss, using the relation H,, = 2441, where Hy = total heat loss per day, Bludday (W), Thus, H,, = 24(2246) = 53,904 Buu/day (658.3 W). 2. Determine the daily insolation transmitted through the collector Use government data or ASHRAE clear-day insolation tables. ‘The latitude of Denver is 39°S0'N. Since the minutes are greater than 30, or one-half of a degree, the ASHRAE table for 40°N is used. The collector is oriented dve south. Hence, the average daily insolation transmitted through vertical south-facing single glazing for a clear day in January is i, = 1626 Bawft? (5132 Wim), or double the half-day total given in the ASHRAE table, Since double glazing is used, correct the insolation transmitted through single glazing by a factor of 0.875. Thus, i, = (1626)(0.875) = 1423 Biu/(day - fi?) (4490 Winn?) of collector.3, Compute the area of unshaded collector required Determine the area of unshaded collector needed to heat this space on an average clear day in January. An average clear day is chosen because sizing the collector for extreme or cloudy conditions wouid cause space overheating on clear days. January is used because it generally has the highest heating load of all the months. ‘To compute the collector arca, use the relation A. = H.p/(EM,). where E = a rule of thumb for energy absorptance efficiency of the passive solar-heating system used, expressed as a decimal, Enter Table 10 for a ditect gain system to find £ = 0.91. Therefore, A, = 53,904/(0.91\ 1423) = 42 ft G9 m’). TABLE 10 Enemy Absorptance Efficiency of Passive Solar Heating Systems System Efficiency E Direct gain 091 ‘Water thermal storage wall or roof pond 0.6 Masonry thermal storage wall 0.36 Attached greenhouse os If the area of unshaded collector computed in this step varies by more than 10 percent from the area of the coltector estimated for heat loss calculations in step 1. the heat loss should be recomputed with the new areas of collector and opaque wall. In this example, the computed and estimated col- lector ateas are within 10 percent of each other, making a second computation of the collector area ‘unnecessary. 4. Compute the insolation stored for nighttime heating To compute the insolation to be stored for nighttime heating, the total daily insolation must be determined. Use the relation ip = (A-Mé(E), where fp = total daily insolation collected, Btu (1). Therefore, ip = (42)(1423)(0.91) = 54,387 Bm (57.4 Kd). ‘Typically 35 percent of the total space heat gein is used 1 offset daytime heat losses, requiring 65 percent (o be stored for nighttime heating. Therefore, i, = (0.65)i,, where i= insolation stored, Bru (). Thus, i, = (0.65)(54.387) = 35,352 Buu (37.3 kd). This step is not required for the design of thermal-storage wall systems since the siorage system js integrated within the collector. 5. Compute the volume of thermal storage material required For a direct-gain system, use the formula V,, = i,/(d)(c, MAt MC), where ¥,, = volume of thermal storage material, 18 (in); d = density of storage matecial, 1b/t dkg/m); c-"= speciic heat of the material, Bru/(lb °F) [KJickg - KY]; fy = temperature increase of the material, °F (°C); and, C, = fraction of insolation absurbed by the material due to color, expressed as a decimal. Select concrete as the thetmal storage matetial. Entering Table 11, we find the density and specific heat of concrete to be 144 Ib/* (2306.7 ky/m*) and 0.22 Biul(Ib - °F) (0.921 ki/(kg - K)], respectively. TABLE 11 Properties of Theemal Storage Materials Density d Specific best 6, Heat capacity Material Tot? kgfn® Baw °F) Ekg “K)— Bu “F) Km K) Water 6249990 1.00 62.40 41808 Rock 153 2449.5 022 33.66 2255.2 Concrete 144 23054 023 31.68 21226 Brick 123 1969.2 022 27.06 18130 Adobe 108 1729.1 024 25.92 17366 Oak 48 768.5 037 27.36 1833.1 Pine 3 496.3 067, 20.71 1391.6A suitable temperature increase of the storage material ina TABLE 12_Insolation Absomption direct-gain systems is At, = + 15°F (48.3°C). A range of +10 Factors for Thermal Storage Matertal to 420°F (45.6 to 111°C) can be used with smaller increases Based on Color being more suitable. Select from Table 12. In this space, thermal ‘energy will be stored in floors and wails, resulting ina weighted — _Color/Material Factor Cy average of C, = 0.60. Thus, Vy, = 35,352/(144)(0.22(15) Black, matte 095 (0.60) = 124 ft (3.5m). Dark blue 091 As a rule of thumb for thermal-storage wall systems, pro- Slat, dark gray 089 vide a minimum of Lf (0.30 m°) of dark-colored thermal stor- Dark green 0.88 age material per square foot (meter) of collector for masonry Brown 079 walls or 0.5 £13 (0.15 m?) of water per square foot (meter) of Gray 075 collector for a water wall. This will provide enough thermal Quarry tile 069 storage material to maintain the inside space temperature fluc- Red brick 0.68, tation within 15°F (8,33°C) picky Ale, tae 6. Determine the surface area of storage material for a direct- oo ‘060 gain space oe Dark red 0s7 In adircet-gain system, the insolation must he spread over the Limestone, dark 030 surface area of the storage material to prevent overheating. Limestone, light 035 Generally, the larger the surface area of material, the lower Yellow 033 the inside temperature fluctuation, and thus the space is more White 08 comfortable, To determine this area, enter Fig. 15 atthe lower axis 10 select an aeceptable space temperature fluctuation. Project vertically to the curve, and read left to the Ay/4, ratio. Ths is the ratio of thermal storage material surface to collector area, where A, = surface of storage material receiving direct, diffused or reflected insolation, ft (m). In this example, 15°F (8.33°C) is selected, requiring AslAe = 6.8. ‘Thus, A, = (6.8)(42) = 286 22 (26.5 m’). This Step is not required for the design of thermal-storage wall systems in which Ay As /Ac ratio anusaareaod ® 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 ‘Space temperature fluctuation At, °F bit 28 66 83 Nl B9 167 19.4 22.2 Space temperature fluctuation At,°C FIGURE 15 Ratio of mass surface area to collector area, (Based on dasa in DOBICS-D127-2 Passive Solar Design Handhook, vel. 2.)7. Determine the average daily inside temperatures To verify that the collector and thermal storage material are correctly sized, the average inside temperature must be determined. Use 1)= 1, + 5+ (ip N65 ~ 1,/Hpy where 1, = avornge daily inside temperature, °F (°C), and 5°F (2.8°C) is att assumed inside temperature increase owing to intetnal heat generation such as lights, equipment, and people. Thus, z,= 32 + 5 + (54,387)(65 ~ 32)/53,90 = T03°F (21.27°O), To determine the average daily low and high temperatures, use f, = #,—A1/2.5, am 1, f+ Ad/1.67, where 1, = minimum average space temperature, °F (°C); ty = maximum average space (empervhure, °F (°C); und At= inside space temperature fluctuation used in step 6. Thus, t, =70.3-- 15/25: 61.31 (17.9°C), and fy = 70.3 + 15/1.67 = 79.3°F (26.27°C). 8. Estimate the passive solar-heating contribution ‘To estimate the passive solar-heating contribution (SHC) for an average month, use SHC, 1004i)) (Dy Hp, where SHC,, = solar-heating contribution of the total monthly space-heating feeds, pet cent, and p = an insolation factor based on the percentage of clear days, expressed as a deci ‘The value of p = 0.30 + 0,65(S/100), where $= average sunshine for the month, percent, from an ASHRAE or government map of sunshine for each month. ‘The average January sunshine for Denver is 67 percent. Hence, p = 0.30 + 0,65(67/100) = 0.74. Tlaus for this room in January, SHC,, = 100(54,387) (0.74Y53,904 = 74.7 percent of the total average space-heating needs are provided by the passive solar- heating system. ‘To estimate the average annual solar-healing contribution for a building, repeat steps 1. 2, and 7 for each space for each month of the heating season. Use the collector area computed in step 3 for an aver- age clear day in January to determine ip for each month unless part of the collector is shaded (in which case, determine the unshaded area and use that figure). Use SHC, = 100E U,\pXDYEH)(D), where SHC, = annual passive solar-heating contribution, percent, and D = number of days of the month, The summation of the heat gains for each space for each month of the heating season is divided by the sum- mation of the heat losses for each space for each month, Related Calculations. These design procedures ace suitable for buildings with skin-dominated heat loads such as heat losses through walls, roofs, perimeters, and infiltration, They are cot applicable to buildings which have internal heat loads or buildings which are so deep that itis difficult to col- lect solar heat. Therefore, these procedures generally should be limited to small- and medium-size buildings with good solar access. ‘These procedures use en average clear-day method as a basis for sizing a passive solar-heating system. Average monthly and yearly data also are used, If the aciusl weather conditions vary sub- stantially from the average, the performance of the system will vary. For instance, if a winter day is unseasonably warm, the passive solar-heating system will collect more heat than is required to offset the heut loss on that day, possibly causing space overheating. Since passive solar-heating systems rely on natural phenomena, temperature fluctuation and variability in performance are inherent in the system, Adjustable shading, reflectors, movable insulation, venting mechanisms, and backup heating systems are often used to stabilize system performance. Since passive systems collect, store, and distribute heat through natural physical means, the sys- tem must be integrated with the architectural design. The actual efficiency of the system is highly variable and dependent on this integration within the architectural design, Efficiency ratings given in this procedure are rules of thumb, Detailed analyses of many variables and how they affect system performance can be found in DOE/CS-0127-2 and 3, Passive Solar Design Handbook, volumes 2 and 3, available from the National Technical Information Service, Alexandria, VA, 22312. The Passive Solar Energy Book, by Eéward Mazria, available from Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA, examines various architectural concepts and how they can be utilized to maximize system performance. Tf thermal collection and storage to provide heating on cloudy days is desired, the collector area can be oversized by 10 percent. This necessitates the oversizing of the thermal storage material (0 store 75 percent of the total daily heat gain rather than 65 percent, as used in step 4. Oversizing the system will increase the average inside temperature. Step 7 should be used to verify that this higher average temperature is acceptable, Oversizing the system for cloudy-day storage is not rec~ ommended for excessively hazy or cloudy climates. Cloudy climates do not have enough cleardays in a row to accumulate resesve heat for cloudy-day heating. This increased collector area may increase heat load in these climates. Cloudy-day storage should be considered only for climates with a ratio of several clear days to each cloudy day. ‘Passive solar-heating systems may overheat buildings if insolation reaches the collector during seasons when heating loads are low or nonexistent. Shading devices are recommended in passive solar-heated buildings to contro} unwanted heat, Shading devices should allow low-angle winter jnsolation to penetrate the collector but block higher-angle summer insolation, The shading device should allow enough insolation to penetrate the collector to heat the building during the Lower-heating- Toad seasons of autumn and spring without overheating spaces. If shading devices are used, the area of unshaded collector must be calculated for each month to determine ,. Methods to calculate the ‘area of unshaded collector can be found in The Passive Solar Energy Book and in Solar Control and Shading Devices, by V. and A. Olgyay, available from Princeton University Press. Passive solar-heating systems should be considered only for tightly constructed, well-insulated buildings, The cost of a passive system is gencrally higher than that of insulating and weathesstrip- ping a building, A building that has a relatively small heat load will require a smaller collection and Storage system and so will have a lower construction cost. The cost-effectiveness of a passive solar- heating system is inversely related to the heat losses of the building. Systems which have a smaller ratio of collector area {0 floor area ate generally more efficient. ‘gnificant decreases in the size of the colicctor can be achieved by placing movable insulation over the collector at night. This is especially recommended for extremely cold climates in more north- tern latitudes, If night insulation is used, calculate heat loss for the uninsulated collector for 8 hours with the daytime average temperature and for the insulated collector for 16 hours with the aighttime average temperature. “Table & is based on a heat loss of 8 Btu/(day - 1°) of floor area per °F [Wimn? - K)]. Total building heat loss will increase with the increase in the ratio of collector to floor area because of the larger areas of glazing. However, itis assumed that this inerease in heat loss will be offset by providing higher insu- jation values in noncollector surfaces. The tabulated values correspond to a residence with a compact plan, 8-ft-high ceilings, R-30 roof insulation, R-19 wail insulation, R-10 perimeter insulation, double lazing, and one air change por hour. It is provided for estimating purposes only. Ifthe structure under consideration differs, the ratio of collector area to floor area, g, can be estimated for heat-loss calcula~ tions by using g = h(65 ~ 1,)iy, where hy, = estimated heat loss, Btu/(dlay » ft» °F) {W/n? + K)], Passive solar heating is nonpolluting znd is environmentally altractive, Other than the pollution (aig, steeam, and soil) possibly ereated in manufacturing the components of a passive solar heating system, this method of space heating is highly desirable from an environmental standpoint Solar heating does not provide carbon dioxide, as does the combustion of coal, gas, oil, and wood. “Thos, there is no accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from solar heating, It is the accumulated carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere that traps heat from the sun's rays and earth reradiation that leads to global warming. Computer models of the earth’s atmosphere and the warming that might be caused by excessive accumulation of carbon dioxide show that steps must be taken (0 control pollution. Although there is some disagreement about the true effect of carbon dioxide on global warming, most scientists believe that efforts to reduce carbon dioxide emissions ate worthwhile, Both a United Nations seientifi panel ond research groups associated with the National Academy of Setences recommend cxreful study and tracking of the possibility of global warming, For these reasons solar heating will receive more attention from designers. With more attention being paid to the environment, solar heating offers a nonpolluting alternative that can easily be incorporated in the design of most buildings.