PAT-101-Fundamentals of Plant Pathology

Fundamentals of Plant Pathology
FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANT PATHOLOGY

PAT-101 (2+1)
Introduction:
Plant Pathology or Phytopathology is a branch of agricultural, botanical or
biological science which deals with the cause, etiology, interaction of plant and
pathogen resulting losses (both quality and quantity) and management of plant
diseases.
It is derived from Greek term
Pathos= suffering, / ailment,
Logos = to study / to discourse / to speak.
The term ‘pathology’ etymologically means the “study of the suffering”.

Objectives of Plant pathology: It has four main objectives
1) Etiology: To study the cause of disease / disorder (living, non-living including
environmental factors) in plants.
2) Pathogenesis: To study the mechanism of disease development by pathogen/s
(Host – Pathogen interaction).
3) Epidemiology: To study the development of disease in relation to interaction
among plant, pathogen and overall environmental conditions.
4) Control / Management: To develop systems of management of disease/s and
reducing the losses caused by diseases.
Plant pathology is an integrated science and profession that uses the basic
knowledge of botany, mycology, bacteriology, virology, nematology plant anatomy,
physiology, genetics, molecular biology, genetic engineering, biochemistry,
horticulture, agronomy, tissue culture, soil science, chemistry, physics, meteorology,
engineering, nanotechnology, precision agriculture, remote sensing and many other
branches of science including applied aspects. It is both science & art.
Importance of plant diseases: Crop loss can appear in the field, in transit, in store
or any time between sowing to consumption either in quality or quantity or both.
Historical examples which affected human activity are mentioned below.

Irish famine:
Disease: Potato Late blight : Phytophthora infestans Place : Ireland,Year –
1845 In 1845- this destroyed the potato crop of Ireland. Potato was the staple diet of
the population. In England free trade and import of food grains was not
permitted. When the epidemic of late blight destroyed potato crop in 1845, there was
famine in these countries especially in Ireland. Population was reduced from 80
lakhs to 60 lakhs. A large number of people died of hunger and many more became
diseased due to physical weakness.
There was migration of population to other countries (Canada, Australia, and New
Zealand, including the North American continent).
These migrated people became pioneers in development of those countries where
they settled.
Free trade was permitted leading to import of corn (maize).
Navy developed for the movement to cross the oceans.
Cause was identified by Anton de Bary (1867).
UASD/COA/PAT/101/2+1/2020 Page 1
Thus late blight epidemic brought plant pathology to limelight along with many
social and political changes.
Bengal famine:
Disease: Brown leaf spot of paddy Helminthosporium leaf spot (sesame leaf spot)
Causal agent : Drechslera oryzae (Heleminthosporium oryzae) Year : 1942
Food was not available to common people because paddy crop suffered heavily due
to this disease. Ear head and grains became brown and chaffy. In last years of
World War II, Bengal had to face a serious famine. One of the reasons was loss in
yield of rice due to Brown spot of rice which virtually destroyed the crop. In
addition public distribution system also failed at this crucial time.
Wheat rusts:
Causal agents:
Stem rust or Black stem rust of wheat : Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici
Leaf rust or brown rust : Puccinia triticina ( Puccinia recondita f.sp tritici)
Yellow rust : Puccinia striiformis
They appeared in epiphytotic form in many parts of the world. This forced the
farmers in many countries to change the cropping pattern and population to opt
for a particular kind of bread. No grain formation and stem becomes black in color.
If at all grains are formed they are shriveled and nutritionally very poor for
consumption.
Ex: Northern and southern Europe wheat bread became more common.
Central Europe people preferred to eat rye bread. In recent years Ug-99 (Uganda in
Africa) of stem rust race of wheat affected wheat crop in Uganda. Later it spread to
other parts of Africa and Asia. This new race was highly virulent and devastated
important stem rust resistant genes of wheat
Coffee rust:
Place : Srilanka (Ceylon) Causal agent: Hemileia vastatrix Year : 1867
During mid 19th century, coffee and tea were being equally consumed in
England as these were available in India, Ceylon, and Malaya. Ceylon was producing
maximum coffee in the world. In 1867, coffee rust epidemic affected the coffee
plantation and by 1871, there was substantial reduction in the yield (228 kg/acre)
going down further to 101 kg/acre in 1878. There was great loss to Ceylon and by
1893 coffee export of Ceylon was reduced by 93%. This forced the growers to
eradicate coffee plantation and to take tea plantation. Ceylon began to export tea
to England, where tea consumption increased with time. When coffee rust was
spreading in Sri Lanka (Ceylon) and it was not prevalent in south America, decline in
coffee cultivation in Sri Lanka caused a rapid increase of its cultivation in Brazil, now
producing maximum coffee in the world. But presently (from 1978 onwards) coffee
rust is also reported from Brazil.
Southern leaf blight of maize

Place : USA Causal agent : Helminthosporium maydis Year : 1970
This disease appeared in severe form in USA due to use of Texas Male Sterile
(TMS) line in corn breeding program in 1970. The prevalent race “O” was
mutated to race “T” and female parent line showed high susceptibility to race “T” of
Helminthosporium maydis
Citrus canker : Year : 1910 Place : Florida, USA

Causal agent: Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri (Bacterial disease)
Citrus canker appears on all aerial parts of the plant parts viz;, leaves,
petiole, stem, thorn including fruits affecting the marketability of fruits. The affected
plants and nurseries were uprooted and compensation was given to farmers for the
loss of plants and planting material It was considered as an example of Eradication
of a disease from USA. However, in 1984, the disease reappeared and now it was
decided to accept that Eradication of citrus canker is not possible. It
is also an example for failure of Eradication of Plant Disease.
Bacterial leaf blight of paddy: Year : 1963 Place : South India

Causal agent: Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae
It reduced the yield and also quality by broken rice grains. Wavy margin on
leaf surface, leaves becoming hard and formation of yellow pearls on leaves are
important symptoms. It is seed borne and affected many weeds of paddy crop. At
warm temperature it spreads through irrigation water and rain.
Bacterial blight of pomegranate : Place : Maharastra, Karnataka, AP Year :

2002 & afterwards Causal agent: Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. punicae
This disease was a minor disease in 1952 causing leaf spot. It caused more
loss after introduction of Kesar / Bhagawa variety and getting the fruits in Mrig
bahar (June pruning) in South India. First Research centre for single fruit of minor
fruit crop in the world is present in India i.e., NRC on pomegranate in Solapur,
Maharastra. Highly susceptible genotype for this disease is Bhagawa or Kesar
variety of pomegranate in India, till today there is no resistant genotype is found for
this disease.
Chestnut blight disease

Plant diseases limit the kind of plants or industries that can grow in large
geographical area, Ex: American chestnut (the queen of eastern American forest
trees) is eliminated from North America as a timber tree by the chestnut blight
Cryphonectria parasitica (Endothia parasitica).
Dutch elm disease Causal agent: Ophiostoma ulmi Place : USA

American elm eliminated as a shade tree by Dutch elm disease. Dutch elm
disease is caused by Ophiostoma ulmi, (USA), O. novo ulmi, (Europe) and O. himal
ulmi (Himalaya region of India).
It is an ascomycetes fungi also known as Ceratocystis ulmi. Spread of the
fungus is by the beetle (Scolytus multistriatus). Spores when come in contact with
xylem vessels, they reproduce rapidly by budding. The fungus can also spread by
natural root grafts. Important symptoms include wilting symptom leading to death of
plants in 2 -3 months. It is an example of Pandemic disease.
Downy mildew of grapes Place : Europe (France) Year : 1878

Causal agent: Plasmopara viticola
Formation of white color mycelial growth on lower surface of leaf with
corresponding oily yellow spot on upper surface of leaves is important symptom.
Inflorescence and berries are also affected leading to defoliation and immature fruit
drop hence no fruit bunches.
Downy mildew of grape is responsible for discovery of Bordeaux Mixture by Millardet
from by Bordeaux University and it is the first copper based chemical for bacterial
and fungal disease management and till date it is used in horticultural crops.
Composition of Bordeaux Mixture (BM) is Lime: Copper sulphate : Water

(1Kg : 1Kg : 100 liters in CGS OR 5 lbs : 5 lbs : 50 gallons in FPS system)
1 Kg lime in 50 liters of water and 1 Kg copper sulphate in other 50 liters of water
and both are poured simultaneously in third vessel to get one per cent BM.
Powdery mildew of grapes Place : Europe (France) Year : 1954

Causal agent: Uncinula necator
Presence of white colored mycelium observed on upper surface of leaf,
tendril, inflorescence and berries. Due to severe attack cracking of berries is seen.
It reduced French wine production by 80% in 1954.
These instances of plant epidemics are worth mentioning because they left
their effect not only in the country concerned but also in other countries and human
beings.
Plant diseases are of much significance to humans in several ways:
1) Plant diseases limit the kind of plants or industries that can grow in large
geographical area,
Ex: American chestnut (the queen of eastern American forest trees) is
eliminated from North America as a timber tree by the chestnut blight
Cryphonectria parasitica (Endothia parasitica). American elm being
eliminated as a shade tree by Dutch elm disease (Ophiostoma ulmi)
2) Disease may reduce the quality and quantity of plant produce. Extent of loss
varies with plant pathogen and environment and management practices followed.
Quality of produce is affected by post harvest disease of vegetables/ fruits,
citrus canker, mango anthracnose, chilli fruit rot, apple scab.
3) Some diseases make the plant product unfit for consumption by
contaminating them with poisonous substances.
Grains infected with fungi will produce mycotoxin
Ex: Aspergillus flavus produce Aflatoxin in groundnut, maize, chilli
Ergot of sorghum (Claviceps sorghi,), Bajra(C. microcephala.) and rye(C. purpurea)
contain toxic alkaloids (Ergotin, Ergotamine).
4) Plant diseases are responsible for direct and indirect financial losses. This
includes the cost of plant protection, producing resistant varieties etc.
5) They destroy the beauty of environment by damaging plants around homes,
streets, parks etc.
6) Pollution- Toxic pesticides used for managing diseases, pollute the water, soil and
environment.
Classification of plant diseases:

Causes of plant diseases
Abiotic factors: They include mainly the deficiency or excess of nutrients, light,
moisture, aeration, abnormality in soil condition like pH, atmospheric impurities etc.
Mesobiotic: These are diseases which are caused by neither living nor non living
things. They are considered to be threshold of life. They are viruses, virusoids and
viroids
Biotic causes: These category includes the pathogen which are living or cellular
organisms. They are phytoplasma, spiroplasma, fungi, protozoa, bacteria, algae,
nematode, phanerogamic parasites.
Grouping of Plant Diseases in various ways.
I. Based on Crops infected/ plant species

Ex: Diseases of cereals ( rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, ragi, bajra)
Diseases of commercial crops (sugarcane, chilli, cotton, tobacco)
Diseases of oilseeds (groundnut, sunflower,linseed, sesamum)
Diseases of pulses (greengram, blackgram, bengalgram, cow pea)
Diseases of fibre crops (cotton, flax, sunhemp)
Diseases of horticultural crops (vegetables, fruits, flowers, medicinal and
aromatic plants)
Diseases of plantation crops (arecanut, coconut, cocoa, black pepper)
Diseases of forage crops (maize, sorghum, lucerne, cowpea)
This system is useful to field workers, diagnosticians as well as research
workers specializing in the diseases of a plant species. But, this method does not help
in understanding the basic principles of plant pathology.
II. According to plant parts affected

Foliar diseases – Leaf spots, leaf blights, rust, downy mildew, powdery mildew
Fruit diseases – Fruit rot, scab, canker,
Stem diseases – Stem rot, wilt, stem canker, collar rot, crown gall
Root diseases – Root rot, damping off, club root, wilt
Many pathogens show tissue specificity- the basis on which this classification is
made. Ex: Sclerotium rolfsii on stem and roots
But many pathogens don’t show the tissue or organ specificity Ex: Pyricularia grisea-
Blast of rice (PS. Magnaporthe grisea and Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici – Black stem
rust of wheat on all aerial parts of plant.
III. Based on chief source of inoculum

Diseases due to seed borne pathogens
Ex: Loose smut of wheat, grain smut of sorghum
Diseases due to soil borne pathogens
Ex: Wilt, root rot, damping off
Diseases due to air borne pathogens
Ex: Downy mildew, leaf spot, powdery mildew, rust
IV. Based on the extent to which disease are associated.

Localised diseases: these diseases are limited to a definite area or only part of the
plant
Ex: Leaf spot, blast, blight, rust,
Systemic diseases: In this pathogen spreads throughout the entire plant to
varying extent and is associated with almost every stage of plant’s life cycle.
Ex. Crown gall, tobacco mosaic, leaf curl, bud necrosis, wilt of tur. Some time
symptoms seen only at ear head stage. (Loose smut of wheat).
V. Based on geographic distribution / spread and severity of infection/

occurrence.
a. Endemic b. Epidemic c. Sporadic d. Pandemic.
a. Endemic diseases: word ‘endemic’ means prevalent in and confined to a
particular district or location. When a disease is more or less constantly present
from year to year in moderate to severe form in a particular area, it is called
endemic to that area. Causal agent is well established in the field, environmental
conditions are congenial for survival and multiplication.
Ex: Wart of potato is endemic in Darjeeling. Blast of rice in Ponnampet. Late leaf
spot of ground nut in Dharwad in Kharif season.
b. Epidemic/ Epiphytotic: Derived from the Greek word meaning “among the
people” Disease occurs periodically but in a severe state involving major area of
the crop. This is because environmental conditions favourable for rapid disease
development occurs only periodically. (An epiphytotic disease is one which occurs
widely but periodically).
Ex: Cereal rust, powdery mildew, blast of paddy
c. Sporadic diseases: Occur at very irregular interval and locations and in
relatively few instances. Ex. False smut of rice, udabatta disease of rice.
d. Pandemic diseases: Diseases assuming epidemic proportion over a very extensive
region causing devastating damage in a short period. Spread of disease from
one continent to other continent.
Ex: Late blight of potato, Stem rust of wheat (Ug-99 race), Dutch elm disease A
given disease may be endemic in one region and epidemic in another.
VI. Based on symptoms

Rust: It appear as relatively small pustules of spores usually breaking through the
host epidermis. These pustules may be dusty or compact with red, brown, yellow
or black in color.
Ex: Wheat rusts, coffee rust. Usually appears on leaf or stem. In case of black stem
rust of wheat initially redish brown coloured pustules are seen on leaf and stem. In
due course of time all aerial parts are affected including awns. At the final stage of
disease the red colour pustule is converted into black due to formation of telium.
Hence, the name black stem rust of wheat.
In case of yellow rust of wheat (caused by Puccinia striiformis) –yellow
pustules are arranged in a straight line i.e., parallel to wheat leaf midrib or veins.
Note: white rust of crucifer: it is not true rust because they are taxonomically
belong to different group (Albuginaceae of Oomycetes). True rusts belong to
uredinales of Basidiomycetes. Recently new name is Pucciniomycetes.
Smut: It means sooty or black or charcoal like powder. Usually appears on floral
parts. In some cases it appears on stem, leaf and root. The affected parts of the
plants show a black dusty mass of spores. Example: Sugarcane whip smut (growing
vegetative shoot), loose smut of wheat (grains). In sorghum four smuts are noticed
on inflorescence .a. head smut (no grain formation), b. grain smut, c. loose smut
and d. long smut. Leaf smut is seen in case of onion, maize.
Wilt: In wilt, leaves or shoots lose their turgidity and drooping of leaves with yellowing
is seen because of disturbance in the vascular system of root and stem. Drooping of
leaves is also called epinasty symptom.
The plant when split open longitudinally, xylem vessels (water conducting
tissue) changed its color to brown (melanin pigment) as it is attacked by the
pathogen.
Organisms which cause wilt disease are– Fusariuim, Verticillium both fungal and
Ralstonia solanacearum cause bacterial wilt of solanaceous crops. Host plants like
brinjal, tobacco, potato are affected. Old name of Ralstonia solanacearum was
Pseudomonas solanacearum. Bacterial wilt is identified by oozing test. Fusarium
wilt shows continuous browning of vascular bundle while Verticilium wilt shows
discontinuous browning of vascular bundles. Based on temperature, Fusarium wilt
usually appears at higher temperature (28 to 30 ) 0C while Verticillium appears at
lower temperature (16 to 18 0C. Cucumber wilt is caused by bacterial pathogen
(Erwinia tracheiphila)
Mildews: Here fungal pathogen is seen as white, grey, brownish or purplish growth
on host surface either lower or upper or on both surfaces of leaves, berries and
inflorescence.
Downy mildew: Downy growth on leaf is observed with corresponding yellow spot
on upper surface of leaf. In case of bajra downy mildew half leaf symptom is seen
due to downy mildew wherein half of the basal part of lower surface of leaf is
covered with white mycelial growth. At the ear head emergence it shows the green
ear symptom. In pace of normal grains in the ear head small leaves like projection are
seen. The family of causal agent is Peronosporaceae and order is Peronosporales of
Oomycetes Class. It is seen in humid condition where relative humidity is more.
Powdery mildew: Appears on upper surface of leaf during winter season or cool
and dry season. Powdery mildew of mango in winter season appears on young
leaves of mango, but prominently observed on inflorescence as white dusty growth.
In powdery mildew of chilli, tomato, bengal gram, tur white powdery growth is
seen on lower surface of leaves. In severe case on both surfaces may be seen.
Rots: The affected tissues die(necrotized), decompose to a great extent and turns
brown. The symptom is brought about by fungi and bacterial pathogens. In soft rot of
vegetables due to bacteria, where the middle lamellae of the host cell walls is
dissolved by means of pectinolytic enzymes. Soft rot of vegetables is caused by
bacteria (Pectobacterium carotovora ssp. carotovora).
Soft rot and dry rot: Maceration and disintegration of fruits, roots, bulbs, tubers
and fleshy leaves.
Spots: Regular or irregular but confined to limited area of host. In this the cells are
killed in the definite limited area and dead tissues become brown or yellow. The
dead areas of leaves often shrink and get separated from surrounding healthy tissue
resulting in shot hole symptoms.
Blight: the term refers to sudden death of leaves, blossoms or twigs. The dead organs
usually turn brown or black and may soon disintegrate. Eg: Early blight of potato /
tomato caused by Alternaria solani. Late blight of potato (Phytophthora infestans)
Leaf curl: It is due to thickening of the veins on the lower surface of leaf. Later small
leaves like projections are seen on lower surface of leaf, most predominantly seen in
cotton leaf curl. Usually leaf curl symptom is produced by viruses. Exception case is
peach leaf curl which is caused by fungus called as Taphrina defomans.
Galls: Localized enlargement of plant parts. These are the small raised structures
which are easily identified and it is mainly due to change in growth regulator
concentration.
Crown gall: Uncontrolled growth of plant tissue, systemic in nature, similar to cancer
in human beings. Organism responsible for crown gall is Agrobacterium
tumefaciens. Cedar apple rust also cause galls (Gymnosporangium juniperi
verginianae)
Iatrogenic disorder: Side effects of excess chemical used on plant surface.

Teratology: Study of abnormalities of physiological development due to mercury,high
temperature, radiation etc.
VII. Based on cause: [Aetiological classification] Merits of the classification lie in its
simplicity and advantage for beginners and for convenience pathogens are well
defined.
a. Abiotic
b. Mesobiotic
c. Biotic
a. Abiotic factors include mainly deficiencies or excesses of nutrients, light,

moisture, aeration. Abnormalities in soil condition, atmospheric impurities etc.
Ex: Khaira disease of rice (Zinc deficiency)
Black heart of potato (Low O2 and high temp)

Blossom end rot of tomato (Calcium deficiency)
Mango black tip or necrosis (smoke (SO 2), Boron deficiency)
Whiptail of cabbage, cauliflower (Molybdenum deficiency)
b. Mesobiotic factors: these are disease causing agents which are either living or
non-living
Ex: Viruses: infectious agents made up of one type of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA)
either single or double stranded enclosed in a protein coat.
Ex: Leaf curl of tomato and chilli, Tobacco mosaic, Groundnut bud necrosis
disease
Viroids: are naked infectious strands of ribo nucleic acid

Ex:Potato spindle tuber viroid disease,
Citrus exocortis viroid disease,
Tomato bunchy top viroid disease,
Coconut cadang cadang disease
C. Biotic: Includes living or cellular organisms

I. Prokaryotes II. Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes:
1. Mollicutes: These are wall less prokaryotes that include MLO or Phytoplasma
and Spiroplasma
Ex: Phytoplasma diseases: Little leaf of brinjal, Sandal spike, Big bud of tomato,
Grassy shoot of sugarcane, Sesamum phyllody
Spiroplasma diseases: Citrus stubborn and Corn stunt.
2. Fastidious Phloem limited bacteria (Rickettsia like bacteria): These are very
small sometimes submicroscopic, walled bacteria causing diseases like citrus
greening and Pierce’s disease of grapevine.
3. True Bacteria : Brown rot/wilt of potato, bacterial leaf blight of rice, citrus
canker, pomegranate bacterial blight, black arm of cotton, fire blight of apple
Eukaryotes
1. Fungi- Rust of groundnut, blast of paddy, leaf blight of maize,
2. Fungal like organisms –Downy mildew of grape, late blight of potato
3. Protozoa- Hart rot of coconut, phloem necrosis of coffee , club root of cabbage,
4. Algae- Red rust of mango (Cephaleuras virescens)
5. Metazoan animals- (Nematodes) Root knot on vegetables, molya disease of
wheat, ear cockle of wheat, citrus decline, burrowing nematode of banana
6. Flowering plant parasites: These are angiosperms (phanerogamic parasites)
which are grouped based on habit and place of occurrence.
Complete stem parasite: Dodder on niger, onion,
Partial stem parasite: Loranthus on mango,
Complete root parasite: Orobanche on tobacco, tomato, brinjal
Partial root parasite: Striga on sorghum, sugarcane
Mc New (1960) has proposed a similar classification based on the affected

physiological processes as follows.
A. Diseases affecting storage of food
Ex: soft rot and seed decay
B. Diseases affecting hydrolysis and utilization of stored
food. Ex: damping off, seedling blight.
C. Diseases affecting absorption and accumulation of water and minerals.
Ex: Root rot and stem rot affecting cortex.
D. Diseases affecting growth (meristematic) activity.
Ex: Gall, Smut, Root knot
E. Diseases affecting conduction of water
F. Diseases affecting photosynthesis-
G. Diseases affecting translocation of elaborated food materials

Ex: diseases due to virus and phytoplasma.
Mycoplasmas
Prior to 1967, many plant diseases such as corn stunt, sugarcane grassy
shoot, yellows, etc. were considered as viral diseases. In 1967, Doi et al. and Ishiie
et al. (1967) from Japan proposed that these diseases are caused by MLO and they
were sensitive to tetracycline and thermolabile. The other name given to this
organism was Mollicutes
Characteristics of Mycoplasma (PPLO): Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organism)
1. They are very small, unicellular, usually non-motile prokaryotic organisms. (60
-100nm) (Gram-ve)
2. Lack of rigid cell wall. Cells are bounded by a triple layer unit membrane.
3. They can be grown on cell free media producing typical “fried-egg” shaped
colonies.
4. They are highly pleomorphic showing small coccoid bodies, ring forms and
fine filaments which may be branched.
5. They are filterable through bacterial filters (450 nm membrane)
6. They are highly resistant or insensitive to penicillin antibiotic but are
inhibited by tetracycline. Penicillin mode of action is on cell wall synthesis
while tetracycline acts on metabolism / cytoplasm of cell content.
7. They usually require sterol for growth,
8. Absence of reversion to bacterial forms.
9. Taxonomically belongs to
Domain: Eubacteria, Division: Tenericutes, Class:

Mollicutes, Order: Mycoplasmatales Family
Mycoplasmataceae – Mycoplasma Family
Acholeplasmataceae – Acholeplsma Family
Spiroplasmataceae - Spiroplasma
PHYTOPLASMA
They are similar to mycoplasma except they are not yet cultured on artificial
medium.
Reproduce by binary fission or budding.
They are generally present in phloem sieve tubes (osmotic pressure, pH with
isotonic concentration).
They are transmitted by leaf hoppers, plant hoppers, psyllids. (Insects that
feed on phloem tissue).
They don’t have flagella, produce no spores and are Gram-ve
They are sensitive to tetracycline and chloramphinicol
antibiotics
Diseases caused by Phytoplasma:
1. Little leaf of brinjal 5. Aster yellows
2. Sugarcane grassy shoot, 6. Sandal spike
3. Coconut lethal yellowing, 7. Pear decline
4. Peach yellow, 8. Rice yellow dwarf. 9. Apple proliferation
Incubation period in vector is 10 to 45 days.
Phytoplasma multiply in insect vectors in haemolymph, alimentary canal and

salivary glands.
Spiroplasmas: are helical mollicutes.

They were discovered by Davis et.al.,(1972)
1. Cells are pleomorphic varying in shape from spherical or slightly ovoid to
helical in liquid medium and branched non-helical filaments 100 - 240 nm or
larger in diameter on solid medium
2. Cells lack true cell wall and are bounded by a single triple layered lipo -
protein membrane.
3. Helical forms are motile showing two types of motion-
a. a rapid rotary or screw type motion
b. slow undulating motion
4. Colonies on solid media exhibit a typical “fried egg” appearance. Some
5. Organism is sensitive to tetracycline and resistant to penicillin.

6. Reproduce by budding and binary fission.
Diseases caused by spiroplasma
Citrus stubborn and Horse radish brittle root - Spiroplasma
citri Corn stunt Spiroplasma. kunkelii
Phytoplasma and Spiroplasma are phloem inhabiting prokaryotes
Fastidious vascular Bacteria:

Xylem- inhabiting Fastidious Bacteria (XLFB)- (1973)
Phloem- inhabiting Fastidious Bacteria (PLFB)- (1972)
Xylem- inhabiting Fastidious Bacteria- (1973- Pierce’s disease of grapes)

Fastidious xylem inhabiting bacteria are generally rod shaped cells, very small
(0.2-0.5 x1-4µm), bounded by a rippled layer cell wall and cell membrane.
Nutritionally fastidious in nature.
They are Gram-ve and don’t have flagella
Genus Xylella (X. fastidiosa) is the first plant pathogenic bacterium, whose
genome was completely sequenced.
Sugarcane ratoon stunting bacteria (Leifsonia xyli) is Gram + ve.
Earlier name of this organism was Clavibacter xyli ssp.xyli.
Bermuda grass stunting is also Gram + ve.
No vector for Gram + ve bacteria.
They are (Gram - ve.) transmitted by xylem feeding insects, such as leaf
hopper (Cicadellidae) and spittle bug (Cercopidae). In two hours it can
transmit the disease but no trans ovarial in nature.
Graft transmission is seen
Sensitive to both tetracycline and penicillin.
Diseases caused by Xylem- inhabiting fastidious bacteria-

1. Pierce’s disease of grape
2. Phony peach disease
3. Almond leaf scorch
4. Plum leaf scald
5. Ratoon stunting of sugarcane.
6. Citrus variegated chlorosis.
7. Alfalfa dwarf
Phloem inhabiting Fastidious Bacteria:

They are generally rod shaped cells (0.2-0.5 x 1- 4µm)
Bounded by rippled cell wall and cell membrane
They are Gram-ve and have no flagella.
Leaf stunting, clubbing shoot proliferation and witches broom are
important symptoms
Diseases caused:
1. Citrus greening- Citrus greening is also called as Huanglongbing (HLB) in China.
It is transmitted by Psyllid - Diaphorina citri and Trioza citri
Causal agent: Candidatus Liberobacter asiaticus., Ca. Liberobacter africanus,
Ca.Liberobacter americanus
2. Yellow vine diseases of watermelon (Transmitted by cucurbit squash bug) Bunchy
top disease of papaya. Transmitted by Leaf hopper (Empoasca papayae)
3. Clover club leaf
HISTORY OF PLANT PATHOLOGY

Greek philosopher –Theophrastus (384-322 BC) recorded some observation on
plant diseases about 2400yers ago. His books ‘Historica plantarum’ and ‘De
causis plantarum’ in which he elaborately mentioned about (rust, mildew) plant
diseases, but expressed the opinion that they were due to bad air and bad
nutrition.
In India, agriculture is about 4000 years old and mention of plant diseases was
made in this county much before Theophrastus.
Ancient books four Vedas (Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda, Atharvarveda),
Artha shastra of Kautilya, Sushrut samhita by Sushruta are ancient books from
India where plant diseases and other enemies of plants have been mentioned. The
oldest text in Indian Agriculture ‘Krishi Parashar’ was probably written by
Parashar before the Arthashastra.
‘Vrikshayurveda’ – a book written by Surapal in ancient India is the first book
exclusively devoted to diseases of plants. (Vriksha- plant, ayurveda- knowledge of
medicine)
Rubigalia is the festival celebrated by Romans to please God Rubigus and Rubigo
by sacrificing red dog to manage stem rust of wheat.
Discovery of role of fungi:
In 1675, Dutchman Anton van Leeuwenhoek developed the first microscope
and described the bacteria seen with this.
Zakaria Jenson : Developed microscope and worked for physics of microscope
Micheli, P.A. (1729): Italian botanist studied the fungi and saw their spores under
microscope.
If spores are placed on a piece of fruit (watermelon), they grow into a new thallus.
Written a book entitled “Nova Plantarum genera”.
He erected genus Puccinia in his friend name Puccini who helped for his research
activities. He is considered as Father of Mycology.
Tillet (1775), French botanist -. Wheat seeds (stinking smut) which contained a
black powder on their surface produced more diseased plants than clean seeds.
Proved contagious nature of bunt or stinking smut of wheat Observed that bunt
occurrence can be reduced by seed treatment.
He believed that some toxin produced by black powder caused the disease but
not the fungus.
Benedict Prevost in 1807 proved that diseases are caused by microorganisms.
Like Tillet he was working with bunt. He discovered the life cycle of the bunt
fungus.
CuSO4 could be used as chemical treatment for control of disease.
Anton de Bary (1831-1888) German scientist.

He laid the foundation of modern experimental plant pathology.
In 1861, he experimentally proved that Phytophthora infestans was the
cause of late blight
He also studied rust, smut, downy mildew and rots.
Discovered the heteroecious nature of rust fungi in 1885

He was the first to study the physiology of plant diseases
He reported the role of enzymes and toxins in tissue degradation
Coined the term symbiosis and first to report lichen consists of a fungus and an
alga.
Considered as “Father of plant pathology”
Orton and Biffen – Pioneers in the field of resistance breeding.

In 1905 Biffen described inheritance of resistance to yellow rust of wheat.
In 1909 Orton while working with wilt of cotton, watermelon and cowpea,
developed varieties resistant to disease and distinguished disease resistance
from disease escape.
Real science of history of plant pathology

Eriksson (1894): Swedish scientist studied the variability in fungi for the first time
in 1894 when he reported the existence of physiologic specialization in rust
fungi. Puccinia graminis var tritici
E.C. Stakman (1922): Physiological races in Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici after
testing the performance of Pgt isolates on 12 International Differentials selected
from different species of wheat and related species.
Julius Khun (1878): German scientist and has given emphasis to management of
disease along with study of disease hence Americans accepted him as FATHER OF
PLANT PATHOLOGY. In 1878 he wrote a book called “Diseases of cultivated crops
their causes and control”.
Flor (1946) proposed the gene for gene concept of disease resistance and
susceptibility in linseed rust. (For every gene controlling resistance or susceptibility
in the host there must be matching genes for avirulence or virulence in the
pathogen). Linseed rust is caused by the fungus Melampsora lini.
Van der Plank (1963) suggested that there are two kinds of resistance: one
controlled by few major genes (oligo genes) and is race specific - vertical resistance
and other determined by minor genes (poly genes) but non race specific horizontal
resistance. He wrote a book entitled “Disease resistance in plants” He is called
father of plant disease epidemiology
Gaumann (1946) – Reported the phenomenon of resistance through
hypersensitivity. He worked on toxin production by disease causing pathogens.
Further, he worked on taxonomy of fungi i.e., classification of fungi.
Bacteria:
The discovery that bacteria can act as specific infectious agents of disease was first
made in animals through the study of anthrax by Robert Koch in 1876. Rod
shaped bacteria were seen in the blood stream of diseased animals and he also
worked on tuberculosis disease of animals
He gave the famous Koch’s postulates for proving that a particular organism is the
cause of a particular disease. He also demonstrated the biological specificity of
disease agents.
Postulates:
1. Continuous association of organism with the corresponding host producing the
symptom.
2. Isolation of the organisms in pure culture on artificial media
3. When inoculated to the healthy susceptible host it should show same symptom
as it was earlier.
4. After re-isolation of the organism from the diseased specimen, it must be
same as that of the first organism.
The fourth postulate was given by Erwin F. Smith
Limitations:
Obligates cannot be cultured in artificial media. Eg: Virus, Viroids, Plant parasitic
nematodes, Phytoplasma, Protozoa, fungal pathogens causing the disease like
rusts, downy mildews, powdery mildews.
T.J. Burrill (1882) (USA): For the first time, reported that plant disease (Fire blight
of pear) was caused by a bacterium known as Erwinia amylovora.
E.F. Smith (1901) (USA): He discovered many bacterial plant diseases like
bacterial wilt of cucurbits and solanaceous crops. He was also the first to notice
and study the crown gall disease caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens (1893-94).
He considered crown gall similar to cancerous tumours of humans and animals. He
is considered as “Father of Phytobacteriology” for his discoveries and
methodologies he introduced to study bacterial plant diseases.
Christain Gram: Proposed Gram reaction in bacteria to group bacteria into two
major groups (1884) Gram + ve and Gram – ve
In the staining procedure, if the bacteria retains the colour of Primary stain till the
end i.e. crystal violet color it is Gram positive
Eg: Bacillus, Streptomyces, Clavibacter.
If it retains the secondary stain after losing the primary stain i.e. safranin (pink
color) it is Gram –ve.
Eg: Xanthomonas, Erwinia, Pseudomonas, Ralstonia Agrobacterium.
Yoshii (1953) showed bacterial leaf blight of paddy can be managed by using
bacteriophage. Bacteriophage in a medium can be easily identified by transparent
zone in bacterial colony.
Waksman S.A. (1951) Received Nobel prize for the discovery of streptomycin.
Dye et al. (1980) Introduced the pathovar in the taxonomy of plant pathogenic
bacteria.
January 1, 1980 is the base line for accepting pathovars in Plant Pathogenic
Bacteria.
Phytoplasma:
Doi et al (1967) in Japan observed that Mycoplasma like bodies were constantly
present in the phloem of plants suffering from yellows.
Ishiie et al (1967) reported that temporarily MLO’s were disappeared when the
plants were treated with tetracycline antibiotic.
Spiroplasma:
Davis et al (1972) observed, motile, helical, wall-less micro organism associated

with corn stunt disease. They called it spiroplasma and this organism could be
cultured and characterized.
RLB:
Windsor and Black (1972) observed a new kind of phloem inhabiting bacteria
causing club leaf disease of clover. Next year, similar organisms were observed in
grapes infected with Pierce’s disease.
VIROLOGY
The year 1882 – may be considered as the beginning of the era of plant virology
when scientific studies were initiated by Adolf Eduard Mayer, German scientist,
working in Netherland (1882-1886). He reported that tobacco mosaic disease was
neither due to a micro-organism nor due to nutritional imbalance.
He demonstrated the contagious nature of causal agent by artificial inoculation.
(Sap transmission or Mechanical transmission)
Showed that boiling of the sap of infected leaves destroyed infectivity of causal
agent.
Dimitri Ivanowskii (Russian botanist) - In 1892, he confirmed Mayer’s findings. He

reported the filterability of this through bacterial filters.
Martinus Wilhem Beijerinck – Dutch scientist – In 1898 confirmed the findings of
both of Mayer and Ivanowskii
Causal agent of tobacco mosaic was something other than microbe
Agent could pass through porcelain filters and diffuse through agar gel.
Called it as “contagium vivum fluidum” (contagious living fluid).
Considered as “Founder of Virology”
W.M Stanley (USA) - was able to obtain a crystalline protein by treating juice of
TMV infected leaves with ammonium sulphate. Crystalline substance remained
infective. He concluded that virus was an autoclavable protein that could multiply
within living cells.
Bawden F.E and Pirrie N.M (1936) showed that TMV is a nucleoprotein and
contained phosphorus.
H.O Holmes- In 1929 provided a method to quantify the virus in tissues by local
lesion host. He showed that amount of virus present in a plant sap preparative is
proportional to the nunber of local lesions produced on an appropriate host.
Viroids:
Diener T. O. (1971) reported the potato spindle tuber disease caused by a small,
naked single stranded circular molecule of infectious RNA, which he called
viroid. It is written as PSTVd.
These are smallest infectious agents in plants and multiply in plant cells. The
amount of nucleic acid is insufficient to code for an aminoacid. Other examples
are:
Coconut cadang cadang disease
Citrus exocortis disease
Till now viroids are not reported in animals and humans in causing disease.
Pruisner (1972) reported PRIONS. These are protein molecule of approximately

55,000 dalton, encoded by chromosomal gene of the host produced in brain cells.
Eg: Mad cow disease, Scarpie disease in sheep.

Till now no prions are reported to cause disease in plants.
NEMATOLOGY
Association of a nematode in plant disease was first reported by Needham in England

in 1743. He described the wheat seed gall nematode association with wheat seeds,
now known as Anguina tritici.
Berkeley (1855) reported the root knot nematode Meloidogyne sp.
Kuhn- (1857) reported the Bulb or stem nematode Ditylenchus dipsaci.
Schacht H.: reported cyst nematode of sugar beet Heterodera schachtii
Cobb N.A. Studied the structure of many plant parasitic nematodes and classified
them.
Coined the term Nematology
Developed the techniques for extraction of nematodes.
He is called Father of Plant Nematology.
Atkinson- Reported the association between Fungus + Nematode.
Fusarium wilt of cotton was more severe in presence of nematode.
Hunger (1901) Showed that bacterial wilt of tomato was facilitated by root knot
nematodes.
Hewitt et al (1958) - Virus was transmitted by a nematode. This started studies on
nematodes as vectors of viruses.
Protozoan diseases:
Woronin (1878), Russian scientist studied club root of cabbage caused by
Plasmodiophora brassicae. Plasmodium is naked mass of protoplasm covered by a
thin membrane hyaloplasm. They do not have cell wall. They produce sporogenous
and cystogenous spores. Now they are placed in flagellate Protozoa.
Lafonte (1909): Protozoa (flagellates) are found in latex bearing plants –

Euphorbiaceae. They thought to be the causal agent of disease.
Stahel (1931) found flagellate protozoans infecting the phloem of coffee trees
(non laticiferous plant) and causing abnormal phloem formation and wilting of
the tree.
In recent years myxomycetes and plasmodiophoromycetes members are placed in
Protozoa Kingdom.
Taxonomy of Protozoa
Kingdom : Protozoa
Phylum : Euglenozoa
Order : Kinetoplastidae
Family : Trypanosomatidae
No Kochs postulates were proved due to obligate nature of the protozoans.
In human beings in Africa, sleeping sickness is caused by Trypanosoma and

transmitted by tsetse fly
Chemical control:
Prevost (1807): Recommended CuSo4 for seed treatment against bunt of wheat.
Robertson (1824): Recommended the sulphur for management of Powdery mildew of

peach.
P.M.A. Millardet (1882 -85) :He was Professor of botany at Bordeaux University,
France.
He discovered Bordeaux mixture in 1885, (CuSo4 + hydrated lime) for management
of downy mildew of grapes.
Mathews (1919): Controlled the root knot nematode by chloropicrin or teargas.
Tisdale and Williams (1934): Development of dithiocarbamate fungicides from

dithiocarbamic acid which is highly unstable in rubber vulcanization process.
(Example Ferbam, Nabam, Mancozeb, Maneb, etc)
Carter (1943): Reported the nematicidal properties of DD (Dichloropropene

dichloropropane).
Von Schmeling and Kulka 1966 - Introduced first systemic fungicide, oxathiin
derivatives effective against higher fungi. Plantvax (Oxy Carboxin) for rust disease
and Vitavax (Carboxin) for smut disease management.
Plant Pathology in India

Cunningham and Barclay 1850-1875 started identification of fungi in India.
Cunningham made a special study of rusts and smuts.
Kirtikar, K.R.: was the first Indian scientist who collected and identified the fungi in
India.
Edwin J. Butler: He made a scientific study of most of the fungal diseases in India.
He worked on wilts of cotton, pigeon pea and smuts of cereals.
Written a book ‘Fungi and diseases in plants’ and a monograph ‘Pythiaceous and
allied fungi’. He was the First Director of Imperial Mycological Institute (1920)
(later it was called as Commonwealth Mycological Institute. At present it is called
International Mycological Institute situated at Kew, Surrey, London).He is called
Father of Plant Pathology in India.
Dastur, J.F.: (1886-1971) colleague of Butler. He studied Phytophthora parasitica

on castor. He is internationally known for the establishment of Phytophthora
parasitica from castor.
Kulkarni, G.S.: Worked on downy mildew and smuts of pearl millet and
sugarcane.
Ajrekar, S.L.: Studied wilt of cotton, smut of sugar cane and ergot of sorghum.
B.B Mundkur: Book “Fungi and plant diseases”

Control of cotton wilt through vertical resistance.
Started Indian Phytopathological Society (IPS) 1947.
Journal- Indian phytopathology in 1948.
Mehta K.C.: (Agra University): Worked on wheat rust epidemiology in India.

Showed that primary source of inocula for wheat rusts are two. One is foot hills of
Himalaya and second one is in South India (Neelgiri and Pulney hills).
Barbery has no role in Indian subcontinent in relation to black stem rust of wheat
i.e., in Puccinia graminace pv tritici.
Through wind current uredospore travel and cause the damage to wheat crop.
Dasgupta, S.N.:: He carried out study on black tip of mango which is caused by
abiotic agent i.e., it mainly related to the Sulphur dioxide injury coming from
brick kilns chimney and to some extent boron deficiency. These are responsible to
cause the disease.
Luthra, J.C. (Punjab): He described the Solar heat treatment for loose smut of
wheat , causal agent is Ustilago nuda tritci. It is internally seed borne disease and
the mycelium is present in seed as knotted mycelium.
Sadasivan T.S.: He is from Madras University, who developed the concept of vivo
toxins and worked out the mechanism of wilting in cotton due to Fusarium
species.
Pavagi, M.S.: From Banaras Hindu University- Varanasi, He worked on
Synchytrium, Protomyces, Taphrina.
Coleman, L.C.: He is a Canadian botanist who worked on koleroga of areca nut in

India which is caused by Phytopthora palmivora or Phytopthora araceae..
He was a first Director of Agriculture in the then Mysore state.
Deccan wingless grasshopper is named after him (Colemanea sphaneroides).
He encouraged arecanut farmers by giving prizes for keeping the orchard free from
koleroga of arecanut.
Nene, Y.L.: He worked on pulse or legumes virology in ICRISAT, Hyderabad.

He is the 1st Indian to occupy the position of Deputy Director in ICRISAT
(Hyderabad).
Zinc deficiency in paddy was identified by him in Tarai region of Up i.e., Khaira
disease of paddy. Use of sago as solidifying agent in culture medium was given by
him.
Rayachaudhuri, S.P.: worked on plant virology and he also known as Virology

Bhishma of Indian subcontinent.
Patel M.K. (1948), From Pune he studied about 40 species of plant pathogenic
bacteria and proposed that all plant pathogenic bacteria are to be placed under
single family called as Phytobacteriaceae. He suggested seed treatment to manage
the seed borne bacterial disease.
Bhide: V.P. Worked on bacterial diseases in plant pathology.
Rangaswami G. Wrote a book called Diseases of crop plants in india.
Thirumalachar M.J.: He conducted studies of smuts and rusts. His association with
the Hindustan Antibiotics Limited at Pune resulted in discovery of several
antifungal antibiotics. Eg: , aureofungin.
Hingorani: Worked on stalk rot of maize. In 1952 described about bacterial blight of
pomegranate and recorded about this disease but its affect was seen during 2000’s.
A. N. Srivastava: He worked on bacterial leaf blight of paddy
SOCIETIES
Indian Phytopathological Society -1947
Indian Society of Mycology and Plant Pathology- 1971 (Journal of Mycology and Plant
Pathology)
Nematological Society of India- 1971 (Indian Journal of Nematology)
Disease (DIS - EASE)

Components of disease
1) Host: All conditions in host that favour susceptibility
2) Pathogen: Virulence, abundance etc
3) Environment: Favourable for the pathogen and predispose the plant.
These three components constitute the traditional disease triangle. Pathogens will
not be able to cause a disease unless environmental conditions and suitability of the
host are favorable for survival, multiplication and entry of the pathogen into the plant
and further development of the disease. This interaction of Host, Pathogen and
Environmental constitute the disease triangle.
Recently, Stevens (1960), Zadoks (1972) and Van der plank (1975), have
recognized the fourth factor time which is an important dimension of plant disease.
Time is important in many ways. viz, time of year when host and pathogen are
exposed (placed close to each other), time and duration of leaf wetness while
temperature is favorable. The effect of time on disease development becomes apparent
when we consider the importance of time of year, duration and frequency of favorable
temperature and rains, time of appearance of vector etc, Adding time to the disease
triangle as a fourth dimension gives disease- pyramid.
Disease development in cultivated plants is also greatly influenced by a fifth
component, human. Human activity affect disease development in various ways.
They affect the kind of plants grown in a given area, their level of resistance, time of
planting, density of plants, by cultural practices, chemical and biological control etc.
They affect amount of primary and secondary inoculum available to attack plants.
They also modify environment of disease development by manipulating time of
planting etc.
MYCOLOGY
Sanskrit name of fungus is KAVAK
Totally five kingdoms are there in Eukaryotes. They are
1.Animalia 2. Plantae 3. Protozoa 4. Chromista 5. Fungi
In Prokaryotes two kingdoms
1. Archaea 2. Bacteria
The largest mushroom known is having 170 cm diameter and weighs 284 Kgs
Armillaria ostoyae – Honey mushroom is underground and 1 meter below the
ground level and occupies 1500 acres. This is present in Mount Adams of Washington
State of USA.
Importance of fungi
As food, vitamins: Agaricus, yeast
Antibiotics : Penicillin
Fermentation, Source of enzymes ; Yeasts
Association with other organisms:
Lichens – Fungi + Algae, Mycorrhizae : Fungi + Roots of higher plants
Toxins : Afla toxin (Aspergillus flavus), Ergotins (Claviceps sp.),
Fuminosens (Fusarium sp.),
Diseases in plants:
Late blight of potato – Phytophthora infestans
Black stem rust of wheat – Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici
Apple scab - Venturia inaequalis
Powdery mildew of grapes – Uncinula necator
Loose smut of wheat – Ustilago nuda tritici
Diseases in humans and animals: Dendruf,
Fungus
Fungi are highly evolved forms of microbes which are included in the
traditional classification in Thallophyta. (Thallus is a plant body that is
undifferentiated into root like, stem like and leaf like structure. It may be a single cell,
filament of cells or complicated multicellular structure).
Fungi can be described as eukaryotic, achlorophyllous, nucleated,
unicellular or multicellular, filamentous thallus which reproduces by division of
vegetative cells, well defined asexual /sexual spores and whose cell wall is made
up of chitin and small amount of glucan.
Thallus of the fungi may be plasmodial, unicellular, pseudomycelial or
mycelial. In lowest form (myxomycetes or slime mold) thallus is an amoeboid
plasmodium lacking a true cell wall. Plasmodium is naked slimy mass of
protoplasm containing several nuclei and enveloped by thin membrane
hyaloplasm.
Tubular structure consisting of nuclei and cytoplasm is called hypha (Pl.
hyphae) and entire vegetative body is called mycelium. Unit of mycelium is hypha.
In simple type of thalli the whole body is converted into reproductive cells and
is called Holocarpic. At a given time the thallus is in vegetative or reproductive stage.
Eucarpic- Part of thallus is converted into reproductive structure and part is in
vegetative structure. At a given time both reproductive and vegetative structures are
seen.
Mycelium may be septate (presence of cross wall) or aseptate (coenocytic) i.e.
absence of cross wall.
Mycelium may be Intercellular (between the cells) or Intracellular (within the
cells).
Branching of Mycelium
Verticilliate: A whorl of three or more branches is produced from the same point.
Sympdodial : Branching at each successive node leading apex becomes restricted in
growth and is overtaken by a lateral branch below.
Monopodial-The apex of the leading hypha is not suppressed but keeps pace in
growth with the most active of the lateral branching from below.
Fungus cell: Chemical composition of cell wall is different from that of plant and
bacteria and is variable among fungi.
Chief Components- Protein and polycarbohydrates or polycarbohydrates mixtures.
Cellulose predominate in lower fungi ex: Oomycetes and pseudo fungi.
Chitin in higher fungi and majority of fungi. Calcium carbonate and others salts
may also be deposited.
Function of cell wall

Protects the cells from osmotic shock, lytic enzymes of micro organisms.
Gives the cell its morphology
Prevents desiccation
Helps in adhesion of the cell to host surface
Protoplasm: Fluid in nucleus is nucleoplasm, outside nucleus is cytoplasm.
Cells are described according to their nuclear component and behaviour.
1. Monokaryotic cells: contain single haploid nucleus (n)
2. Dikaryotic cells: contain pair of nuclei which differ in character (n+n)
3. Synkaryotic cells: contain one nucleus with diploid number of chromosomes after
fusion of two haploid nuclei of the dikaryotic cells.
4. Heterokaryotic cells: contain more than one nuclei which are genetically different.
KINGDOM- FUNGI (TRUE FUNGI)

Characters:
These are eukaryotes identified by cell wall made up of chitin+glucan.
Achlorophyllous, nucleated and spore bearing organisms.
These may be saprophytic, parasitic or pathogenic.
Reproduce asexually and sexually and unicellular (yeast)or
multicellular (filamentous)
True fungi has 4 phyla:
1. Chytridiomycota 2. Zygomycota 3. Ascomycota 4. Basidiomycota
1. Phylum Chytridiomycota:
Class: Chytridiomycetes
Cell wall has chitin with the aseptate mycelium.
Zoospores with single whiplash posterior position flagellum.(CPW)
Unequal or equal motile gametes fuse to form meiosporangium.
Ex: Physoderma maydis –Brown spot of maize.

Synchytrium endobioticum-Potato wart
Olpidium brassicae- Parasitic on roots of alfalfa and vector for plant viruses.
2. Phylum Zygomycota
Class: Zygomycetes (Bread mold)
Asexual spores in sporangia
Non motile spores i.e, aplanospores and no zoospores
Aseptate mycelium.
Male and female are not distinguished morphologically hence represented by +
and – strain (self incompatibility).
Sexual spores are zygospores by gametangial copulation.
Ex: Mucor : Bread mold
Rhizopus stolonifer: Soft rot of fruits.
Glomus and Gigaspora: Endomycorrhiza
3. Phylum Ascomycota
Characters:
Sexual(telomorph) after meiosis produce ascospore
Ascospores (8) generally produced in a sac like structure called ascus (spores
are produced in or endogenosly)
Asexual spores production has reached the zenith and these are produced in
asexual fruiting body (pycnidium ,acervulus , sporodochium and synnema) and
externally on conidiophores. Septate mycelium and no zoospores production.
Male is antheridium and female is ascogonium.
Ascospores are haploid in nature (n).
1. Class: Archiascomycetes:
These are primitive fungi having naked ascus and no zoospore production.
They have intercellular mycelium. No special fruiting body.
Ex:Taphrina deformans Peach leaf curl
Taphrina is the only fungi which cause leaf curl disease
.
2. Class :Saccharomycetes:
These are unicellular , sugar loving fungi.
Ascus is naked and no ascocarp. No special fruiting body.
Nuclear condition may be haplontic, diplontic and haplo-diplontic type of
life cycle.
They reproduce by budding or by binary fission
Ex: yeast
Saccharomyces cerevsiae : Bread yeast
Galactomyces sp.: Citrus sour rot
3. Class :Filamentous ascomycetes

Sexual fruiting body (Ascocarp) is Cleistothecium (cleisto-closed)
They cause powdery mildew disease.
These are obligate parasites.
Closed ascocarp with appandages on surface.
Ex: Powdery mildews
Erysiphe polygoni : Powdery mildew of many crops (IS: Oidium)
Uncinula necator(PS): Powdery mildew of grapes (IS: Oidium tuckeri).
Sphaerotheca pannosa: Powdey mildew of rose
Subclasses:
A. Pyrenonycetes: Perithecium is sexual fruiting body which is flask shaped with
asci inside and in between sterile structures like paraphyses and periphyses (at
ostiolar or neck region).
Ex: Ergots, wilts,
Hypocrea: Perfect stage of Trichoderma
Claviceps spp.: Ergot of cereals
Gibberella fujikuroi (PS) (IS: Fusarium sp.) (Bakane / Foolish disease of
rice).
Ceratocystis paradoxa: Pineapple disease of sugarcane.

Ophiostoma novo ulmi: Dutch elm disease.
B. Loculoascomycetes: Fruiting body is Ascostroma. Asci within locules
preformed in ascostroma and asci double wall (bitunicate)
Ex: Apple scab. Sigatoka of banana,
Mycosphaerella musicola- Sigatoka of banana
Venturia inaequalis- Apple scab.
Capnodium species- Sooty mold
C. Discomycetes: Fruiting body is apothecia (saucer shaped). Paraphyses are

seen in between asci.
Ex. Blast, white mold of vegetables
Sclerotinia sclerotiarum: White mold of vegetables
Magnaporthe grisea : Blast of paddy
Diplocarpon rosae: Black spot of rose
D. Deuteromycetes: These are Fungi Imperfectii and Mitosporic fungi.

Sexual reproduction is lacking
Well developed mycelium
Asexual spores are singly, in groups or in asexual fruiting body, may be hyaline
or coloured
Ex: Leaf spots and wilts
Alternaria solani: Early blight of potato
Fusarium spp.: Wilt of many crops
Cercospora spp: Leaf spot of many crops
Imperfect stage: Perfect stage:

Alternaria Lewia
Fusarium Ggibberella
Cercospora Mycosphaerella
4. Phylum : Basidiomycota
Class : Basidiomycetes (Club fungi)
Club shaped basidium on which four basidio spores are produced.
Sexual fruiting body is basidiocarp.
Septate mycelium and non motile spores.
Mycelium is differentiated into three
a). Primary mycelium (n) –After germination of basidiospore
b). Secondary mycelium (n+n) – After somatogamy or spermatisation
c). Tertiary mycelium –Sterile for fruiting body (Basidiocarp)
Clamp connection seen to maintain dikaryotic condition.
Basidium is club shaped
Dolipore septum is seen
Fertile layer is called Hymenium and sterile layer is called Trama
Basidium may be Holobasidium (Entire) or Heterobasidium (Septate)
Ex. Rusts (Uredinales), and Smuts and bunts (Ustilaginales), Ganoderma
Amanita phalloides - Poisnous mushroom
Black stem rust of wheat (Puccinia graminis f.sp.trtici) (Life cycle)

Fruiting body Spores Nuclear condition Stage Host
Pycnium Pycniospores n 0 Barberry
Aecium Aeciospores (n+n) I
Uredium Uredospore (n+n) II Wheat
Telium Teliospore (n+ n) 2n III
Basidium Basidiospore n IV -
Other rusts
Hemileia vastatrix Coffee rust
Puccinia helianthi Sunflower rust
Puccinia arachidis Groundnut rust
Melampsora lini Linseed rust
Gymnosporangium juniper virginianae Cedar apple rust
On Primary host telial stage is seen and secondary host is the other host.
Autoecious rust: All five stages of rust are seen on single host – Sunflower rust.
Heteroecious rust : Part of life cycle is seen on one host and remaining on
another host. Two genetically different hosts are required to complete the life cycle.
Primary and secondary hosts of heterocious rust fungi
Name of the Primary Secondary Causal agent
disease host host
Wheat stem rust Wheat Barberry Puccinia graminis f.sp.trtici
Bajra rust Bajra Brinjal Puccinia penniseti
Cedar apple rust Cedar wood Apple Gymnosporangium juniperi
virginianae
Sorghum rust Sorghum Oxalis Puccinia purpurea
.
Smut (Ustilaginales)
Black mass of spores are usually produced in inflorescence but in sugarcane it
is produced in vegetative bud and in maize in leaves, stem and cob. No
basidiocarp and no trace of sex organs.
Only two kinds of spores are produced (teliospore and basidiospores)
Teliospores are also called brand spores, chlamydospores, winter spores, smut
spores
Basisidiospores are also called sporidia.
Dikaryotic mycelium (n+n) is infectious
Ex: Smuts and Bunts
Ustlago nuda tritici Loose smut of wheat
Ustilago maydis Maize smut
Urocystis cepulae Onion smut
Tilletia caries Hill bunt of wheat
Neovassia indica Karnal bunt of wheat
Loose smut of wheat is internally seed borne with knotted mycelium in
the embryo.
Grain smut of sorghum is externally seed borne.
BACTERIOLOGY
Bacteria are single celled prokaryotes, whose genetic material (DNA) is not
bound by a membrane and therefore it is not organized into a nucleus. Bacterial cell
is composed of protoplasm which includes cytoplasm, chromatin, vacuoles and whole
mass is surrounded by a well defined membrane- cell wall
Colony characters: Shapes, sizes, margin and colour etc., are characters taken into
consideration.
Size: ordinary bacterial cell is about 1-5 µm long and o.5 µm wide. Mycoplasma cell
is much smaller than true bacteria.
I. Shape of bacteria: Bacteria exist in five different shapes.
a. Rod : One axis is considerably longer than the other, eg: Bacillus,
Xanthomonas
b. Vibrio : One curve only along the length eg: Vibrio cholera.
c. Spherical : Any two axis of similar length eg: Coccus.
d. Spiral : More than one curves along the length eg: Spirillum.
e. L form : Variable shape eg: Clavibacter.
II. Size: Bacteria show great variation in size. Spherical form is measured by its
diameter, a rod or spiral form by its length and breadth. Most commonly the bacteria
measure about 0.5-2 m in diameter as in the case of spherical ones and 0.5 x 2-3
m in case of rods. Mycoplasma cell is much smaller than true bacteria.
III. Cell grouping: It is based on
1. Plane of the cell division
Behavior of daughter cells following the division of spherical cells are designated as
a. Micrococcus: One cell, separately seen.
b. Diplococcus: Pair of cells or twins (Diplococcus)
c. Streptococcus : Daughter cells arranged in a row in chains.(Streptococcus)
d. Staphylococcus : Daughter cells arranged in irregular fashion in clusters
(Staphylococcus)
e.Sarcina:Successive planes of divisions are at right angles to each other, the
daughter cells tend to form packet of eight cells.
f. Tetrad : Packet of four cells
All these are possible in Bacillus also except Staphylobacillus. Tetrad type is
represented by palisade (Four bacilli one above the other in palisade layer)
IV. Flagellum: Bacterial locomotion is due to presence of structures known as
flagella. They are thin, long hair like appendages protruding through the cell wall
with blunt ends directed backwards. They are made up of protein molecule flagellin.
Flagellin is sensitive to temperature, mechanical damage. Hence extra care is taken
in staining flagella. Flagella differ from pili which also are straight hair like structures
originating from protoplast and passing through the cell wall. During forward motion
of bacteria cell these organs are bent back words at an angle of 45º
Flagella is made up of three parts. i) Base ii) Hook iii) Filament
The number and pattern of arrangement of flagella vary according to the species. On
this basis number and position of flagella the following groups are recognized.
a. Atrichous : Flagellum absent. All cocci are atrichous. (Diplococcus)
b. Monotrichous : Only one flagellum at polar or lateral.
(Ex.Xanthomonas - Polar position)
c. Amphitrichous : One flagellum at each polar end. (Ex. Pseudomonas)

d. Lophotrichous : A tuft of flagella at one or both ends.(Spirillum)
e. Peritrichous : Flagella surrounding the entire cell. (Ex.Erwinia)
Typical bacterial cell
Bacterial cell is composed of protoplasm which includes cytoplasm, chromatin,
vacuoles, whole mass is surrounded by a well defined membrane- cell wall.
Cell wall: Protective device, gives the cell its shape. Mollicutes and L-form bacteria
have only a membrane around protoplasm, most prokaryotes have both cell wall and
membrane. Cell wall is made up of peptidoglycon or murein. It is a complex polymer
of N-acetyl muramic acid and N-acetyl glucosamine linked by amino acid chain. Its
chief functions are
(i) Mechanical protection,
(ii) Acting as selectively permeable membrane,
(iii) As an antigen to toxins,
(iv) As a site of many enzymatic actions,
(v) For determining gram reaction.
Capsule is an extracellular, slimy or gelatinous polysaccharide like material forming
a loose envelope around the cell.
Slime layer: is a modified outer layer of the cell wall. Generally relatively thin layers
of exopolymers which are present in almost all bacteria are called slime layer when it
is larger and firmly adheres to cell surface- called as capsule.
Function : Survival, dissemination and parasitism.
Capsules consist of polysaccharides- EPS- Exopolysaccharide. Some bacteria
(Ralstonia) use slime as source of (carbon) for growth. EPS is virulence determinant in
many bacteria. Ex: Erwinia amylovora. EPS- also protects cells against desiccation
and helps in survival of cell in its air-borne stage.
Cytoplasmic membrane (Plasma membrane) comprises about 10% of the total dry
weight of the cell and contains up to 75 percent protein and 2% carbohydrates. It is a
semi-permeable membrane and is principally responsible for the gram and acid fast
reaction. It is typically a double track membrane made up of phospholipid and
protein.
Mesosome is infolding of cytoplasmic membrane. It may appear in two forms
(i) Lamellar type and (ii) Vesicular type.
It helps in division of bacterial cells.
Ribosomes are located in the cytoplasm and act as sites of protein synthesis.
Fimbriae or pili In addition to flagella certain structures known as pili are also
found. Pili are shorter, thicker threads and more numerous than flagella. The
term fimbria is used for common pili, while the term pili have now been reserved for
sex pilus (involved in conjugation).
Nucleus (Nucleoid) don’t have membrane bound nucleus as in eukaryotes and hence
called as nucleoid (genome). It is not easily seen when cells are stained. Bacteria
have dispersed DNA. Presence of genetic material (DNA) is confirmed by their ability
to stain with Feulgen reagent which is specific for DNA.
Endospores: Some bacteria are capable of transforming themselves into small oval or
spherical resistant bodies known as endospores. It is characterized by the localized
concentration of cytoplasm of the cell finally surrounded by a wall or membrane.
None of the plant pathogenic bacteria produce endospores. Bacillus spp. and
Clostridium spp. are endospore formers.
Capsule: Certain bacterial cells are surrounded by a gelatinous slimy layer known as
capsule. It forms a protective covering and acts as a reservoir of stored food. For
pathogenic bacteria capsules help in their survival under unfavorable conditions.
Plasmid: Extrachromosomal, self replicating, co-valently closed circular double

stranded DNA. They play important role in conjugation and tumour inducing capacity
in Agrobacterium. Multiplication of plasmid is independent of nuclear division.
Vacuoles: Identified in young cells they appear as cavities in protoplasm and contain
a fluid known as cell sap. Their number is fewer in old cells.
Endospores: When bacteria are gradually subjected to increasingly unfavorable

conditions-including lack of water, depletion of available food, many species will die.
However, certain rod shaped bacterial cells exhibit striking tolerance to adverse
conditions, by forming endospores (spores within cell). Endospores are formed singly,
one in each cell and are actually dormant cells. The state of total dormancy is known
as Cryptobiosis .The spores are not formed during active and division of cell. The
mature spore is released by lysis of mother cell. These spores are highly resistant to
UV light, chemicals and heat.
Characteristics of plant pathogenic Bacteria

1) Most plant pathogenic bacteria (PPB) are rod shaped. exception Streptomyces
which is filamentous.
2) Most plant pathogenic bacteria have delicate, thread like flagella considerably
larger than the cells on which they are produced.
3) Most PPB are Gram-ve except Corynebacterium, Rathayibacter, Clavibacter,
Curtobacterium, Bacillus, Clostridium and Streptomyces.
4) Cell walls are enveloped by a viscous, gummy material- slime layer (thin and
diffuse) capsule (thick and forming definite mass around the cell)
5) Have thin relatively tough, rigid cell walls and an inner cytoplasmic membrane.
6) They are mainly aerobic in nature except Clostridium
7) They are mesophyllic in nature (15- 30 0C)
Gram and Acid fast reactions: Differences in cell wall differentiate bacteria in to
two groups (Gram + and Gram _ve ; Acid fast and non acid fast) respectively.
Staining of bacteria
Bacteria are semi transparent and difficult to see in the unstained stage hence, stains
are used:
To know microscopic and semi-transparent objects visible for their shape and
size. To show the presence of various external and internal structures and
To produce specific physical or chemical reactions.

The term stains and dyes are commonly used by the Biologists but are not the
same.
A coloring agent that is to be used for general purpose called a dye.
A coloring agent that is to be used for biological reaction is called a stain.
Biological coloring agents are manufactured with a great care under more rigid
specifications. Textile colouring agents with poor characteristics are called dyes.
Stains are derived from coal tar, which is a derivative of benzene; some elements or
radical may replace one or more hydrogen atoms. Stain is an organic compound
containing both chromophore and auxochorme groups linked to benzene rings.
Theories of staining:
Physical: It is the reaction between two substances without formation of a new
compound.
Chemical: Some parts of a cell are acidic in reaction whereas other parts are basic.
The stains are either anionic (acidic) or cationic (basic). It is proposed that the theory
stated that the acidic constituents of the cell (nucleus) reacts with basic stain and
the basic constituents (cytoplasm) reacts with acidic stains.
Staining solutions: Preparations employed for staining bacteria are largely aqueous
solutions with organic solvent like alcohol. Staining solutions generally contain low
concentrations (< 1.0%) of stains. Very dilute staining solution acting for a relatively
long period of time will produce much better results than a more concentrated
solution acting for a shorter interval.
Mordant: A mordant is any substance that forms an insoluble compound with a stain
and serves to fix the colour to the bacterial cell. Compounds, which function as
mordants, are tannic acid and salts of aluminum, iron, tin, zinc, copper and
chromium.
There are two types of staining solutions:
1. Simple stains 2. Differential stains
A simple staining solution contains only one stain dissolved in solvent. It is
applied to the bacteria in one application. The purpose of simple stain is to colour the
bacteria so that they may be more easily seen and to reveal their shapes and size. The
simple staining solutions employed are,
a. Carbon fuchsin solution, b. Crystal violet solution, c. Methylene blue
solution.
Methylene blue is the most widely used stain in bacteriological techniques.

Preparation of stain: Methylene blue 0.30 g
Alcohol 30.00 ml
Distilled water 100.00 ml
Dissolve methylene blue in alcohol, add distilled water and make the volume and
filter the solution through filter paper.
VIROLOGY
M.W Beijerinck: used the term ‘Virus’ for Tobacco mosaic agent.
Viruses are ultramicroscopic, noncellular entities made up of nucleoprotein
which multiplies only in living host cells. NA of virus replicates inside living cells using
cellular synthetic machinery (host ribosome) and synthesize Virion or virus particle.
1. Viruses contain one or more pieces of a single type of nucleic acid- either
RNA/DNA (never both) and protein coat.
2. Nucleic acid is the genome of the virus which differs among
viruses.
Viruses rely on living host cells for most of enzymes necessary for their
replication.
3. Proportion of NA and protein vary with each virus NA making up 5-40% of the
virus and protein from 95to 60%. Normally elongated viruses contain higher
protein and lower NA.
4. Genome in NA strand directs the synthesis of specific protein, for the protein
coat must be present in all viruses throughout their active phase except at the
time of replication.
5. They don’t produce spores.
Morphology:
Mature particle of plant virus is called virion.
Plant viruses differ in size and shape.
1. Elongate – Rigid rod- TMV and Flexuous rod- PVX.
2. Spherical (Isometric / polyhedral) - Tobacco necrosis virus, (TNV), Rice tungro
spherical virus (RTSV)
3. Cylindrical / bacillus like- Rice tungro bacilli virus (RTBV).
4. Geminate- arranged in pairs- Bean golden mosaic virus (Begomo)
Many plant viruses have split genome- consist of two or more distinct NA strands.
Some viruses have all their genome in
One particle - Monopartite , Two particles - Bipartite Three
particles - Tripartite, Many particles - Multipartite
Taxonomy: ICTV International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses

Order : virales, Family : viridae , Subfamily : virinae, Genus : Virus
Characters taken for taxonomy of viruses are

Morphology: Particle shape is Rod / Filamentous / Isometric / Bacilliform
Type of nucleic acid, RNA / DNA
Nucleic acid is single stranded (ss) / double stranded (ds)
Replication via polymerase enzyme +ve sense RNA or DNA type
OR via Reverse transcriptase ( -ve sense RNA or DNA)
Whether it exists as as a single unit or divided (genome in one particle
(monopartite) similarly bi , tri, multi partite
Other characters include symmetry of helix in the helical viruses, or number of
arrangements of protein sub units in the isometric viruses, size of the virus and
other important physical, chemical and biological properties.
Kingdom: Viruses
RNA viruses
Single-stranded positive RNA [(+) ssRNA]
Rod-shaped Genus Type species Remarks

1 ssRNA Tobamovirus Tobacco mosaic virus Contact transmission
2 ssRNAs Tobravirus Tobacco rattle virus Nematode
transmission
3 ssRNAs Hordeivirus Barley stripe mosaic virus Seed transmission
Filamentous particles
1 ssRNA Potexvirus Potato virus X By contact only
.
Isometric particles
1 ssRNA Sobemovirus Southern bean mosaic virus Seed, beetles, myrids
Filamentous viruses
1 ssRNA
Potyviridae Potyvirus Potato virus Y Aphids,
Isometric viruses
1 ss(+)RNA
Tombusviridae Necrovirus Tobacco necrosis virus Fungal transmission
2 ss(+)RNAs
Comoviridae Comovirus Cowpea mosaic virus Chrysomelid beetle
3 ss(+)RNAs
Bromoviridae Cucumovirus Cucumber mosaic virus Aphids
Bromoviridae Ilarvirus Tobacco streak virus Pollen, seed
dsRNA
Reoviridae Phytoreovirus Wound tumor virus Leafhoppers
(-) ssRNA
Bacilliform particles
Rhabdoviridae Cytorhabdovirus Lettuce necrosis yellows virus Leafhoppers,
Membranous circular particles

Bunyaviridae Tospovirus Tomato spotted wilt virus Thrips
Thin flexuous multipartite viruses

Tenuivirus Rice stripe virus Planthoppers
dsDNA
Isometric
Caulimoviridae Caulimovirus Cauliflower mosaic virus Aphids
Caulimoviridae Badnavirus Rice tungro bacilliform virus- Leafhoppers
(+)ssDNA
Geminiviridae Begomovirus Bean golden mosaic virus, Whiteflies
(2 DNAs)
1. Linear ss RNA- monopartite-
2. Linear ssRNA in more than one piece in the same

particle Ex: Turnip yellow virus, Potato leaf roll virus
3. Liner ss RNA in > 1 piece, each piece in a separate particle-
Ex: Cucumber mosaic virus, cowpea mosaic virus,
4. Liner ds RNA in many pieces but in one particle
5. Circular ss DNA- Gemini virus.

6. Circular ds DNA- Cauliflower mosaic virus
Rhabdo viruses are provided with an outer lipoprotein envelope or
membrane
NA: Each nucleotide consists of base + carbon sugar + phosphoric acid
(phosphate) Base- Purine = A, G (Adenine, Guanine)
Pyrimidine= C, U, T (Cytosine, Uracil, Thymine)
Linear ss RNA = TMV, PVX.
Linear ds RNA = Wound tumour virus.
Circular ss DNA= Gemini virus, Maize streak virus.
ds DNA= Caulimovirus.
RNA Viruses –single stranded - TMV, PVX
-double stranded - Wound tumour virus
DNA Viruses - Gemini Virus
-Caulimo virus
ICTV- International committee on taxonomy of viruses.
Viroids:
Viroids are small low molecular weight RNA that can infect plantcells, replicate
themselves and cause disease.
Ex: Citrus exocortis viroid
Potato spindle tuber viroid
Chrysanthemum stunt viroid
Australian grapevine viroid.
Viroids are covalently closed circular RNA molecule. These are the smallest known
infectious agents.
Structure of viroids is different from rRNA, tRNA and mRNA. Viroids were the first
circular RNA s to be discovered in nature.
Virusoids: Viruses that contain a viroid like satellite RNA in addition to a linear-
single stranded molecule of genomic RNA.
Virion: Complete and infectious nucleoprotein particle of the virus.
List of plant disease epidemics and their significance
Year Name of the Causal agent Place Damage/

disease Significance
1845 Potato late blight Phytophthora infestans Ireland Irish famine
1868 Coffee rust Hemileia vastatrix Ceylon Started Tea
(Now plantation in place
Srilanka) of coffee
1878 Downy mildew of Plasmapara viticola Europe - Affected wine
grape France industry
Development of
Bordeaux Mixture
1909 Citrus canker Xanthomonas Florida USA Disease eradication
axonopodis pv. citri (introduced programme
from Japan)
1910 Dutch elm disease Ophiostoma ulmi USA By 2010 around 60
million tees lost
1942 Brown leaf spot of Helminthosporium Bengal Bengal Famine
paddy oryzae province,
Drechslera oryzae India
1954 Powdery mildew of Uncinula necator Europe Affected wine
grapes industry
1963 Bacterial leaf Xanthomonas oryzae pv. South India Affected quality of
blight of rice oryzae grain (broken
grains)
1970 Southern corn leaf Helminthosporium USA Texas Male Sterile
blight maydis line as female
parent
1999 Wheat rusts Introduction of Rye
Stem rust Puccinia graminis f.sp Central bread
tritici Europe and Race Ug 99
Leaf rust Puccinia triticina Uganda
Yellow rust Puccinia striiformis
2002 Bacterial blight of Xanthomonas axonpodis Maharastra, Kesar/Bhagwa
pomegranate pv. punicae Karnataka variety. highly
susceptible
2011 Chestnut blight Cryphonectria parasitica USA Devastated large
(Endothia parasitica) area of sweet chest
nut trees.
Fungal-Like Organisms
I. Kingdom: Protozoa — Unicellular, plasmodial, very simple multicells, or
phagotrophic, i.e., feeding by engulfing their food.
Phylum: Plasmodiophoromycota
Plasmodiophoromycetes — Endoparasitic slime molds
Order: Plasmodiophorales — Plasmodium is thallus.
They produce zoospores that have two flagella of whiplash and they are unequal
and Obligate parasites
Ex: Plasmodiophora brassicae - Clubroot of crucifers
Polymyxa graminis Parasitic on wheat. Transmit plant viruses
Spongospora subterranea - Powdery scab of potato tubers
5) Kingdom: Chromista (Stramenopiles) /

Chromalveolata Unicellular or multicellular, filamentous
Phylum: Oomycota
Class: Oomycetes
(water molds, white rusts, and downy mildews)
Aseptate (coenocytic) mycelium.
Produce zoospores in zoosporangia.
Zoospores have two flagella (Anterior Tinsel and Whiplash backwards).
Sexual resting spores (oospores) produced by the union of morphologically
different gametangia called antheridia (male) and oogonia (female), Gametangial
contact produces thick-walled sexual oospore. Diploid thallus. Cell wall
composed of glucans and small amounts of hydroxyproline and cellulose
Order: Peronosporales
Family : 1. Pythiaceae 2. Peronosporaceae 3. Albuginaceae Order
Peronosporales includes important genera of plant pathogens . They are
Pythium and Phytophthora, Albugo, Downy mildew genera .
Pythium sp., : seed rot, seedling damping-off, and root rot, soft rots of fleshy fruits.
Phytophthora sp., late blight of potato, root rots, fruit rots, blights and diebacks of
trees.
Downy mildew causing genera are
Basidiophora, Bremia, Bremiella, Peronospora, Plasmopara, Peronosclerospora
Pseudoperonospora, Sclerospora, and Sclerophthora
Examples:
Albugo candida - white rust of crucifers
Pythium aphanidermatum: Sporangium is finger type (branched sporangium) but
produce vesicle in which zoospore differentiation takes place.
Pythium debaryanum: Globose type of sporangium and produce vesicle in which
zoospore differentiation takes place.
If temperature is 10 – 17 0 C sporangia germinates by producing zoospores
(indirect). If temperature is > 18 0C sporangia germinates by germ tube (direct
germination)
In Phytophthora sporangium is papillate and zoospores are produced in the
sporangium
Phytophthora infestans Late blight of potato
Phytophthora aracae Koleroga of arecanut
Phytophthora citrophthora Gummosis of citrus
DOWNY MILDEW
Bremia lactucae Downy mildew of lettuce
Hyaloperonospora parasitica, Downy mildew of crucifers
Peronospora destructor, Downy mildew of onion
Peronospora tabacina Downy mildew of tobacco / blue mold
Peronosclerospora sorghi Downy mildew of sorghum and corn
Plasmopara viticola Downy mildew of grape
Pseudoperonospora cubensis Downy mildew of cucurbits
Sclerospora graminicola Downy mildew of bajra
Genus Sporangiophore Sporangial Figure
germination
Basidiophora Club shaped with sterigmata Indirect
on which sporangia borne
Bremia Dichotomous, with saucer Direct
shaped apophyses with
sterigmata
Bremiella Dichotomous branching with
raised apophyses with
sterigmata
Sclerospora Strong , stout with Indirect
branching at the tip
Peronospora Dichotomous branching at Direct
acute angle and pointed tip
on which sporangia are seen
Peronosclerospora Strong , stout with Direct
branching at the tip
Pseudoperonospora Dichotomous branching at Indirect
acute angle and pointed tip
on which sporangia are seen
Plasmopara Branching at perpendicular Indirect
with sterigmata
Albuginaceae
Sporangia in chain
Older sporangia is at the top (basipetal)
Between two sporangia sterile disjunctor cell is seen.
Produce zoospores in sporangia
Obligate parasite
Albugo candida White rust of crucifers
Powdery mildews
Phylum : Ascomycota (Ascomycetes, sac fungi)
Teleomorph: Sexual stage Anamorph : Asexual stage
Ascospores, Eight within an ascus.
Class : Filamentous Ascomycetes
Order : Erysiphales
Family: Erysiphaceae
Sexual fruiting body: Cleistothecium / Chasmothecium
Characters used in genera identification
Type of appendage
Number of ascus / asci (one / many)
Type of asxual spores produced
Characters used in genera identification
7) Type of appendage: Myceloid, coiled at the tip, dichotomously branched,
bulbous base with pointed tip
Number of ascus / asci (one / many)
J. Asexual spores
Conidia in chain (Oidium)
Conidia in chain but basal (foot cell) is enlarged
Conidiophore branched coming from stomata with single conidium at
the tip (flame shaped)
K. Mycelium is Ecto / semi endophytic
Types of appendages on cleistothecia in Erysiphaceae
Order: Erysiphales (the powdery mildew fungi)
Levillula – Mycelium semi endophytic, conidiophores comes out from stomata and it
is branched and conidia singly produced singly and it is flame shaped
Diseases caused by powdery mildew genera
Causal agent Name of the disease
Blumeria graminis Powdery mildew of wheat
Erysiphe cichoracearum Powdery mildew of cucurbits
Leveillula taurica Powdery mildew of tomato, chilli
Microsphaera alni Powdery mildew of lilac
Podosphaera leucotricha Powdery mildew of apple
Sphaerotheca pannosa Powdery mildew of roses
Uncinula necator Powdery mildew of grape
Phyllactinia corylea Powdery mildew of mulberry
Oidium (anamorph only), Powdery mildew of many crops
PLANT PARASITIC NEMATODES

The term nematode is derived from Greek word “Nema” meaning “Hair”,
Thread, Filament, and is called as “Hair like organisms”. Commonly these
nematodes are known as Nemas in USA, Eel worms in Europe, Nematodes in
India and Roundworms by taxonomists and belong to the kingdom Animalia.
Free living nematodes are found almost everywhere on earth surface. The food of
nematodes is invariably some source of protoplasm such as plant sap, fungal
hyphae and algae and even dead and decaying materials. Based on feeding habits,
nematodes fall under the following categories.
e. Plant feeders, 2. Microbial feeders, 3. Miscellaneous feeders, 4. Predators ,
b Saprophytes
The first plant parasitic nematode i.e. Anguina tritici causing ear cockle
of wheat (seed gall) was reported by John Needham (1743).
Nematodes are defined as triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical,
unsegmented, pseudocoelomate and vermiform animals. Typically, the
nematode body is elongate, spindle shaped or fusiform, tapering toward both
ends and circular in cross-section. The length may vary from 0.2 mm
(Pratylenchus) to about 11.0 mm (Paralongidorus maximus) but averaging
about 1.0 mm in length. The body width may vary from 0.01 to 0.5 mm. In few
plant parasitic nematodes the body of female may be pear (Meloidogyne), lemon
(Heterodera), reniform (Rotylenchus) or irregularly saccate shaped (Nacobbus),

and Tylenchulus. The nematode body is generally considered to be bilaterally
symmetrical, except in intestine, excretory and reproductive systems.
MORPHOLOGY
Their body consists of two tubes – i.e. the outer body tube consisting of
cuticle, hypodermis and muscle layer and the inner tube composed of
digestive system/alimentary system. The nematodes lack circulatory and
respiratory systems.
The body cavity of nematodes constitutes a pseudocoelome since it is not lined by
epithelium.
The nematodes are dioecious unisexual, bisexual (hermaphrodite) and
parthenogenitic reproduction.
Gonads are composed of pair of tubes one of which may be suppressed.
Males have the gonads which open into cloaca where the copulatory structures
(spicules) are situated.
Females have one or two gonads which open separately through a centrally
located vulva.
The excretory system consists of a canal lyng in one or two lateral lines that join
a transverse canal leading to an excretory pore at the pharyngeal region. The
nematodes have four larval stages between the egg and the adult.
Cuticle or Exoskeleton: The nematode cuticle is of varying complexity and
considerable plasticity. It is the protective, tough, flexible exoskeleton covering
the body.
Most of the nematodes possess smooth cuticle. It invaginates at the mouth,
rectum, cloaca, vagina, excretory pore, amphids and phasmids.
Principally cuticle is distinguished into three layers: cortex, matrix and fibre.
The cuticle is composed of at least five substances; lipid, glycoprotein, fibroid,
collagen and keratin.
The cuticle also undergoes moulting with cuticular structures being cast off.
Cephalic papillae or setae: Important sensory organs, often located on the outer
contour of the lips and oral opening.
Amphids: Pairs of chemotactic organs located internally on the head or the
anterior neck. They are useful from taxonomic point of view.
Phasmids: Pairs of structures located in the lateral fields usually on the tails of
the class Secernentia. Scented substances are released from phasmids along the
tail of which the other members may follow during locomotion.
Bursae: Flap-like processes of the cuticle opposite the anterior end of the
spicule. They extend back past the cloacal opening until they again merge with
the cloaca. These structures are utilized by the males of the class Secernentia to
clasp the females during copulation.
Pseudocoelom or Pseudocoel: Essentially the nematode body consists of two
tubes viz., the outer body wall and the inner digestive tract. The space between
the body wall (muscle) and the internal organs is known as Pseudocoel. It
contains numerous glands, cellular bodies and granular materials floating in
the body fluid. This maintains the turgidity. The nutrients from the intestine,
the oxygen from the environment and the excretory products move through
this pseudocoelom.
Hypodermis: It is located beneath the cuticle. It is a cellular tissue layer. It is
particularly important and metabolically active part of a nematode responsible for
the secretion and maintenance of the cuticle.
The muscle layer: The somatic muscle consists of a single layer of more or less
spindle shaped longitudinal muscles which remain attached to the hypodermis
along its entire length. There are contractile and non-contractile portions in
each muscle cell. In each muscle cell an innervation process extends to the nerve
in the chord and makes synaptic contact at the surface of the longitudinal nerves
or the nerve ring.
Life cycle:
The life histories of most plant parasitic nematodes are in general quite
similar. Eggs hatch into juveniles, whose appearance and structure are usually
similar to those of the adult nematodes. Juveniles grow in size and each juvenile
stage is terminated by a moult. All nematodes have four juvenile stages, with the
first moult usually occurring in the egg. After the final moult the nematodes
differentiate into male and female.
Spread:
Nematodes spread through the soil slowly under their own power. The
overall distance traveled by a nematode probably does not exceed a few meters per
season. Nematode moves faster in the soil when the pores are there with a
thin film of water.
Symptoms: When nematodes feed they cause injury at the point of
feeding. Considerable part of the injury is due to tissue reaction to the secretion of
the saliva into tissues. The secretions of nematodes, in plant results in the various
reactions like:
2. Suppression of cell division in the special meristem
3. Stoppage of root growth
4. Development of necrotic lesions
5. Destruction of cell walls
6. Formation of transfer cells
7. Cells may undergo hypertrophy or proliferation that results in galls.
In general, the symptoms can be classified into:

a. Above ground symptoms b. Below ground symptoms.
A. Above ground symptoms:
Stunted growths: Pale yellow and reduced growth
Dead or devitalized buds: The infection takes place before the seedling emerges
from the soil and may be carried up resulting in blunt point. Flower buds are drop
off. E.g. Bud blight of orchids.
Seed Galls: When the flower heads begin, the nematode larvae enter the flower
primordia resulting in the production of galls containing large number of larvae
that can survive for long period of desiccation. E.g. Ear cockle of wheat (Anguina).
Necrosis and discoloration: Some nematode live and feed within the tissue of
stems and leaves causing varying degrees of necrosis and discoloration, further
resulting in distortion of the growing point. E.g. Coconut red ring disease
(Bursaphelenchus).
Leaf Spots: Caused by nematodes that penetrates the foliage of broad leaved
plants. Numerous small spots form first on the lower leaf and then spread to the
upper side. They are brown in the beginning later becoming large and black
sometimes. The spots may coalesce each other covering the entire leaf surface E.g.
Chrysanthemum foliar nematode (Aphelenchoides).
Leaf galls: These are comparable to seed galls and they serve as structures in
which the parasites mature and reproduce seed galls and leaf galls.
B. Below ground symptoms:
Root galls: These are the characteristic symptoms of injury caused by the root-
knot nematodes. Only a very few plant parasitic nematodes cause conspicuous
galls on roots and other underground structures. Swellings or galls may vary in size
from 1 mm to more than 2 cm. E.g. Root knot nematode.
Root lesions: These are more or less distinctly covered necrotic areas, usually
small to moderate in size that frequently originates internally. Lesions are typical of
the injury caused by nematodes that penetrate the roots and congregate in limited
areas. Lesion varies in size from almost invisible, girdling the whole root. E.g.
Lesion nematode (Pratylenchus).
Excessive root branching: The presence of some kinds of nematodes in young root
stimulates the development of branched rootlets near the region of the invasion.
Whatever their origin, such roots are termed as ‘witches broom’, ‘Hairy root’ or
‘Bearding’.Ex: Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.).
Root rots: The nematodes that enter fleshy structures may initiate injury resulting
in extensive tissue destruction, while nematode initiates that damage, destruction
may be by invaders. E.g. Potato rot nematodes (Scutellonema).
Injured root tips: The nematodes feed on or near root tips arresting the growth,
enlarge or disintegrate namely:
a). Stubby root: The root system may be composed of numerous short stubby
branches often arranged in clusters. E.g. Stubby root nematode of corn
(Trichodorus and Paratrichodorus).
b). Coarse root: The main roots devoid of small branch rootlets. E.g. Sting
nematode (Belanolaimus).
c). Curly tip: Injury at the side of a root close to the tip may retard growth and
elongation. E.g. Dagger nematode (Xiphinema.)
Nematode Taxonomy
All plant parasitic nematodes belong to the Phylum Nematoda.
Most of the important parasitic genera belong to the order Tylenchida, but a few
belong to the order Dorylaimida.
Phylum: Nematoda; Order: Tylenchida;

Suborder: Tylenchina; Super family: Tylenchoidea
Family Genus Common name Remarks

Anguinidae Anguina, Seed gall nematode Wheat
Ditylenchus Stem or bulb Alfalfa, onion
nematode
Belonolaimidae Belonolaimus, Sting nematode Cereals, legumes,
cucurbits
Tylenchorhynchus Stunt nematode Tobacco, corn,
cotton
Pratylenchidae Pratylenchus Lesion nematode All crop plants and
trees
Radopholus Burrowing nematode Banana, citrus,
coffee, sugarcane
Nacobbus, False RKN
Hoplolaimidae Hoplolaimus Lance nematode Corn, sugarcane,
cotton
Rotylenchus Spiral nematode Many crops
Rotylenchulus Reniform nematode Cotton, papaya,
tomato
Scutellonema, Dry rot nematode Yam, cassava
Heteroderidae Globodera Round cyst Potato
nematode
Heterodera Cyst nematode Tobacco, soybean,
cereals
Meloidogyne Root-knot nematode All crop plants
Superfamily: Criconematoidea
Criconematidae Criconemella Ring nematode Woody plants
(=CriIconema and
CriconemoideIs)
Hemicycliophora Sheath nematode Various plants
Paratylenchidae Paratylenchus Pin nematode Various plants
Tylenchulidae Tylenchulus, Citrus nematode Citrus, grapes
Suborder: Aphelenchina
Aphelenchoididae Aphelenchoides Foliar nematode Chrysanthemum,
rice, coconut
Bursaphelenchus Red ring nematode Pine wilt and
coconut
Order: Dorylaimida
Family: Longidorus Needle nematode Some crop plants
Longidoridae
Xiphinema Dagger nematode Woody vines &
annuals
Trichodoridae Paratrichodorus Stubby root Cereals, vegetables
nematode & apple
Trichodorus Stubby root Potato, cereals, and
nematode apple
EXTRACTION OF NEMATODES FROM SOIL

Most of the plant parasitic nematodes inhabit soil in the form of plant debris
in the absence of the cropping season. A general survey is made to know the actual
distribution of plant parasitic nematodes. There are three types of survey –
Chance survey: Where damage caused by nematode is known samples will be
brought from the field.
Systematic survey: Samples are brought from different locations to know
nematode population.
Farm survey: To detect a particular type of nematodes in the field associated with
a single crop.
Soil Sampling: The depths from which soil samples have to be collected vary from
crop to crop depending upon the type of root system. However, soil samples can be
collected from 6-8”depth when the soil condition is said to be friable.
Extraction technique: Extraction of plant parasitic nematodes from soil sample is
a simple and inexpensive process.
4. Baermann’s funnel method.
5. Cobb’s sieving and gravity method.
6. Oostenbrink’s elutriation techniques
7. Seinhorst’s elutriation method and
8. Centrifugation method.
TERMS USED IN PLANT PATHOLOGY

Antagonism: (contrast to mutualism) one organism is injured by other either
through competition for food or other demands or through secretion of toxic
substances (antibiosis) or by direct injury (Parasitism or predation).
Biotrophs: An organism that can live and multiply only on living organism.
Organism which regardless of the ease tissues on which they complete their life-
cycle are called biotrophs or obligate parasites. Ex: Rust, Powdery mildew.
Biotype: A subgroup within a species or race usually characterized by the
common possession of a single or a few new characters.
Cross Protection: It is the phenomenon in which plant tissues infected with one
strain of a virus are protected from infection by other more severe strains of the
same virus (Citrus tristeza).
Disease Cycle: The chain of events involved in disease development, including the
stages of development of the pathogen and the effect of the disease on the host.
Disease: It is a sum total of the altered and induced biochemical reactions in a
system of the plant/or plant part brought about by any biotic or abiotic factors or
virus leading to malfunctioning of its physiological processes and ultimately
manifesting gradually at cellular and or morphological level. All these alterations
should be of such a magnitude that they become a threat to the normal growth and
reproduction of the plant Singh et al (1989).
OR
Disease is any malfunction of host cells and tissues that results from continuous
irritation by a pathogenic agent or environmental factor that leads to development
of symptoms.
OR
Disease can be defined as series of invisible and visible responses of plant cells
and tissues to a pathogenic organism or environmental factor that result in adverse
changes in the form, function or integrity of the plant and may lead to partial
impairment or death of plant parts or of entire plant (Agrios, 2005).
Disorders are the non-infectious harmful deviation due to abiotic causes such as
adverse soil condition, environmental conditions etc.
Etiology: study of cause of the disease and nature of causal agent.
Facultative Parasites: The organisms which live as saprophytes, but under

favourable conditions attack living plants and become parasites. Ex: Cercospora sp,
Pyricularia sp etc.
Facultative saprophytes (Hemibiotrophs): It attacks living tissue in the same way
as biotrophs but continues to grow and reproduce after tissue is dead.
Facultative Saprophytes: (Hemibiotrophs) the organisms attack living tissues in
the same way as biotrophs but will continue to grow and reproduce even after the
tissue is dead. Ex: Leaf spot fungi.
Forma specialis (f.sp.), a group races and bio-type of a pathogen species that can
infect only plants within a certain host genus or species.
Heteroecious: Undergoing different parasitic stages in two unlike hosts as in
Uredinales. (op .autoecious) to complete its life cycle.
Heterokaryosis: The condition in which a mycelium contain two genetically
different nuclei per cell.
Heterothallism: The condition of sexual reproduction in which conjugation is
possible only through the interaction of physiologically different thalli.
Homothallism: The condition in which sexual reproduction can occur without the
interaction of the different thalli.[male and female gametes production same
thallus].
Host: A plant that is invaded by a parasite and from which the parasite obtains its
nutrients.
Hyperparasite: A parasite parasithe on another parasite.
Hypersensitivity: It in an extreme degree of susceptibility in which rapid death of
the cells in the vicinity of the invading pathogen (infection court) occurs. This halts
the progress of a pathogen although it may not die immediately. Thus
hypersensitivity is a sign of very high resistance approaching immunity.
Hypovirulence: Reduced virulence of a pathogen strain as a result of the presence
of transmissible double-stranded RNA.
Immune/Immunity: It denotes that the pathogen cannot establish parasitic
relationship with the host.
Imperfect state: Part of the life cycle which no sexual spores are produced in
fungus (anamorph stage or asexual stage).
In vitro in culture, outside the host. In vivo in the host (living host).
Incubation Period: It is the time lapsing between inoculation (Penetration) and

symptom development (completion of infection process).
Incubation Period: St in the time Period between Penetration of a host by a
pathogen and the first appearance of symptoms on the host.
Infection court: It is the place of invasion of a host by a pathogen
Infection: establishment of Parasitic relationship between the pathogen and the
host, following entry or penetration.
Infection: is the establishment of parasitic relationship between the pathogen and
host following the entry/penetration.
Inoculation: The arrival or transfer of a pathogen into a host.
Inoculum Potential: is the energy of growth of a fungus (or other MO s) available
for colonization of a substratum at the surface of the substratum to be colonized.
Inoculum Potential: It in the energy required/available of a pathogen for infection

of a host at its surface or /at the host organ to be affected.(or)
Inoculum: is the infection material that cause disease and is the portion of
(individual) pathogen that is brought into contact with the host.
Inoculum: The pathogen or its parts that can cause infection.
Invasion: Spread of the pathogen in the host.
Invasion: The spread of the pathogen into the host.
Isolate: : to separate a microorganism from host or substrate and establish it in
pure culture. OR A single spore or pure culture and the subcultures derived from
it. The term is also applicable to viruses.
Isolation: Separation of a pathogen from its host and its culture on a nutrient
medium.
Isolation: The separation of a pathogen from it host and its culture on a nutrient
medium.
Latent infection: A host is infected with a pathogen but does not show any
symptoms.
Mutualism: In association, where there is some or high degree of adjustment
between two organisms where by each gets some benefit.
Mycotoxin: Toxic substances produced by several fungi in infected seeds, feeds or
foods, capable of causing illness of varying severity and death to animals and
human beings when consumd such substances.
Necrotrophs (Perthotroph): A parasite is necrotroph when it kills host tissues in

advance of penetration and then lives saprophytically.(Perthophytes) Ex: Scleritium
rolfsii, Pythium etc.
Necrotrophs: It kills host tissue in advance of penetration and then lives as
saprophytes. They are also called as perthotrophs/ perthophytes. Ex: Sclerotium
rolfsii
Parasexual cycle: Recombination of hereditary properties is based on mitosis.
Parasite: Organism that derive materials they need for growth from living organism
(host or suscept). Most but not all pathogens are parasites.
Pathogen: The agent responsible for inciting ailment/suffering. An entity usually a
microorganism that can incite a disease.
Pathogenesis: Chain of events (Infection, Incubations and symptom expression)
leading to the development of disease in host OR The chain of events that occur
from the time the pathogen enters the host until its effect become visible.
Pathogenicity: The capability (ability) of a pathogen to cause a disease OR It is the
ability of pathogen to cause disease under a given set of environmental conditions.
Pathovar: In bacteria, a subspecies or group of strain that can infect only plants
within a certain genus or species.
Penetration: Entry of pathogen into the host tissue.
Perfect state: The sexual stage in the life cycle of a fungus (teleomorph stage)
Polycyclic: Completes many asexual cycles in one year. Ex: Blast of Paddy
Polyetic: Requires many years to complete one life or disease cycle. Ex: Coffee rust
Quarantine: Legal control of import and export of plants to prevent spread of
diseases and pests.
Race: A genetically and as a rule geographically distinct mating group within a
species.
Resistance: the power of an organism (host plant) to overcome, the effect of a
pathogen or other damaging factor. Ability of a host plant to suppress or retard the
activity of a pathogen or other injurious factors
Saprophytes: organism which derive their nutrition from dead organic matter. Ex:
Pilobolus, Rhizopus, Mucor Aspergillus, Penicillium etc.
Sign: Presence of pathogen/its structures. Ex: Powdery mildew. Downy mildew
(cottony growth)
Sterile fungi: A group of fungi that are not known to produce any kind of spores.
Susceptibility: It is the lack of inherent ability to resist disease or attack by a

given pathogen.
Symbiosis - Living together of two unlike organisms. And two organisms are
Symbionts
Symptoms: The external and internal reactions of the host to invasion of a
pathogen, alteration in the plant due to infection. Ex: Necrosis, chlorosis etc.
Syndrome: The set of varying symptoms characterizing a disease is collectivity
called a syndrome. Ex: A disease may be characterized by necrosis of tissue,
hypertrophy and wilting. All these symptoms will be collectively called the disease
syndrome.
Tolerant: are those which are able to endure infection by a particular pathogen,
without showing severe disease, or giving little reaction to the effect of other
factors.
Variability: The property or ability of an organism to change its characteristics
from one generation to the other.
Virulence (=Aggressiveness): is the measure/degree of pathogenicity of an
isolate/race of the pathogen.
PLANT DISEASE EPIDEMIOLOGY

An epidemic is development or progress of disease in a population. It
varies with time and space. The study of epidemics and the factors affecting them
is called epidemiology. Earlier disease was studied with a disease triangle which
is enhanced to disease tetrahedran or disease pyramid. Plant disease epidemics
(epiphytotics) occur more commonly in annuals compared to perennials. Some
epidemics are managed naturally by weather conditions or management by human
activity like chemical spray, seed treatment, resistant genotype or other cultural
practices. However many epidemics have occurred in the past viz; late blight of
potato, stem rust of wheat, turcicum leaf blight of maize, brown spot of
paddy, blast of paddy, bacterial leaf blight of paddy, pomegranate bacterial
blight in southern India, downy mildew of grapes, stem necrosis of groundnut,
coffee leaf rust.
Factors Affecting Epidemics
Host Factors
Resistance or Susceptibility of the Host: Race specific (vertical) resistance will
not allow the development of epidemic but partial / race non specific (horizontal)
resistance may lead to epidemic but the rate of development will be slow.
Degree of Genetic Uniformity of Host Plants: Genetically uniform disease

resistant plants grown over large areas may be affected by a new pathogen race and
result in an epidemic. This has been observed in Victoria blight of oat, southern
leaf blight of maize, vegetative propagated crops,
Type of Crop: Annual crops viz; rice, wheat, maize and cotton on leaves and
flowers development of epidemic is more compared to perennial fruit crop diseases.
Rust in cereals develops in weeks compared to stem blight /cankers or
blossom blight. e.g., tristeza disease in citrus takes years to develop.
Age of Host Plants: Seedlings of vegetables in nursery are susceptible to damping

off compared later stage. The change of resistance with age is known as ontogenic
resistance. In diseases of flowers or fruits by Botrytis, Penicillium, and Glomerella,
and postharvest infections, plant parts are resistant during growth and the early
adult period but become susceptible at maturity.
Pathogen Factors
Levels of Virulence: Highly virulent pathogens infect the host rapidly and
produce more amounts of inoculums leading to epidemic compared to lesser
virulence.
Quantity of Inoculum near Hosts: The greater the number of pathogen

propagules (bacteria, fungal spores and sclerotia, nematode eggs, virus infected
plants, etc.) within or near fields of host plants, the more inoculums reaches the
hosts and at an earlier time, thereby increasing the chances of an epidemic greatly.
Type of Reproduction of the Pathogen: Polycyclic pathogens like fungal

diseases (rusts, mildews, and leaf spots) are responsible for most of plant disease
epidemics. Some soil fungi, such as Fusarium and Verticillium, and most
nematodes usually have few reproductive cycles per growing season. Some
diseases such as the smuts and wilt require an entire year to complete a life cycle
(monocyclic pathogens).In such monocyclic diseases, the inoculum builds up from
one year to the next, and the epidemic is usually polyetic, i.e., it develops over
several years.
,
Ecology of the Pathogen: Pathogens (spores and seeds) which are on aerial
surface of the host disperse with ease for long distance to cause widespread
epidemics. Other pathogens (vascular fungi and bacteria, mollicutes, viruses, and
protozoa) which reproduce inside the plant are slow and spread through vectors.
Soil borne pathogens have meager chance to cause epidemic.
Mode of Spread of the Pathogen: Wind or air borne pathogens causing diseases
like rusts, mildews, leaf blight and leaf spots, spread faster and cause epidemics
compared to others. Viral diseases transmitted by insect vectorss. Pathogens
that are transmitted by windblown rain cause epidemics in short time.
Environmental Factors
Moisture: Abundant, prolonged, or repeated high moisture, whether in the form

of rain, dew, or high humidity, is the dominant factor in the development of most
epidemics of diseases caused by oomycetes and fungi (blights, downy mildews,
leaf spots, rusts, and anthracnoses), bacteria (leaf spots, blights, soft rots), and
nematodes. Moisture not only promotes new succulent and susceptible growth
in the host, but, more importantly, it increases sporulation of fungi and

multiplication of bacteria. Moisture facilitates spores to germinate and zoospores,
bacteria, and nematodes to move. Some diseases caused by soil borne
pathogens, such as Fusarium and Streptomyces, are more severe in dry than
in wet weather. The activity of these vectors is reduced drastically in rainy
weather.
Temperature: High temperature reduces the amount of inoculums of oomycete

fungi, bacteria, and nematodes. When temperature stays within a favorable range
for each of these stages, a polycyclic pathogen can complete its infection cycle
within a very short time (usually in a few days). Fusarial diseases are favoured by
high temperature(25 to 320 C) while Verticilium wilts are favoured by low
temperature(15 to 180 C). Phythophthora is germinating by zoospores at < 180 C
and by germ tube at >210 C.
Wind: Mainly spread all aerial diseases in short time. If it is accompanied by cloud
or rain increase the epidemics.( Rusts, mildews, blights, blast)
Effect of Human Activity:

Many activities of humans have a direct or indirect effect on plant disease
epidemics, some of them favoring and some reducing the frequency and the rate of
epidemics.
Site Selection and Preparation: Low-lying and poorly drained and if near infected
fields, tend to favor the appearance and development of epidemics.
Selection of Propagative Material: The use of seed, nursery stock, and other
propagative material that carries various pathogens increases the amount of initial
inoculum and favors the development of epidemics. Disease free planting materials
reduce the epidemics.
Cultural Practices: Continuous monoculture, large acreages planted to the same
variety of crop, high levels of nitrogen fertilization, no-till culture, dense plantings,
sprinkler irrigation and poor sanitation increase epidemics.
Disease Control Measures: Chemical sprays, cultural practices (such as
sanitation, and crop rotation), biological controls (such as using resistant varieties),
and other chemical control measures reduce or eliminate the possibility of an
epidemic.
Introduction of New Pathogens: The ease and frequency of worldwide travel

increased the movement of seeds, tubers and nursery materials. These events
increased the introducing new pathogens into new areas. Example citrus canker
caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri.
Measurement of Plant Disease and Yield Loss

When measuring disease, one is interested in measuring (1) the incidence of
the disease (2) the severity of the disease and (3) the yield loss caused by the
disease. Measuring disease incidence is relatively quick and easy. Example ; cereal
smuts, and the vascular wilts of annuals. However, in many other diseases (leaf
spots, root lesions, downy mildews, blights and rusts) in which severity of the
disease is important. Disease severity is expressed as the percentage or proportion
of plant area or fruit volume destroyed by a pathogen. More often, disease
assessment scales from 0 to 10 or 1 to 4 are used to express the relative
proportions of affected tissue at a particular point in time.
Yield loss due to disease is measured at a specific growth stage, from
sequential disease assessments at several stages of a crop’s growth, or by
determining the area under a disease progress curve (AUDPC),
COMPUTER SIMULATION OF EPIDEMICS

Computer simulation model EPIDEM was designed to simulate epidemics of early
blight of tomato and potato caused by the fungus Alternaria solani. Other computer
simulators are
Sl. Computer Name of the disease Causal agent

No Model
1 EPIDEMIC Yellow rust of wheat Puccinia striiformis
2 EPIVEN Apple scab Venturia inaequalis
3 EPICORN Southern corn leaf Cochliobolus maydis
blight
HOW PATHOGENS ATTACK PLANTS

Plant cells consist of cell wall, cell membranes and cytoplasm, which
contains the nucleus and various organelles.. The plant surfaces that come in
contact with the environment either consist of cellulose, cuticle and an additional
of waxes. A pathogen to infect a plant it must be able to make its way into and
through the plant, and neutralize the defense reactions of the plant.
Mechanical Forces Exerted by Pathogens on Host Tissues

For fungi and parasitic higher plants to penetrate a plant surface, by
adhering to host plant. Hyphae and radicals have mucilaginous substances and
help in adhesion to the plant. After contact is established, flattened, bulb-like
structure called the appressorium is formed. This increases the area of
adherence between the two organisms. From the appressorium, a fine growing
point, called the penetration peg arises and advances into and through the cuticle
and cell wall. In some fungi, such as Alternaria, Colletotrichum, penetration of the
plant takes place only if melanin (dark pigment) accumulates in the appressorial
cell wall. Melanin produces a rigid structural layer. This increases the turgor
pressure in the appressorium and thereby, the physical penetration of the plant by
the penetration peg.
Nematodes penetrate plant surfaces by means of the stylet. It thrust back
and forth and exerts mechanical pressure on the cell wall.
Chemical Weapons of Pathogens
The main groups of chemical substances secreted by pathogens in plants,
are enzymes, toxins, growth regulators and polysaccharides. In the Bipolaris
blight of Victoria oats, the disease is primarily the result of a toxin secreted in the
plant by the pathogen. Among the plant pathogens, all except viruses and viroids
can probably produce enzymes, growth regulators and polysaccharides. If they
are present before infection (normal course of their activities) they are constitutive
or when they produce at infection is called induced.
In general, plant pathogenic enzymes disintegrate the structure of host
cells for food substances in the cell, or affect components of its membranes and
the protoplast.
Toxins seem to act directly on protoplast components and interfere with the
permeability of its membranes and with its function. Growth regulators exert a
hormonal effect on the cells and either increase or decrease their ability to divide
and enlarge. Polysaccharides seem to play a role only in the vascular diseases,
in which they interfere passively with the translocation of water in the plants.
Enzymes:
Enzymes are protein molecules that catalyze organic reactions in living cells
and in solutions. Some enzymes are present in cells at all times (constitutive).
Many are produced only when they are needed by the cell in response to internal or
external gene activators (induced).
Degradation of Cell Wall:
Cuticle consists primarily of cutin, more or less impregnated with wax. Plant
waxes are found as granular, blade like. Fungi and parasitic higher plants,
however, apparently can penetrate wax layers by means of mechanical force alone.
Cutin:
Cutin is insoluble polyester of C16 and C18 hydroxy fatty acids. Many fungi
and a few bacteria have been shown to produce cutinases and/or nonspecific
esterases, i.e., enzymes that can degrade cutin. Cutinases break cutin molecules
and release monomers as well as oligomers from the insoluble cutin polymer.
Cutinase is responsible for virulence in pathogens. In Monilinia fructicola, fungal
cutinase activity seems to be inhibited greatly by phenolic compounds such as
chlorogenic and caffeic acids. Pathogens that produce higher levels of cutinase
seem to be more virulent than others.
Pectic substances:
Pectic substances constitute the main components of the middle lamella, i.e.,
the intercellular cement that holds in place the cells of plant tissues. Pectic
substances are polysaccharides consisting mostly of chains of galacturonan
molecules interspersed with rhamnose molecules and small side chains of
galacturonan, xylan, and some other five carbon sugars. Several enzymes degrade
pectic substances and are known as pectinases or pectolytic enzymes. Some of
them, e.g., the pectin methyl esterases, remove small branches off the pectin
chains. The latter cleave the pectic chain and release shorter chain portions
containing one or a few molecules of galacturonan. Some chain splitting pectinases,
called polygalacturonases, split the pectic chain by hydrolysis.
Pectin degrading enzymes have been shown to be involved in the production
of many fungal and bacterial diseases, particularly those characterized by the soft
rotting of tissues. Various pathogens produce different sets of pectinases and

their isozymes. In Ralstonia solanacearum, pectinolytic enzymes are essential for
disease to develop. In some Colletotrichum causing anthracnose, the fungus
produces one pectin lyase that is a key virulence factor in disease development.
Cellulose:
Cellulose is a polysaccharide, it consists of chains of glucose (1–4) beta d-
glucan molecules. Cellulose occurs in all higher plants as the skeletal substance
of cell walls in the form of microfibrils. Cellulase (C1) attacks native cellulose by
cleaving cross-linkages between chains. A second cellulase (C2) also attacks
native cellulose and breaks it into shorter chains. These are then attacked by a
third group of cellulases (Cx), which degrade them to the disaccharide cellobiose.
Finally, cellobiose is degraded by the enzyme beta glucosidase into glucose.
Lignin:
Lignin is an amorphous, three-dimensional polymer that is different from
both carbohydrates and proteins in composition and properties. The most common
basic structural unit of lignin is a phenylpropanoid. Most of the lignin is degraded
and utilized by a group of basidiomycetes called white rot fungi. Ligninases
enable them to utilize lignin.
Proteins: Proteins; proteases or proteinases or, occasionally, peptidases.
Starch: Amylase
Lipids: Lipase and phospholipases
TOXINS IN PLANT DISEASES

Toxins act directly on living host protoplasts and kill them. Fungi and
bacteria may produce toxins in infected plants as well as in culture medium.
Toxins, however, are extremely poisonous substances and are effective in very
low concentrations. Toxins injure host cells either by affecting the permeability of
the cell membrane or by inactivating or inhibiting enzymes. Certain toxins act as
antimetabolites and induce a deficiency for an essential growth factor.
Nonhost-specific or nonhost-selective toxins: Produce all or part of the

disease syndrome not only act on the host plant, but also on other species of
plants that are not normally attacked by the pathogen in nature. Toxins
increase the severity of disease caused by a pathogen, i.e., they affect the
virulence of the pathogen, but are not essential for the pathogen to cause
disease, i.e., they do not determine the pathogenicity of the pathogen. Several of
these toxins, e.g., tabtoxin, phaseolotoxin and cercosporin,
Tabtoxin:
Tabtoxin is produced by Pseudomonas syringae; pv. tabaci, which causes the
wildfire disease of tobacco. Toxin-producing strains cause necrotic spots on
leaves, with each spot surrounded by a yellow halo. Strains of P. syringae pv.
tabaci sometimes produce mutants that have lost the ability to produce the toxin
(they become Tox-). Tox-strains show reduced virulence and cause necrotic leaf
spots without the yellow halo (black fire of tobacco).
Tentoxin:
Tentoxin is produced by the fungus Alternaria alternata (A. tenuis), which
causes spots and chlorosis.
Phaseolotoxin:
Phaseolotoxin is produced by Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola.
Phaseolotoxin plays a major role in the virulence of the pathogen by interfering
with or breaking the disease resistance of the host.
Cercosporin:
Cercosporin is produced by Cercospora and by several other fungi. It causes
damaging leaf spot and blight diseases of many crop plants, such as Cercospora
leaf spot of zinnia and gray leaf spot of corn.
Other Nonhost-Specific Toxins
Fumaric acid, produced by Rhizopus spp. fruit rot disease;
Oxalic acid, produced by Sclerotium and Sclerotinia spp.
Alternaric acid, alternariol, and zinniol produced by Alternaria spp. in many leaf
spot diseases.
Pyricularin, produced by Pyricularia grisea in rice blast disease;
Fusaric acid and lycomarasmin produced by Fusarium oxysporum in tomato wilt.
Host-Specific or Host-Selective Toxins

A host-specific or host-selective toxin is toxic only to the hosts of that
pathogen and shows little or no toxicity against non-susceptible plants. Most
host-specific toxins must be produced by microorganism which are able to cause
disease. Host-specific toxins are produced only by certain fungi (Cochliobolus,

Alternaria, Periconia, Phyllosticta, Corynespora), although certain bacterial
polysaccharides from Pseudomonas and Xanthomonas have been reported to be
host specific.
Victorin, or HV Toxin
Victorin, or Hv-toxin, is produced by the fungus Cochliobolus
(Helminthosporium) victoriae. This fungus appeared in 1945 after the introduction
and widespread use of the oat variety Victoria and its derivatives, all of which
contained the gene Vb for resistance to crown rust disease.
Resistance and susceptible to T toxin, appeared in the United States in
1968. By 1970, it had spread throughout the corn belt, attacking only corn that
had the Texas male-sterile (Tms) cytoplasm. Corn with normal cytoplasm was
resistant to the fungus and the toxin.
HC Toxin
Race 1 of Cochliobolus (Helminthosporium) carbonum causes northern leaf
spot and ear rot disease in maize. It also produces the host specific HC toxin, which
is toxic only on specific maize lines. Resistant corn lines have a gene (Hm1) coding
for an enzyme called HC toxin reductase that reduces and thereby detoxifies the
toxin. Susceptible corn lines lack this gene.
Alternaria alternata Toxins
Several pathotypes of Alternaria alternata attack different host plants and on
each they produce one of several multiple forms of related compounds that are
toxic only on the particular host plant of each pathotype.
AAL toxin causing stem canker on tomato,
AF toxin on strawberry,
AM toxin on apple,
As an example of A. alternata toxins, the AM toxin is produced by the apple
pathotype of A. alternata, known previously as A. mali, the cause of alternaria leaf
blotch of apple. The toxin is extremely selective for susceptible apple varieties,
whereas resistant varieties can tolerate more than 10,000 times as much toxin
without showing symptoms.
Other Host-Specific Toxins

Periconia circinata produces peritoxin (PC toxin), which causes sorghum root rot
disease;
Mycosphaerella (Phyllosticta) zeae-maydis produces the PM toxin (T toxin) in
corn Corynespora cassiicola, produces the CC toxin in tomato.
GROWTH REGULATORS IN PLANT DISEASE
The most important growth regulators are auxins, gibberellins, and

cytokinins, but other compounds, such as ethylene and growth inhibitors,
play important regulatory roles in the life of the plant. Pathogens can cause disease
through the secretion of growth regulators in the infected plant or through their
effects on the growth regulatory systems of the infected plant

Auxins
The auxin occurring naturally in plants is indole-3- acetic acid (IAA).
Produced continually in growing plant tissues, IAA moves rapidly from the young
green tissues to older tissues, but is destroyed constantly by the enzyme indole-3-
acetic acid oxidase, which explains the low concentration of the auxin. It is required
for cell elongation and differentiation, and absorption of IAA to the cell membrane
also affects the permeability of the membrane. Increased auxin (IAA) levels occur in
many plants infected by fungi, bacteria, viruses, mollicutes, and nematodes,
although some pathogens seem to lower the auxin level of the host.
Clubroot of cabbage (Plasmodiophora
brassicae), Corn smut (Ustilago maydis)
Cedar apple rust (Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae),
Banana wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense),
Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.),
Bacterial wilt of solanaceous plants (Ralstonia solanacearum),
Crown gall apple (Agrobacterium tumefaciens)
Gibberellins
Gibberellins were first isolated from the fungus Gibberella fujikuroi, the
cause of the foolish seedling disease of rice. The best-known gibberellin is
gibberellic acid. Compounds such as vitamin E and helminthosporol also have
gibberellin-like activity.
Cytokinins:
Cytokinins are necessary for cell growth and differentiation. In addition, they
inhibit the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids. Cytokinins, and other
hormonal substances are produced by the bacterium in culture and by infected
tissues. In the leafy gall disease of peas caused by Rhodococcus fascians, leafy
galls are produced that consist of centers of shoot over productions and shoot
growth inhibition. Cytokinin activity increases in clubroot galls, in crown galls, in
smut and rust galls, and in rust-infected bean leaves. A cytokinin is partly
responsible for several bacterial galls of plants, such as “leafy” gall disease of sweet
pea caused by the bacterium Rhodococcus (Corynebacterium) fascians, and for the
witches’ broom diseases caused by fungi and mollicutes.
Ethylene: CH2 = CH2
Produced naturally by plants, ethylene exerts a variety of effects on plants,
including chlorosis, leaf abscission, epinasty, stimulation of adventitious
roots, and fruit ripening. In Verticillium wilt of tomato, the presence of ethylene at the
time of infection inhibits disease development, whereas the presence of ethylene after
infection has been established enhances Verticillium wilt development.
Polysaccharides:
Fungi, bacteria, nematodes, and other pathogens constantly release varying
amounts of mucilaginous substances that coat their bodies and provide the
interface between the outer surface of the microorganism and its environment.
Exopolysaccharides are necessary for several pathogens to cause normal disease
symptoms either by being directly responsible for inducing symptoms or by
indirectly facilitating pathogenesis by promoting colonization or by enhancing
survival of the pathogen. The role of slimy polysaccharides in plant disease
appears to be particularly important in wilt diseases caused by pathogens that
invade the vascular system of the plant. In vascular wilts, large polysaccharide
molecules released by the pathogen in the xylem may be sufficient to cause a
mechanical blockage of vascular bundles and thus initiate wilting.
PHANEROGAMIC PARASITES
More than 2500 species of higher plants are known to live parasitically on
other plants. These parasites are vascular plants (angiosperms) that have
developed specialized organs (haustoria) which penetrate the tissues of host
plants, establish connections to the host plant vascular elements, and absorb
nutrients from them. They produce flowers and seeds and belong to several
botanical families. They vary greatly in their dependence on their host plants.
Some, e.g., loranthus has chlorophyll but no roots so they depend on their hosts
only for water and minerals. Others, e.g., dodder, have little or no chlorophyll and
no true roots so they depend entirely on their hosts for their existence. The most
common and serious parasites belong to the following botanical families and
genera:
Cuscutaceae (Convoluvulaceae) : Genus: Cuscuta, dodder on alfalfa, onion,
potato.
Orobanchaceae: Genus: Orobanche, Broomrape of tobacco, tomato and other
solanaceae plants
Scrophulariaceae: Genus: Striga, Witchweed of sorghum, maize, sugarcane
Loranthaceae: Genus : Dendrophthoe Loranthus on mango, guava, sapota etc.
DODDER:
Dodder may also serve as a living bridge for transmission of viruses from
virus infected to virus-free plants.
Symptoms:
Orange or yellow vine strands grow and twine around the stems and the
other aerial parts of the plants. It grows in a circular manner upto 10 feet in
diameter by a single dodder plant. During the summer, dodder produces
clusters of white, pink, or yellowish flowers, which soon form seed. The infected
host plants become weakened by the parasite, their vigor declines, and they
produce poor yields. As the infection progresses many such patches are seen and
join to form large areas with yellowish colored parasite.
Pathogen: Cuscuta spp.:
Dodder seed overwinters in infested fields or is mixed with the seed of host
crop. The seed germinates and produces a slender yellowish shoot but no roots
when environment is congenial. This leafless shoot rotates as though in search
of a host. If no contact with a susceptible plant it lies dormant for a few weeks. It
sends haustoria into stem and begins to climb the plant.
WITCH WEED / STRIGA:

In 1956 the witch weed was discovered for the first time in America.
Maize sorghum, millet, upland rice, and sugarcane, sweet potato are its host
range. Infected plants become stunted and chlorotic. Heavily infected plants
usually wilt and die. Losses vary and may range from slight to 100 %.
Symptoms
Affected plants remain stunted, turn yellowish and wilt. Death may follow
in heavily parasitized condition. Infected roots bear a large number of haustoria,
which are attached to the root and feed on it. One to several striga plants
appear on infected plants. The leaves are long and narrow in opposite pairs. The
flowers are small and usually red or yellowish, or white, always having yellow
centers. Seeds in pods or capsules develop, each containing more than a
thousand tiny brown seeds. A single plant may produce from 50,000 to 500,000
seeds. Although the striga is green and manufacture some of its own food, it
appears that it still continues to depend on the host, not only for all its water and
minerals, but for organic substances as well. Seeds close to host roots germinate
and grow toward these roots, attracted by the exudates of the host roots. As
soon as the striga rootlet comes in contact with the host root, its tip swells into a
bulb-shaped haustorium. However, cells in the “nucleus” of the haustorium seem
to connect the phloem of host and parasite. Although the chlorophyll of striga
plants is functional, manufactured foodstuffs still move from the host plant into the
parasite. The disease spreads in the field in a circular pattern. The circle of
infected plants increases year after year as the striga seeds spread in increasingly
larger areas. The seeds are spread by wind, by water, by contaminated tools and
equipment, animal dung or by contaminated soil carried on farm machinery.
BROOMRAPE:
Broomrape attack several hundred species of herbaceous dicotyledonous
crop plants. It cause losses varying from 10 to 70 % of the crop.
Symptoms
They occur in small patches and plants are stunted to various degrees,
depending on stage of infection. Broomrapes overwinter as seeds, which may survive
in the soil for more than 10 years. Seeds germinate only when roots of certain
plants grow near them, On germination the seed produces a radicle, which grows
toward the root of the host plant, becomes attached to it, and produces a shallow
cup-like appressorium that surrounds the root. From the appressorium, a mass of
undifferentiated cells penetrate the host, extend to and, occasionally, into the
xylem, and absorb nutrients and water from it. This
results in clusters of broomrape plants. The broomrape stems continue to grow
and produce flowers and seeds, which mature and are scattered over the ground in
less than two months from the emergence of the stems.
Partial or Semi or Hemi Stem Parasites:

Loranthus (Dendrophthae falcata) Family-Loranthaceae.
It is a partial stem parasite of tree trunks and branches with brown stem, dark
green leaves but no roots but haustoria. Stem is thick and flattened at the node,
appear in clusters at the point of attack which can be easily spotted on the trees. At
the point of attachment with the tree, it shows swellings or tumorous growth where
the haustoria are produced. It produces flowers which are long, tabular, greenish,
white or red colour and found in clusters. It produces fleshy berries
with single seed. The affected host plant becomes stunted in growth and dispersal of
seed is mostly through the birds (coloured and fleshy/ mucilaginous fruits) and
animals. It attacks mango, citrus, apple and guava.
Parasitic Red Algae

Cephaleuros algae consist of a vegetative thallus that is disc-like and is
composed of cells arranged symmetrically. The algal thallus produces filaments that
grow mostly between the cuticle and the epidermis of host leaves but, under some
conditions, the filaments also grow between the palisade and the mesophyll cells of
leaves. Cephaleuros algae produce filaments on which zoosporangia are produced.
They reproduce by means of zoospores in zoosporangia, which can be disseminated
by wind, rain splashes, and wind-driven rain. Zoospores can infect new leaves,
shoots, and fruits of plants.

PAT-101-Fundamentals of Plant Pathology

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PAT-101-Fundamentals of Plant Pathology

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Fundamentals of Plant Pathology

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANT PATHOLOGY

The term ‘pathology’ etymologically means the “study of the suffering”.

Historical examples which affected human activity are mentioned below.

Southern leaf blight of maize

Citrus canker : Year : 1910 Place : Florida, USA

Bacterial leaf blight of paddy: Year : 1963 Place : South India

Bacterial blight of pomegranate : Place : Maharastra, Karnataka, AP Year :

Chestnut blight disease

Dutch elm disease Causal agent: Ophiostoma ulmi Place : USA

Downy mildew of grapes Place : Europe (France) Year : 1878

Composition of Bordeaux Mixture (BM) is Lime: Copper sulphate : Water

Powdery mildew of grapes Place : Europe (France) Year : 1954

Classification of plant diseases:

Grouping of Plant Diseases in various ways.

I. Based on Crops infected/ plant species

II. According to plant parts affected

III. Based on chief source of inoculum

IV. Based on the extent to which disease are associated.

V. Based on geographic distribution / spread and severity of infection/

VI. Based on symptoms

Iatrogenic disorder: Side effects of excess chemical used on plant surface.

a. Abiotic factors include mainly deficiencies or excesses of nutrients, light,

Black heart of potato (Low O2 and high temp)

Viroids: are naked infectious strands of ribo nucleic acid

C. Biotic: Includes living or cellular organisms

Mc New (1960) has proposed a similar classification based on the affected

F. Diseases affecting photosynthesis-

G. Diseases affecting translocation of elaborated food materials

Domain: Eubacteria, Division: Tenericutes, Class:

Phytoplasma multiply in insect vectors in haemolymph, alimentary canal and

Spiroplasmas: are helical mollicutes.

5. Organism is sensitive to tetracycline and resistant to penicillin.

Fastidious vascular Bacteria:

Xylem- inhabiting Fastidious Bacteria- (1973- Pierce’s disease of grapes)

Diseases caused by Xylem- inhabiting fastidious bacteria-

Phloem inhabiting Fastidious Bacteria:

HISTORY OF PLANT PATHOLOGY

Anton de Bary (1831-1888) German scientist.

Discovered the heteroecious nature of rust fungi in 1885

Orton and Biffen – Pioneers in the field of resistance breeding.

Real science of history of plant pathology

Davis et al (1972) observed, motile, helical, wall-less micro organism associated

Dimitri Ivanowskii (Russian botanist) - In 1892, he confirmed Mayer’s findings. He

Pruisner (1972) reported PRIONS. These are protein molecule of approximately

Eg: Mad cow disease, Scarpie disease in sheep.

Association of a nematode in plant disease was first reported by Needham in England

Lafonte (1909): Protozoa (flagellates) are found in latex bearing plants –

No Kochs postulates were proved due to obligate nature of the protozoans.

In human beings in Africa, sleeping sickness is caused by Trypanosoma and

Robertson (1824): Recommended the sulphur for management of Powdery mildew of

Tisdale and Williams (1934): Development of dithiocarbamate fungicides from

Carter (1943): Reported the nematicidal properties of DD (Dichloropropene

Plant Pathology in India

Dastur, J.F.: (1886-1971) colleague of Butler. He studied Phytophthora parasitica

B.B Mundkur: Book “Fungi and plant diseases”

Mehta K.C.: (Agra University): Worked on wheat rust epidemiology in India.

Coleman, L.C.: He is a Canadian botanist who worked on koleroga of areca nut in

Nene, Y.L.: He worked on pulse or legumes virology in ICRISAT, Hyderabad.

Rayachaudhuri, S.P.: worked on plant virology and he also known as Virology

Rangaswami G. Wrote a book called Diseases of crop plants in india.

A. N. Srivastava: He worked on bacterial leaf blight of paddy

Disease (DIS - EASE)

Diseases in humans and animals: Dendruf,