‘THE GREEK PARTICLES BY J. D. DENNISTON FELLOW OF HERTFORD COLLEGE, OXFORD UNIVERSITY LECTURER IN GREEK AND LATIN LITERATURE SECOND EDITION vesOsford University Press, Amen House, London E.C.4 GLASOOW EW YORK TOROHTO MELBOURNE WELLINGTON BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADEAS KARACH! CATE TOWN TBADAM Geoffrey Cumberlege, Publisher to the University NESE Poa UNF De' Te TIS _ miasr apiTion 1934 SECOND EDITION REPRINTED LITHOGRAPHICALLY IM CREAT BRITAIN AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, OXFORD, mow COMBECTAD SHEETS OF THE FIRST EDITION 1954 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION DuRING the fifteen years between the first edition of this book and his death in 1949 Denniston made notes of a large number of additional examples and on many points changed his mind in the light of this fresh material. My principal task in the prepara- tion of this second edition has been to incorporate all these addi- tions and corrections. For the sake of speed and economy photographic reproduction from the first edition has been em- ployed. This has meant that no insertion could be made in the text without an omission of corresponding size on the same or the next page. Accordingly, I have reduced many quotations to bare.re- ferences; the choice of what to omit or condense has not always been easy, but in all cases I have weighed the new matter against the old and omitted whatever contributed least to the argument. Above all, I have taken the opportunity to redistribute matter between the text and the addenda in such a way that, as far as possible, the addenda do not accumulate additional examples but are confined to discussion of difficulties of text and interpretation. The notes which Denniston made in his interleaved copy nearly always made it quite clear what he wanted to insert and where; some other notes, in the margins of review offprints and correspon- dence, did not make it clear, and I have accordingly been very cautious in using them. In general, I have tried to admit nothing into the text without being certain that it represented Denniston’s considered view. But in a few cases the fresh examples which he had added seemed to me to necessitate a slight modification of his original views, and I have rewritten a sentence or two accordingly (p. 188, on postponed 8€ in Middle and New Comedy ; pp. 290-1, on xaé linking qualitative attributes; p. 462, on 8° ov in the sense of d& 84; p. 501, on te linking qualitative attributes). As thoroughgoing a correction as possible has been made of the few printers’ errors and fewer wrong references which appeared in the first edition. Inevitably, in carrying out a revision of this kind one is faced with two temptations ; to add material of one’s own, and to modity interpretations of the author's with which one disagrees, Thex FROM AID TO THE READER (Bex ST EDITION) I use italics in translation to mark the word stressed in my English: this is not necessarily the word rendering the word stressed in the Greek, On the whole, | have avoided the indication ‘etc.’, which in a work of this kind is often dangerously ambiguous. ‘/d. saep.’ denotes that the particle or usage occurs often in the author last cited, ‘#5. saep,’ that it occurs often in the work last cited, ‘e¢ saep.’ that it occurs often in Greek as a whole. Where a particle is given in brackets as an emendation, it is to be taken as a substitute for the particle under discussion. E.g. on p. 470 (s.v. 66) ‘(yp Reiske)’ means that Reiske conjectures ydp for 6. But I have been more explicit in cases where ambiguity was to be feared. AID TO THE READER (SECOND EDITION) References to Bacchylides are to the edition of Snell’ (1949). Fragments of lyric and elegiac poets are numbered as in Diehl's Anthologia lyrica Graeca {second edition); tragic fragments as in Nauck; comic fragments as in Kock; but Arn., Diehl, Mette, and Mette (Nachtrag) after a tragic fragment refer respectively to the Supplementum Euripidenm of von Arnim, the Supplementum Sophocteum of Diehl, the Supplementum Aeschyleum of Mette, and Nacktrag eu dem Supplementum Aeschyleum; Dem, after a comic fragment refers to the Supplementum Comicum of Demiaii- czuk. Fragments of Pindar are numbered as in Bowra, with Schroeder's number in brackets; of the Presocratics, as in Diels (fifth edition); of the historians, as in Jacoby; of Epicharmus and Sophron, as in Kaibel’s Comoediae Graccae Fragmenta. An asterisk indicates that the Addttzenal Noles at the end of the book should be referred to. ee ee eee CONTENTS? FROM AID TO THE READER (FIRST EDITION) ix - AID TO THE READER (SECOND EDITION) . x INTRODUCTION. . 2 evil 1. THE ORIGINS AND FUNCTIONS OF PARTICLES — xavi (1) Definition of ‘particle’. “Particles originally other forms of speech. saxvii (2) Particles denoting a mode of thought in isolation. Emphatic Particles: affirmative, intensive, determinative, timitative xxxvii (3) Particles conveying moods of emotion, nuances =. xxviii (a) Particles of emphasis and nuance grouped as ‘adverbial’ Difficulty of rendering these particles : toxic (5) Particles establishing a relationship between ideas. Con- nective, hypotactic, ‘responsive’, apodotic and resumptve, and ‘corresponsive* uses. : : Doo Il, CONNECTING PARTICLES . : : : «xiii (1) The origin of connectives : : : : + xiii (2) Connexion and asyndeton. Cases where asyndeton is often employed. Polysyndeton. Use of asyndeton for emotional effect : + xdiit (3) Nature of connexion omitted when asyndeton is employed | xlvi (4) Tests of admissibility of asyndeton ina givencase . 0. xlvi (5) Apparently superfluous connexion. (i) In answer to question or command. (1i) At opening of speech or work. (iii) At opening of reported speech. ~ xbi (6) The different methods of connexion : additional, adversative confirmatory, and inferential. Distinction between ad tional and ‘progressive’ uses. *Eliminative’ and * balancing adversatives . . . . = xlvti (7) Abnormalities of reference inconnexion =. =. wh II. COMBINATIONS AND COLLOCATIONS OF PAR- TICLES. Ki (1) The distinction between combinations and coltocations. (i) Change of meaning in combination, (11) Dependence ot one particle on another. (iii) Other tests of coherence. {iv) Fortuitous collocations, “Gravitation of certain particles towards certain other parts of speech . : (2) Avoided collocations —. : : . : . li (3) Split combinations (4) Exceptional combinations (5) Double connexions Vin the summary of the test square brackets denote an unimportant, iNlusary, of highly doabttul usage.xii CONTENTS@ 1V. DIVERSITY IN THE USAGES AND MEANINGS OF PARTICLES. Deviations from normal meaning even in case of apparently stereotyped idioms. Ambiguities more frequent in case of combinations. Occasional logical separa tion of two particles which normally form a combination. Different meanings in close proximity “wi V. THE POSITION OF PARTICLES . . : (1) The position of particles in sentence and clause. Adverbial particles gravitate to opening. Position of enclitics. Posi- tion of ye, 8, and adverbial cai relative to emphasized word. Position of connectives. Types of postponement : (2) Order of precedence in combinations. (i) Adverbial particles and connectives. (ii) Preparatory particles and connectives. (iii) Preparatory and adverbial particles. (iv) Two adverbial particles : : : : : : : kk Wii Wii VI. THE STYLISTIC IMPORTANCE OF PARTICLES ki (1) Repetition of particles. Greek tolerance of repetition. signed repetition. ‘Gregarious’ tendency of particles xii (2) The employment of particles in different periods, dialects. and styles, and by different authors. Difficulty of inquiry . (3) Chronological differences. Exacter delimitation of functions in post-Homeric Greek. Emergence of stereotyped com- binations. In other cases increased diversity of usage. The development of 89, ogy, uv, and other particles: obsolescence of others. Development in individual authors: Aeschylus, Plato. Post-classical usages in Hippocrates . : ‘ {4) Differences in dialect. Tonic usages in certain Attic writers. ody and roe combinations. Other examples. Tonicisms in Sophocles. : : : : : + xx (5) Differences in genre. Dialogue and continuous speech. Par- ticles especially common at opening of answer: usually omitted in oratro obliga, but sometimes retained. Usages transferred from answers to continuous speech (imaginary dialogue). Certain particles mainly confined in Homer and the historians to speeches. ‘The orators stand midway between dialogue works and formal treatises. Vivid usages in Demosthenes. Political and forensic oratory (6) Colloquial and poetical uses. Possibly colloquial uses in Homer. Colloquialisms in Euripides, and occasionally in Aeschylus. Epic uses in Aeschylus, Other uses peculiar to the high style, Certain Epic particles not found in later Greek. Differences between verse (including comedy) and prose. Ixxv Isiv bv O)! ‘al preferences of various authors, Usages of Demos- vies and pseudo-Demosthenes compared . Isxviii "AMG . : : . . : : . ot 1, Genewat Apvixsative Use . . . cn {4) Eliminative. : . t fiy Usually either(apddda clause or (4) clause to which it is opporedd co CONTENTS xiii q Gii) Particular varieties of dda following negative clause. (a) ob psvov (obx Sas)... GAAG cai, etc. (6) ddAd, following nega~ tive clause, meaning ‘except’. Xj» ddd.” (c) With com- parative adverb in negative clause. (d) ydddd. (e) Rhetorical ¢ question taking place of negative clause : 3 jc (2) Balancing. (i) Without preceding yi. (ii) wiv... ddNG (@AN Syws). ddAd answering negative pév clause . Ss (3) GdAd expressing opposition in general. (i) In answers. (ii) In continuous speech. (iii) In anticipated objections (usually ANA vH Bia) : : : . : - 7 * Il. SPecIAL Uses . . . . . . . 9 (1) Following a rejected suggestion. (i) Introducing a question, ‘Well, what?’ (etc). (ii) Alternative suggestion offered. (iii) 3° aad. (iv) Hypophora : : : 9 (2) In apodosis (often adda... ye: for Add’ ody, see p. 444). .ou (3) With protasis understood, ‘ At least? : : (4) In commands and exhortations. Sometimes repeated at short interval . . . : : _ oe : (5) Inwishesand prayers. (i) Answer taking form of wish or prayer. (ii) Wish or prayer expressed during course of speech (6) Assentient. (i) Practical consent, With echoed word, especially in Plato, Consent implied : (a) enjoined task described as easy or unodjectionable ; (8) person conveys his readiness to speak by speaking. (ii) Assent, expressed (2) by favourable judgement of preceding words : (4) by form of words implying that what has been said is correct. (iii) Expressing (a) ac- quiescence: (4) a sympathetic reaction : : (7) Introducing substantiation of hypothesis or wish . : : (8) Inceptive. (i) Adversative. (ji) Response to invitation to speak. (ili) Response or approval in general . : ; i (9) Progressive. Sometimes adda xai, d\n’ of8é ene IIL, Position. Postponement after apostrophe or oath 1V. Compinations : . : (1) aad ye. For dAAa... ye, see 112 . : . : (2) aan’ of86, Why, noteven . ..’. For sense ‘Nor, again’, see Il. 9 (3) ddd’ §. (i) Negation, containing word of comparison, followed by exception. (ii) Negation, not containing word of com parison, followed by exception, (iit) Instead of general negation, particular instance of it given, Explanation of the combination dN : . . . : (4) aX? §. Usually at opening of answer: sometimes following exclamation or apostrophe. Only used in questions. iXX’. J hardly a distinctive usage. GAN’ f wrongly read for JAN F. (5) ob piv dddd: ob piv... ddAd. (i) General adversative use. piv... 00 wiv GAG. (ti) Introducing supplementary argu- ment taking marked precedence over previous one. (ut) Argument thus stressed representing second line of defence. od pi dda i . . (6) ob perros add«i (7) od yap adda 3 2 e‘Arap : xiv CONTENTS ‘Apa (ap, pa) - . : : : I. PRIMARY UsE, EXPRESSING LIVELY FEELING OF INTEREST II, SECONDARY USE, EXPRESSING SURPRISE ATTENDANT UPON DISHLLUSIONMENT (1) Verb in present. (2) Verb in past. diner» etc. (ii) with imperte in future. (4) adr’ dpa Special uses: (i) with ct, especially of ei. (3) Verb II]. PARTICULAR VARIETIES OF SECONDARY USE (t) @ dpa : : : . . : : : (2) In reported speech, and after verbs of thinking and seeming. Especially os dpa : : . : . {3) In questions, following an interrogative. (i) Direct questions. Gi) Indirect questions. aris apa : : (4) Logical IV. Position. Usually second word when connective : but postpone- ment not infrequent : V. COMBINATIONS. GAA’ dpa, GAA"... dpa. etre dpa. ofre dpa. abrap pa. yt dpa, dpa ye. 3° Spa. 84 dpa. xai pa. pev dpa, obv Spa. +’ dpa. BoBai dpa. For } dpa, da, see p. 284. For vip dpa, yép pa, see p. 56. For row dpa, dpa ro, see PP. 554-5 : : : : : : Mpa L. EQUIVALENT IN SENSE TO dpa. (1) Adding liveliness. (2) Mark- ing realization of truth or drawing conclusion, (3) «! dpa. (4) 4s dpa. (5) Following interrogative pronoun : II. As INTERROGATIVE PARTICLE. (1) Leaving answer open, (2) Ex- pecting negative answer. (3) Expecting positive answer. (4) Sp" ot. (5) dpa pi . . . . . II. Posttion. In I normally second or third word : in New Comedy sometimes first word. In II normally first word, but often ostponed by dramatists and Plato. Repeated interrogative ipa. Occasionally introducing indirect question IV. COMBINATIONS. (1) dpa ye, Apa... ye. (2) GAA’ dpa. (3) dpa 89. (4) &p ofv, (5) nai dpa : : : . : (1) Adversative. (2) Progressive. (3) wév... drip. (i) Strong ad- versative force. (ii) Weaker adversative force. (4) Position, Occasionally postponed after apostrophe. (5) Combinations. Grip Bq, drap ubv. drip oby 9. dedp re. drap ro. For érap sui, dvap ot8e, see p. $3, for drap wév, p. 391 « Abrdp (1) Strongly adversative. (2) Weakly adversative or purely pro- gressive. (3) Apodotic . . . . . 42 44 46 48 50 gt st 55 35 t CONTENTS, xv Tdp . . . . . 56 1. CONFIRMATORY AND CAUSAL. 38 IL, EXPLANATORY. (1) After rexpipioy 8¢, onpeiov &é, ete. (2 an expression denoting the giving or receiving of en Ate (3) After a forward-pointing pronominal adjective or adverb, (4) After a neuter superlative adjective. (5) Miscellaneous 58 II. PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF CAUSAL AND EXPLANATORY yp 60 (1) Giving the motive for saying that which has just been said. 60 (2) Connexion of thought sometimes lacking in logical precision . 61 (3) Meaning ‘for otherwise 62 (4) Referring to remoter context : : : 63 (5) Used by a speaker in continuing his own train of thought 63 (6) Successive yap's with a common reference : . . 64 (7) yép referring (i} to single clause : (ii) to individual word or phrase 65, (8) Introducing an instance : : : : + 6 (9) Appositional, ‘that is to say’. (i) With pév and 36. (i) With disjunctive j. (iii) Other cases. For appositional xai yap, see pe 109 (3) . . . . . . 67 IV, Anticipatory. : : : : : - & (1) Parenthetical. With vocative preceding yip clause. In sentence opening with «ai : . - 68 (2) Anticipatory in strict sense . : : : + 69 (3) Resumption or inception of main clause marked by particle or demonstrative pronoun. (i) 8. (ii) d\Nd, hortative or ad- versative. (iti) 1. (iv) voy. (v) oy (oby 35), (vid 84 dh ody). (vii) Sue ratro, Sed 4%. (viii) ue (doubttul), (ix) Demonstrative pronoun : : : + 70 (4) Fusion of clauses. . . V. IN ANSWERS. (1) Supporting implied assent : (2) Supporting implied dissent. : . . (3) Providing motive for language used by previous speaker (4) Presupposing qualified agreement. . (5) Connexion of thought obscured by compression . > . (6) Answer in form of question. (i) Rhetorical question giving grounds for implied assent. For elliptical ros yip of ; see p- 86. (ii) Surprised question, throwing doubt on grounds ot previous speaker's words, (ui) Asking why cause of w*: precedes has been brought into operation, iv) Conve . surprised recognition of grounds of preceding question (v) Implying that preceding question need not have been put: ‘Why, of course : : : . (7) Statement or question referring to subordinate clause or indis word. : : - oe Loos (8) Exclamation, apostrophe, or question interposed before yap clause Explanation of yp in answers : Looe yes, for’, ‘no, for’. ava bxvi CONTENTS (% VI. ProcRessIVE USE, IN ANSWek-QuEsTIONS (1) Speaker proffers new suggestion afer elimination of previous hypothesis . (2) Speaker, after being satisfied on one subject, wishes to learn something further. (i) Further information required con- cerning cause of facts already known. (ii) Non-explanatary Supplementary information required. (i) and (i) with elipse: vi yap 5 « . Progressive yp in questions in continuous speech, Explanation of progressive yip in questions : VH. EL.ipricat Questions: ri yip; (cf. pp. 82: P- 285): ob ydp ; moe yp; mae yap of; VIE Assentient. (1) In general. (2) With word echoed from preceding speech. (3) yap rot (for which see, in general, Pp. $49-50), conveying assent, and adding something to it, (4) yee expressing approval. 5) Assent or approval, with 4 rdp5 (see echoed from preceding speech . ss IX. IN WISHES, ¢! yap, al ydp . . . . . (2) The wse of. (6) Conditions, (i) Wish-conditions, (ii) Pure wish-clauses. . . . (2) The use of pip. (i) Possible causal relationship. (ii) In dialogue, ‘expressing wish that something stated or wished by previous speaker might come true, (ii) Wish for something supple- mentary to fact just stated. ‘Exclamation sometimes pre- ceding wish in (i), (i), and Gil. Gv) Logical connexion not falling under above heads . : : Summary of evidence regarding the significance. of pip in ef yép wishes. Supposed use of ydp, apart from eet) rea 4) Other instances. - 333 538xxxiv Tow . . rou implies an audience. CONTENTS Examination of this principle . L. In Direct STATEMENTS (1) Im general. (2) Boasting. (3) Threatening, (4) Hortatory, deprecatory, ete, (5) In response to command, (6) Reveal- ing speaker's emotional or intellectual state. (7) Conveying criticism of previous speaker's words, (8) With gé, summons to attention. (9) Directing attention to sight ‘or sound, ‘Lo!', ‘Hark!* (10) With proverb or general ref (11) In negative statements, ofror. ofrov.. uj. covron. fro. yap efees. ofror.. oi8i.. (13) In potential with av: by crasis, rdv. For § rv, see p. 554 Il. In oTHER IsperEnpEnt CLAUSES : : : (2) Questions. (2) Commands, postive and egative (3) Prayers and wishes : . TI, In SuBoRDINATE CLAUSES : : : (1) Causal, éei rox (eat), drt roe. (2) In conditional protasis. (3) In relative clause. (4) In final clause. (5) In indirect speech. (6) wa roe... ye, with infinitive : . IV. Position Usually early in sentence, but sometimes (1) Early in apodosis, especially of conditional sentence. (2) Generally, late in sentence or clause. (3) Often between article and substan tive, or preposition and substantive. In tmesis . V. REPETITION OF ror . VI. Cosmminations. For xairot, uévror, rocyiprot, roivwy, see those particles. (1) dAXd rox, dAAd. sor. GAA" obror.. ye, GAN" oly... ro. (2) abrdp ror, drdp ro. (3) ydp rou GdAa yap ro. For xai yap to, see pp. 113-14 : : (4) pro. (i) Pro tanto reason for accepting proposition. (ii) Re- strictve 9¢ rei in general, (i) ye emphatic or exclamatory with roc standing apart. ye T0184, y¢ roi ov (5) Bé ron aa... 8 rou od8é raL, GAA obBE rot. Kad yap OBE For. (6) 84 ro, rov34. (i) 3ij rovafter relatives in Epic. Occasion- ally in prose. da 8% ro: (Plato). yap 8% ro. (ii) ror 3q. ofror By, ofru 8h... ye : : (7) Heo "As ‘either’. rot, ‘or’. (8) frog rou, Fein fripa rot piv. (ii) With im- perative or optative (9) rot dpa (répa). dpa ron. frdpa... f. dp ron ipa oi (10) »6 ros, viv vo 11) obrot piv oby Kaira. . . . . . (i) Adversative, (i) In general. (ii) Used by speaker in pulling himself up abruptly. (1ii) Objection introduced by xairos countered by a following adversative clause, (iv) Furecast- ing of following adversative by yéo, (v) Karely at opening of specch. (vi) In parenthesis. (vii) With participle 537 537 539 539 $45, 545 546 546 5a? 547 548 548 550 553 555 555 556 a CONTENTS XXXV (2) Continuative. xairor xai soe + 339 G3) Logical. (i) Rarely in complete syllogism. (ii) Usually con clusion of syllogism left to imagination. (ini) Relationship Of anos semtence to preceding sentence usvally, if regarded in isolation, adversative: but sometimes positive 560 (4) Combinations. (i) eaiton ye, xairoc... yt. (iil xairor wep (see P- 559 (vii). [xairot ye pov) . . 564 kairo in cra! . . . «$64 Tovydp, Toryapoty, Torydproe . : . . - 365 Tovyap - . . . . . + 365 (i) In Homer, used by person preparing to speak or act at another's request. (ii) In subsequent Greek, wider range of meaning. 365 5 Tovyapotv, Toryaproe . . . . . + 566 ‘Totvw - : . . : . : : - 568 Essentially an Attic and colloquial particle : 368 I. Loctcan (1) In general, (i) In continuous speech. (ii) fn dialogue, with an- swer springing from words or attitude of previous speaker . 569 (2) In conclusions of formal syllogisms (rare). (3) Responding to invitation to speak. (4) Conveying comment on previous speaker's words. Especially calor ruimy, etc., olten with ellipse of verb. (5) At opening of narration announced in advance. (6) At opening of set speech (Nenopton). (7) Rounding off long argument. + 57t IL. TRANSITIONAL . sta (1) Marking fresh stage in march ofthought, (i) Dialogue. wi Con- tinuous speech . (2) Introducing fresh item in series. (i) Dialogue. (i speech, fri roivy. roy. ..én 373 (3) Transition from enunciation of ‘general proposition to considera- tion of particular instance. Introducing minor premise. (4) General proposition implied irom particular instance of its application . : . (5) Seldom after light stop. Continuous (6) Apodotic II. Cospiations. (0) wai rointy, nai... role (2) 3) rane, [rainy di). (3) Other combinations : . SI? IV. Position ADDITIONAL NOTES. BIBLIOGRALTHY . INDEINTRODUCTION I. THE ORIGINS AND FUNCTIONS OF PARTICLES. (1) Difficult as it is to arrive at a satisfactory definition of particle, an attempt must be made at the outset. I will define it as a word expressing a mode of thought, considered either in isolation or in relation to another thought,' or a mood of emotion. It is a probable assumption that the evolution of particles repre- sents a relatively late stage in the development of expression. Their existence betokens a certain self-consciousness. A few Greek particles can be clearly seen to have been, at an earlier stage, other parts of speech. Thus ¢AAd was originally dAAq, “other things’, and ror (pretty certainly) the dative of the second person singular pronoun. mov was probably ‘somewhere’, and the tot in rorydp a case (perhaps the instrumental) of demonstrative 16. So in English ‘well’, ‘come’, ‘now’, ‘why’, have come to be used as particles. A loss of definiteness has been accompanied by increased subtlety of nuance. There is less body, more bouquet. (2) The particles which, in origin, express a mode of thought in isolation are ye, oy, %, Onv, wry, wep, rot, mov. Of these, rot presses an idea upon the attention of the person addressed ; ‘IT would have you know (or remember)’: rou conveys doubt, ‘i * This distinction cannot, however, be rigidly maintained everywhere. While in the case of adjectives and adverbs, and verbs derived irom ad- jectives, emphasis may be added without any external reference (Kady y¢, ‘ Fine!" £8 ye,‘ Excellent !": Evrvxa ye, 1 am lucky"), emphasis on sub- stantives and most verbs necessarily implies a contrast with some other thing or action, however dimly the contrasted idea may be envisaged. «It's a cloud!" (sc, ‘not a mountain top’, or ‘not anything else"), And this external reference, which underlies what 1 shall call * determinative’ emphasis, becomes patent in limitative emphasis: ofuai ye, ‘1 taint 0° (re, “but I may be mistaken’). Hence limitative ye comes near to mer in sense. Conversely, piv sufifariwmt often approximates to ye, and cai from meaning ‘even’, ‘also’, sometimes comes tw be little more than a parnele of emphasis, when the external reference which ‘even’ and ‘also’ imply is only vaguely conceived.Xxxvi INTRODUCTIO'® suppose’. The remainder primarily carry emphasis. Further, emphasis may take different forms: (i) Affirmative, denoting that something really and truly is so: (ji) Intensive, denoting that something is very much so: (iii) Determinative, concentrat- ing the attention on one idea to the exclusion of all else: (iv) Limitative, implying that beyond the prescribed limits the reverse may be true. Naturally, fixed lines cannot be drawn between these forms. Thus (i) ‘I am really sorry’ implies, almost of necessity, (ii) ‘Iam very sorry ’. (i) ‘It's really James" suggests (iii) ‘It's James and no other’, In certain contexts (ili) suggests (iv), We should not therefore expect to find, and we do not in fact find, precise delimitation of the usages of emphatic particles. Affirmation is expressed par excellence by #, which (as its regular position, first word in the sentence, indicates) affects the thought asa whole: while 4% and ye tend to cohere with the preceding word. # woAXol rodro motoior, ‘in truth many do this’: in moA- dod 8} rovro mouobae, 6 is almost an adverb, going closely with wodAof: but not quite an adverb, and moAdoi 4y, ‘really many’, is not quite the same as pada modAoi, ‘very many’. Of the other emphatic particles, zy perhaps comes nearest in force to #, though less subjective in tone: and in Homer of pofy in negation appears to be the counterpart of # in affirmation, The intensive and determinative functions are shared by ye, 4¥, and mep: limitation is expressed by ye and wep. Taking Greek as a whole, ye is the particle most commonly used for expressing determination and limitation. Interrogation is expressed by # (from which, combined with &pa, interrogative dpa is probably derived): though, strictly speaking, the interrogation is not expressed by the particle, but understood: Ioveis rodro; ‘Do you do this ?' ’H motets root; «Do you really do this?’ (3) Besides expressing modes of thought, these particles, with some now to be mentioned for the first time, also indicate moods of emotion, nuances! Thus pathos is often suggested by 6y, irony or sarcasm by 84 and &94ev (sometimes by ye), interest and 1 tt may be objected that the particle merely emphasizes, while the emotional nuance lies in the context. But the particle, from constant use in a particular kind of context, acquires a specific emotional tone, @ INTRODUCTION xxxix surprise by dpa and ye, sympathy, encouragement, threatening hostility, and other attitudes by zor, sudden perception or appre- hension by kat pyjy and Kat 87. (4) These particles of emphasis and nuance I will style ‘adverbial’! since they are in most cases naturally translated by adverbs, ‘really’, profecio, certe, etc.: I shall apply this term to all uses other than connective and preparatory (apodotic uses are difficult to classify: see 5.d below). The contribution which these particles make to the force and vividness of Greek has been universally recognized. Often they cannot be appropriately translated into a modern language,? and their effect must be suggested by inflexiuns of the voice in speaking, or by italics, exclamation marks, or inverted commas in writing. It would be too much to claim that the whole expression that a sensitive and intelligent reader can put into a page of English is present already in the corresponding Greek, owing to the presence of particles. Rather, the particles may be compared to the marks of expression in a musical score, which suggest interpretation rather than dictate it. To carry the analogy further, a page of Thucydides bears somewhat the same relation to a page of Plato as a page of Bach to a page of Beethoven. (5) Hitherto we have considered the function of particles as expressing a mode of thought or mood of feeling in isolation. We have now to discuss their function as establishing a relation- ship between separate ideas. Relationships may be established in different ways, (a) The second idea is linked to the first by a connectins particle? which may do no more than connect, bus may also give * This is not a very happy term, but it is a convenient and customary one. Dr. R. W. Chapman, in some of his notes on the Greek particles, sty:es th.- Btoup ‘self-contained ', ‘independent’. We must include among the * Pendent’ particles the Epic re of habitual action, wich, froin Ks objective nature, stands apart from the other members of the group * German is richer than English in pasticles, and overs more equiva German writers on the subject start at sume advantage in this respect, _* Naturally, the units connected are normally eiusdens ori, Bus hs. is by no means a hard aud fast rule. E.g. in ASupp, aks an adver (Oa participial clause. Cases in which a finite verb is linked by acs