A. Introduction * Sociolinquistics is Macro-linguistics. Macro-linguistics analyzes language beyond its most basic functions and context—it facuses on the social, cultural psychological and neurological factors and how they're connected to the language and its structure. * Sociolinguistics Definition: Sociolinguistics is the study of the complex relationship between language and society. For Hudson (1996: 1): "the study of language in relation to society” * Sociolinguistics approaches: » For De Saussure: ‘Language is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity’. For Chomsky: Language is asocial, He is more focused on the study of properties of language that are universal to all human speech communities. The systematicity of language is confined to competence. » For Dell Hymes (Chomsky’s objector): He coined the term communicative competence, which is knowledge of the rules ofa language + the ability to use these rules appropriately in different settings. Notes: © Sociolinguistics and Language Variation involve the study of how language varies among diflerent groups of speakers and the relationship of this variation to social factors. AN gxtingt Janquaag is a language that no longer has any speakers, especially if the language has no living descendants. (Latin or Sanskrit). + Sociolinguistics must be oriented toward both data and theory — itis an empirical discipline!B. Varieties of language + Variety Definition: Variety: A linguistic system used by a certain group of speakers or in certain social contexts. + Speech Community Definition: Speech community: all the people who use a given language (or dialect). (John Lyons). Speech community: refers to a group of peaple who agree linguistically, and use the same rules and properties of language. Members af speech community often use slang or jargon to serve their group with special purposes and priorities. © Lanquage Definition: Edward Sapir defined language as ‘a purely human and noninstinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of auditory and visual symbols produced by organs of speech. + Stondardt Nari A standard language is usually identified as a relatively uniform variety of a language which does not show regional variation, and which is used in a wide range of communicative functions. * Standardization: The process by which standard languages are developed; it's a result of a direct deliberate intervention by society. 1. Selection A particular variety must be selected as the ane to be developed into standard language. Generally, the chosen variety is the one that has higher prestige because of its speakers political and saciaeconomical power.2. Codification Academies establish the norms of grammatical usage and vocabulary to 'fix' the variety, so that everyone agrees on what is correct. 3. Elaboration of function It must be possible to make the selected variety function in all fields by adding new specialized vocabulary (parliament, government...). 4, Acceptance The selected variety has to be accepted by the relevant population, it’s usually the national language and they must take pride in using it. Dialect is the variety of language spoken in a region that differs including a particular regional vocabulary, grammar, syntax and sccent, © Mutual intelligibility: The criterion of mutual intelligibility is sometimes invoked to distinguish dialects from languages. Two language varieties are said to be mutually intelligible if their speakers can understand each other. However, dislects belonging to the same language are not always mutually intelligible in their spoken form, but at least they share the same written language. © Register: Itis used to refer to variation according to the context in which language is used. For example, most people speak differently in formal contexts than in informal contexts. C. Linguistic Variation© Variation is a characteristic of language: there is more than. one way af saying the same thing. Speakers may vary pronunciation {accent}, ward choice (lexicon), or morphology and syntax. Speakers do not make drastic alterations in sentence word order. Therefore, Linguistic variation does not equate with language ungrammaticality. * Group Membership; People use a variety to signal membership of a particular group and construct social identity considering social status, ethnicity, gender, education and Occupation. © Speech Distinctions: We can distinguish whether the speaker is a child or a male or female adult. If the speaker has 2 distinctive regional accent, we can tell where he/ she comes from even from a short utterance. No two people speak exactly the same. © Diglect vs, Accent: Dialects are different from accents in that accents are only about pronunciation whereas dialects include difference in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, too. © Language Variation Types: 4. Regional/Geogrophical variation: It’s the most widespread of language varieties spoken across some geographical area, such that neighboring varieties differ only slightly, but the differences accumulate over distance, so. that widely separated varieties are not mutually intelligible. > Isogloss: a dividing line or boundary that separates areas that have different linguistic features that distinguish them. + Regional variation develops because people are separated by a common barrier like physical barriers, historical barriers, racial barriers or religious barriers.2. Social Variation: Refers to language variation between social groups: how language varies according to social class, gender, age, ethnicity etc. Social variation therefore refers to interspeaker variation (variation between speakers). Sociolinguistic studies have demonstrated the systematic, patterned nature of social variation, and how this relates to language change. > Social Variation Examples: © (lf a person speaks with a regional accent in England, he is most unlikely to belong to the upper class as people from the upper class would go to private schools and learn the standard English). “> RP (i.e. Standard English) is a SOCIAL ACCENT and nota regional one because it hides the speaker's regional origins. It is used by well-educated English speakers worldwide and NOT bound to a certain region. > Social Class/stratifications and Social Markers: > Sociolect: Social dialect: A dialect that varies according to the speaker's social class. Class: The speaker's social prestige, status, or respect within community. > A sociolect is different from a dialect because dialects belong to certain regions geographically (regional variation). & idiolect: A variety of a language that is unique to a person. The lower the socio-economic level is, the more regional variation there is.The higher the level is, the less regional variation we have, Jbecause upper class people mostly use RP *Received Pronunciation. Vocabulary asa social marker: * USPEAKERS- SITTING ROOM - LAVATORY * MONUSPEAKERS= LOUNGE - TOILET » Pronunciation as a social marker: © Dropping the /h/ and /r/ is for lower-economic level people. © Keeping the /h/ and /r/ is for higher-economic level people. - Grammar as a social marke! Pont tere | finished that book yesterclag | finivh that booie yesterday, Prevent terse Michael walls tg ichoollevaryday Michael walk to school every ty, Negativetorm Nenody wanti any chips, Nobody Son't want ne chips. Ain't orem firm tent tual Jim ain't stupid, D. BILINGUALISM * Bilingualism is the ability to use two or more languages by an individual or by 2 speech community. (Bloomfield (1933): nativetike control of two languages). * Multilingualism is the use of more than two languages, either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. Polyglot; 2 person who knows and is able to use several languages.* Bilingualism vs Multilingualism Bilingualism is a specific case of multilingualism, which has no ceiling on the number of languages a speaker may dominate. The timing and sequence in which one learns each of the languages has led to other distinctions between kinds of multilingualism. The governments of many countries give official recognition to only one or some of the languages spoken in the country and this creates the impression that multilingualism is not a common phenomenon. In fact, it would be difficult to find a country that is completely monolingual because multilingualism is very common in Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria and India, and it is the rule not the exception. © Multili lism Fi » Historical or political movements: such as Imperialism and colonialism, this results in the coexistence of various languages. » Economic Movements: In the case of migration, when the population of weak economic areas move to host countries, it results in the development of multilingual and multicultural communities. * Social and cultural identity: the interest for maintenance and revival of minority languages creates situations in which two ‘Or more languages co-exist and are necessary in everyday communication. » Educational factors: Second and foreign languages are part of the curriculum in many countries. * Lingua Franca Lingua franca refers to any form of language serving as a means of communication between speakers of ditferent languages.Also known as bridge/global language, trade language, 3 language or dialect systematically used to make communication (possible between groups of people who do not share a native language or dialect. * Pidgin A Pidgin mainly stems fram the process of creating a new variety out of two or more existing anes, in order to communicate immediately with people wha do not share a common language. Pidgin is the first-generation version of a language that farms between native speakers of different languages — a makeshift communication bridge. Pidgins have norms of their own, frequently making maximum use of minimal grammatical resources. * Creole Creole is a pidgin acquired by native speakers, or one that’s been passed down to a second generation of speakers. * Pidgin vs Creole > Similarities: © Pidgins and creoles are both the result of what happens when you blend two ar more languages, but they're not the same. = Pidgins and creoles are new languages that develop when speakers of different languages come into contact with each other and have a need to communicate. Differences: ® Pidgins have no native speakers. It compromises between two or more languages; the speakers adopt simplified language based on the most basic vocabulary of the dominant language and the mast basic grammar of their own language merely for functional communication (trade or labor}.* Creoles have native speakers, usually start as a pidgin, and become the native language for the next generation. Notes: * Bilingualism is present in most countries throughout the world, in all classes of society and in all age groups. ¥ However, the importance of bilingualism in the world is not widely recognized, particularly in countries which view themselves as monolingual. Types of Bilingualism: «= Individual Bilingualism — the use of two (or more} languages by an individual. Individuals who speak more than one language, but whodo not necessarily live in a bi- or multilingual community * Societal Bilingualism = the use of two (or more) languages within a given community. Societies in which several languages are spoken, although not all members of the society are necessarily proficient in more than one language. Types of Individual Bilingualism: ¥ Co-ordinate bilingualism: A type of individual bilingualism in which a person learns two languages in separate environments and uses them independently of each other, suggesting that their meaning systems exist separately in ‘the brain. (Synonyms from each language are not treated as if they were exactly equivalent.) eg- kitab and book. * Compound bilingualism: A type of individual bilingualism in which a person learns two languages in the same contextand uses them in an interdependent way, suggesting that their meaning systems exist in one fused form in the brain. © Balanced Bilingualism: A balanced bilingual is someone whose mastery of two languages is roughly equal. However, Beardmore argues that equal fluency in two languages is impossible to achieve. There must be a language that is more dominant than the other. * Language Transfer: Language transfer is the application of linguistic features from one language to another by a bilingual or multilingual speaker. ® Forward Transfer: the individual may apply knowledge from their native language (Li) in the acquisition of their second language. ® Backward Transfer: the second language (L?) can bring effect onto the first language. E. Diglossia and Code-Switching © Language Contact occurs when speakers of different languages interact and influence each other. © The field of language contact is concerned with: Macrosociolinguistic issues like jonguage maintenance ond Jonguage shift, as well as © Microsociolinguistic issues like the effects of borrowing, ® Itarises when two or more languages are spoken in the same regions, or when there is a high chance of communication between the people speaking them. * It results in language death,'loss, bilingualism and language change.* Diglossia: Digtossia is a situation in which two varieties are used within the same speech community, and are mostly kept apart in their functions. One is used ina particular set of circumstances and the other in an entirely different set. © The ‘Low’ variety is the vernacular variety that is used in the community's everyday speech, it is also the regional colloquial variety used in informal situations. ® The ‘High’ variety or the ‘Standard Language’ is likely to be the language used in schools or corporate settings such as newspapers, national TV, etc..... “Diglossic Situation” “For instance, in a classroom situation where children speaking ‘only one regional variety are taught exclusively in the standard variety. In our university, to be specific, Berber students who speak only Amazigh, among their friends and family, study in the standard Arabic and communicate with classmates from different regional varieties using Darija (Moroccan Arabic}. *In some cases, The ‘Low’ variety may take over the ‘High’ variety and eventually becomes the national language such as the case of Indonesia in which Bahasa Indonesian became the official language due to its common use that helped unify all 300 varieties in one standard language for a better communication. * Code-Switching: (Code Switching occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the course of a single conversation. Multilinguals sometimes use elements of multiple languages when conversing with each other.Situational Code-switching: is the tendency to use different language varieties in different social situations. - Itredefines the situation, being a change in governing norms. e.g. a shift from a formal toa more informal context}. Metaphorical Code-switching: is the tendency to switch from a language variety to another, in order to discuss a topic that would normally fall into 2 different conversational domain. - Itenriches the situation, brings with it the flavour of a different situation. (e.g. the use of a formal or poetic expression in conversation between friends). * Interlocutors may switch from a high variety to a low prestige variety depending on the topic being discussed. - Borrowing alfects the lexicon (the words that make up a language). - Code-switching takes place in individual utterances. - Speakers who do not share a common language, form and establish a pidgin as an intermediate third language in order to communicate. - Speakers practice code-switching when they are fluent in both languages. «© Code-Switching Factors: - Aparticular topic. - Quoting someone. - Clarification. - Lexical need: To make up for the lexical gaps in varieties. - To help maintain a smooth speech flow.- Intersentential Switching: occurs outside the sentence or ‘Clause; expressing one sentence in one variety, and the next in another. Mechit ni Sahwe Jyorne, it wos dwesome! - Intrasentential Switching: occurs within the sentence or clause; the speaker switches varieties within a single sentence. Mchit ta the café Iyorne, it was wo3ra! * Borrowing Vocabulary: “Borrowing occurs when a vocabulary item from one language enters the vocabulary of another. Eg-in English, Garage is from French. And in French ‘le Weekend!’ is from English. “A borrowed word is also known as a loanword. “The language that receives the borrowed item is the host language. “The language that provides the borrowed item is the source language. **One language may possess words for which there are no. equivalents in the other language. ** * Loanwords in English - English has borrowed for: - Types of houses (Teepee, gloo..) - Cultural institutions (opera, Ballet...) - Political Concepts (glasnast...) * One culture borrows from the language of another culture words or phrases to express technological, social or cultural innovations. Examples: -Whiskey from Scottish Yoghurt from Turkish -Ukulele from Hawaiian - Mayonnaise from FrenchF. Language ond Culture * Anthropologists consider language as a part of culture. * Language and culture are both at the core of all human society. - Language as the most important symbolic aspect of culture © Language is a symbolic system through which people communicate and through which they transmit culture. © We define language as a system of communication using sounds and/or gestures, which are put together according ‘to certain rules, resulting in meanings that are intelligible to all the speakers who share that language. © Language symbols allow people to develop complex ‘thoughts, exchange those thought with others, and express feeling and ideas. -Cultural aspects reflected in fanguage » Proverbs and sayings of one language are symbolic aspects of culture, they demonstrate, shape and determine this or ‘that cultural identity. © Eg = American Culture: “Time is Money” “Lost time is never found” - Japanese Culture: “The more haste - the less speed.” “When ina hurry, take the roundabout route” -Language as a tool of subjugation and assimilation © Languages and variations within languages play both a unifying and diversifying role in human society as a whole. + Language is part of culture, but culture is a complex of totality containing many cultural features. © Colonizing nations usually imposed their language onto the people they colonized.* By controlling the language that people used, the transmission on culture through it becomes restricted too. Cultural thought Pattern * In order to communicate effectively across cultures, you need to understand the cultural thought pattems behind the language of communication. * A thought-pattern expresses the interaction of a numberof concepts. It represents our way of thinking. © Asa thought-pattern, our language shapes our way of thinking in more ways than we could ever express. -Language as a collector of culture © The knowledge and beliefs that constitute one’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in language. © Language is an endlessly creative vehicle for selt-expression © it makes the individual speaker form an identity, belonging to group, to maintain boundaries between groups. * The wisdom of nations, their customs and ways of life collect and preserve culture. + The idiom is an expression that has@ figurative meaning that is separated from its literal meaning. It acquires a specific meaning within the culture of a given society. tea piece af cake (meaning. Itis easy) © itis raining cats and dogs meaning. itis ‘fairing bard] © The elephant im the none [maaming. The big issue -What is lost when a language goes extinct? Language and culture are intertwined, and so when one dies the other suffers, * Children jose the connection to their cultural roots; * Thisleads to them not possessing a sense of cultural identity, a3 they instead identify with the larger hegemonic culture. The words that are passed down through generations are last. + Thase traditions pass into the pact only ta be replaced by the traditions of the dominant culture at large