Academic Literacy

Second Edition

Stacia Dunn Neeley

Texas Wesleyan University

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Academic Literacy, 2e by Stacia Dunn Neeley

Copyright ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc.

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Instructors may reproduce
portions of this book for classroom use only. All other reproductions are strictly
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ISBN: 0-321-18319-3

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CONTENTS
Introduction 1

Chapter 1
What is Academic Literacy? 5

Chapter 2
Roles for Academic Writers 17

Chapter 3
Rhetorical Tools for Academic Writers 39

Chapter 4
Decisions, Decisions: Research Into Writing 59

Chapter 5
Academic Genres:
Readers’ Expectations and Writers’ Challenges 79

Chapter 6
Summary 89

Chapter 7
Analysis 105

Chapter 8
Argument 119

Chapter 9
Alternative Literacies and Blended Genres 145

Appendix
Five Writing Projects 185

Glossary 200

iii
 For all the students who taught me to teach

Stacia Dunn Neeley, Ph.D.

is Assistant Professor of English and Internship Coordinator
in the Department of Languages and Literature
at Texas Wesleyan University.

sneeley@txwes.edu

iv
INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this textbook is to help you negotiate the demands of

academic assignments in college. It offers practical advice for doing well
in college by discussing ways of reading and writing within an academic
environment. Entering college, like entering any community for the first
time, influences your identity. You may find yourself sitting at a desk in
the library, in your apartment, or in a cramped and noisy dorm room facing
more homework than you ever imagined and wondering how you will
manage all of the social and academic demands on your time. You are
joining a community of students and instructors who are expected to read a
lot, think a lot, and write a lot.

This book will help you develop an academic attitude—a perspective that
sees reading as a way of gaining knowledge and writing as a way of
creating knowledge. Participating in your own education during this
process will bring with it an orientation toward education that accepts the
challenge of critical thinking and the commitment to transforming that
thought into meaningful action. Students with an academic attitude value
the adventure of exploring alternative viewpoints before deciding on their
own. Students with an academic attitude appreciate the challenges of new
subject matter but rely on transferable academic skills to face them.
Technologies, professions, and workplaces certainly change often in our
diverse world; academic strategies for critical thinking and problem-
solving do not change as quickly and are easily transferred from one job to
another. Whether you major in communications and become a webmaster
only to take a job as a human resources specialist five years later, you will
always have opportunities to share ideas with others. You will want to
share those ideas in a coherent and well-organized way, and this textbook
provides strategies to help you. With an academic attitude, you can build
the tools for not only surviving college but succeeding in college.

By 2010, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, there will be 36

percent more jobs for writers and editors (including technical writers) than

1
in the year 2000. In fact, The Bureau expects jobs for writers and editors
to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year
2010. As more and more businesses and organizations use searchable
databases, newsletters, and Web sites to communicate with employees, to
attract clients, to manage knowledge, and to archive data, more writers
will be in demand. Many of the habits of mind necessary for these jobs
can be developed when you take advantage of opportunities to learn about
writing in college. Think of ways to enjoy your classes by investing
creativity and career planning into every assignment that offers such a
potential. After all, how many times in your life will you have the
opportunity to share your ideas with your peers and experts in a learning
environment? Long after you have graduated from college and begun your
“life’s work”—whether that work be for pay or not—you will benefit from
having developed academic ways of approaching subjects, issues, and
problems.

You may ask, “What is academia? And why would I want to be a part of
it?” Contrary to age-old stereotypes and caricatures of erudite, socially
detached professors who “deliver” pedantic lectures from the podium
while bored students sleep or take turns being responsible for note taking,
the “ivory tower” is changing, and students are helping to change it. More
and more instructors are incorporating student-designed projects,
multimedia presentation tools, and collaborative assignments into their
classrooms, giving students opportunities to participate in their own
education. Owning your learning on a day-to-day basis is the first step
toward personal fulfillment; the degree is just a statement of achievement
that comes along with it.

What, then, does it mean to be “literate” in academia? This textbook will

describe specific habits of mind and intellectual thought patterns used to
describe, analyze, and argue within academic fields. While you may
change careers several times in your lifetime, the mental frameworks you
develop through academic writing are in many instances transferable.
Practicing these habits of mind through critical thinking, problem-solving,
and written communication will help you respond to college assignments

2
with confidence and build productive connections between your academic
community and your employment community when you graduate. Even if
you enter a career in which you don’t use specific skills learned in a
college writing class, you will have developed a flexibility of thought that
will serve you well in any workplace.

Overview

In the chapters that follow, you will find

N practical writing techniques that encourage an academic attitude;

N discussions of roles available to students as academic writers;

N discussions of discourse conventions you are expected to follow in

most academic writing;

N examples of academic writing, including student essays that

demonstrate typical writing assignments college students are expected
to complete;

N chapter-length discussions of four academic genres: summary,

analysis, evaluation, and argument;

N discussions of how alternative discourses and hybrid literacies can

enrich academic writing by adding creativity and personal connection;

N practical advice for planning, drafting, and revising essays typically

assigned by professors in the humanities and social sciences.

Part of surviving and succeeding in college is a matter of opening your

mind to new ideas and concepts. Because academic fields rely on the
creation of new knowledge for their advancement, they develop distinct

3
communication styles and specialized vocabularies. In this textbook,
important terms within the field of composition are typed in bold print
and defined in the glossary at the back of the book. At the end of each
chapter, you will find projects for writing and reflection. Figuring out what
is expected of college writers is half the work of becoming an effective
writer. Using your own agency as a student to enter the ongoing
conversations within the global academic community can mean the
difference between “going to college” and enjoying the learning
experience of a lifetime.

4
CHAPTER 1

What is Academic Literacy?

College is a place you make your home after leaving home; a place where
you pursue goals and choose a course of study; an environment both
academic and social, challenging and exciting. You probably expected to
spend a lot of time writing in college, but you may not be familiar with the
term rhetoric, which is the study of communication and its effects on an
audience.

While writing is only one communication channel available to you, it is

one of the most interesting (and the most permanent!), especially in
today’s “find-out-now” world of palm pilots, text-messaging telephones,
AskJeeves.com, faxes, chat rooms, e-mail, and instant messaging. Just
think of the contrast between the personal communications capability you
have today versus that of your grandparents when they were your age.
While rhetoric may be a new term for you, its functions are most likely
alive and well in your daily life.

All of the instances in which you analyze a context and an audience in

order to communicate a message create rhetorical situations, dynamic
contexts that include at the most basic level the following three elements:
speaker, audience, and message. For any situation in which you make
choices as a speaker or writer, trying to send a message to someone is, by
nature, rhetorical.

The day you meet your academic advisor, you are initiating a rhetorical
situation of degree-planning. The day you move into your dorm room or
apartment and become acquainted with your roommate, you begin
communicating to a specific audience and initiating a social community.
The day you become a member of a student organization on campus, you
are identifying with a certain community, making a statement about your
values, and perhaps even crafting a new identity.

5
Becoming a college student is itself rhetorical. From the first day of class
meetings, students engage in reading, speaking, and writing activities
within communities of academics and for specific purposes. Within this
dynamic, professors who are already experienced members of academic
communities plan and engage in discursive activities with their colleagues
and their students. Participating in your own education by becoming
familiar with existing knowledge and by engaging in analysis and
argument has the potential to create new forms of knowledge. The idea
that knowledge can be created is exciting. As a college student, you will
enjoy numerous occasions for questioning existing ideas and contributing
new ones.

Because careful and thoughtful use of discourse has the power to

constitute new ways of knowing, your college writing courses offer
specific opportunities for gaining academic literacy, while, at the same
time, finding new ways to express the literacies you bring with you—from
home, from the technologies you use, and from the media you relate to.
Think of each writing assignment as a challenge full of choices: choices
among the forms of college-level writing that will prepare you to become a
member of a chosen field, a critic of it, or a creator of alternatives to it.

Completing general curriculum requirements, learning how to be a

responsible researcher, choosing a major field of study, gaining expertise
by practicing academic styles of writing in a chosen field, and making the
transition from college student to professional are all parts of the process
of identifying with an academic community. But that doesn’t mean that
you have to give up your favorite slang vocabulary, your favorite pop
culture TV shows, your favorite music, and your other home literacies.
They are parts of who you are, and today, these alternative literacies are
making their way into the academy with diverse student populations who
are finding ways to enliven the ways they express themselves in print.
Even if you think of yourself as an academic only temporarily, college-
level learning is an adventure both personal and communal. Instructors
and students are finding creative ways to challenge the assumption that

6
college is somehow a place removed from the “real world” by engaging in
service learning, internships, technology projects, and collaborations with
area businesses. The process of schooling—approached with an academic
attitude—can help you claim your own education through participatory
learning. After all, isn’t participating in a community and making the best
of one’s experiences more fun than being a spectator-learner? If you
hesitate to answer “yes” to that question, read further with these six
questions in mind:

N I chose to go to college; how can I own my education—invest in it

personally?

N What are the benefits of academic literacy in and after college?

N How can writing help me take advantage of these benefits?

N What habits can I practice to become literate within my academic

community this semester?

N How will my social relations with classmates and professors influence

what I write, when I write, and how I write?

N How can I incorporate ways of thinking, knowing, speaking, and

writing from my home culture to add personality to my academic
writing?

As you search for ways to make your learning more meaningful, more
grounded, and more useful, these questions will guide you. This textbook
explores and offers answers to questions about academic literacy—
proficiency in reading and writing about academic subjects, with the goal
of contributing to the ongoing conversations of an academic field. The
goal of this textbook is to make explicit certain strategies for
conceptualizing and writing in an academic style, helping you understand
the college writing class as a specific forum for communication, and

7
describing ways to use language responsibly to promote knowledge and to
prompt new lines of investigation.

Academic literacy, however, is one of many kinds of literacy. Andrew

Sledd argues that “there is no thing, literacy, only constellations of forms
and degrees of literacy, shifting and turning as history rearranges the social
formations in which they are embedded”1 (499). It may help to think of
college-level rhetorical situations—such as a physics lab class or a
meeting of the student government representatives—as specific social
formations. When you participate in class discussions, student caucuses,
and on-campus social organizations, you are acting as part of a culture.
Each form of literacy, then, depends upon its cultural identification.
Consider the following five forms of literacy:

N literal literacy—ability to read and write in one’s native language

N cultural literacy—language use within and knowledge of a shared

culture, including its dominant ideologies, values, and even biases

N critical literacy—language use with the purpose of questioning the

status quo; involves initiating a dialogue of cultural critique to
interrogate who has the power to make decisions and whom such
decisions benefit.

N academic literacy—ways of thinking, reading, speaking, and writing

dominant in the academic setting; involving ways of receiving
knowledge, managing knowledge, and creating knowledge for the
benefit of a field of study.

N cyber literacy—the ability to read, navigate, write, and respond within

electronic communications forums via the Internet and other
networked electronic media. Critical cyber literacy, then, would
include questioning existing online communications methods and
levels of technological access, including how they relate to race, class,
and gender.

8
Generally speaking, all five of these relate to college and college-level
assignments, but you may be proficient or an expert in one area of literacy
and a beginner in another. For example, you may know how to create
Web pages but have not applied that knowledge to complete an
assignment on campaign strategies in a political science class. You can
maximize your communications skills, then, by looking for ways to
incorporate specific literacies into academia.

What does it mean to be literate within an academic community?

When you engage in learning academic literacy, you practice using the
conventions or the “habits of mind” of a particular academic discipline in
order to communicate as a participant and member of that community.
This literacy is particularly important in composition courses, in which
students learn the rhetorical nature of communication by considering
audience, purpose, and appropriate style. Academic literacy can benefit
you personally as you become more articulate in expressing your own
ideas about the various subjects you study. The ultimate goal of this
participatory learning is to create knowledge, which, on a larger scale, has
the potential to transform society.

Achieving academic literacy requires practice. You can read a handbook

on how to write a research paper all day, but until you begin the process
yourself, you won’t have a sense of which questions to ask, and the skill of
research writing will not take shape.

Taking advantage of opportunities to practice academic skills can mean

the difference between “receiving” a college education and “claiming” a
college education2—the difference between students who attend four to
five classes each semester, passively learn and demonstrate the reception
of information, take exams, and enter the workforce wondering what kind
of training will be “done” to them next; and students who claim their
learning, practice thought patterns, research through and write within

9
academia, and graduate looking forward to working with colleagues within
a community.

Approaching college study as a student-scholar allows you to view fields

such as engineering, political science, sociology, history, and English not
as networks that exclude the uninitiated but as ongoing conversations
inviting participation. If, even after taking several courses and responding
to several academic assignments, you feel intimidated by academic
culture, explore the challenges with your fellow students, who are
probably facing similar challenges. Talk openly about your assignments
with other college students, and don’t hesitate to find out what academic
support services such as writing centers and learning centers are available
to you on your campus. After all, academia is a culture influenced by
common practices, politics, budgets, ideologies, and the need for critical
thinking within communities of like-minded individuals. Thinking of
yourself as an intellectual will benefit you in college and outside of it.

Preparing yourself to participate in academic conversations begins with

gauging the strengths you already have. Do you have a knack for asking
good questions? Do you seem to always be the one engaged in a lively
debate with friends at a party? Are you good at listening for main points
in a lecture? Are you comfortable asking people to help you find
information you need? Are you skilled at noticing biases and judging
others’ arguments in conversation? Do you have a poetic flair that
explores the irony of situations? Are you an experienced user of the
Internet? These practices—some of which you may have already
developed because of your personality and/or life experiences—will help
you respond to academic assignments.

In fact, you may find that you know more about computer technology than
many seasoned scholars do. In the last ten years, most students entering
college are far more technologically-literate than their parents or the
college students who preceded them. They are familiar with and supporters
of an interesting cultural phenomenon called the Internet. The Internet is
changing not only how we learn but how we think and how we

10
communicate with others. Because the Internet is a part of higher
education in America today, it is not unusual to hear college students ask
their student colleagues, co-workers, family, and friends, “Are you
online?” “Do you IM?” “What’s your e-mail?” or to say, “You should
post the party photos on your Web page!” “Thanks, I bought it on e-bay,”
or “I have to do research tonight, but I can do it online from home.” When
you think critically about what the Web means to people who
communicate in academia, you are already beginning to think with an
academic attitude.

Just as you became proficient at using the Internet by trial and practice,
you can become a skilled user of certain ways of thinking and writing
within academic forums. When you practice using the discourse
conventions of a certain field, however, don’t forget to question their
usefulness or appropriateness. Maintaining a spirit of inquiry and critical
consciousness within any community is important. For example, instead
of passively accepting the rules and conventions of academic writing,
practice using such rules and conventions knowing that they were created
by humans and can also be changed by them. This kind of scholarly
attitude reflects the ideas of Brazilian educator and theorist Paulo Freire,
who viewed history as something in the making and encouraged students
to act with a sense of agency. Education itself will be more valuable in the
long run if you hold yourself, your colleagues, and your professors
responsible for reflective questioning about what they are doing when they
function in an academic world.

Among other scholars practicing critical literacy, Sharon Crowley has

pointed out that academic literacy in American colleges reflects Standard
English and middle-class values and speech patterns. Working within such
a critique, some compositionists have studied the challenges students face
in identifying with academic authority, especially when the students are
working-class or first-generation college students whose home culture may
not privilege (or even respect) the ways of the academic. Exploring your
own past experiences with academic authority can help you consider how

11
you may or may not be accustomed to resisting educators’ notions of
“good writing” or “academic writing.”

By providing specific feedback to your professors on assignments and

through semester evaluations, you have the power to initiate new
conversations, open up new rhetorical spaces. Clearly, participating in
academic discourse carries with it the responsibility of critical thinking so
that new ideas can be tested and examined.

Both academic and workplace communities depend on flexible and active

critical thinkers who are accustomed to approaching tasks with a
willingness to delay a “right” or “scientifically proven” answer. Begin by
cultivating the following good habits:

N Don’t be intimidated by unfamiliar information in readings or lectures.

Chart a course toward new knowledge by looking up new terms and
taking notes for future reference. (Knowing every word you encounter
would be boring!)

N Gauge your available resources for learning about the academic field,
including professors, the Internet, library sources, and professional
networking.

N Use available academic resources to formulate good, specific questions

and research methods.

N Keep a reading/writing log as you read your textbooks, scholarly

articles, and books published within the academic community in which
you will participate.

N Develop your ethos—your credibility as a community member.

These strategies will help you think of yourself as a student-scholar who

has valuable thoughts to contribute to an ongoing conversation.

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What are the benefits of academic literacy?

The most influential benefit of academic literacy is that it allows students

to think and to write with rhetorical purpose by analyzing rhetorical
situations within and beyond academia. In other words, academic literacy
gives education meaning by placing academic tasks within specific
contexts and communities. Sometimes communities are simply trying to
“get the day’s work done,” but as Bizzell asserts, “Mastery of academic
discourse lets students participate in the community primarily responsible
in our society for generating knowledge” (Academic Discourse 150).

Generating knowledge is challenging and rewarding work—work that can

be done by student intellectuals as well as degreed scholars. Paulo Freire,
Brazilian educator and literacy theorist, argues that to “read the world,” we
must first “read the word,” which, in the twenty-first century, requires
mastery of numerous discourse conventions.3 Just as it helps to know the
meaning of the terms “inning,” “strike-out,” “short-stop,” “double-
header,” and “RBI” to participate in the game of baseball, it helps to know
the meaning of the terms “attention-getter,” “transition,” “rhetorical
strategy,” and “coherence” to participate in the knowledge-making
activity of writing.

As a college student completing degree requirements, you will be studying

and learning within various fields during the first years of college. You
may find your work more rewarding if you look for ways to connect the
personal with the academic and the academic with the social. Also, you
may not think or care to think of your college career as an opportunity to
change the world. However, the far-reaching rhetorical purpose of
academic literacy—to improve society through an educated citizenry—can
be its most fulfilling reward.

It’s difficult to see ourselves changing the world on a day-to-day basis. In

fact, on some days, simply getting through class without being totally
confused will be considered an achievement. On other days, you may

13
discover that your mind is charged with ideas and motivation to write
about them. Hope that your “other days” outnumber your “some days.”
Think of each college class you attend on a weekly basis as a potential
forum for communication. Think of ways you can learn to participate in a
community of critical thinkers and writers who, if they choose to do so,
can influence society through their intellectual activities. The distance
between the academic world and the so-called “real world” can be
lessened when you practice what you learn.

Unlike our home communities, college classrooms are places where

students have the timely opportunity to share ideas with like-minded peers
whom they may have never met but who are experiencing the similar life
situation of college—studying, socializing, and, in most of their courses,
writing. Getting to know classmates and sharing frustrations and
successes regarding college life can lead to positive collaborative and peer
review relationships. A peer, in this sense, doesn’t have to be an expert to
help you see what kind of effect your academic writing has on a reader or
simply whether you can find similarities in how you approached the
assignment.

Writing with this perspective becomes a productive art because it is the

technique of learning to think about your own thinking and writing,
learning to place the two in dialogue with one another as you complete
assignments. Because thoughtful writing has the capacity to create
knowledge in-process, the college composition course is the ideal
environment in which you can experiment with academic language and
conventions.

It is helpful to think of both writing and academic discourse as sites of

rhetoric—the study of verbal, written, and visual communication and its
effects on an audience. Such a focus allows us to see that “the transaction
between writer and reader lies at the heart of all discourses” (Kuriloff 487)
and that such a transaction can be knowledge-producing. Do you think of
yourself as a writer? Do you think of yourself as a knowledge-producer?
College can be enjoyable when you do.

14
Begin by envisioning writing assignments not as punishments or gauntlets,
but as opportunities to further socialization in college. Granted, engaging
in collaboration to write a research paper may not be as socially-
stimulating as meeting ten new friends at a weekend party, but the
intellectual forum of the classroom can be interesting socially. As you get
to know one another through class discussion, peer review, and
collaborative writing assignments, the classroom itself will become a place
where minds mingle, a site within which you can build mutually beneficial
socioacademic relationships.

Projects for Writing and Reflection

1) Write a brief reflective essay in which you explore your current role as
“insider” in relation to one of the forms of literacy discussed in
Chapter 1. What ways of communicating do you use to practice that
literacy? What does this preference reveal about your personality?

2) Write a literacy narrative—a story of when and how reading and

writing became important and functional in your life. You will want to
organize your essay chronologically. Consider the following questions
before you focus your essay: Do you need to write about a period of
several years using a controlling focus? Or do you want to write about
one incident that illustrates various issues of your literacy? Which
strategy will help you accomplish your writing purpose?

3) Look back at the definitions of literacy in this chapter. Form a group

with two or three of your classmates and discuss how each of these
literacies is connected to your lives as college students. Present your
illustrations and/or conclusions to the class.

4) As a class, collaboratively write a document that can stand as a

mission statement for the class as a forum of academic writers.
Include agreed-upon standards for how students should interact with
one another during class discussion, how writers should prepare their

15
 drafts for review by a classmates, how groups will be formed on peer
review days, etc. This document can serve as a “class contract” and
will help you bond as a class.

Notes
1
If you are interested in literacy studies, begin with the following key
sources: E.D. Hirsch’s Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to
Know; Patricia Bizzell’s Academic Discourse and Critical Consciousness;
Ira Shor’s Empowering Education; bell hooks’ Teaching to Transgress;
Mike Rose’s Lives on the Boundary; Cynthia Selfe’s “Technology and
Literacy: a Story About the Perils of Not Paying Attention.”
2
For a discussion of why students should demand participatory learning in
college, see Adrienne Rich’s “Claiming an Education” on Pages 96-101 in
Conversations: Readings for Writers, edited by Jack Selzer.
3
These ideas are based on the following books: Pedagogy of the Oppressed
and Pedagogy of Hope by Paulo Freire; and Critical Teaching and
Everyday Life by Ira Shor.

16
CHAPTER 2

Roles for Academic Writers

You may hear the terms “rhetorician” or “academic” or “professor” and

think of people who have been in college for years and years and have
developed specialized skills for speaking, reading, and writing with and
among other professionals. How do you function within an environment
that these people thrive upon but that you may or may not enjoy? How do
you manage academic discourse in a way that not only shows up in your
final grades but also helps you communicate more effectively in all of your
discourse communities? An academic stance toward learning can help you
develop your social skills, your understanding of cultural diversity, and
most practically, your understanding of how the day’s work gets done
when certain styles of speech and writing are expected of you.

This chapter discusses various roles available to students completing

assignments in the academic community. Communicating and researching
while performing such roles can help you gain interpersonal and academic
skills. Practice in various academic roles also gives you practice in
keeping others “on their toes” by thinking critically about the legitimacy of
a claim before accepting it and the problem at hand before attempting to
explore it through writing. This chapter also introduces strategies for
building your credibility in one specific role—that of student-scholar
learning to develop an academic attitude.

The key to joining an academic community lies in familiarizing yourself

with its culture. Give yourself time to become familiar with basic
rhetorical conventions; observe from a distance with the goal of absorbing
ideas. Attempting to enter a community too quickly could lead to an
uncritical acceptance of its methods. As a stage of development,
observation has a particular purpose in its rhetorical dimension. As a
writer, you want to use the role of observer to investigate and to build a
repertoire of ideas and multiple perspectives. Working your way through

17
this book is itself an exercise in observation. As you encounter words in
bold print, you are coming to terms with academic language, storing ideas
in the educational filing cabinets of your brain for future use. Thus, as you
read, you are already engaging in the task of observing a culture,
familiarizing yourself with its language.

Your Role as Academic Language User

One of the most painful culture shocks of college is its intimidating

academic vocabulary. Students every semester will admit to one another
that they didn’t understand a term used during class before they will admit
it to their instructors. When you don’t ask and instructors don’t tell, you
may end up experiencing feelings of alienation and inadequacy. Scholar
Mike Rose writes about this feeling of alienation in his book Lives on the
Boundary, a powerful literacy narrative written by an experienced
academic looking back on his own learning experiences and past as an
inner-city student.

The following strategies will help you become more familiar with
academic discourse:

N Be an active researcher. Find a small, but detailed college-level

academic dictionary that you can keep in your backpack and refer to
quickly. If you did not develop this skill during high school, be patient
with yourself; you may be surprised that you learn to enjoy looking up
and learning new words. (You can even drop a few vocabulary bombs
on your friends!) Also seek out glossaries. They are written just for
readers who need help mastering the challenging vocabulary used in
certain texts. Browse through the reference section of your campus
library. You will probably see titles to several reference works that
relate to your interests or major. For example, if you are a philosophy
major, you will want to familiarize yourself with two prominent
reference works: the Dictionary of the History of Ideas and the two-
volume Ancient Writers. These are just a few of many reference
works that can help you get “up to speed” with academic terms and

18
 renowned scholars in your field. You may need help finding sources
in the library, or finding the actual library -. When you’re in the
library, make it a point to meet a few of the librarians. They are
trained and paid to help student researchers. Be aware of this on-
campus academic service, and learn to ask specific questions. Library
skills are also contagious.

N Conference with your Instructors. Make conferencing with your

instructors an academic habit. Find out where faculty offices are at the
beginning of the semester, and call for an appointment when you have
an extended question or need help understanding class materials.
Developing a tutorial relationship with your instructor at the beginning
of the semester builds your credibility and allows your instructor to get
to know your academic needs. Calling for appointments—even if
office hours are posted—also shows that you are an organized student
motivated and prepared to participate in your own learning.
Demonstrate that you are an active researcher looking for available
resources and “available means of persuasion” (Aristotle I.14). Instead
of asking your professor what you should write about, show up with
written ideas in hand.

N Be a rhetorical reader. Visit the current periodicals section of your

library and skim the most recent issue of a publication in your field.
Spending just 20 minutes per week in this activity will not only
increase your reading comprehension but also provide opportunities to
meet other students working on projects in your discipline. In your
reader/writer notebook, write down the bibliographic information of
key articles you may be able to use in future research projects and/or
essays. This casual research will most likely save you time later and
will keep you thinking of good topics for upcoming projects.

N Be an avid questioner-for-understanding’s sake. If you have

looked up terms in dictionaries and have read articles that employ the
term and still do not understand a concept, don’t be afraid to pose a
question in class or by e-mail to your professor. Conceptualize every

19
 article you read as a thread of an ongoing conversation, human-created
and debatable.

N Attend gatherings on campus at which language is used to inform,

argue, or debate an issue important within your field. For example, if
you are a structural engineering major and an architect comes to speak
on campus about how Internet technology is changing the way
architects approach design, make the time to attend and put forth the
energy not only to listen but to observe how an academic speaker
organizes and delivers knowledge within a public speaking forum.
And if you have the opportunity to attend a public lecture, take it.
Each time you hear experienced professional speakers present material
using well-organized points, you are gaining knowledge of powerful
models for public speaking and good organization of ideas. Check with
your student life office or institutional home page for a listing of on-
campus guest lectures.

N Build peer relationships. As Aimee Mann sings for the soundtrack to

the blockbuster film Magnolia, “1 is the loneliest number that you’ll
ever do.” Academic loneliness can be especially frustrating because
good ideas need sounding boards and challenges. Having a friend or
classmate tell you what they think you mean by a topic description or
what you seem to be planning with an outline can be very enlightening
(especially when what you intend is not what s/he “gets” from your
writing).

N Participate in online academic conversations via discussion boards,

interactive Web sites, list serves, and or e-mail discussions. Many
professors, especially in the humanities and social sciences, are
incorporating online discussion pages in order to give students
background for class discussions and a forum for threads of
conversations that may be cut short in class. Show that you are
motivated by getting involved!

20
N Think yourself into academic confidence. Telling yourself that you
are inexperienced and “just a student” will work against you. Instead,
tell yourself daily when you walk into class or into the library to do
research, “I am a practicing scholar with good ideas to contribute.”
Self-communication is a powerful rhetorical tool.

Your Role as a Critical Thinker

While shelf after shelf and database after database of scholarly information
may sometimes seem to loom over you with the weight of ages, try to
remember that scholarship is human-created and theoretical; human
creations are fallible, and theories invite improvement and proof.
Moreover, many works of contemporary scholarship include direct calls
for further research. As a student-scholar, you are in a wonderful position
to respond to such calls.

The following strategies will help you fulfill the role of the critical thinker:

N Question everything, but without becoming a perpetual cynic.

Remember the difference between wrangling and questioning with
purpose.

N Read everything rhetorically. Become aware of rhetorical situations

within and outside of both traditional and nontraditional texts. For
example, when you see a movie, think about what modes of thinking
are being privileged in the script and how those arguments, whether
visual or verbal, are created on screen. When you read an article, think
about how its publication forum affects its organization and style.
When you see a television commercial, analyze what appeals to pathos
(emotion) are targeting what audience. Your role as a critical thinker
first requires the practice of awareness. Look for bias and slanted
language, keeping in mind that every time an author chooses one
subject matter over another and one approach to that subject matter
over another, values and cultural assumptions are at play.

21
N Write rhetorically. Take notes in the margins of your reading
materials, engaging the text as if you were speaking to its author.
When you respond to writing assignments in your classes, brainstorm
by detailing the rhetorical situation you have been asked to place
yourself within.

Your Role as Class Member

View class meetings as opportunities. Find ways to practice your

communications skills by helping your professor and classmates keep the
discussion focused and interactive so that participatory learning can
function at its highest potential. When you prepare to take notes in a class,
expect to participate while listening. You may be tempted to allow your
attention span to shorten while you are in classes that do not seem to relate
to your interests or career plans.

The following are specific ways to make sure that every class discussion
you participate in will be worth your time and thought:

N Stay focused. Our minds are incredibly selfish things. Even when we
admire and respect a speaker, our ideas may drift to pressing personal
concerns or daydreams. Practice lengthening your attention span as
each class day goes by. Remind yourself of how many minutes of
focused time are expected of you, and prepare yourself for putting in
quality class time. Start a trend by being a cool person who sits in the
front of the room! Train yourself not to look at the clock during a
lecture or a class discussion. Instead, make the most of class time and
give your instructor and classmates a chance to challenge you with new
concepts.

N Be an active listener. Active listening is probably the least-practiced

technique in college classrooms because boring learning environments
often lure students into passivity in the classroom. In this non-
participatory model, students are viewed by the institution as silent and
empty vessels to be filled with knowledge by an expert through

22
 traditional lecturing and testing procedures. Be an agent of change by
insisting that your education be more than a series of information bases
in your head. Listen actively to lectures, pinpointing gaps or topics for
complicating or furthering class discussion. When classmates are
communicating with one another, think of ways to link related ideas or
to challenge the group to complicate their understanding of a subject.
This kind of active listening leads to critical consciousness.

N Keep pen in hand (or laptop in lap). Taking notes not only shows
your classmates and professor that you are engaged, but it also
reinforces critical reading and writing. Let’s face it: when you are
holding a pen during class, you are more likely to use one. -

N Manage your notes. Annotate your class notes while writing them.
This process of writing in the margins helps you avoid becoming bored
while waiting for the next key point. Revise your notes. Taking time
to rewrite or word process your class discussion notes can help you
synthesize ideas that were previously unrelated in your mind and think
of ways to position contrasting approaches or concepts in dialogue
with one another. For example, try keeping a question-log for research
reference. Some students reserve the backs of pages in a spiral
notebook for questions or responses to material written on the front of
each page. This format can become a kind of response journal and rich
repository of ideas when it comes to choosing topics for research.

N Initiate class discussion. If your instructor allows time for a question-

answer session at the end of class, ask one of the questions you have
written in the margin of your notes. This may encourage other
students to ask questions and shows that you see the value of
participatory learning. Practice discussion etiquette. Respect your
classmates and their ideas, even if you disagree. Remember the model
of the classroom as a forum in which every member has the right to
contribute thoughts, including minority views. Practice respect so that
all voices are welcome.

23
N Participate in study groups. These groups provide forums in which
you and your classmates can 1) share concerns, 2) compare notes, 3)
brainstorm for assignments or in anticipation of test questions, and 4)
motivate one another to spend time learning. Find out whether a study
group that would benefit you already exists, and, if necessary, initiate
one by inviting classmates to meet informally outside of class.

N Use online course support. If the course you are enrolled in offers an
online discussion board, don’t hesitate to subscribe to the list. Often,
instructors encourage (or require) students to post questions based on
class discussion and/or in preparation for an exam.

Your Role as Peer Reviewer

Practicing an academic attitude requires a belief that you can learn from
your peers as well as experienced academics. Often, misconceptions arise
about what is expected of you as a peer reviewer in a writing class.
Students often mistakenly feel that they are supposed to mark “errors” in
their classmates’ papers, labeling what is “wrong” and how to “correct” it.
This misconception also causes considerable anxiety for writers as they
prepare to share a written response to an assignment with others for the
first time. Writers are social agents, complete with egos and confidence
levels that have been socialized through years of schooling, writing, and a
history of graded papers (with or without success). Peer review is a social
process, not a grading exercise.

Peer review sessions come in different shapes and sizes. Your instructor
may ask you to focus on global concerns such as thesis or content
development and devote an entire class period to this work, or s/he may
have you focus on editing for sentence-level errors for only fifteen
minutes. Some peer review sessions are very structured, with printed
questions to answer on a handout, while others are open-ended with
reviewers’ responses written in the margin. Other peer review sessions
combine these methods and ask reviewers to answer prepared questions
and write free-form responses in the margins of the writer’s draft.

24
However, there are some practical ways you can prepare yourself before
sharing your writing with classmates in any peer review format:

N Bring the goods. First and foremost, “showing up” for peer review
means having a written text to share at the class meeting scheduled for
peer review. This may sound simple, but if you’ve waited until the day
before to begin and writer’s block sets in, you risk being unprepared
when your classmates and your instructor are counting on you to
participate.

N Be ethical. Relying on friends or classmates to “clean up” your papers

for you is risky business. It limits your learning and puts you in a
position to fail when those resources are not available to you, for
example, during in-class writing or on a final exam. If your peer
reviewer has “corrected” your paper instead of responding to its ideas
and delivery of that message, try to refocus the peer review session
during the last few minutes, or ask the reviewer to explain the marks
made. The old maxim applies: “You can give a man a fish, and he can
eat for a day. Teach him to fish, and he’ll never go hungry.” Any
outside help with your writing should be oriented toward participatory
learning so you can build revision skills and become less dependent on
others.

N Mark-up your paper. If you have time and your instructor

encourages this practice, do some physical marking on your paper. For
example, underline your thesis statement, number your body
paragraphs, mark problem areas in the margin, draw wavy lines under
phrases or sentences that sound funny to you, etc. Taking a few
minutes to mark up the paper has a twofold effect: a) It encourages
your peer reviewer to engage with the text as a draft, a “work in
progress” that can be written on; and b) It focuses your peer reviewer’s
efforts so that you get answers to your questions.

N Write a cover memo—a simple memo labeled at the top that includes
single-spaced text detailing what approach you have taken to the

25
 assignment, what topic you’ve chosen and why, what resources you
have used, and the process the draft has gone through thus far. Be sure
to end with a description of what you believe to be the strength(s) of
the draft and problem areas that you need help with. Also alert your
reader if you have a history of a certain problem, such as unfocused
thesis statements, poor organization, choppy sentences, a lack of
transitions, etc. Try to incorporate a few specific questions for your
reviewer to address. Below is a sample cover memo:

COVER MEMO

DATE: 23 January 2004

TO: Peer Reviewer #1:_______________________
FROM: Kurt Dunn, Writer
SUBJECT: First Draft, Project #3: Rhetorical Analysis

Since our teacher left the choice of poem up to us, I’ve chosen a contemporary
poem by Seamus Heaney called “Digging.” It makes some pretty interesting
comparisons between the ways of life of a son and a father. I think the strength
of my paper so far is that I’ve organized my points around the son’s perspective
of his own craft, writing, and his father’s work with his hands in the garden. I
want to analyze how the poem encourages readers to think about their own
family connections and ways of working/living.

I’ve followed the assignment sheet pretty closely, but this draft is still too short.
Do I analyze enough of the “rhetorical” message? I need help developing my
points. I’ve also had lots of trouble with putting the quotations inside the text in
my past English papers, so please take a look at those for me. Thanks!

Remember, there is a big difference between peer review and evaluation of

a final product. You may feel unqualified to judge your classmate’s
writing, but judging is not the primary purpose of peer review.
Theoretically speaking, marking only the mistakes in a draft is less than
half of the “big picture” when it comes to peer review. Much more
importantly, writers need to know what readers can take away from their
written words; they need the peer review process to serve as a reflection of
their intentions. When you think of yourself as judge finding mistakes,

26
you risk leaving the writer not knowing where to begin, feeling incapable,
frustrated, even offended. When you think of yourself as a respondent
reflecting the writer’s work back to him or her, you can help the writer see
whether s/he has sent the message intended, which, in turn, helps the
writer check intentions against the academic assignment criteria. Peer
review is interactive and reciprocal; it should serve as a sounding board for
ideas and the words through which those ideas are expressed. If you think
of your role as that of respondent rather than a judge, you’ll be able to give
productive feedback that will allow the writer to make informed decisions
before submitting the paper for formal evaluation.

Relying on peers who do not value an academic attitude can be frustrating,

especially if you are depending on them for feedback on your writing. If
you find yourself in such a situation, try to encourage your classmates by
taking their work seriously and modeling an effective response. Be
proactive. If your instructor prefers open-ended peer review and does not
provide written guidelines, then develop your own informal list of goals
with the help of your classmate. This process can prevent negative
attitudes toward peer review or even jumpstart an unmotivated classmate.
Remember, an academic attitude can be contagious, and the rule of good
karma applies here. Doing your part as an effective peer reviewer can
motivate others to do the same when they are reading your writing.

The following strategies will help you prepare for your role as reviewer
during a peer review session:

N Keep the assignment description and grading criteria at hand;

N Make eye contact with the writer and engage in some verbal
prefacing before beginning to read. Ask the writer to give you a
quick verbal summary of the topic s/he is writing on and the
process the draft has gone through up to this point;

N Ask the writer to create a cover memo (if s/he has not already
done so) that includes what the writer perceives as the strengths of

27
 the draft thus far, as well as two to three specific requests for
attention to problem areas/issues.

N Read the draft once through quickly and without stopping to

write. This practice serves as a pre-reading technique that will put
your brain “in the mood” for noticing how the parts of the essay
influence the whole.

N Make choices. You’ll have to limit your advice to main concerns

so that you don’t overwhelm the writer and so that you can
complete the peer review session in the allotted time frame. Try to
base your suggestions on the assignment criteria, helping your
classmate with the most important concerns. For example,
choosing two or three global issues (such as development or
organization) and a few local issues (such as grammar errors or
empty phrases) is enough to focus on in an open-form peer review
session.

N Be ethical. Ask yourself this question: If I’m really nice and

kindly overlook the fact that my classmate’s paper seems to miss
the assignment because I don’t want to hurt her/his feelings, am I
being an ethical peer reviewer? No. Also ask yourself this
question: If I mark all the errors I see in this paper, have I taught
my classmate anything? Have I helped him/her to see if the
message itself was clear or interesting? No. Also avoid writing
actual text for your classmate. Making suggestions without
sounding over critical takes practice. Thinking of yourself as a
writer will help. How would you want to hear or read that your
paper needs to be completely rewritten? Consider “Your paper
needs to be completely rewritten; it’s all wrong” versus “When I
read your essay, I think of it as an argument instead of an analysis.
You may want to review the assignment sheet so that you can be
sure you’re writing with an emphasis on studying the text’s
features.” Which would you prefer? -

28
Additional strategies to try during peer review in a writing class:

1) The Idea Map as Peer Review

Write out/Draw a visual map that charts the progression of
ideas in your classmate’s essay. Your goal is to express
“This is what I think you are saying in your paper.” We can
learn a lot when we realize that what we thought we were
expressing risks being misunderstood.

2) Presentation-Style Peer Review

Working with two or three classmates, take turns reading
your paper out loud to the group while the group takes
notes on strong points and points that need clarification.
We can learn a lot from hearing our ideas read aloud, not to
mention gathering written feedback from two or three
listeners.

3) Cut-and-Paste Peer Review

Cut your paper into sections (intro, first body paragraph,
second body paragraph, etc.) and have your peer review
partners try to piece it together again. Another option for
focusing on paragraph development is to cut one paragraph
into one-sentence pieces and have your peer review partners
try to put it together as it was. This exercise helps you see
if you’ve provided enough transitions and context clues to
achieve paragraph unity and coherence.

4) Round-the-Table, Instructor-Directed Peer Review

Sitting in a circle as a class, rotate your papers to the left
every three minutes, targeting a different concern with each
rotation as directed by your instructor. (For example, first
rotation = Find what you think is the thesis and underline it;
second rotation = Read and comment on the underlined
sentence as a thesis statement; third rotation = Read the
introductory paragraph only and comment on its

29
effectiveness; progressively more specific until the last
rounds include looking for weak sentence beginnings and
misspelled words, or even formatting of Works Cited
entries.) This exercise offers an alternative to the typical
peer review because it breaks up the linear reading process
and forces you to think about specific writing concerns in
academic essays.

30
Sample Peer Review Sheet
Analytical Essay
WRITER:___________________
REVIEWER:___________________
Reviewer’s daily grade for
completion of this peer review_____

Write specific comments on the following:

1. Introduction
2. Thesis statement (Is it a single sentence? Does it reveal both the
subject and the focus?)
3. The main points in the body paragraphs (List them first)
4. Order of information
5. Use of SPECIFIC details and illustrations in the body ¶s
6. Use of transitions to achieve coherence
7. Introductions to quotations written in the writer’s own words
8. Quantity and quality of evidence from the text
9. Incorporation of outside sources
10. Accuracy of in-text citations and Works Cited page
11. Conclusion’s ability to make readers think while releasing them
12. Sentence-level style and grammar

Your Role as a Student Scholar

This book will help you position yourself as a student scholar in various
roles. In some classes, your intellectual work will be to write an
informative research paper on existing knowledge. In others, you may be
asked to argue your own position on a debatable issue, collaborate with
other students to write a report, to analyze a group of related Web sites on
the Internet, or to do some creative writing on a given topic. Knowing
basic styles of academic communication will help you figure out just how
your own “day’s work” can be done with minimal stress. We all feel more
comfortable with new tasks when we have clear explanations of
expectations.

31
Develop the attitude of an investigator.

Being a scholar means questioning existing ideas and concepts. Just

because a book is published by a university press does not mean that you
should accept all of its claims uncritically. Putting your own ideas and
experiences in dialogue with those expressed in a publication encourages
rhetorical reading—the process of analyzing an author’s message, tone,
audience, and possible motivations while reading. Reading rhetorically
allows you to develop your own creative ideas for continuing an academic
conversation.

Read the following conclusion to an essay entitled

“Single Parenthood has Harmed the Family” by James Q. Wilson:

I think that the American people are right in their view of families. When they look
at the dramatic increase in divorce, single-parent families, and illegitimate children
that has taken place over the last 30 years, they see families in decline. They do not
need studies to tell them that these outcomes are generally bad, because they have
had these outcomes happen to them or to people they know. Divorce may sometimes
be the right and necessary remedy for fundamentally flawed marriages and for the
conditions created by an abusive or neglectful spouse, but in general divorce makes
people worse off: the woman becomes poorer and the children more distressed.
Properly raising a child is an enormous responsibility that often taxes the efforts
and energies of two parents; one parent is likely to be overwhelmed. Children born
out of wedlock are in the great majority of cases children born into poverty.
Millions of people are living testimony to these bleak facts. If scholars say that the
evidence is not conclusive, so much the worse for scholars. But now, I believe,
scholars are starting to find hard facts to support popular impressions. (41)

When you read the conclusion above rhetorically, you can point out the
following rhetorical strategies:

N The author uses first person to distinguish his own opinions.

N The author identifies with “the American people” by saying they are
“right” in their opinions about the decline of the family.
N The author is discussing problems in America with a “personal touch”
by privileging personal experience over statistics that scholars claim
are “not conclusive.”

32
N The author uses a sarcastic tone when he glibly states, “so much the
worse for scholars.”
N The author speaks in generalizations but gives those generalizations
authority by referring to problems many of us see around us in our
daily lives.

This brief example of a rhetorical reading can help you see how scholars
engage with texts to analyze the content, style of presentation, and
communication strategies within a message.

Be aware of messages in everyday culture.

When you drive down the highway and see an Adair Optical billboard
featuring a dark-haired woman wearing stylish glasses and a black
turtleneck and a line at the bottom reading “Love Yourself,” do you stop to
think about the message and how it is delivered? When you see a
Microsoft advertisement featuring a child looking at a computer screen
and smiling with the question “Where do you want to go today?” at the
bottom of the page, do you think about education in America? When you
see a movie such as Meet Joe Black starring Anthony Hopkins and Brad
Pitt as Death, do you think about cultural notions of death and readiness
for death, or the different personifications of Death in various literary
works and films?

Becoming more aware of the messages being communicated in the world

around us helps us become more aware of the messages we send out
ourselves whether visual, verbal, or written. Thinking critically about the
thousands of messages we receive during the day from the Internet,
movies, TV commercials, mail, and discussions with others allows you to
develop a heightened sensitivity to the art of communicating well.

33
Be familiar with current events.

Reading the news—whether in print or online—can help you stay

informed about current events, issues, and trends of local, national, and
international importance. Being aware of the latest news information will
not only help you initiate new conversations with people you’d like to get
to know but also help you look for ways to relate the academic world to
public issues. To reinforce your personal awareness of public questions
and concerns, take a few minutes two or three times a week to relax and
browse through a quality local newspaper in the periodicals section of your
library on campus or to click on the “news” icon on the welcome page
posted by your Internet provider and scan the headlines looking for articles
that interest you or relate to your academic work. You may find that being
“in the know” is more stimulating than you had expected.

Be ready to demonstrate your knowledge.

As long as evaluation, semester grades, and college transcripts exist, you

will be asked to validate your learning by demonstrating your mastery of
material. These opportunities usually occur in the form of quizzes, oral
presentations, collaborative projects, mid-term and final exams, and
academic essay writing.

Try the following strategies to prepare for these opportunities to

demonstrate your knowledge:

N Make sure you understand exactly what the assignment is asking from
you. Re-read, highlight, and ask questions to clarify details.
N Form study groups early in the semester so that you are comfortable
communicating clearly before serious end-of-semester studying begins.
N Develop memory techniques for quiz preparation.
N Develop skills of summary and synthesis for responding to essay
questions.

34
N When you are assigned a collaborative project, gauge the specific
strengths and weaknesses of the group and encourage the group
organizer to delegate tasks clearly.
N When you are assigned an oral presentation, don’t plan to present cold
turkey. Instead, practice your talk for an audience—a friend or at least
a mirror—before the due date arrives.
N When you are assigned an academic essay that requires research, start
taking notes and collecting material in a separate folder from the first
day the paper is assigned.

Your Role as a Writer-in-Process

When you are satisfied with the way you have organized the materials you
will need to write—or more practically, when a deadline is quickly
approaching—begin drafting and don’t stop to edit yourself. Many
students procrastinate at this point and complain of writer’s block. Often,
these feelings of frustration are compounded by unrealistic expectations of
first drafts. While you may envision a draft that comes from your brain to
the computer screen perfectly the first time, you would probably be
wiser—and a lot less stressed out—if you picture yourself metaphorically
shaping a mass of dough that has a long way to go before becoming a
supreme pizza. Drafts are not supposed to perfect; they are works in
progress. Even the final copy that you turn in will be a best-possible-at-
this-time draft. Professional writers agree that even when they look back
on their published works, they discover ideas that could have been
finessed, sentences that could have been polished more.

You may decide that you work best by stopping in the middle of a first
draft and revising what you have. Or you may decide to complete an
entire draft from beginning to end without stopping to worry about
coherence, structure, or fine-tuning of sentences. Try working with a pen
on a printout—underlining key ideas, crossing out unnecessary or
irrelevant information, and writing in additions in the margins or between
lines.

35
While your writing personality will drive these decisions, remember that it
is almost impossible to write, revise, and edit at the same time. Give
yourself a chance to compose before you decide whether that composition
is good or bad. Being able to draft and then leave your writing for a day is
the best strategy for separating writing concerns from revising concerns.

Your Role as a Collaborative Writer

Be open-minded about collaboration. Some students, especially

hardworking overachievers, dislike collaborative assignments in college
because they feel that they do all the work while their less-motivated
classmates sit back and watch their grade be earned by someone else.

Remember that collaboration depends upon group dynamics, and group

dynamics are different with every new group. If you are a natural leader,
be proactive in delegating responsibilities. If you are assigned an
extensive project that will take weeks to complete and will be graded, start
early, delegate, and schedule mandatory meetings. The most successful
groups are those that can gauge individual strengths and put them to work.
For example, find out which student is the best writer, which student has
good organizational skills, which student has a creative imagination,
which student has artistic or media skills, and which student is friendly
and would be good at doing progress-checks by phone with group
members. Put your assignment in perspective and discuss it together as a
rhetorical situation group members must each analyze and respond to.

Projects for Writing and Reflection

1) Write a one-paragraph description of the communities represented by

each of the courses you are enrolled in this semester. If your semester
has just begun, you will want to focus on “first impressions” based on
previous knowledge, interviews of classmates, course syllabi, and
introductory lectures. In each paragraph, consider the following: Who
makes up the membership of this academic community? What kind of
specialized language do you notice in the textbooks or lectures? What

36
 kinds of study skills and writing techniques will be expected? Does
the subject matter of the course lend itself to application in your life?

2) Using strategies for developing an investigational awareness in

Chapter 2, keep a double-entry awareness journal for a week. In the
left column, write down events and issues that you hear or read about
during the week. In the right column, write down your personal
opinions, questions, and analytical ideas about larger themes to which
each event might relate.

Following are a few sample notes for beginning an awareness journal:

December 2003, Week 4

Saddam Hussein captured -Media photos released
by American forces -laws regarding treatment of
prisoners of war?
-procedures for bringing
Hussein to trial?
-Cultural differences?

President George W. Bush -Trends in unemployment

seeks to create jobs during Bush’s presidency?
-jobs for immigrants
-fair wages?
-5.7% unemployment
for December 2003
8.4 million Americans
-part of Bush’s campaign?

U.S. Department of Agriculture -concerns about beef supply

confirms the first appearance -source traced to Canada
of Mad Cow Disease in America -effects on cattle ranchers
-effects on the Atkins Diet

37
3) Take on the role of investigator to complete an interview essay. Use
the following guidelines to complete this project:

N Interview a classmate about the struggles s/he is facing in

completing assignments in college.

N Use your interview notes as a content base to plan a well-

developed two-page essay.

N Then, write an essay that describes the kinds of academic work

your classmate is doing and strategies s/he currently uses or needs
to learn how to use to complete them. You may also want to
compare your own college experiences with those of your
classmate.

38
CHAPTER 3

Rhetorical Tools for Academic Writers

This chapter discusses basic rhetorical concepts that can help you create,
understand, and analyze communication in all of its forms. You can use
these “tools” to convince an audience of a particular approach to a subject
or an issue. In the college environment, rhetorical tools help you
strategically shape and order your points when speaking and writing for a
purpose.

Rhetoric, or the study of thoughtful communication and its effect on an

audience, can help you grow as a writer and as a scholar. Learning how to
observe and to analyze specific communication strategies and their long
history dating back to classical Greece can make the study of messages,
their goals, and their effects more overt and more interesting. Interestingly
enough, learning about rhetoric can also help you become a better friend, a
better listener, a better communicator, a better arguer, and a smarter
consumer in your everyday environments.

When the public hears the word “rhetoric,” they often think of politicians
manipulating their audiences by exaggerating and making promises they
do not intend to keep. This negative use of the term appears in pop culture
as well. For example, at the beginning of the movie Air Force One,
Harrison Ford’s character uses the term “rhetoric” in the pejorative sense
when he refers to the empty claims of the presidential speech that has been
written for him to read. This negative stereotype has become linked with
the term “rhetoric” in public use and limits an informed understanding of
the study of language. Yes, rhetoric, in its worst sense, can be used to
manipulate and to control uninformed audiences. Realizing that rhetoric
can be used to promote both good an evil reveals its generative power, its
creative force within society, and especially within academic communities.
Rhetoric as the responsible and ethical use of language intended for a
target audience opens up all sorts of possibilities for increased

39
understanding, interpersonal bonding, community-building, and
progressive change.

Audience

The act of writing is rhetoric in practice, literally. While this topic is open
to debate, the author of this textbook believes that audience is the key to
most rhetorical situations that call for written communication. The
intended audience of the message has everything to do with how that
message is shaped. While you may think of your instructors and the
academic community to which they belong as your primary audience,
every communication situation includes an audience—whether self-, real,
ignored, or projected. For example, when you honk your car horn at
someone for cutting you off in traffic, you are sending out a message to
one specific careless driver. S/he may or may not realize that the message
was intended for her or him, but you had a target audience in mind
nevertheless.

To begin with the basics of rhetoric, envision a communications triangle

when you are reading, speaking, and/or writing. The basic elements (or
points) of the triangle are

1) writer/speaker,
2) reader/audience, and
3) message.

The three lines that make up the triangle’s sides represent the transactional
nature of communication, with possible channels of feedback going in
both directions.

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 Figure 1: Communications Triangle

In writing studies, particularly over the past thirty years, our understanding
of the communications triangle, theorized by James Kinneavy and others,
has become more nuanced, more complicated. Nevertheless, we still
begin with rhetoric. You are a rhetor—a communicator using language
for a purpose—every time you speak. You are a rhetor even when you
give yourself a pep talk before that final exam in physics. And every time
you act as a rhetor, you are participating as an agent in a rhetorical
situation. In fact, right now, while you are reading this textbook, you are
participating as an audience member in a rhetorical situation. In writing to
you, I am the rhetor, and this text is the message. Social and psychological
filters—such as your reading background, your energy, and your level of
interest at this moment—are influencing how you read and react to the
message being sent. According to rhetorical theorist Lloyd Bitzer, five
basic elements make up the rhetorical situation: 1) text, 2) reader, 3)
author, 4) constraints, and 5) exigency.

Think of the three elements of the communications triangle discussed

previously. Now, picture all of the socio-cultural factors that could
possibly influence a message you are sending or receiving. The text itself
may be written in German, a language you do not know; this detail would

41
function as a constraint within this rhetorical situation. However,
imagine that you are traveling to Germany during your senior year of
college to participate in an overseas college exchange program. There is
an exigency, or implicit motivation, for your reading of a German text: it
will benefit you in your foreign language learning and in planning for your
senior year abroad. Each side of the communications triangle, then, has
the potential for fostering certain constraints and exigencies. For example,
in the two-way path from reader to text and from text to reader,
interference may result when reading difficulty and/or lack of interest are
at work. Likewise, in the two-way path from author to reader and reader
to author, personal preferences, education level, and points of focus may
restrict or enhance the potential of the communicated message.

In the last fifteen years, the influence of cultural studies upon composition
has allowed theorists complicate notions of the communication setting by
include material realities and sociocultural influences that shape and/or
limit rhetorical situations. For example, if you have planned to meet your
best friend right after class to sit down and plan the details of a weekend
party you are throwing together, but find out during class that this best
friend has been secretly dating your ex and trying to hide it, your ability to
communicate with your friend as planned would be affected, changed—
probably drastically—by the way you feel about the “audience” of your
party-planning messages. The rhetorical situation has changed, based on
factors outside of the basic triangle, even outside Bitzer's rhetorical
situation with its five elements. This example illustrates a credibility
problem; you have lost respect for your friend and are not as interested in
planning a party with him/her; anything s/he says will be affected by the
communication message you have received regarding this person’s
character. This situation also illustrates how a credibility problem can
influence the content, creation, and reception of an intended
communication.

Because situations that call for communication between or among human

beings are influenced by a host of situational factors, I have developed the

42
following graphic to help you envision writing as a social process that
exists within a cultural dimension.

Figure 2: Situated Rhetoric

The multifaceted, eight-pointed star above symbolizes how

communication has sociocultural dimensions. To study the image, first
trace only the main points of the star, going clockwise from the left,
beginning with “motivation” in the nine o’clock position and ending with
“audience” in the six o’clock position. Then, retrace all eight points,
beginning in the same place but zigzagging inside to consider timing,
medium, credibility, and context. This dynamic model shows how
personalities and motivations of senders and receivers of messages
influence what will be said and how. The most exciting parts of the
process are the interactions among participating elements, especially the
anticipation that comes with the element of audience. Aristotle, a Greek
philosopher who taught in Athens, Greece during the fourth century B.C.,

43
emphasized the importance of determining which appeals would be
persuasive with which audiences. For example, a social scientist invited to
speak on the topic of battered women would need to know if an audience
is made up primarily of women who have experienced physical abuse,
women who are currently experiencing physical abuse, social workers who
work with women being abused, or philanthropists looking for a cause
worthy of their donation. Clearly, the focus—even the content—of the
message would vary with the audience’s expectations, gender, class, race,
level of education, prior knowledge of the subject, etc. In fact, the
speaker’s own orientation toward the topic or life experience with it will
influence the choices of words and their impact. Therefore, you can begin
to see how relating to your audience—a process called audience
identification—can mean success or failure when it comes to sending and
receiving messages.

You may be tempted to dismiss audience when you are writing essays in
college because often the audience you are worried about is the one who
holds the red pen—the instructor. When you think of your instructor as
your audience, a target audience is often hard to pinpoint because you
rarely have a real person or group in mind. For example, if you write an
argument targeting the school board of the high school you attended, you
may have insider information that will help you focus on that audience. If
you are writing for the National Board of Education, however, your
audience seems more distant and harder to analyze.

Messages are more likely to have an impact when writer and reader—or
audience—meet halfway, creating an interchange instead of a simple
sending and receiving process. We all know that sometimes what we hear
or read or comprehend is not exactly what the author intended. This
process reminds us that the dynamic of communication occurs within
several filters—such as gender, race, class, openness to the subject matter,
level of education, personal motivation to learn more about the topic, etc.
Remembering to stop and think about your audience before writing an
essay is important because you can actually anticipate needs and even
rebuttals to your points. For example, if you worked as a Census taker

44
during the summer of 2000, you attended an orientation and training to
help you explain to strangers why being counted in the U.S. Census is
important. As a part of your job, you learned how to inform citizens that
the Census influences the amount of federal funding a person’s community
receives for health, education, and city developments such as public parks.
You probably also learned the typical reasons why people avoid filling out
Census forms so that you could dispel myths and encourage people to be
counted. Likewise, if you work in a marketing department for an
engineering firm and you are asked to redesign an article on civil
engineering for the Internet, you would want to learn about the preferences
of online readers and anticipate their needs. This task would teach you
that online readers prefer short paragraphs of texts and relevant hypertext
links to further information. Whether in the public or private realms,
audience analysis reaps tangible rewards.

Rhetorical Appeals

For your purposes as a college student, building interpersonal

relationships, listening to instructors, responding to academic assignments,
and understanding basic rhetorical strategies are indispensable activities
worth the investment of your time. To communicate well leads to
understanding. To listen well leads to comprehension. To argue well
leads to convincing points of view and change.

Within the study of rhetoric, three basic kinds of appeals can help you
better understand your own use of language and its potential for
influencing various audiences. The Greek philosopher and teacher
Aristotle discussed at length what he called the three principal modes of
proof: appeals to ethos, appeals to pathos, and appeals to logos.
Following, you will find brief discussions and illustrated examples of each
of these three rhetorical appeals.

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Ethos: Appeals to Academic Credibility

Your ethos, or your credibility and character as a speaker or writer, can be

built up, torn down, or remain neutral each time you communicate with a
purpose. Some scholars refer to this kind of appeal as an “ethical appeal.”
When you seek to communicate, whether your purpose is to inform, to
describe, or to argue, you want to be well-received, well thought of, well-
remembered as a communicator with integrity. Developing ethos is
particularly important, then, because it is the “mode of persuasion that
relies on the speaker creating a credible character for rhetorical occasions”
and must, according to Aristotle, “inspire the audience’s confidence in the
speaker’s good sense, moral character, and good will” (Johnson 243).
Ethos, then, originates with the speaker/writer but gathers its strength from
the audience’s reaction.

N Example
You have been roommates with your fellow student Kelly for two
semesters now. The two of you are not close friends but agree that you get
along well as roommates. You have separate sets of friends, but you also
enjoy each other’s company at times. You have just taken a full-time job
and are not around the apartment much, but Kelly and his/her friends are
enrolled in summer school and hang out at your place a lot. You come
home one day from work, and Kelly has left the following note on the
counter: “I am tired of you eating all of the food that I buy and not doing
your part to keep the refrigerator stocked. Where is the pizza I bought last
night?”

You have just entered a rhetorical situation. You are holding in your
hand a piece of written communication intended for you as reader,
expressed in a hostile tone, and ending with a direct question you are
expected to answer. You are innocent; you never saw the pizza. You ate
at the Subway near your workplace yesterday and came home late after
seeing a movie with your friend Tracy. In fact, you have not eaten at home

46
in the last four days. Now you have to decide what to say and how to send
your own message of response.

An appeal to ethos in this situation:

You know Kelly gets out of class around noon, so you make a special
effort to come home from work to talk about the food issue. You sit down
on the couch with the note in your hand and say, “Kelly, how long have we
been roommates?” After the answer, you ask, “And have I ever eaten
your food in the past?” After Kelly answers with a “no,” you explain that
you take being a good roommate seriously and feel that you have been
accused unjustly.

[You have relied on your own credibility—your past actions, your values,
your character as it is known to others, your personality—not only to
convince Kelly that you did not eat the pizza but also that you are a good
roommate.]

To use ethos in an academic essay, demonstrate your expertise or careful

research, give credit where credit is due by citing sources accurately and
work on consciously practicing a consistent and reasonable tone. These
strategies help you to evoke the good will of your readers.

Pathos: Appeals to the Values of an Audience

Appeals to Pathos seek to influence by relying on the audience’s values

and emotions. Like ethos, pathos gathers its strength from the audience’s
reaction to a message. In Book I of On Rhetoric, Aristotle explains that
“when they [the audience] are brought . . . into a state of emotion . . .
[they] give very different decisions under the sway of pain or joy, and
liking or hatred” (1.2). While you may not like to think that your emotions
influence your decisions and your reactions to communicated messages,

47
you will probably agree that mood, beliefs, backgrounds, and personal
experiences do affect our willingness to accept ideas or to be convinced as
a targeted audience member. When you write papers in college, for
example, you may find yourself wondering if your instructor agrees with
the particular position you are taking in a research paper or if anything you
are saying is potentially offensive to an academic reader. These are natural
concerns that help you to understand the importance of audience analysis,
which is necessary for the creation of any appeal to pathos. Anticipating
subjective responses to your work can keep you on your academic toes
when it comes to using good transitions, pacing strategies for placement of
your thesis statement, and ordering of points in an argumentative essay.
Appeals to emotions always depend on the audience, rhetorically speaking,
because they require readers/listeners to be affected emotionally by the
feelings or identifications they evoke.

An Appeal to pathos:

You remind Kelly that you know how much s/he loves pizza and how s/he
becomes frustrated when other people eat food from the apartment
refrigerator without asking. You rely upon an emotional response when
you assure Kelly that you think s/he is a good roommate and that you
would not want to do anything to jeopardize your relationship after a year
of living together. You also add a little pout and hang your head in silence
after you make these points.

[You have relied on emotional appeals to make Kelly think about how you
know your roommate well and respect her/his values and needs. The pout
intensifies the fact that you are relying on your audience to feel obligated
to respond.]

As a general rule, use pathos in academic essays carefully and only when
it adds to your credibility and your style of presentation. Readers can
easily be turned off by attempts to persuade through emotion only. Balance
appeals to values and emotions with carefully-chosen and well-presented
evidence. The best route to pathos in academic writing is to help your

48
readers identify with the topic or with people with whom they have some
experience or value in common.

Logos: Appeals to Reason

Appeals to logos rely on practical, clearly structured and logical points of

reasoning. Logical appeals depend upon the ability of the speaker/writer
to create reasonable claims and the ability of the audience to respond to
reasonable claims. Inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning are
methods through which appeals to logos can be presented. Induction is a
form of logical reasoning that begins with specific examples and moves
toward a generalization or claim (think triangle with point up, moving
downward toward larger base). On the other hand, deduction begins with
the general claim and moves toward specific evidence and support for that
claim. The rhetor begins with the general claim and then uses examples
and reasons as supporting evidence (think inverted triangle with large base
at top, moving narrower to the point at the bottom).

When you use logos in college-level academic writing, you are taking on a
particular challenge: to link concepts and words clearly to build
relationships among what is said, how it is said, and what the audience
will accept as valid argumentation. Logos relies upon explicit points,
interrelated ideas, and spatial and sequential reasoning. Critical thinking,
along with an understanding of the rhetorical terms in this chapter, will
help you rise to the academic occasion.

An appeal to logos:

You first point out the hours you worked yesterday and show Kelly the
dated receipt from the Subway where you ate dinner. Then, you remind
Kelly that the two of you don’t even like the same pizza toppings. Finally,
you ask who came over last night, and you challenge Kelly to reason
through the logical points you have just made and rethink the conclusion
that you ate the pizza.

49
[You have relied on reason and logic, practically recounting where you
were when the pizza must have been eaten and talking Kelly through the
steps to finding out who might have eaten the food s/he stored in the
refrigerator.]

Most academic writing depends upon logos because it seeks to present

information as clearly and as logically as possible. It is also familiar as the
“academic way” because it is the masculinist and traditional model of
argumentation that has been practiced and theorized for over two thousand
years; thus, it’s all but ingrained in our psychology as a Western culture.
Practicing skills of research and organization can help you learn to present
ideas in a reasonable and practical way. However, be careful not to
alienate your audience by using appeals to logic alone, for some readers
may find this style dry and impersonal. Don’t forget that there are times
when a creative blend of styles can be effective.

Kairos: Timeliness and Academic Literacy

If the “hypothetical you” had not come home the night the pizza was eaten,
or if Kelly had happened to walk into the kitchen to see his/her friends
eating the pizza, timing (and witnessing) would have solved the problem
between roommates. Timing also has a long history in the study of
rhetoric; “right timing”—or the concept of kairos—influences when, how,
and under what pressure human beings make decisions and/or are
influenced by communication.

Timing also influences the potential effect of a message. Think about the
concept of timing in your own life, instances when you did or did not take
advantage of opportunities available to you. Historical has a kairotic
nature as well. Suppose you are writing a research paper about speeches
made during the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. While you could
analyze the speeches as opportunities taken, you could also consider what
cultural and historical factors created the situation in which those speeches
were created and welcomed or not welcomed by audiences. The inverse of
kairos, or missed opportunity, prompts us to think about what our nation

50
would be like today if the Civil Rights Movement had not taken place, if
the powerful rhetoric that led to those speeches had not found its strength,
its moment in time.

The concept of kairos is also reflected in writing itself, through the style
and structure of essays. Introductions and conclusions are also related to
issues of timing and appropriateness: they provide the first and last
impressions in an essay and reflect the chosen framework of ideas in a
piece of writing. In high school, most of us are taught that the topic
sentence of a body paragraph is its first sentence. However in college, we
are often encouraged to consider exceptions to that “rule,” especially when
writing argumentative essays in which the writer may purposefully place a
topic sentence as the last sentence of a paragraph, especially if its content
is highly controversial. These exceptions sometimes affect even the
placement of your thesis statement. For example, if you are writing an
argument essay and you know that your own position represents a minority
opinion, you’ll want to decide very carefully what will be the “right
timing” for revealing your specific claim and its support. If you anticipate
resistance from your readers, you may want to incorporate a lengthier
introduction and plenty of background information and representations of
various perspectives to “coax” the reader toward your position statement.

Developing an understanding of how the right message at the right time

can produce knowledge or change existing knowledge helps writers to
gauge the appropriateness and timeliness of their messages.

Making Decisions About Structure and Style

Closely related to the concept of kairos, or “right timing,” in an essay is

the Greek concept of to prepon, or what is appropriate. Gauging what is
appropriate for a specific audience at a specific moment also influences
how you structure your words in a written document. Thinking about how
your words are presented is just as important as deciding what words will
be used. Some writers worry about structural concerns from the very

51
beginning of their writing processes—deciding through an outline what
points will be made in what order. Other writers find it easier to write a
rough draft and then decide what points they discover in the writing itself;
then, after studying their draft and rearranging material, they revise with
structure in mind. If you’re not sure what your own writing process looks
like, practice writing various ways and with various methods of revision.
Plenty of practice and exposure to various techniques will help you find
what works best for you. In the process, you will discover that a well-
written essay rarely begins as a well-written essay.

Below you will find descriptions of three basic organizational principles

that will help you write as a college student. Keep these principles in
mind as you write in academic environments, remembering to explore how
these strategies contribute to your purpose for writing and your audience.

N Sequencing

When you are ready to consider the structure of your essay—either before
drafting or after, depending on your writing process—think about the
points you are making as independent ideas. Then, try the following
sequencing strategies:

1) List independent ideas on a separate sheet of paper.

2) Then, place an asterisk (*) next to the points that you feel are the
strongest.
3) You may want to pause at this step and revise your topic sentences so
that they clearly represent the content in the paragraph built upon them.
4) Next, look for possible relationships between the points or topic
sentences.
5) When you find at least two points that are related, stop and write a
phrase or two in the margins that points out how the ideas are linked.
6) These phrases can be revised into sentences that will serve as
transitions in your essay.
7) Complete Numbers 4 and 5 in this list until you have mapped out the
possible links between your ideas.

52
8) Then, number your points in a reasonable order that reveals a smooth
path for a reader from one point to the next.

You may find that you have specific skills of organization already in place
and that you need only fine tune your transitions between points. Or you
may find that careful sequencing will help you create a better, more
sophisticated essay. In either case, the practice of separating and
examining ideas is valuable for developing critical thinking skills that can
be applied to your own writing and to others’.

N Setting priorities

After you consider basic sequencing of points, you should decide how the
structure you have designed responds to the needs and expectations of
your audience. Ask yourself the following questions:

N Are you writing to a designated reader or a generalized audience

group?
(Has your instructor provided a specific audience?
If so, is the audience familiar with your writing subject?)

N What expectations are built in to the assignment?

(Does the assignment require summary, analysis, or argument
specifically?)

N Will the writing product be lengthy or brief?

(Longer essays require more explicit structural clues.
For example, the conclusion of a 15-page paper should include
reminders of the paper’s main points, while such reminders are not
necessary in a two-page essay.)

The way you respond to an assignment depends upon your understanding

of what you are being asked to do. For example, if you are assigned a
classical argument essay in your economics class, you should almost
always place your strongest argument as the last point in your essay. On

53
rare occasions, you may need to present your strongest case first, however,
because of a hostile audience or because you need a strong hook to gain
the attention of a listening audience. On the other hand, if your purpose is
to write an exploratory essay for your English class, you will want to
consider other writing strategies such as suspense so that you can withhold
judgment and explore alternative perspectives. For this exploratory essay,
you would order your points according to related and contrasting ideas and
attempt to be objective—a structure very different from the weakest-to-
strongest-argument order of the classical argument framework.

N Achieving Balance

The principle of balance is also important in organizing college-level

writing. As you research and/or brainstorm for ideas, you may come up
with several, but, in the end, have only four or five that could support
paragraph-length discussion. This situation lends strength to arguments
for prewriting—writing informally before you draft. If you prewrite to
draw out all possible ideas you’d like to explore, you can often prevent
later problems of imbalance in an essay. Such problems of imbalance
often demand that you make difficult choices. For example, if you have
four strong body paragraphs and a fifth point that will support only a few
lines of discussion, omit the fifth point or fold it into a related paragraph.
While counting lines in each paragraph would defy the principle of writing
to content rather than form, you should generally avoid obvious
differences in the length of your paragraphs because they could cause your
reader to feel that your ideas are disproportionate. Providing your reader a
sense of a balanced discussion lends strength to your credibility as a good
writer.

N Writing Good Introductions and Conclusions

Introductions and conclusions are the first and last impressions of your
message when you write an essay. They provide your readers a framework
for entering and exiting your essay and therefore should be crafted
carefully with readers in mind.

54
Whether the introduction comes first or last in your writing process, leave
time to think about what information you are introducing and how you are
introducing it. The following tips will help you judge an intro you have
already written or write an intro to a paper you have already written:

N Think organization
Picture the introduction as a tornado, funneling down to a powerful
thesis statement. Begin with an attention-getter; then, move on to any
necessary background information and narrow toward a single-
sentence thesis statement. *The thesis can be placed within the intro
or in a secondary introductory paragraph, but is usually positioned as
the last sentence of the introductory paragraph in college-level
academic writing.

N Think Audience Interest

Focusing on your thesis and purpose, think of related ideas that you
could use to spark your reader’s interest. When you are analyzing or
arguing about a text, try to anticipate the needs of an audience who
has not read the text before (or think of a reader who has read the text
but has not thought about your interpretive approach).

N Think HOOK
Use the following strategies to interest your reader at the very
beginning of your essay:

a) Use a striking quotation as a head note (centered and single-

spaced at the top of your essay);
b) Ask a thought-provoking question or present a discussion of
cause and effect;
c) Create an illustration that initiates a conversation;
d) Write a descriptive paragraph to help the reader visualize a
situation similar to the events within the text(s) to be analyzed;
e) If you want to establish credibility and social awareness, find
appropriate and relevant statistics, introducing them in your
own words and incorporating them into your arguments;

55
 f) Use the element of intrigue or suspense to lead into a thesis
that represents a minority opinion or surprising interpretation.

The following are strategies for writing effective conclusions:

N Release your Reader

Whether you decide to write a lengthy or brief, “punchy” conclusion,
write a closing statement that is consistent in tone and that provides
closure to your presentation of ideas.

N Come to Your own “Conclusion”

We use the word “conclusion” so often to refer to a part of an essay
that we often forget what it means to “conclude”—to present
realizations and discoveries in a summation. When appropriate, a
discussion of your own conclusions or changing interpretations can be
an effective way to release your reader.

N Avoid Beginning a New Discussion

Without repeating your thesis statement word for word, review key
ideas and end with a “summary” statement that leaves the reader
thinking.

N End with a Quotation

End with a quotation only when someone happens to have written
something that happens to conclude your own thoughts and is written
so effectively that the quote “says it best.” A wrap-up quotation works
well only when it is the logical ending to your own ideas.

Projects for Writing and Reflection

1) Working with two or three of your classmates, develop a mnemonic

device (memory technique) for remembering the eight elements of
“Situated Rhetoric” (See Figure 2 on Page 43): MOTIVATION,
timing, WRITER, medium, MESSAGE, credibility, AUDIENCE, and
context. After you’ve quizzed one another to see if each member of

56
 the group can name all eight, brainstorm a communication situation
and explain each of the eight elements of situated rhetoric.

2) Write a one-page personal essay describing a time when analyzing a

situation rhetorically helped you understand why it happened or how
the message was sent and to what audience. For example, perhaps you
responded to an announcement made by your high school principal
that there was no longer a budget for color photos your senior year by
writing up a petition and gathering signatures—actions that persuaded
your school board to allocate funds to continue the tradition.

3) Read the following description of a rhetorical situation.

Your computer crashed due to an e-mailed virus, and you had saved
the final revisions of a ten-page research paper on the hard drive. You
have a printout of an earlier draft, but the paper is due tomorrow. You
have a B in the class so far and want to keep it, and you know that the
extensive revisions you lost will take time to retype. Your instructor
encourages e-mail correspondence, and you want to let him/her know
what happened and ask for an extension.

Respond to the rhetorical situation by writing three brief paragraphs—

one using an appeal to ethos, one using an appeal to pathos, and one
using an appeal to logos—that present attempts at problem-solving in
situation described above. Your purpose is to convince the instructor
that you deserve an extension of 24 hours.

Bring your three paragraphs to class and share them in groups to find
out whether your appeals are similar to or different from those written
by your classmates.

4) Write a one- to two-page description of the pedagogy used by one of

your past high school teachers or college professors. What kind of
ethos did this instructor develop throughout the course? What
specific approaches and techniques characterize this person’s teaching,

57
 and how did the teaching method demonstrated provide hints to the
theory informing classroom practices?

5) Write a brief essay based on past personal experiences within a

community that relied upon communication to get things done. Your
purpose is to describe the process by which you entered this discourse
community and to conclude with descriptive advice to someone
seeking to join that community. Writing this essay will require a
working knowledge of the concept of ethos because you will need to
include discussions of how you have and/or will develop your
credibility as a discourse community member.

6) Working with the discussion of audience analysis in this chapter, think

of audience analysis strategies the social scientist as speaker would
need to use with each of the four possible audiences: the woman who
has escaped an abusive situation; the woman who is being abused; the
social worker who counsels abused women; and the philanthropist
who is looking for causes to support.

In groups of two or three, brainstorm and then list at least two

strategies for reaching each audience effectively.

7) Working with two or three classmates, write an introduction and a

conclusion for an essay that tells a future college student how to
survive as a college student. Your specific topic is “college culture,”
and your purpose is to provide this future college student with the
advice he or she will need to survive (and to succeed!) in the college
environment. You may choose to focus on personal, social, or
academic concerns for college students.

Read your introduction and conclusion to the class, and then have the
classmates outside the group come up with at least three points that
could be made logically within the framework of your essay.

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CHAPTER 4

Decisions, Decisions: Research Into Writing

This chapter shows you how to approach research with an academic

attitude and how to transition from researching to drafting and revising.
After offering advice on evaluating sources and strategies for documenting
the words and ideas of others responsibly, this chapter concludes with a
discussion of four basic disciplinary conventions in English studies.

You may currently think of research as going to the library and finding
“back-up” for points you have already developed. Over a decade of
teaching and working with student researchers, I have learned that students
often go about the research process in a sequence that is the opposite of
what it should be. Research should be driven by good questions, not
assumed answers. If you want to make your college experience
worthwhile by learning as much as possible, you have to practice being
comfortable with the process of research. And the process can be a messy
one. In it, you need to find a way to be at ease with the fact that research
can change your mind, change your focus, even change your original
question. Research should be seen as a living art, an adventure, not a
forensic search for evidence after a crime has already been committed.
Meaningful research can be done before you decide on a focus for a paper.
Instead of thinking of research as a last step to take before writing your
paper (or after writing your draft), view the researching role as an
academic process that is ongoing and open-ended. An exploration of what
has been contributed and what perspectives have come before your own
can help you remain open to new ideas and may even lead you to interests
you had not anticipated. There is a big difference between a claim and an
informed claim, and research charts the path from one to the other.

Exploring what views already exist and what parts of an academic

conversation are open for debate can help you research through an
assignment instead of for an assignment. You don’t have to know “the
answer” before you do research, and you may find that your focus or

59
approach should change after you discover what information is available
on a subject.

You may also want to consider conducting some primary research of your
own as you gather information for a paper. If your assignment allows, you
can schedule observations or conduct interviews and/or surveys in person
with people who are knowledgeable about your subject. Communicating
online also offers opportunities for primary research that previously were
not possible. Many Web sites welcome questions and provide e-mail
addresses at the bottom of the page for correspondence. For example,
even famous poets share their e-mail addresses online and invite
correspondence from people who visit their sites via the Web. Before the
Internet as communication forum existed, making contact with the purpose
of asking research-oriented questions was time-consuming and/or difficult
because of limited access to people interested in the same subjects you are.
Today, there are chat rooms and entire Web sites devoted to specific
communities (www.blackplanet.com is one example, growing from 34,000
registered members in the year 2000 to over 11 million in 2004).

Think of ways that you can use human networking to find out the
information you need for a writing project. You will find, for example,
that you can write to your representatives and senators, conduct surveys of
college students across the nation, print out lists of sources compiled by
others, search statistical government databases, and read valuable
information posted by other academics all via the Internet. Young people
today live in a consumer culture, have the most expendable cash as
shopping, and have discriminating tastes in technologies. What if they put
the same effort into “shopping” for the best information available as they
do in researching types of technology for purchase? Whether you are
asked to do exploratory research before writing an essay or to research a
given issue within a given subject, keep a positive attitude toward research
in college by looking at resource materials as uncharted territory.

How do you know whether a source you’re thinking of using is

“academic” or not? While academic sources differ in scope, presentation,

60
and style, there are four basic characteristics of sources published in
academia: an academic audience, a review process or publication filter,
references to existing knowledge, and documentation. Brief discussions of
each follow:

N An Academic Audience

GQ Magazine, while including interesting articles on cultural phenomena

and men’s issues, does not seek as its primary audience a group of
academic readers. The articles in New Literary History, however, speak to
academics and are written using the “in language,” or jargon familiar to
academics in the fields of history and English studies. With online sites
such as www.findarticles.com and searchable full-text databases within
online library catalogs, the lines between the popular and the academic are
being blurred. One ways of finding out quickly whether a source counts as
an “academic” one is to skim the text looking for specialized vocabulary,
subheadings that reflect development of a research project, and academic
concepts and to look for references to outside sources. Some academic
articles also offer another hint: subheadings reflecting steps taken in
research or development of a research project, such as “Discussion of the
Problem,” “Methods,” and “Conclusions.” Many academic journals in the
social sciences use this format (for an example, see the journal Psychology
of Women Quarterly in your campus library).

N Review

Although processes of judging published sources are changing due to the

freedom of publishing on the Internet, most academic writing is published
only after it has been reviewed by like-minded scholars within the
disciplinary community that represents the audience for the writing. For
example, when a writer sends an article to Rhetoric Review, an academic
journal that publishes essays on the history of rhetoric and the teaching of
rhetorical theory and writing, the editor sends the article to expert readers
who have extensive knowledge in the subject of the article. Then, after the
expert readers have commented on the article, they make a

61
recommendation for acceptance or rejection, which the editor considers
and adds to before sending the article back to the writer with news.
Journals that publish according to this process are called refereed
academic journals. For every article that is accepted for publication,
several are rejected. Editors who serve as adjudicators of the information
published in these journals set high standards in order to ensure quality
discussions that add to the current conversations of a field.

Sometimes, judgment or review is less formal. Review may mean having

a tutor judge your work and give you an opinion, or having the editor of
the campus newsletter write back to tell you that your letter will be
published if you can add a few sentences to relate why the topic is
important to you.

N References to Existing Knowledge

Because academics are joining an ongoing conversation and seeking to

produce knowledge by writing within that conversation and inviting
dialogue, they are responsible for referencing existing knowledge and
theories ethically. Giving credit where credit is due is one of the golden
rules of academic writing because it upholds the principle of using
language responsibly and respecting the contributions of others. At the
very least, making responsible references shows that you’ve “done your
homework,” so to speak. Your credibility as a writer benefits because
your ethos is stronger when you have taken time to acknowledge existing
claims and then build upon them to ask a new question or to outline an
unforeseen complication. This process of attribution is a way to point out
what ideas exist and what should be done to improve them, complicate
them, illustrate them, or analyze them in future academic projects.

N Documentation

Part of being a responsible researcher is taking time to document your

sources carefully. When you are working on papers for your classes and
you are told to use a certain documentation style, you may develop a sense

62
of dread regarding the ominous “style manual,” which contains, among
other things, thousands of picky usage rules and formatting rules that may
seem to take on a life of their own in a parallel universe where library
science is a way of life. A little faith in systematic knowledge may put you
at ease: The Modern Language Association publishes a book called the
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, which Newsweek refers
to as “the style bible for most college students” (sixth ed. back cover).
According to its author, Joseph Gibaldi, citations “identify a source and
give sufficient information to allow a reader to locate it” (207). In other
words, documentation is simply a way to provide your readers with a map
they could use to find your research. The details of the map are “picky”
because they have to be transferable to other map users. Just as maps have
“keys” and “legends,” documentation styles reflect formats that are agreed-
upon according to bibliographic methods of keeping track of sources. The
system is already established and changes little over the years. Your goal,
then, as a student is not to memorize formats or documentation rules, but
to learn to use style manuals or writing handbooks to follow formats for
documenting various sources. Of course, there are some basics that you
could commit to memory to save yourself time in using a handbook:

N References to sources are placed immediately after the borrowed

information, whether quoted or paraphrased, and are called
parenthetical citations.

N Parenthetical citations in MLA style include the author’s last name,

one space, and the page number (if applicable). There is no
comma between the author’s last name and page number in a basic
parenthetical citation. Example: (Dickens 587).

N In MLA style, the last page of a paper is the Works Cited page, a
list of sources alphabetized by the author’s last names (if those
names are available). If there is no author, alphabetize by the title.
The words “Works Cited” appear centered at the top of this last
numbered page of the paper, and this page is double-spaced just as
the rest of the text. Remember, you can include only those sources

63
 you actually used and cited within the paper on the Works Cited
page.

Below, you will find brief discussions of and sample entries for five basic
types of sources that appear on the Works Cited pages of academic
research papers: book, magazine article, scholarly journal article, Web site,
and interview. You will need more extensive information that this
textbook can provide, but this brief list of descriptions will give you an
orientation to MLA format and some examples you can refer to as you
begin to gather sources for a Works Cited page.

The standard format of elements within a source entry for a book on a

Works Cited page is as follows: author, title, city, publisher, year. (Now
say that list ten times as fast as you can out loud in a sing-songy fashion so
that you can memorize at least the format for a basic book source. -)

Example:

Neeley, Stacia Dunn. Academic Literacy. 2nd ed. New York:

Longman, 2005.

Study the placement of punctuation, noticing that the colon comes

after the city, and the comma after the publisher.

The standard format of elements within a source entry for a magazine

article on a Works Cited page is as follows: author, title, magazine title,
issue date, page numbers.

Example:

Fallows, James. “The Early-Decision Racket.” Atlantic Monthly

Sept. 2001: 37-52.

64
 Study the placement of the elements and the punctuation that
separates them, for example, the colon that separates the issue date
from the page numbers.

The standard format of elements within a source entry for a scholarly

journal article on a Works Cited page is as follows: author, title, journal
title, volume number, date, and page numbers.

Example:

Barton, Ellen. “Literacy in (Inter)Action.” College English 59.4

(April 1997): 408-37.

For library archiving purposes, scholarly journals have volume and

issue numbers. Notice that the volume number appears just before
the date, which is in parentheses.

The standard format of elements within a source entry for a standard

informative Web site on a Works Cited page is as follows: title of site,
editor, date of publication or update, name of sponsoring organization, and
URL.

Example:

Victorian Women Writer’s Project. Ed. Perry Willett. May 2000.

Indiana U. 5 January 2004.

http://www.indiana.edu/~letrs/vwwp/

65
Interviews that you conducted are easy to format for a Works Cited
page.

Examples:

Shor, Ira. Personal interview. 30 March 2002.

Dove, Rita. E-mail interview. 13 January 2004.

Dunn, Shirley. Telephone interview. 24 December 2003.

Of course, an MLA style manual or your assigned college handbook will

include more detailed information, but this starter list will help you
become familiar with the basic formats expected of you as a student
scholar being asked to complete a Works Cited list. (See the last pages of
the student essays in this textbook to study their Works Cited pages.)

The importance of documentation is clear when you think of it in terms of

the reigning philosophy in academia: that disciplines rely on bodies of
knowledge that can be complicated, change, and/or built upon by future
researchers. Every time you write a research paper that includes
documentation of sources, then, you are, in a sense, “passing the torch,”
encouraging others to take what you’ve done, even retracing the steps if
necessary, and move forward by creating new knowledge.

Be sure to document your sources accurately both within and at the end of
the text, as well as introducing them appropriately with lead-in statements
within the text. For instance, you would not want to use a statement about
parenting toddlers to support a point about abortion because you would be
misrepresenting the content of the source you are quoting. Lead into your
direct quotations with clear and informative phrases or sentences to add
coherence to your essays. Academic writing that depends on research
should include a bibliography—a list of sources cited in the final written

66
product (called the Works Cited page in MLA style). This list provides
your readers with a direct path to the sources you discovered and used
while researching, thus enabling them to read further into the subject.
Your list of sources also functions as a part of the evaluation process in the
writing class because instructors often use them to judge the validity of
your research choices and your ability to document sources accurately.

When you are responding to a research assignment, remember the wide

range of sources available to you through your library or online:

N Books
Book collections are often referred to as “the stacks” in public and
college libraries. You can find good book sources by searching an
online catalog, but don’t forget to allow serendipity to work once you
reach the shelves: often, you will find an appropriate source only a
finger’s reach away from the one you looked up.

N Refereed Journals
Academic journals can be found in two locations in your public and
college libraries. Current issues will be housed in a periodicals
section, while older issues are usually bound in hardback bindings and
kept either in storage, on shelves, or on microfilm. You can find good
articles by completing an online subject and/or keyword search within
an electronic database that references journals. For example, if you
type in “Charles Dickens” in the MLA database, which references
sources published in academic journals recognized by the Modern
Language Association, you will find numerous articles in a
bibliographic list, the most recent of which will appear at the top. The
next step for you as a researcher is to see whether your library
subscribes to the journal you need. This information now appears
within the search results screen in many academic databases such as
Academic Search Premier. If holdings information is now available
within the database, ask the periodicals librarian to show you the
library’s periodical directory.

67
N Academic Web sites
Academic Web sites are allowing students to research exciting topics
in ways they never dreamed possible. In fact, traditional students
entering college today are accustomed to viewing the world through a
window that is 800 pixels wide and 600 pixels tall. Drop-down
menus, search boxes, and hyperlinks are standard fare to this
generation of college students. A researcher can check up on a
national news event by checking the New York Times online at
http://www.nytimes.com/ or get advice on searching the Web in
general at http://galaxy.einet/www/www.html. A student assigned an
essay on Shakespeare’s Hamlet might want to try the University of
Virginia’s Electronic Text Center at
http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/english.html while a student researching
consumer rights for an economics class might want to read through the
Better Business Bureau Web site at http://www.bbbonline.org. A
student needing statistics on recent economic trends in the U.S. might
check out the official site for the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,
http://www.bls.gov. The possibilities are endless for accessing helpful
information with ease and researching in new and interesting ways.
The key to using the Internet to complete academic research is to make
sure that the information you are accessing is valid and published by a
reliable source.

N Electronic Databases
If you are unfamiliar with the online databases available to you through
your college computer network, schedule an appointment for a brief
tutorial with a librarian at your campus library. S/he will be able to
demonstrate how to use databases that hold important information
related to your major and/or career. One 30-minute tutorial could be
all you need to start researching efficiently and with speedy results.

If you are already familiar with using online resources but not
academic online resources, find the alphabetical listing of databases
within your networked library system home page, and read through the
list, making a written list of titles that relate to your interests and/or

68
 major field of study. For example, if you are assigned a research essay
in a course entitled “Intro to Poetry,” you might find key research
information using the following online databases: Article First (online
listing of academic articles), Disclit: American Authors on CD-ROM,
or the MLA Bibliography (Web catalog of publications on subjects of
language and literature). In addition, if you are writing a research
paper for a political science course, you might find the following
databases helpful for finding statistical information to support your
points: Statistical Masterfile on cd-rom, Statistical Universe, or PAIS
(Public Affairs Information Service).

Many libraries offer electronic databases that reference thousands of

sources that respond to author, title, keyword, and/or subject searches.
Many databases also now contain full-text articles that you can print
from the screen or e-mail to yourself without ever searching for the
print journal on the shelves. Ask your librarian how to search for full-
text articles in the databases available to you for free. Asking
classmates and instructors what online databases they find most
helpful will also give you insight into subject-specific sources with
which you may be unfamiliar.

Evaluating Sources

When relying on any outside source, but especially when relying on

information from the Internet, it is important to assess the legitimacy and
value of the information presented. You should look for four key
characteristics when judging the worth of a source: validity, timeliness,
relevance, and representation. Ask yourself the following questions about
your source materials as you research:

N Validity
Is the information published within an appropriate forum and by a
valid institution or sponsoring organization? Does it qualify as
academic? Is it well-written and sophisticated in its presentation of
ideas? With what authority do the authors write? What is their

69
 credibility, and how do they promote good will to their readers? How
does the sponsoring organization’s identity influence the approach to
the subject matter?

N Timeliness
Is the information current? Is the subject still important because there
are still opportunities for revision, problem-solving, and argument to
take place? Does the source take into consideration the history of the
topic? Are historical events or documents referenced as background
material for the reader? Is time-sensitive information being released
on a day-to-day basis about the topic, and is this site keeping up with
it? Does exigency—or motivation for the rhetorical situation at
hand—still exist?

N Relevance
Is the information relevant to the primary community that responds to
it? Does the source stay focused on the subject? Is the sponsoring
organization or institution affiliated with this source tuned in to the
relevance of the subject? What usefulness or meaningfulness does the
source have within its culture and within the context of the community
it seeks to serve by producing knowledge?

N Representation
Are ideas represented as fairly as possible, without slanted language
and unstated but obvious biases? Does the author seem to be
prioritizing and practicing fairness in his/her treatment of the subject?
Does the text reveal adequate research? What is the scope of the text?
How much information does it attempt to cover? Does the source rely
on expert testimony or on criticisms of people? If so, are these people
represented fairly in light of the content?

70
Practical Tips for Evaluating Online Sources

Explore Web resources using a variety of sites and online databases to

broaden your search for quality online source materials. Remember that
different search engines will give you different results. For example,
compare the lists of sources that appear when you type in “architectural
engineering” in www.yahoo.com and www.google.com. Some search
engines reference more academic sites than others. When the results of
your search appear, look through the list, scanning descriptions of Web
sites and noting whether an institution or individual is responsible for
posting the information therein. Because so many Web sites are
nonacademic and personally published, it is important to keep in mind the
following criteria questions when you scan through your search results:

N Is the Web site current?

N Has it been updated since it was published?

N Is there an author or Webmaster responsible for the information

posted?

N Was the information published elsewhere in print and then posted on

the Web? If so, has the original been scanned? Can you check the
original source for accuracy?

N Is there an educational or governmental institution sponsoring and

therefore lending credibility to the information posted?

N Does most of the information within the site qualify as opinion only?

N Do careless errors or undocumented information detract from the

credibility of the information?

N Are there ways to verify the information, especially statistical

information?

71
N Is a bibliography (list of sources) provided for written material?

Preparing to Write

After you have explored possible conversations that invite writers to

communicate and you have used a variety of research methods, you face
the challenge of giving order to your discoveries. Choosing a manageable
focus can be the hardest part of the research process, especially after
finding that the information you gathered is pulling you in more than one
direction.

When you have explored a subject thoroughly, stop and take notes on the
key ideas you have synthesized from your reading. Make a list of the
specific academic conversations that interest you the most. Avoid the
temptation of choosing the subject that seems safe because it’s been
written about extensively. View yourself as a problem-posing scholar who
has an opportunity to contribute important ideas. This academic attitude
will help you invest in and benefit from the papers you write.

Choosing a focus means that you are ready to enter the drafting and
revising stages of your own writing process. But before you dive in to
composing, give one or two of the following prewriting strategies a try,
choosing the one(s) you think will mesh with your writing style and
personality:

N Freewriting

Freewriting means writing nonstop without worrying about the content

and without lifting pen from paper or fingers from keyboard. Directed
freewriting means writing nonstop about a specific subject, letting all
of your thoughts from research flow without regard to structure or
coherence.

72
 Give yourself ten minutes to compose freely (either handwritten or
word processed), focusing on the most interesting topic you discovered
in your research. Then, go back and underline statements that you
envision becoming part of your draft.

N Highlighting Source Copies

Go through your sources with your focused idea in mind, highlighting

phrases and sentences that relate to the issue you want to pursue in
your writing. Then, stack your source printouts or photocopies and
skim through them one at a time, writing key words in the margins
next to the sections of text that you highlighted. Another idea for
writers who like to organize before drafting is to use different colors to
label what will become different sections of your paper. This color-
coding system can be personalized and developed into your own way
of color-coding an entire outline in your head as you highlight your
sources! (I once knew a graduate student who organized her entire
dissertation using different crayon colors to create color-bar labels
corresponding to chunks of related information.)

N Organizing Notes

Taking notes from sources and arranging them on note cards is a

traditional method for organizing research materials. Nevertheless,
this method still works very well for spatial thinkers and writers who
prefer to lay cards in various stacks or spread them out all over a desk
and look for categories and connections between ideas. Personalize
this organizational method by designing your own system of card
organization. You could even blend the color-coding and note card
creation into one system.

Software developers in education are responding to the needs of

college researchers by creating programs that help students organize
their research notes and ideas. For example, Take Note allows student
researchers to organize notes, outlines, lists of sources, and Internet

73
 information all in one file for easy synthesis of information into
categories for exportation into a word processing program.

N Outlining or Clustering

Outlining works well for writers who think sequentially and who
prefer to know what they are going to write before they write it. If you
think this strategy will work well for you, try a keyword outline or a
sentence outline, writing in main points first and then going back to
add in details as minor points within sections. While outlining works
well for logical and linear thinkers, some students find outlining
stifling and discover that the draft they produce is often different from
the outlined plan. An idea map, or an outline written after a first draft,
offers an option that allows you to write first and then do an
organizational check.

For the visually oriented thinker and writer, clustering works well
because it is not bound by numbers and letters and takes shape all over
the page depending on ideas that surface. Try this prewriting strategy
by drawing a circle in the middle of a sheet of paper turned
horizontally. Then, draw a square at the bottom of this center circle. In
the center circle, write words that denote your writing subject; in the
square below, write the focus or approach you have chosen within that
subject. The words in this square will determine your thesis statement.
Then, branch out from the center circle drawing lines to other circles
that will contain information on your main points of support. From the
secondary circles, draw lines to smaller triangles that will become your
supportive details, examples, and evidence.

Because you are using this textbook within a writing course, you may find
it helpful to review the following basic disciplinary conventions in English
studies before writing an academic research paper:

74
N Ethical and responsible use of source materials
Writers in English studies almost always incorporate research into
their writing, and the field places great emphasis upon the ethics of
using source materials. In academia, “joining the conversation” is
complicated; to do so, you must know what has been said, what is
being said presently, and what is not being said and should be.
Whenever you refer to ideas that have come before your own, do so
with fairness in mind. Giving credit where credit is due shows that
you have “done your homework” and therefore adds to your own
credibility as a writer.

N MLA documentation style

When you write an essay for your psychology course, you may be
asked to use APA Style. When you write a research paper for your
history course, you may be asked to use the Chicago Manual of Style
or the Turabian method of documentation. In your English classes,
you will be asked to write using the documentation style suggested by
the MLA—The Modern Language Association. Your college writing
handbook, along with the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research
Papers, will help you learn methods for documenting your sources
ethically and accurately.

N Review of research
Traditionally, academic texts within English studies began with a
“review of research,” an introductory section describing existing
research on the subject of the essay. Today, most journals in English
studies prefer articles that offer a brief review or that offer no review at
all but cite important scholars and scholarly ideas throughout on an as-
needed basis. Academic style has experienced an evolution of
introductory methods; one trend is the move away from an
introduction that disputes a previous article’s thesis and toward a more
discursive, sometimes even narrative-based discussion that sets the
context and prepares the reader for the writer’s assertion. When you
write a lengthy research paper, ask your instructor if he or she expects

75
 a review of existing research and if a blending of academic and literary
styles is appropriate.

N Sentence Style
Experienced writers in English studies are often the targets of jabs
from their friends or colleagues from other fields for being “verbose”
or for using “those long sentences.” Generally, writing within English
studies does include lengthy, sophisticated sentence structures.
However, complicated sentence structures should not interfere with
clarity of meaning. Try a mix of simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex sentences, along with a blend of different
introductory phrases to add sentence “surprises” for your readers.
Practice sentence variety in your college English courses so that you
will be a confident writer regardless of your choice of major.

N Placement of thesis statement

Thesis statements are traditionally placed as the last sentence of the
introductory paragraph in papers written for college English courses.
However, some assignments—such as an argumentative research paper
on a controversial subject—call for a two-paragraph intro, one
paragraph for background, and another for leading the reader into an
unexpected or controversial thesis. Placement of your thesis statement
also depends on rhetorical analysis of your audience. For example, if
you are writing on the subject of in vitro fertilization and selective
implantation and you feel that your argument represents a minority
opinion or that your audience may be hostile to your argument, you
may decide to place your thesis statement toward the end of your essay
to avoid alienating your audience right away. A blend of narrative and
academic commentary can also change the “rule” for thesis statements.
Narratives usually create a dominant impression for the reader without
using an explicit thesis statement, and while this is a challenge in
academic style, it can be done. Ask your professor to guide a
discussion about the appropriate placement of thesis statements in your
assignments for the semester.

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Projects for Writing and Reflection

1) Search the Web using a keyword from a subject of interest to you.

Take notes on the way you search, including which search engine you
used and the number of “hits” that appear with each kind of search you
initiate. Choose one site and print it out. Then, use the questions from
Pages 71 and 72 to evaluate the Web site, writing your conclusions in
one well-organized paragraph that explains specifically why, according
to you, this site is appropriate or inappropriate as an academic source.

Share your conclusions in class by passing around your printout and

relating verbally your judgment of the Web site as a source for
academic writing. Turn in your written paragraph and printout to your
instructor.

2) Locate a current issue of an academic journal that publishes articles of

interest to you. Find the editorial policy statement, which is usually on
the front cover or printed on one of the first few pages of the issue.

Write a one-page review of the journal following the rubrics below:

N Name of journal and reason you chose it
N Description of the intended audience of this journal
(Find this information in the editors’ introduction to the journal.)
N Stated purpose of this journal within the academic community
(Use the purpose statement printed by the editor. Use a direct
quote if necessary.)
N Description of how college researchers could use this source
N Description of how essays are reviewed
(Find this information in the Editorial policy. How must essays be
sent in, and how are they reviewed?)

3) With a few of your classmates, work together as a group in class to

find at least five published sources at your fingertips. Be creative. You
may use textbooks, brochures, novels, university catalogs, student
handbooks, etc. from your backpacks. Remember that lecture notes,

77
videotapes, compact discs, Web pages, magazine articles, and
brochures can all be cited in MLA style.

Working together and using your writing handbook and/or the MLA
Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, elect a group secretary to
record your answers and create bibliographic entries for the five
published materials your group found during class.

78
CHAPTER 5

Academic Genres:
Readers' Expectations and Writers' Challenges

This chapter discusses various habits of mind and ways of doing academic
work that are common to people who read, talk about, and produce
academic discourse. These mental frameworks relate to specific forms of
writing—genres—that are generally expected within the academic
community. These genres include summary, analysis, evaluation, and
argument. Within many of the genres are subgenres; for example, within
the category of argument, you can customize an essay that fits the style of
a proposal, a critique, a rebuttal, or even a satire. While these genres cross
disciplinary boundaries, other more specific discourse conventions
characterize individual disciplines such as English studies. This chapter
will help you learn to recognize and write within the formats (genres)
generally expected in the academic community. It also helps you set
priorities as you make decisions regarding the structure and style of
specific college-level writing assignments.

Why is it useful to know the thought patterns reflected in specific

genres?—because they help us create links to readers’ psychological and
academic expectations. Topoi—the Greek term for topics—are tried-and-
true ways of thinking humans typically relate to and respond to. They
seem almost “hard-wired” into our brains as communicators. In fact, when
humans are confused by an overload of unfamiliar information, they may
experience anxiety and express certain behaviors such as nervousness,
mental block, or feelings of low self-esteem. Similarly, when we are not
stimulated enough by information, we may become easily distracted,
impatient, or experience feelings of boredom or even superiority. When
we hear an advertisement persuading us that we can get “more” for “less,”
we automatically think in terms of contrast and economy. These typical
behaviors represent general thought patterns invoked and evoked by
particular kinds of information. When a public speaker tells us he’s going

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to entertain us with narratives from his childhood, we’re expecting a story,
and we consequently anticipate the chronological clues and plot
sequencing that come with storytelling.

Following are brief descriptions of the basic genres of academic writing:

Summary

A summary is a brief description of the main points of an information

source.

Practicing and improving your summary skills can benefit you as a college
student in ways you may not have anticipated. Thinkers who summarize
effectively are likely to study and write effectively because they have
learned how to sort and categorize information efficiently for
memorization and/or application.

When you summarize, you are describing only the essential information in
a document or speech. To envision an audience for this kind of writing,
think of someone who needs to know the information in the initial
source—the text to be summarized—but doesn’t have time to read it in its
entirety. Your challenge, then, is to provide the necessary information
clearly and efficiently. To write an effective summary, develop your own
way of using the following skills:

What you do:

N Annotate—Take notes in the margins of the source to “map” both

visually and verbally what is going on in the text. Use highlighting,
underlining, numbering, and any other strategies you can think of to
plot the key points in the text. Also write the letters “QT” beside
powerful statements that you may decide to quote in your summary.

N Organize—Plan the body paragraphs of your summary while plotting

the information-path of the initial document. Organizing summarized

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 information into sections can be difficult; try categorizing information
from the paragraphs in the initial source and then using transitional
words and phrases to form coherent summary paragraphs.

N Enumerate—List key elements discussed, using pacing strategies to

lead your reader through the organization of the source document.
Enumeration is a good way to begin prewriting or drafting your
summary.

N Demonstrate the Text and Style—Provide a few quotes that will give
your reader a sense of the word choice, tone, and style used in the
original. Quote sparingly. A good rule to follow for quoting within
summaries is to have no more than one brief quote per body paragraph.
Some instructors require one-page summaries of large amounts of
information; for these assignments, one quote to demonstrate the style
of the original is usually enough.

What the results look like:

While you may be asked to follow specific assignment criteria to complete

a summary, the document you produce as a summary should generally be
no more than one third of the length of the original. Summaries usually
contain brief introductions that reference the source and well-organized
but brief body paragraphs that re-present the main points of the original.
Cutting the information to essentials only usually requires that you
synthesize entire paragraphs into single sentences. Set a goal to produce
25 percent of the original.

See Chapter 6 for a more extensive discussion of summary.

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Analysis

It is very important to know the differences between summary and analysis

when you are responding to college-level academic assignments—since
your grades often depend on whether you fulfill specific assignment
criteria. You may be tempted simply to summarize an answer to an exam
question when the instructor is asking you to do more—to analyze.
Analysis incorporates but goes beyond summary to examine the parts of a
text and how they are arranged to create a unified whole, the possible
motivations for a text, the presentation of an idea, even the choices made
about format.

To analyze is to interpret, pulling a concept, event, or argument apart and

looking at it more closely. This closer look allows you to practice
rhetorical reading—exploring causes, effects, motivations, and
consequences to thoughts being presented verbally, visually, or in writing.
Written analysis requires skills of critical thinking, conceptual framing,
and interpretation. When you analyze, you explain your own
understanding of a source as one valid interpretation.

What you do:

N Summarize—Summarize key points so that you can look at their

relationships to one another and analyze them.

N Analyze Audience—Include yourself as a reader of the text. Write

down answers to the following questions as prewriting:
What does the author expect of you as a reader?
What strategies does the author use to relate to you as a reader?
Is the material ordered well? Easy to follow?

N Examine—List the ideas presented and then think critically about the
message(s) being sent out by each. Write down answers to the
following questions as prewriting:
What claims are being made and how?

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 What biases can you detect?
Are all points logically related to one another?
Is a causal chain established and discussed?
Are there any gaps in sequencing or logic?

N Explain—Clarify what strategies and ideas you see at work in the

source and how they complement one another or compete with one
another in the overall discussion.

N Support your Interpretation—Find specific examples from the text

to use as support for your claims of analysis.

What the results look like:

Analysis comes in many, many forms in the college environment. You

may be assigned projects that require statistical analysis, film analysis,
image analysis, analysis of primary historical documents, analysis of
secondary scholarly courses, analysis of a phenomenon focusing on
cause/effect, analysis of an observable and ongoing phenomenon,
commentary on a recognized social problem, and so forth. Because
analysis is such an important skill in academic writing, it is important to
know how it differs from other writing skills such as summary (objective
survey of ideas) and response (personal judgment). Analysis is
fundamental to the academic attitude because it explores silences, gaps,
approaches, and language use. Use it to make informed interpretations of
key points with the goal of academic insight.

See Chapter 7 for specific discussion of analytical writing.

Evaluation / Critique

Evaluation, or what many of your instructors may refer to as critique,

involves analyzing information with the purpose of judging its relevance,
significance, or value.

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What you do:

N Analyze—List key points and follow guidelines above for analyzing.

N Apply—Think about ways you could apply the information in the

source by writing down answers to the following questions as
prewriting:
Who would benefit from this information?
What makes this information reasonable and useful?
What new information or new questions does this source offer?
Is the delivery/presentation of the information clear and effective?

N Judge—Review your thoughts on the applicability of the information

and make a double-entry list of strengths and weaknesses. Write your
critique, your evaluation of the information and its presentation.

What the results look like:

An evaluation is usually succinct—to the point and focused on delineating

strengths and weaknesses with a reasonable tone.

Argument

For general purposes of writing in college, think of academic argument as

the presentation of a specific point of view or opinion on a subject that is
debatable. When you argue, you “take issue with” and provide evidence to
support your claims.

Persuasion, while a form of argumentation, also differs from argument; an

argument is persuasive only when the intended audience is convinced and
takes action on their belief. You can agree with someone else’s argument
that smoking is bad for your health and still light another cigarette. You
are persuaded by this person’s argument only when you are convinced that
you are putting your health in danger and choose to quit smoking.
Argument, then, comes in many forms and through diverse approaches.

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Argument, like analysis, is a standard form of academic critical thinking
and writing. Make sure that you understand the specific assignment when
you are asked to write an argument for an academic audience.

What you do:

N Look for Problems and Ill-defined questions—Look for issues that

have current interest and are debatable. Arguments offer you an
opportunity to provide order to mess, to provide answers to
problematic questions, to offer solutions to problem-causing situations.

N Investigate existing claims—Find out what arguments already exist

regarding your subject by asking informed peers and doing some
preliminary research online and at the library. Don’t re-invent the
wheel by investing intellectual energy into arguments that have already
been made; instead, build on existing ideas by advancing a new and
productive claim.

N Think in “should” and “should not” terms—Gauge your own

interests by “taking your pulse” when you hear about or read certain
arguments. What frustrates you? What interests you? What issue
could you easily get into a heated discussion about with your family,
friends, or fellow students? What arguments make you respond with
“should” or “should not” statements?

N Think Rhetorically—Think in terms of speaker, audience, and

message. Refer to the communications triangle on Page 41 and draw
your own triangle filling in notes on the subject you are writing on.
Ask yourself these questions: What are the needs of the writer? What
are the needs of the reader? What methods could be used to present
my message in reasonable claims?

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N Develop your Claim—Write a thesis statement that encapsulates the
main point, or thesis, of your argument. The rest of your paper should
provide development for this claim and this claim only.

What the product looks like:

Arguments written in the college academic environment come in all

shapes and sizes, ranging from one-page proposals to ten-page senior
research papers to fifty-page honors senior thesis projects. Most
arguments, however, do have the following features:

N Background on the issue

N Discussion of existing arguments

N Establishment of author’s credibility

N Specific claim

N Support for the claim

N Description of opposing viewpoints

N Rebuttal of opposing viewpoints

N Closing argument

N Conclusion

See Chapter 8 for specific discussion of argumentation.

Cross-Disciplinary Conventions

Even though disciplines may have their own documentation styles and
preferred level of diction, the basic academic skills described above cross

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disciplinary boundaries and are applicable in several fields. For example,
even though English majors are encouraged to write in active voice and
journalism majors often have to write in passive voice to avoid revealing
confidential sources of information, students in both fields will be asked to
summarize, analyze, critique, and argue.

You can maximize your potential for succeeding as a college student by

practicing these key skills, reading published writing within your field, and
asking good questions about both.

Projects for Writing and Reflection

1) Applying the skills of summarizing described on Pages 80 and 81,

write a one-page summary of a newspaper article of 800 to 1000
words. (Your summary should be one-fourth the length of the original,
no more than one page typed in double-spacing.) Bring the article you
chose and the written summary to class and share with your classmates
in an all-class discussion of the frustrations and successes you
encountered while writing.

2) Write a one- to two-page personal essay about your current writing

process, explaining the steps you go through when you complete an
academic writing assignment and detailing what strategies do and do
not work well for you. If you haven’t written college-level academic
essays, refer to your experiences of writing in high school.

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88
CHAPTER 6

Summary

The ability to write effective summaries will not only take you far in
college but also enhance your memory and reporting skills on the job.

If an assignment asks for summary only, stick to the main points of the
text itself. Another good bit of advice is to write using text clues that refer
to the “moves” of the author who wrote the text you are summarizing. For
example, try the following word choice to reflect the author’s choices:
“The author begins this argumentative article by describing the mental
ward, offering observations of the physical spaces as well as the patients.
Then, she narrates a case study of one of the patients, whom she calls
‘Bob’” (45). Staying focused on the author’s order of points will keep you
from straying into statements that include “I,” which would reveal
personal opinion and have no place in an objective summary. Also avoid
analysis and argumentation when you are writing a summary. Focusing on
the “bare bones” of the text may sound simple, but summarizing succinctly
and objectively is a real challenge for writers. Many of us are conditioned
by the magazines, newspapers, and Web sites we read to expect that
writing includes opinion.

Knowing that you should not waste words when you summarize does not
mean that summaries have to be boring. Choosing a few selective and
representative details can enliven your summary and may even entice your
readers to go and read the text for themselves. Suppose you are asked to
summarize a five-page article from Harper’s Magazine. Your summary
should be about one-and-a-half pages long, but your second draft is still a
page over the limit. After looking at your draft and comparing to the notes
you’ve made in the margins of your article, you see that you’ve included
several interesting details, some of which are going to have to be cut. You
realize that some of them support the same main point and that you’ll have
to choose only one or create a more general sentence that describes what
kinds of examples the author uses. You discover that a sentence like “The

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author includes descriptions of three different children who have had
mentors for at least five years and show marked improvement in their
grades” will replace three sentences in your first draft. This is the real
work of summarizing—making difficult choices to hone down the text to
its essential ideas without wasting words on minor details.

Following is a sample summary of an essay entitled “Sexual

Harassment—From a Man’s Perspective” by Frederic Hayward. This
essay appears in the October 1990 issue of The Business Journal. The
summary is approximately 25 percent the length of the original. Note that
this summary could be extended into a summary-response essay if the
writer added a section at the end detailing his/her own judgment of
Hayward’s claims, including statements of agreement and/or
counterargument. A response often also includes an evaluation of the way
in which the author delivers the message and uses language and evidence.

Sample Summary

In “Sexual Harassment—From a Man’s Perspective,” Frederic

Hayward argues that while sexual harassment is a serious problem, the
current perspective of it is limited and biased toward the female
perspective.
After identifying himself with other males and providing some
examples from the workplace that draw the reader in, Hayward provides
an historical look at male-female traditional roles and power relations,
concluding that the feminist claim that women are powerless implies that
women are also innocent. Listing “what if” examples of “female
competitors” who manipulate their superiors through the use of sexual
power, Hayward argues that the current definition of sexual harassment is
“woefully inadequate” and is lacking the male perspective.
Exploring causal connections within American culture, the author
asserts that whereas women are often objectified and pressured sexually,
men are expected to take on the burden of “dangerous and beast-of-burden
tasks” within the workplace and thus “suffer a disproportionate share of
work-related accidents.” At this point in the essay, Hayward intensifies

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his argument by pointing out that women are not the only victims; men are
also pressured sexually by female and gay male superiors at work.
Using examples from his own training in sexual harassment and
romantic relationships, Hayward charges women with sending mixed
messages regarding when “no” really means “no” and when it means “Be a
man!” and don’t ask. Hayward proposes that if women were more
straightforward about initiating romantic relationships, men would not be
confused about the messages they receive visually and verbally. The
author concludes that until we explore the male perspective of sexual
harassment and the potential abuse of power by bitter and vindictive
colleagues, our understanding of this problem will be limited.

Abstracts

Brief summaries of an article’s contents or a brief forecast of a research

study are called “abstracts.” Abstracts are usually written in present tense,
but some include future tense, depending on whether the research has been
conducted. Abstracts in the social sciences (psychology, for example)
often tell what “will be” included in a study, including details about the
purpose of the project, the methods that will be used, and implications.
This type of “forward-looking” abstract is also standard when writers
submit a proposal to present a paper at an academic conference. In this
instance, the written text does not yet exist, and the abstract serves as a
forecast of what the author will cover in the written text. Abstracts appear
in paragraph form and are labeled clearly with the word “Abstract” to alert
readers that they are not viewing the entire text.

Abstracts may also accompany a text that has already been written,
focusing on main ideas and the author’s contributions to a field. Abstracts
are usually one page in length (250 words or less), often written as a single
paragraph. They appear at the beginnings of articles in many academic
journals. They also often appear as part of the search results in the
bibliographic entries after a search of an electronic database. Abstracts are
wonderful time-savers for readers because they allow you to find out
quickly whether or not your want to read the entire text.

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The following abstract of an article was written by student Hank Sinatra
for an advanced English course called “The History of Rhetoric.” Note the
bibliographic entry at the beginning and the text clues that help you decide
whether the full article will be of value to you as a reader.

Sample Abstract

Katula, Richard A. “Quintilian on the Art of Emotional Appeal.”

Rhetoric Review 22 (2003): 5-15.

Addressing the marked increase in the study of emotion over the

last fifty years, Richard A. Katula expands George Kennedy’s discussion
of “Quintilian’s advice on the art of emotional display” (7) included in
Kennedy’s book, Quintilian. Katula, after first considering several authors
and their works, organizes Quintilian’s guidelines into a set of rules based
on Kennedy’s work. Katula’s treatise is centered on Quintillian’s Book
VI, which concerns itself with wit and humor, emotion during peroration,
and emotion throughout the trial. He continues by delving into
Quintilian’s Ciceronian approach to ethos and pathos. During this
commentary, Katula states that “facts help a judge ‘know,’ but emotions
make him ‘feel’ ” (9).
Katula follows this evaluation with the list of his pragmatic and
logical rules. He reiterates Quintilian’s caution about the use of humor
that, to put it in modern vernacular terms, some people can’t take a joke.
Subsequently, Katula makes the observation that “A good lawyer knows
the case; a great lawyer knows the judge” (12). Going past these
emotional appeals to the “good man” himself, Katula explains Quintilian’s
idea of what makes a man “good.” He is convinced that Quintilian’s main
concern was what “is best for the community” (13). Therefore, according
to Katula, the use of rhetoric is a neutral art, neither ethical nor unethical
of itself. He clearly states that this principle of “neutrality” is applicable to
the modern court system. Katula is clear that in this venue possible abuses
of emotional appeals should be controlled.

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Annotated Bibliography

An annotated bibliography is a Works Cited page with brief summaries of

each bibliographic entry. This summary of sources is an excellent tool for
researchers who are working on a writing project that will require research.
While it takes some effort and time to prepare Works Cited entries and
summaries for each of your sources, you will benefit from that work as
you plan and draft your paper. Even if you end up not using all of your
sources, you have approached research with the academic attitude by
considering more sources than you actually need.

Follow these five simple steps to create an annotated bibliography:

1) Create an accurate Works Cited entry for each source using MLA
documentation style;

2) Indent the second line and following of the entry (double- or

single-spaced according to your instructor’s criteria);

3) Without wasting words, summarize the entire source in your own

words, covering the main points;

4) Include a statement that reflects the source’s audience, purpose,

and scope;

5) Go back through your list of entries to be sure they are

alphabetized by the author’s last name (or first key word of the title
if there is no author) and formatted correctly.

The following annotated bibliography provides bibliographic citations for

and briefly summarizes two sources that seniors in college were asked to
read in an education course on theories of teaching. Notice how the
entries are alphabetized by the author’s last name, just as they would be in
a Works Cited page. Think of annotated bibliographies as Works Cited
pages with notes added for each entry.

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 Annotated Bibliography

hooks, bell. Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of

Freedom. New York: Routledge, 1994.

The author, a feminist theorist and social critic, describes a style of

teaching called “liberatory pedagogy” that encourages future
teachers to use Brazilian educator Paulo Freire’s theories of
teaching but also to complicate them by teaching with
multiculturalism, social class, and solidarity in mind. hooks
claims that teachers should learn along with students in
nontraditional classrooms.

Shor, Ira. Empowering Education. Chicago: The U of Chicago P, 1992.

This book speaks to future and current teachers at the secondary

and/or college level who wish to “empower” their students by
making critical thinking a goal in the classroom. Shor describes
his own teaching methods and discusses in detail each of the
following characteristics of teaching that empowers: participatory,
affective, problem-posing, situated, multicultural, dialogic,
desocializing, democratic, researching, interdisciplinary, and
activist.

Annotated bibliographies can be very helpful to researchers who want to

track what they have read for memory and for possible future use.
Another academic genre, the book review, could build from either of these
annotated bibliographies if the author developed ideas further and added a
section of evaluation/critique.

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Synthesis

Synthesis is summary multiplied. An essay that synthesizes information

relies on summary as its main component but is more challenging because
it requires that you not only summarize more than one source but also
make connections among sources and to add a framework for the subject
by writing your own introduction and conclusion on the subject. When
you synthesize, you are not only delineating main points but putting the
main points of different texts into dialogue with one another as well. Being
able to synthesize influences your ability to think critically because it
allows you to practice perspective-taking.

What you do when you synthesize:

Follow the strategies above for summarizing each source; then, use the
following skills to synthesize—or to link the texts to one another:

N Compare—Look for similarities among the sources and write them

down in annotation form.

N Contrast—Look for differences among the sources and write them

down in note form in the margins of the text or on a separate sheet of
paper in columns.

N Consider Perspectives—Put the texts in dialogue with one another

only after considering each text individually in order to understand the
perspective taken in the separate sources.

N Think about sequencing—How you order the summaries that make

up your synthesis will help the reader see why you’ve chosen particular
texts and how they relate to one another according to your chosen
subject matter.

N Manage Parenthetical Citations—Be careful to provide accurate

references to more than one work within your summary paragraphs.

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What the results look like:

A synthesis essay looks much like a summary but may include more
frequent references to sources and more transitional expressions to guide
the reader from discussions of one text to discussions of another. A
synthesis is a summary that manages a “conversation” by considering how
texts “speak” to one another.

Summary-Response

A summary-response paper contains a review (survey of key points) plus

your personal opinion of the information presented in the source. The
extent of the review section of your response will vary depending upon
individual assignments.

Writing response papers in college allows you to refine your skills of

summary while, at the same time, learning the difference between writing
from an objective standpoint and writing from personal opinion.
Instructors in the humanities and social sciences often assign a summary-
response paper because it accomplishes several teaching goals: 1) making
sure you have read the material, 2) giving you practice in condensing a text
to its main points, 3) challenging you to interact with the subject matter on
a personal level, and 4) asking you to articulate your own ideas and
assertions in relation to the reading material.

What you do when you write a summary-response paper:

N Create a dialogue journal—Draw two vertical lines on a page to

create three columns. In the left column, list the main points of the
information to which you are responding without passing judgment.
Then, in the middle column, write your personal response to those
main points. Finally, in the right column, write down judgments of
your own opinions, detailing how your background, culture, beliefs,
and/or values influence your thinking on this subject.

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N Summarize—Survey the main points in writing before providing your
response.

N Respond—Unless your instructor has advised you to combine

summary and response throughout your paper, organize your response
as the last section of your essay. This strategy builds your credibility,
or ethos, because you have demonstrated that you can remain objective
in the first part of the paper and that you are justifying your personal
response with evidence from the text.

What the results look like:

A summary-response assignment is usually two to five pages in length and

characterized by an introduction that references the source being
summarized, brief body paragraphs that survey the source, and a
concluding section that contains your personal response to the material.
Remember to avoid simple “like” and “don’t like” statements in your
personal response. Your instructor is looking for specific evidence of
what is effective and why. Your instructor may also create very specific
criteria for the response section, so read your assignments carefully.

Following is a summary-response paper written by student Jill Foley for a

course called “Writing in the Humanities.” Jill summarizes the main
points of Kurt Spellmeyer’s book Arts of Living: Reinventing the
Humanities for the Twenty-first Century (SUNY P, 2003) and incorporates
her own opinions as a response at the end. As you read Jill’s essay, note
the ways she uses transitions to signal the author’s sequence of “moves” in
the summary section.

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Sample Summary-Response

In his book, Arts of Living, Kurt Spellmeyer addresses what he

considers the alarming state of the humanities today and his suggestions
for remedying them. He makes a number of points about the development
of the humanities and why they either need to change or face the
possibility of extinction.
Spellmeyer’s first points address the changes that currently threaten
the humanities. Spellmeyer begins by claiming that the humanities are in
trouble because they have failed to make themselves relevant in today’s
competitive world (3-4). He implies that the high level of detachment
people have developed in our nation results from a turn to “individualism”
and a retreat from social involvement (33-34; 42-43). The author’s second
main point addresses democracy and specialization. Spellmeyer argues
that democracy today does not mean what it did to the involved Greek
citizens of Athens because we choose not to take an active part in the
system and leave decision-making to those most “qualified” (27). The
author links this lack of involvement to professionalism on America’s job
front. Today, people specialize in a field, making non-specialists feel
unqualified to contribute (148-149). Spellmeyer links this to the condition
of the arts today, which have been so systematized that people no longer
practice them unless they feel “trained.”
Spellmeyer discusses problems with practice and application in
modern humanities and argues that treating the humanities as sciences will
not work. Using examples, Spellmeyer discusses how people have tried to
raise the humanities to the level of the sciences in order to compete using
the same methods, but the arts lose value when we limit their potential
with theories and scientific expectations (73-98). In relation to
application, Spellmeyer identifies critique and its hindrance to creation in
the arts. Spellmeyer suggests that we may find more meaning in art if
“instead of passing judgment on the success or failure of the work,” the
critic were to instead “ask what the artist has discovered” (86). He feels
we are so concerned with learning and dissecting existing works that we
no longer experience the joy of creating our own.

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 Spellmeyer concludes his text by speculating on the survival of the
humanities. He suggests that success lies in experiencing the arts rather
than studying them as subject. He proposes that the subjects in the
humanities should broaden, and even prosper “if they abandon all hope of
recovering a centrality they have never had” (247). Spellmeyer talks about
our need to make the humanities relevant to living today instead of
concentrating on the past and the future. Restated, the humanities should
focus more on circumstances in which we are currently living in order to
make them relevant and beneficial to future generations.
While Spellmeyer succeeds in creating strong cases for his claims,
he fails to develop one argument fully. He addresses the current problem
of disconnection in relation to the arts. He also makes the point that we
need to find ways to make the arts desirable and concludes that the arts
must “share common ground with the kind of experience we think of as
religious” in order to offer people anything at all (198). The weakness of
this argument, however, lies in how he portrays religion today.
The “experience” Spellmeyer speaks of relates only to the new
world “postmodernist” view of religion, excluding the idea of consequence
for actions and concentrating on carnal feelings (190). He uses Betty
Eadie’s life after death experience, saying, “Her most urgent questions are
concerned with how to manage life from day to day rather than with the
fate of her soul after death” (188). Spellmeyer represents the
postmodernist view, saying, “the point is not to decide who is right, the
Buddha or the Christ, but to construct a way of seeing inclusive enough to
accommodate both claims as true” (190). He disapproves of deciding
what to believe, claiming that “surely we have seen enough intolerance”
(190), but choosing is not intolerance unless action is taken against those
with whom you disagree.
Spellmeyer’s argument aligns itself with the American concept of
accepting all ideas and lifestyles, regardless of one’s feelings of right or
wrong, but where does that leave religion as one of the humanities? If we
do not decide between conflicting belief systems and accept both as true,
then is either true? In the midst of new world religion, many traditionally
regard their beliefs as sacred truths and more than temporal emotions.

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Spellmeyer’s comparison of religious feelings to those produced in art
seem shallow.
Spellmeyer makes an interesting proposal for the threatened
position of the humanities. Instead of making them increasingly
unattainable through higher specialization, we need to broaden them and
make them accessible and relevant to everyone. I agree that as a people
we are disconnected and spend too much time studying things we should
experience. The author tries to make the point that the arts must produce a
desirable feeling in order to attain success, but he deflates religion in the
process. I personally see the new role religion has taken as a contributor to
our current cultural disconnection. Perhaps Spellmeyer chose this view of
religion to show his readers that he does not place himself above them as a
separated specialist, or perhaps I am the one who chooses disconnection
over reformation.

Report

Another academic genre that relies heavily on summary is the report.

However, reports often rely not only on summaries of existing sources but
on summaries of research findings, including findings from research done
by the writer. For example, report writing is the predominant way of
sharing the results of qualitative research, such as a case study of a specific
group of human beings over time.

Learning how to write effective reports can have lasting benefits,

especially if, after college, you accept a position in (or serve as leader of) a
corporate workplace or a non-profit organization. Reports are written
every day in these work environments to document and to make sense of
work done and work in progress. Clearly, summarizing is a transferable
writing skill; you can build upon it within a variety of writing genres.
Take every opportunity to practice summarizing, and when you’re feeling
out of practice, write a summary of your class notes or a chapter of one of
your college textbooks!

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What you do when you write a report:

N Answer Good Questions. Good reports rely on good questions.

Their purpose is to explain in an attempt to answer those research
questions.

N Write a Strong Introduction. Reports also rely on collections of

data and careful research. Introduce the subject of your report
thoroughly. Explain the purpose, scope, coverage, and research
methods used to give your reader a forecast of the material to
come.

N Summarize Findings. Summarizing with the purpose of

informing when you write a report. This will help you focus on the
subject foremost.

N Organize Your Data. Reports written in the workplace almost

always incorporate subheadings, a characteristic of business style
that allows readers to skim content quickly and refer to specific
sections easily. Subheadings are also often expected in academic
writing based on scientific experiments or studies of human
subjects (e.g. in the fields of biology, sociology, psychology, and
education). Typical headings include but are not limited to
“Introduction,” “Purpose of the Study” or “Research Problem,”
“Methods,” “Summary of Findings,” and “Conclusions.”

N Revise for a Clear Focus. When you revise a report, add, cut, and
reorder as necessary to achieve a fair and balanced representation
of data as well as an objective tone. Check for extraneous
information and biased language. A personal tone has no place in
a formal report and can actually detract from your credibility by
making your reader question why the focus is on you and not the
importance of the subject. Also avoid argument unless it is
expressly asked for; good reports can be just as persuasive as direct
arguments because they allow their targeted readers to make

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 decisions based on the detailed and well-organized evidence in
front of them.

What the Results Look Like:

Reports vary widely in style, format, and length because they are used in
so many different disciplines. A two-page action brief describing steps
taken to improve campus safety and crime prevention may offer bulleted
statements and be formatted with ample white space for ease of reading by
students, faculty, and staff. A thirty-page business report describing steps
a company should take to market a product internationally may include
tables, feasibility studies, summaries of market data, and numerous other
labeled sections that report on collected data. Most importantly, reports
help us account for what we’ve done as workers and researchers and allow
us to arrange information gathered from several sources to present a
subject in a different light.

Following is a sample of a report often expected in academic

environments—the “book report” or book review. The following book
report was written by student Tracy Rankin for an English course called
“Advanced Style, Grammar, & Editing.” Notice how Tracy reports the
books contents concisely and how the subheadings make the paper very
easy to skim.

Sample Book Review

Hale, Constance. Sin and Syntax. New York: Broadway Books, 1999.

Scope
In 266 pages, Constance Hale delves into a wide range of grammar topics.
While she explains the basic rules of the different parts of speech and
sentence structures, she also offers a variety of examples and suggestions
for using language to develop well-written and interesting prose.

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Audience
The audience is presumably a writer or someone who is familiar with
academic study and who wants to improve his or her own writing.
Throughout the book, Hale makes references to a number of works such as
Shakespeare, T.S. Eliot, the King James Bible, even hip-hop lyrics, and
the reader is expected to be familiar with most of the examples.

Contents
The book’s contents are divided into three parts: Words, Sentences, and
Music. The “Words” section covers eight parts of speech from nouns to
interjections. Making note of the obvious, “Sentences” describes parts and
use of variety in sentence structure. Voice, lyricism, melody, and rhythm
are included as topics in the “Music” section. These are elements that can
add to a writing style by examining language in new and different ways,
namely in the way words sound together.

Within each of the three parts, the chapters are further broken into four
sections: Bones, Flesh, Cardinal Sins, and Carnal Pleasures. The “Bones”
sections cover simple grammar rules. The “Flesh” sections tell the reader
how to incorporate grammar into his or her writing, as well as offering
examples of usage. Hale uses the “Cardinal Sins” sections to illustrate the
common errors that are often made in writing. Finally, “Carnal Pleasures”
demonstrates successful writing exists, even when writers break the
“rules.”

Style
Hale’s writing style is creative, interesting, and witty. Her word choice is
colorful and uninhibited. And the tone is authoritative, but not
intimidating. To illustrate Hale’s style, she has this to say in the “Bones”
section of “Music”: “Voice is the je ne sais quoi of spirited writing. It
separates brochures and brilliance, memo and memoir, a ship’s log and
The Old Man and the Sea. The best writers stamp prose with their own
distinctive personality; their timbre and tone are as recognizable as their

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voices on the phone. To cultivate voice, you must listen for the music of
language—the vernacular, the syntactic tics, the cadences.”

Usefulness
Sin and Syntax is a well-organized guide to writing using the conventional
rules of grammar, mixed with the unconventional use of language, to
create writing that is unique to the individual. This book offers a great
deal of useful information in an easy-to-use format that can be applied by
the skilled and beginning writer alike.

Projects for Writing and Reflection

1) Working in a group with two or three classmates, examine the sample

summary in this chapter (on Pages 90-91). As a group, discuss what
strategies are used to guide the reader through the summary. Look for
places in the summary where the writer has obviously synthesized
several points into one sentence and has used category terms (such as
“argues,” “gives examples,” and “concludes”) to reflect the original
content of Hayward’s essay. Have a group secretary take notes on
what you notice. Then, practice your skills by summarizing the
summary. Cut what is in the sample to only four sentences. Read your
pared-down version to the class.

2) Write an eight-to-ten-line annotated bibliography of this book as

source, creating an accurate MLA entry and summarizing the key
points made.

3) Working with two other classmates, design a simple on-campus study

based on a topic of your choice (for example, students’ food
preferences). Conduct research by interviewing students, faculty,
and/or staff on campus regarding your subject. As a group, write up
your results using the following report headings: Purpose of the Study,
Scope of the Study (location, work involved, etc.), Research Methods,
Summary of Findings, and Conclusions.

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CHAPTER 7

Analysis

Analysis is a skill all college students need to engage in the critical

thinking, rhetorical reading, and academic writing that will be expected of
them regardless of major or career path. It is the single-most important
writing skill for developing an academic attitude. While analysis is
different from argument as an academic genre, as a thought process,
analysis prepares writers to create sophisticated and informed arguments.
Analyzing means putting an object or idea or text into perspective or
“under a lens,” examining its parts and the relationships among those
parts. In college, analysis usually requires an engagement with one or
more texts through summarizing and/or quoting directly to make your own
points. When you are assigned an analysis paper, always remember that
you are in control of your ideas and the text; never let the text dictate your
essay. Your points should be kept in the foreground, and the text should
serve as an artifact being examined.

Below are descriptions of four basic types of college-level analysis:

Rhetorical Analysis

Rhetorical analysis places a text—broadly interpreted as written, verbal, or

visual—within its rhetorical situation to examine its five elements:

1) the person or group responsible for sending the message

(speaker/author)

2) the person or group receiving the message

(audience)

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3) the message being sent
(speech/text)

4) the motivation for the message

(exigency)

5) factors limiting or defining the situation in which the message is sent

(constraints)

When you are assigned a rhetorical analysis, read closely to get a sense of
the rhetorical situation inherent in the text. Take notes on the five
elements of the rhetorical situation (see above). Pay close attention to
writing strategies such as metaphor, anecdote, and irony so that you can
analyze their contribution to the message and its delivery. Also pay close
attention to rhetorical appeals made to credibility, emotion, or logic. Look
for ways that style reflects content and vice versa. Never assume you
know the author’s intentions; this may cause you to slip into argument
rather than maintaining a tone of analysis and focusing only on those ideas
that are strongly evidenced in the text.

Types of analysis vary greatly, but rhetorical analysis changes the way we
think about printed texts, bringing them to life by making us think of the
reasons for their existence. For example, if you were asked to analyze
Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “Letter from Birmingham Jail” rhetorically, you
might emphasize the author’s credibility, the intended purpose and
audience, the motivation for the letter, and the cultural context within
which the letter was written.

The following student essay is a rhetorical analysis written with a specific

focus on language use. The assignment challenged the author, senior
English major Latonia Sanchez, to focus on the ways that lyrics to a
particular song reveal either adherence to or subversion of traditional
conventions of grammar and style. Latonia chose the song “Loser” by
Beck. Notice her analysis of how specific lyrics contribute to the effect of
the song as a whole. As you read, look for evidence that Latonia has

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fulfilled the specific criteria of this assignment. How many specific
examples of language use from the song can you find in her essay?

Sample Rhetorical Analysis

Lyrical “Loser”
by Latonia Sanchez

As the Belgian surrealist painter René Magritte states, “The mind

loves the unknown. It loves images whose meaning is unknown, since the
meaning of the mind itself is unknown” (Bartleby 1). Certainly, Beck’s
song “Loser” fits into this category of unknown meanings. “Loser,” which
debuted in 1994, quickly gained popularity with its confusing song lyrics
and catchy tune. Stylistically, “Loser” is an English teacher’s worst
nightmare. Most notably, there are no definite word patterns or sentence
structures, and broken grammar rules seem to abound throughout this
song. At first glance, the lyrics appear to be forced together and seem to
have no real sense of purpose. A closer inspection of the lyrics, however,
illustrates how these words have been carefully placed together to add to
the overall feel of the song. While “Loser” displays no discernable
sentence structure or grammar rules, the absence of these elements is what
makes this song interesting and worthy of critical examination.
Broken down into technical parts, “Loser” is made up of two
verses and a refrain. Verse One is made up of fourteen nonsensical and
grammatically incorrect sentences, and Verse Two, while only twelve lines
in length, illustrates the same illogical sentence structure that is displayed
in Verse one. Beck begins the song with, “In the time of chimpanzees I
was a monkey/ butane in my veins and I’m out to cut the junkie.” Here, it
is clear that other than the rhyming word pair at the end of these stanzas,
there is nothing recognizable or logical about the way these words are
arranged together. For the logical thinker, this pair of sentences has no
meaning, and rearranging them would do little to explain the content of the
song. Additionally, Beck confuses and mixes traditional parts of speech
and uses them in a very unconventional fashion. For instance, in the verse
“dog food stalls with the beefcake pantyhose,” Beck uses the noun

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beefcake as an adjective to describe the word pantyhose. While Beck
seems to resist traditional sentence structure, he does replace complete
sentences with an abundance of noun and verb clauses and prepositional
phrases. Other techniques incorporated by this artist include the use of
slang terms such as the words “yo,” “‘cuz,” and “gonna,” as well as
dropping the final “g” on every -ing verb throughout the song.
While the peculiar arrangement of language does little to enlighten
the reader or listener about the meaning of this song, a closer inspection of
the lyrics clearly demonstrates that these sentences are representative of
the author’s stream of consciousness. This idea of a stream of
consciousness is illustrated by the disconnected passages prevalent
throughout the song, as well as the fact that only the first word in each of
the two stanzas is capitalized. With the exception of the sentences
contained in the refrain, no punctuation is used, and the author’s thoughts,
much like the unspoken thoughts of the mind, seem to meld together.
Additionally, the most interesting characteristic of these disconnected
thought patterns is the author’s brilliant use of description to give the
reader or listener of these lyrics a vivid picture of the author’s muddled
thought processes. A perfect example of the author’s descriptive abilities
is illustrated in the last two lines of the second stanza when he says, “and
my time is a piece of wax fallin’ on a termite/ that’s chokin’ on the
splinters.” Even though this sentence makes absolutely no sense, it’s easy
for the reader or listener to actually visualize termites with hot wax on
their backs that are, incidentally, choking on splinters!
Although this song seems to get lost in ambiguity, the lyrics of the
refrain clear up the meaning. Spoken in both Spanish and English, the
author of this song states, “Soy un perdador/ I’m a loser baby, so why
don’t you kill me?” This use of two languages adds emphasis to the
author’s feelings of failure, as well as his inability to articulate a clear
thought. Not only the content of the words helps clear up the meaning of
this song; the way in which the passages are displayed is also telling. For
example, in the refrain, each separate sentence is capitalized, and the
author uses some punctuation to restore order to his thought processes.
And while it may seem that the author is thinking more clearly in the
refrain portion of the song, he adds passages such as “double-barrel

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buckshy” and “get crazy with the cheeze whiz” so the reader doesn’t forget
that the author is still lost in his jumbled thoughts.
While it is easy to get lost in the playfulness of this song, it’s also
easy to see that the author of this song had a specific message. Indicative
of the attitudes of the newly pegged “Generation X,” this song illustrates
the worries and frustrations of a generation who seemed to have no
direction. Through the use of scrambled thought patterns with sentences
devoid of punctuation, as well as through the use of his creative
descriptions, Beck has successfully brought to light the frustrations held by
the youth of the 1990s.

Works Cited
Bartleby.com. 10 Sept 2003 http://www.bartleby.com/66/37/37437.html.
Beck. “Loser.” Beck. Tower Records, 1994.

Literary Analysis

Literary analysis demands a close reading of a work of literature followed

by a written interpretation of meaning in that work. Literary analysis
traditionally requires an understanding of how certain elements of
literature—such as symbol, imagery, irony, theme, and setting—function
within a text. Literary and rhetorical analysis often intermingle.

To prepare yourself for analyzing literary texts, familiarize yourself with

literary terms such as theme, setting, plot, character, irony, point of view,
symbol, etc. Read the literary work rhetorically looking for the main idea
or theme. Interpret the work by exploring what meaning it has for you and
for readers in general. You may want to incorporate
historical/biographical connections if appropriate to the analytical point
you are making about the work. A few “English-class"” reminders will
also help: 1) Mention the author and title of the literary work in the
introduction to your essay; and 2) Use present tense when writing about
literary texts; 3) Carefully document the primary source text and any
secondary sources you use to support your interpretation.

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Sample Literary Analysis

The following analysis of short fiction was written in a first-year

composition course by Karen Highfill, a nontraditional student who left an
established career to return to college. Karen chooses a psychological
approach to analyzing Neely’s short story, focusing on paralleling the
feelings of victimization and forgiveness felt by the main character Myrna
with those faced by actual rape victims.

Summary of short story, “Spilled Salt” by Barbara Neely:

[Neely tells the story of Myrna, middle-aged single mother of Kenny, who
was convicted of rape and has spent the last five years in prison. Myrna
cannot come to terms with the fact that her son is a rapist and goes through
several emotions—from guilt that she did not stay with Kenny’s abusive
father, to anger that Kenny could harbor such hatred for women, to despair
at the thought of him moving in with her when he is released. Kenny does
return home, and after an uncomfortable discussion, Myrna retreats to her
room. Kenny, after spilling the salt at his mother’s table while his mother
is secretly watching him, brings Myrna breakfast in bed. While Kenny is
asleep on the couch, Myrna packs a suitcase and leaves Kenny a note
telling him that she will be gone for a few days and that she wants him to
be gone when she returns.]

Will the Real Victims Please Stand Up?

By Karen Highfill

Barbara Neely’s short story “Spilled Salt” depicts a story of a

mother’s emotional struggle with her son’s crime. With Kenny’s release
from prison, Myrna is faced with feelings she has tried to hide from until
now. The story brings readers into the mind of Myrna as she seeks to
forgive and struggles with the same feelings many actual rape victims go
through.
Myrna’s thoughts of and feelings about Kenny, who has just
returned from prison for the rape of Crystal Roberts, parallel that of the
feelings of an actual rape victim. The only feeling that Myrna does not

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share is the physical pain. Neely seems to pull readers into Myrna’s
emotions and make them see and understand her sense of “violation.” Just
like a rape victim, Myrna cannot even say the word: “assault, attack,
molest, anything but rape” (971). She believes that if she does not actually
say the word, then it did not happen or it will go away. Many rape victims
respond with the same philosophy when dealing with their attackers
during the crime. Debbie Morris, the victim whose attacker was portrayed
in the movie Dead Man Walking, used this same tactic when talking with
her attackers during her kidnapping. She felt if she did not use the word
“kidnap,” they would end up letting her go.
Just as Crystal lives with the thought, the fear, of running into
Kenny somewhere, Myrna, Kenny’s own mother, faces the idea of her son
being back in her life and the possibility of him wanting to live with her.
She is haunted by the young and innocent Kenny of her memories, who
says, “I’m always gonna live with you, Mommy . . . Always” (973). Now
Kenny is here, in her home, and fear is ruling her every move; she no
longer feels comfortable in her own house. Just as a rape victim does not
feel safe anywhere or any time, Myrna goes from room to room
experiencing feelings of fear and insecurity. Her own kitchen is a strange
place: “For a moment she was lost in her own kitchen” (971). Nothing is
the same: she looks at this room, this life, with a new and darker
perspective. The bathroom no longer brings a sense of peace and
relaxation: “[she] scurried down the hall to the bathroom. She eased the
lock over so that it made barely a sound” (973). Myrna can find no place
of refuge, not even in her own home. Just as a rape victim will sometimes
lock and relock every door and window after the attack, Myrna now locks
herself in every room of her own apartment. Some rape victims fear sleep,
either because the crime happened in the bedroom or while they were
sleeping or just because they are afraid to close their eyes. The same
constant fear can be seen in Myrna. She hears every sound in the
apartment, normal sounds she has never noticed before. However, now,
out of fear, with the cause of fear sleeping in her apartment, she finds
herself “listening to the groan of the refrigerator, the hiss of the hot-water
heater, and the rumble of the large trucks on a distant street” (974). Myrna

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has been victimized by the bond of womanhood she shares with Kenny’s
victim.
For Myrna, as for Crystal and other rape victims, the biggest
obstacle to overcome is that of forgiveness. Just as a “fly buzzed against
the window screen in a desperate attempt to get out” (971), Myrna feels
trapped. While Kenny was in prison, she did not have to face the “truth”
of what happened. She could visit him in prison and then go home and
escape. Now, the realism of what her son had done is standing right in her
kitchen, eating her food, wanting to talk to her about “old times.” Just as
Crystal was the victim that horrid night and could not escape his attack,
Myrna cannot escape her emotional battle surrounding her son. She now
must face the issue, the same issue faced by rape victims each day: Can
she forgive? But Myrna’s predicament has a different twist; this man is
her flesh and blood. The parallel between the family of the attacker and
the family of the victim is a strong one: “Personal experience with violent
crime gives victims and their families a very different perspective” (Morris
and Lewis). The same can be said for the families of the accused. They
must somehow cope with what their relative did and the feelings and
social stigma surrounding the crime. Myrna cannot hide from this reality
any longer. She is in the midst of what may be her strongest emotional
battle yet. Yes, she has dealt with leaving an abusive husband and raising
her son alone. However, Kenny, the “product” of her parenting, is here, in
front of her. Can she forgive him? Should she forgive him?
Forgiveness is a doctrine that has been taught within religions and
by spiritual counselors for years. Those raised in Christian churches hear
it from the time they learn to say “Bible”: “Be kind and compassionate to
one another, forgiving each other, just as in Christ God forgave you”
(Ephesians 4:32). Forgive a rapist? Myrna feels she should, for he is her
son. Memories of his childhood and “her sweet and chubby boy” (973) are
beginning to haunt her now that she has to place them against his adult
crime. However, the memories of Kenny’s trial and Crystal Roberts are
etched just as strongly in her mind. She pictures Kenny as a child, playing
sweetly and innocently in the yard. She also pictures him, her little boy,
holding a knife to Crystal’s throat. She once felt that she knew her son,
but now, she doesn’t want to know him or to be around him. It seems that

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for every memory linking her to Kenny, she feels a stronger concern
regarding Crystal Roberts. In order to forgive and to salvage her life, a
victim of rape needs insight into the responsibility for the crime. In the
same sense, Myrna must realize that she did not do anything to cause
Kenny to perform this criminal act. She also has to understand that his
actions were against Crystal, not her. Unless she can realize that she did
not do anything to cause Kenny to become a rapist, she cannot forgive
him. And until she forgives him, she remains a victim to the crime and
will live under its shadow and in its control.
Myrna unexpectedly distances herself from Kenny by literally
escaping his presence. She begins to take back control of the life she has
lived singly for the past five years and has grown accustomed to. She is in
control when she leaves Kenny a note giving him a deadline for leaving
her house. Throughout Barbara Neely’s “Spilled Salt,” Myrna finds it
almost impossible to separate herself from the rape victim because she is a
mother, a woman, and a woman who has lived with abuse from a man. In
the same light, victimization and forgiveness cannot be separated.
Kenny’s release and return opens up old wounds, dormant feelings of
being victimized. Ironically, this painful reopening of an emotional
wound actually helps Myrna to face her insecurities and to begin her
journey toward healing.

Works Cited

Bible. The Thompson Chain Reference Bible. NIV. 2nd ed.

Morris, Debbie, and Gregg Lewis. Forgiving the Dead Man Walking.
New York: Zondervan, 1988.
Neely, Barbara. “Spilled Salt.” Literature: Reading and Writing the
Human Experience. 7th ed. Ed. Richard Abcarian and Marvin
Klotz. New York: St. Martin’s P, 1998. 971-77.

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis is the study and examination of evidence presented as

forms of numerical data that represent the collection of factual

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information. Statistical analysis requires rhetorical reading of lists, graphs,
and charts in order to analyze how numbers are used strategically to create
arguments. If you were asked to analyze the statistics produced by the
2000 U.S. Census, you might draw specific conclusions of your own
regarding the link between social class and education in America.

Image Analysis

Image analysis is the examination of a visual message—such as an

advertisement, a work of art, a visual Web site, or a film—with the
purpose of explaining how rhetorical appeals are constructed and targeted
within visual media. In the age of cyber literacy and interactive media, it
is crucial to learn strategies for analyzing the persuasive power of images.

Following are some general guidelines for analyzing images:

N Describe the visual image in detail so that you will be able to refer to
its specific parts;

N Consider what messages are being sent without words;

N Describe the audience range for the image, thinking about who would
be attracted to this visual message and why;

N Think about possible cultural connections (connotations) to the explicit

content (denotation) of the visual image;

N Explore the values that are being assumed by the person or group
responsible for creating the image;

N Consider ways in which positioning of elements within the ad affects

the delivery of its message. Example questions you might ask: Are
elements blurred or clearly outlined? Are colors positioned in a
meaningful way? Are human images used in a certain position or
pattern of body movement?

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N Assess the image’s persuasiveness. Is it seeking to persuade? If so,
how? Do you think the image has fulfilled its purpose?

When you write analyze the visual message within a magazine

advertisement, for example, you would want to describe the target
audience, the purpose, the positioning of visual elements, and the
persuasiveness of the ad for convincing its audience to buy or to take
action. Writing about images will help you become aware of the power of
visual rhetoric and to notice more of the thought-provoking visual
messages in the world around you. Always consider what audiences
would be attracted to the image, tuning in to what is artful, studying color,
form, clarity, position, and texture. Ask yourself, “Are there implicit
cultural messages the image reveals?”

The following image analysis was written by student Cassie Hammett for
an English course called “Writing in the Humanities.” Cassie chose a
photograph taken by Anne Geddes as her subject, and the assignment
asked her to link the content of the image to issues within the humanities.
Can you “see” the image just by reading Cassie’s analysis of it? Has she
successfully discussed how its parts contribute to it as a whole?

Sample Image Analysis

Sheltered
By Cassie Hammett

Imagine a newborn child, in all its innocence, cradled in the cup of

its father’s hands. No expectations, no hindrances, just life and its
simplicity and vulnerability wrapped up in one image. It is breathtaking
when an artist can capture the essence and beauty of a single moment in a
photograph. Anne Geddes, an Australian photographer, is able to do so
with her depictions of newborn babies and children. Her artwork is shown
through books, calendars, greeting cards, and much more. The
photographs Geddes takes stir up emotions that not all artists are capable

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of reaching in their art. Geddes’ art has a unique quality that sets her apart
from other photographers. In an interview with Photo Insider, Geddes
reveals, “I believe that the impact of an image relies far more on its
emotional content than whether it has been shot in color or black and
white. Emotional content is an image’s most important element,
regardless of the photographic technique” (Miller). Geddes’ photography
would not be the same if it were not made to appeal to the emotional side
of the audience.
The photograph Geddes created of a premature baby cupped within
a man’s hands certainly appeals to the emotions of the audience, just as
many of Geddes’ photographs do. The image is black and white, which
allows for simplicity. The audience is able to see the picture and notice
the details, such as the actual size of the baby, the wrinkles and age spots
on the man’s hands, the whiteness of the baby’s fingertips, and the
darkness of his wispy hair. The hands are placed in the center of the
photograph, leaving fairly equal amounts of background above and below
the image. The position of the image draws the eye to the child and places
the focus on the size of the baby. The lack of color in this photograph
does the trick and Geddes agrees, “I find that in black and white work,
there are no distractions; I can zero in on the image I want . . . .
Personally, I feel that a simple, strong, emotive black and white image is
unbeatable” (Miller). The actual picture was found in the Anne Geddes
1996 Datebook (Geddes).
The main audience for Geddes’ photography is an older, more
mature audience consisting mostly of parents and women. When children
view the photographs, they often see only what is there. A younger
audience would not think about the implications of the photograph. They
might question the size of the baby in relation to the hands, but they would
not understand the comparison of the two. Parents, on the other hand, are
able to relate to a newborn being placed in the father’s hands. Also, the
use of a premature baby triggers an even deeper emotion because their
lives are so sacred and precarious in their beginning. This image can
arouse feelings of joy because of a life that survives or a feeling of sadness
because of one that did not. The fact is, Geddes’ photography makes
almost everyone feel something.

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 The use of humans in Geddes’ photography is a technique that she
has skillfully mastered. In this particular image, the premature baby rests
in the hands of a man, whose gender is given away by the age spots below
the masculine thumb and also by the nails and wrinkles on the hands. The
gender is important for this photograph because fathers are protective by
nature and when viewers see the hands, they see a father figure and are
able to sense the security a father provides both physically and
emotionally. Be enclosing the infant between the two hands, Geddes also
shows how it is being sheltered from the world, which is important
because of the premature birth. The same emotions would not be evoked
if this were a painting instead of a photograph. Photography speaks reality
and human beings are affected by other human beings. Photographs are
able to depict what words cannot.
While Anne Geddes’ images have a positive effect on most
audiences, there are people who do not appreciate her work. For example,
Steve Granz posts his ideas and opinions on a variety of subjects on his
Web site. Grantz admits to never liking Geddes’ photography and
explains his reasoning: “Anne Geddes disgusts me. Her work is child
exploitation . . . . What makes Geddes so disgusting, though, is the
conspiracy of artist and parents to exploit the children to feed this
disturbing consumption of infancy as a commodity” (1-3).
Anne Geddes’ photographs have been sold all over the globe, and
her success supports Grantz’s observation that children are a sought-after
product. She brings the emotional aspects of childhood and parenthood
and places them in coffee table books to view while guests are over for
dinner. She puts them in calendars and greeting cards and day planners to
be given as gifts. Geddes’ emotional input into her photography is just as
important as the technique and type of film used to create her images.
While everyone may not enjoy Geddes’ images, it is clear that they
certainly appeal to the emotions of even those outside their targeted
audience.
Works Cited

Geddes, Anne. Anne Geddes 1996 Datebook. San Rafael, CA: Cedco
Publishing, 1994.

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Grantz, Steve. “Deconstructing Anne Geddes.”
http://www.visi.com/~sgrantz/1999winter/geddes.html (23 Sept.
2003).
Miller, Howard. “Anne Geddes.”
http://www.photoinsider.com/pages/AnneGeddes/AnneGeddes.htm
l (23 Sept. 2003)

Projects for Writing and Reflection

1) Bring an example of visual rhetoric to class. (Consider magazine ads,

artwork, photographs, postcards, posters, Web site printouts, etc.) Join
two class members and analyze the images you have brought as a
group. Follow the guidelines on Pages 114-115 in this chapter.

2) Read Jamie Jones’ rhetorical analysis essay about John Stuart Mill’s
On the Subjection of Women. Write down the five elements of the
rhetorical situation (discussed in this chapter), and then decide whether
Jamie Jones addresses each of these elements and if so, how?

3) Visit the Web site http://www.bls.gov. Search the Web site and then
write down five statistical statements that interest you. Write a one-
paragraph analysis of these statistics.

4) Using details from the text, go on a treasure hunt to find the specific
Anne Geddes photograph about which Cassie Hammett wrote in the
image analysis essay above. Copy it and bring it to class for
discussion.

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CHAPTER 8

Argument

This chapter discusses argumentation and offers advice for writing

argumentative essays in college, first discussing good habits of
communicators who argue well and then describing specific forms of
argumentation. The ability to create a sound argument is a characteristic
of good readers and good writers alike, for it is just as important to be able
to decode messages sent by others as it is to organize messages of your
own. Chapter 8 also includes sample a sample argument research paper
and a sample proposal written by college students.

Analysis and argument are often intermingled in academic writing, but it is

important to practice each of them separately in order to see how they can
serve one another in larger writing projects. The ability to create a sound
argument is a characteristic of good readers and good writers alike, for it is
just as important to be able to decode messages sent by others as it is to
organize messages of your own. In fact, learning about argumentation can
help you become a better communicator overall.

Basic skills of argument are practical in everyday life. Consider the

following situations: When a significant other hurts your feelings in some
way, you need to be able to point out reasonably what offended you and to
provide arguments to support your complaint. When a college instructor
gives you a printed assignment, you need to be able to employ skills of
analysis to understand what is being asked of you, and sometimes, you
need basic skills of argumentation to chart the best path toward completing
the assignment successfully. Also, any time you are asked to sign a
contract—whether a lease agreement on an apartment or an affidavit
within an employment application—you should rely upon analytical and
argumentative skills to consider what you are agreeing to and to look for
points that you would like to negotiate further. A sharp mind uses
strategies to avoid pitfalls and is recognized and respected by others.

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Problem-Posing and Problem-Solving

Part of becoming skilled at creating and analyzing arguments is learning

how to describe, to define, and to analyze problems. The two skills of
problem-posing and problem-solving are equally important because good
solutions come only after good questions are asked. The history of
rhetoric teaches us a lot about problem-posing and problem-solving.
Stasis theory, for example, while familiar to students of rhetoric and law,
is also helpful to students responding to college-level writing assignments.
Classical rhetoricians developed an intricate theory of stasis within
argument—or point of issue. This theory helps communicators—
especially those who must persuade an oppositional audience—determine
which arguments will be successful and which are likely to fail. You do
not need to know every detail of stasis theory to become a skilled writer of
academic essays. However, thinking about the four levels of stasis will
help you find out what is at issue when preparing to write an argument.

N Stasis of Fact
Did something happen? What was it? What was necessary for it to
happen? Can it be proven?

N Stasis of Definition
How do we define/describe what happened? What is it like? Can it be
categorized?

N Stasis of Quality
How can we evaluate what happened? Was it good/bad, right/wrong?

N Stasis of Policy
Is this the right way or place to argue this issue? Why or why not?

The questions above will help you narrow down the real questions and
problems within a body of knowledge. In order to find out which of the
four levels of stasis is at work within a specific situation or subject you are

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researching, you will want to use the following basic academic skills of a
good researcher. First of all, scout around—investigate. Who is
concerned about the topic? Who is writing about it? Who cares? Ask
important questions and avoid distractions. What is really at issue? What
is the point at which people disagree on this topic? Use audience
identification to find out what common ground exists between the various
opposing viewpoints. (Remember, there are often more than two sides to
an issue.) Withhold solution-offering as long as you can. Remember that
critical issues are critical because they are hard to figure out, hard to solve.
A subject is not an issue unless it is debatable—open to good questions
and difficult to wrap your brain around. If you do find a way to bring
order to messy ideas, propose a specific solution. You will also want to
gauge your professors’ expectations regarding problem/solution writing.
Some professors’ assignments ask for exploration. Others ask for specific
and decisive arguments.

To become a writer who can recognize good arguments and who uses
them in personal and professional communications, practice developing
the following good habits of anyone who argues well:

N Establish your credibility, or ethos

Convince your audience that you are trustworthy and that you know
what you are talking about. Providing background, avoiding slanted
language, and revealing careful research are three basic ways to build
credibility at the beginning of a speech or essay. (See Chapter 6 for
specific strategies.)

N Consider your audience’s needs and values, relying on pathos

Invite the audience’s good will by letting them know that you identify
with them or at least have researched and understand their needs as
listeners or readers. (See Chapter 3 for specific strategies.)

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N Organize your points clearly and logically, using logos

Convince your audience that you are a thoughtful speaker or writer

who values organization and appeal to reason. (See Chapter 3 for
specific strategies).

N Consider the opposition

Convince your audience that you are fair-minded and that you have
weighed opposing and alternative perspectives. Represent these
divergent opinions objectively and then reveal your powerful
counterargument.

N Be aware of different approaches to argument, including the

Rogerian Method and the Toulmin method.

Rogerian Argument is a method of argument developed from the

theories of psychologist Carl Rogers. This style of argument values
consensus-building over arguing over who “wins” an argument.
Rogerian argument depends upon time taken to understand the
viewpoints of all people involved in the discussion and to consider the
needs and interests of those who stand to gain something and those
who stand to lose something based on the group decision. Common
ground, active listening, identification, and negotiation instead of
dispute and contention are the key features of Rogerian argument.

For example, if you wanted to use Rogerian argument to convince the

resident assistant of your dorm to check IDs of all visitors to ensure
student safety, you might schedule a meeting with the R.A., one of the
dorm residents, and a college administrator, during which you
emphasize reasons why the added security would benefit R.A.s,
students, and administration alike and then offer to listen to
counterarguments. You might take time to write down key claims
from each person who contributes to the discussion, which would build

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 good will with your audience. Finally, you would seek a reasonable
compromise that considers all parties involved.

Toulmin argument is based upon the rhetorical theory of Stephen

Toulmin, a contemporary British philosopher whose most influential
work is his 1958 book The Uses of Argument. To analyze an existing
argument using the Toulmin method or to write an argument of your
own in Toulmin style, you would consider the following elements:

1) an argument’s main claim (thesis),

2) the warrants (the assumptions that go into the claim),

3) the reasons and supporting evidence (called “backing”),

4) and any qualifiers or conditions of refutation/rebuttal used by the

writer.

To expand on the example above, picture yourself receiving a memo to

all students informing you that picture IDs will no longer be checked
in campus dorms. You might choose to use Toulmin argument to
develop a claim for reinstating ID checks. Then you could argue
against what has happened by discussing the unstated warrants behind
the act of lessening security on campus. You could back your claim by
providing statistical evidence and personal testimony of students who
support the security measure. You would prepare a rebuttal for use if
needed.

As you can see, different forums for argument invite different styles of
argumentation. Analyzing the rhetorical situation is always a wise first
step; then, you can decide which styles of argument work best in particular
situations.

To familiarize yourself with college-level skills of argumentation, begin by

learning about different genres, or kinds of argument, all of which require

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different mental frameworks and different methods of organization. All of
the forms of argument discussed below share basic discourse conventions,
but it is important to know how they differ.

Consider the following forms argument takes in college-level writing,

noting the thinking and writing skills required for each.

Assertion

An assertion is a statement in which a world-view or value is shared.

Statements as simple as “I prefer to write in third person” or “I like
chocolate ice cream” contain assertions. Assertions may lead to argument
but are not necessarily argumentative until a dialogue between people who
share different values and tastes and therefore make different assertions
begins. Assertions have the potential to become arguments when people
communicate about them.

You probably make assertions all day long in conversations without

realizing that you are revealing a certain individual preference, subculture,
or world-view. Try to become more aware of how you are making
assertions in the college-level writing you do as well. Statements that you
may make out of hand could hold value-statements that you have not
thought critically about or explored thoroughly.

Evaluation

A written evaluation is a judgment about the value of a text, whether that

text is written, verbal, or visual. Evaluation may take the form of review
or critique. Like critique, evaluation focuses on pinpointing strengths and
weaknesses. In a theater class, you may be asked to write an evaluation of
a performance or of one of your fellow actors. In a business course, you
may be asked to write an evaluation of how your group worked together
during a project. Furthermore, in many college courses, students are asked
to write a course evaluation or a self-evaluation essay at the end of the
semester.

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To write an evaluation, you have to take on the role of critic. Critics have
their own “toolbox” of rhetorical tools that they use to try to persuade
readers that their opinions are valid. These tools include summarizing to
show that the critic has studied the text carefully, using compare/contrast
to show connections and that the critic is experienced in the subject, using
connotative words (words that evoke positive or negative reactions) to
praise or to “blame” the text, and sarcasm when a critic wants to ridicule
the work for its lack of value. When you write as critic, experiment with
these rhetorical tools. Remember that critics serve a particular cultural
function in society. They do the thinking and reflecting about movies,
plays, books, etc. that the typical citizen-consumer doesn’t take the time to
do. By doing this academic labor, critics also take on the responsibility of
backing up their points with adequate evidence so that their readers or
viewers will be persuaded to share their interpretation. Critics who are
overly satirical or who develop a reputation for never liking anything lose
some credibility because readers begin to doubt the sincerity of their
engagement with the subject matter.

To develop your skills of evaluating, begin by practice maintaining

fairness. List both strengths and weaknesses of a text (text broadly defined
as article, book, movie, Web site, etc.). Then, decide if your critique will
be predominantly positive or negative and how you will organize the
points according to that decision. In your use of constructive criticism—
discussing both the good and the bad in an intentional order—you will
enhance your own credibility as a writer.

Proposal

Proposal is a kind of argument that seeks to persuade an audience to take

action—a claim that something should or should not be done. Proposals
are powerful forms of rhetoric because they can initiate whole-scale
change, outline reasons for funding, and improve existing situations. They
also accomplish two other goals by 1) offering a focused explanation of
research conducted or of research needed, and 2) serving as written

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documentation of a “call” to those who have the power to act on the
proposal.

In workplaces and within social service organizations, proposals are a

well-known genre because they are used to apply for much-needed funds
and grants. In a tight economy, effective proposals (and those who have
the skills to write them) are in high demand in both the corporate world
and in academia. If you study the art of proposal-writing carefully, you
could land a job as grant writer in a university advancement office or a
social service organization; real people would reap the real rewards of
your writing skills as you persuade those who have power or funds to act
on behalf of those who do not.

If written in business format, proposals usually contain the following four

headings:

1) Discussion of Problem,

2) Consequences and Stakeholders (or Cost/Benefit Analysis),

3) Proposed Solution, and

4) Feasibility Study (including budget and/or action plan).

Action plans or itemized budgets can also be included in the feasibility

study section. Action plans show that you have thought through what it
would take to chart a path toward the solution. In the other case, specific
dollar amounts show readers that you’ve done your homework and that
you’re willing to specify exactly where their money will go. If the
proposal is unsolicited, the writer should choose essay or business-style
based on a careful analysis of the targeted audience. If the proposal has
been requested by a company, institution, or organization, follow the
stated criteria in the “Request for Proposals” (RFP) religiously.

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Remember the following tips when you are asked to write a proposal:

N Use a forceful and concise writing style;

N Write with sincerity, showing your genuine concern;

N Show your reader that you have done your research and that
you have pinpointed a specific need;

N Write in “should” and “ought” and “need” phrases to reveal the

urgency of the issue at hand;

N Provide clear, strong transitions to guide your reader;

N Emphasize common ground among “people for” and “people

against”;

N Explain specific benefits of the proposed action;

N To build credibility, explain your personal investment in the

issue, if applicable;

N Don’t wait until the middle or end of your paper to make your
proposal. Proposals are direct and often contain features of
business writing, including headings; and

N Don’t ask your audience to take action without informing them

of the specific benefits of that action.

Proposals written within academia are often similar to essays and may not
include business-style headings. Proposals written in essay style are
usually brief arguments that delineate a specific need or problem and
propose detailed answers that can be acted upon. Proposal-writing is not

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only an invaluable skill for your resume, but it also provides practice in
making arguments precisely and with a real-world purpose.

The following proposal essay was written by Andy Neilson, a first-year

college student who found a way to incorporate discussion of a timely
personal concern in an essay for his English class. The assignment asked
him specifically to brainstorm an issue in his local community and then to
write a proposal that is feasible, meets a need, and addresses a significant
problem. Read the following essay looking carefully at how the writer
builds his credibility and uses appeals to convince his audience to act.

Sample Proposal Essay

Who Wants to Live in a “Humped” Community?

By Andy Neilson

Recently, during a conversation at dinner with my parents, it was

brought to my attention that our local community, Edgecliff Village, was
discussing the option of putting speed-humps in some of the high-traffic
areas of our neighborhood. Immediately, I began to think of other
neighborhoods cursed with these annoying bumps. I thought of how my
car would lurch as I slowly inched over the hills of asphalt. I thought,
“How could any sensible person want such a thing to happen to their
street?”
Driven by both curiosity and fear, I began to research information
about the reasons for and against the pouring of speed bumps. After
talking with members of the Edgecliff Village city council and researching
the benefits and detriments of communities that have been “humped,” I
feel more qualified to speak out on the issue. As a resident of Edgecliff
Village, I propose that citizens actively protest residential speed bumps.
First of all, there is a difference between a bump and a hump.
Speed bumps are what most of us are familiar with because they are the
most common types of “traffic calming” in the United States, Canada, and
the U.K. (City of Toronto 3). They are found in many parking lots and on
private roads. What are being placed in residential areas, however, are

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speed humps—wide, parabolic mounds placed across the road. These
“reminders” are covered in white stripping and reflective turtles and “vary
in height from 7.5 to 10 cm and are approximately 4 m[eters] in length (in
the direction of travel)” (2). While these areas of raised pavement are
designed to allow speeds of 20 to 30 miles per hour, they also do more
damage to an automobile the faster it drives over them.
The basic purpose for putting in speed humps is to slow drivers
down, and the motivation for installing speed humps is justified when the
lives of pedestrians and drivers are being endangered because of careless
speeders. However, one annoying problem is that while speed humps slow
people down on one street, much traffic is diverted to other streets after
drivers learn which streets are clear and free of hindrances. This form of
investigative driving often merely moves the problem elsewhere. People
avoid streets that have the humps, even adding miles to their trips taking
paths that may not be as familiar and thus increasing their risk of
becoming involved in an accident. The added acceleration and
deceleration of crossing the humps increases air pollution and decreases a
vehicle’s gas mileage. One experiment conducted by the city of Portland,
Oregon confirmed that not only were gas consumption and pollution
problems, but the streets around the humped test road saw a significant
increase in accidents (Houston Coalition for Free Streets 1).
Another significant detriment to our society caused by speed
humps is slower emergency response times. Many police, fire, and
ambulance services are enraged by the idea of speed humps lengthening
their response times. Many cities already have an insufficient number of
ambulances and cannot afford to sacrifice the crucial seconds they spend
in route. Test results from the city of Austin, Texas gathered in 1996
indicate that each hump adds about three to ten seconds to driving time
(City of Toronto 6). Imagine an ambulance that has to cross ten speed
humps to get to someone’s house; the humps potentially add more than a
minute to the response time of the paramedics, and in situations such as
house fires and victims of heart attacks, a minute can be the difference
between life and death.
How the city decides to place the speed humps can also cause
problems. The process of deciding where to put them differs from city to

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city, but the basic idea is the same. I will use Edgecliff Village as a
specific example. First, five residents on a street must express the desire
to have the street tested to see if it meets the requirements. Data such as
the average speed and number of cars per hour is used to decide eligibility.
Once the street is tested, a vote is taken among the residents of the street.
If at least 50 percent of residents support the speed humps, they will be
approved and installed. However, an 80 percent vote is required to have
them removed, and removal is possible only after they have been in place
for a whole year (King, et al.). The next problem is that speed humps can
cause neighbors to disagree with each other, leading to potential discord
within a community. In Houston, residents have been known to drive
through each other’s yards in protest of the humps (“Windows on Wheels”
1). Such reactionary behavior not only breeds contempt but also is
dangerous.
Not only are speed humps growing in number, but they are also
growing in size. If citizens compare the average size of a hump built ten
years ago to one built today, the difference is strikingly noticeable. This
increase in size is most likely due to the fact that more and more people
drive pick-up trucks and sports utility vehicles than ever before. In 1989,
only 31 percent of the vehicles sold in the U.S. were trucks. In 1994,
however, that figure rose to 55 percent, and in 1999, to 66 percent (Bedard
22). These striking statistics have not gone unnoticed by our local
governments. Some new speed humps are so large that many sports cars
cannot cross them even at low speeds without scraping across them. The
visible scrapes on newer speed humps everywhere attest to this problem.
The new larger humps are capable of damaging cars in the long run, even
if drivers are careful. Cars are not designed to drive over mound after
mound. The wear that is taken by shock absorbers is tremendous. People
who own older cars are at an even greater risk, which is unfortunate,
because they are most often the ones who cannot afford repair costs
(“Window on Wheels” 829).
More arguments against speed humps abound. For example, speed
humps are eyesores and can hurt property values. Moreover, cyclists hate
the bumps because they interfere with their harmless exercise activity. In
regions where it is necessary to plow snow from the roads, speed humps

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make it almost impossible to plow quickly and efficiently. Citizens who
ride public transportation buses will be jolted by the humps if they are
standing when the bus rolls over them (City of Toronto 5). Finally, the
cost of putting in speed humps is exorbitant. The City of Fort Worth,
Texas plans to pay $340,000 for an estimated 430 speed humps in the near
future (Purcell 1). Couldn’t $340,000 be spent on programs that benefit
more than just a few streets? In fact, cities could probably hire several
more police officers with a grant of $340,000. More police presence has
proven benefits to neighborhoods. The irony continues, however: Fort
Worth spends a lot of money each year in an effort to decrease pollution,
and it seems illogical to spend $340,000 on something that increases it.
I propose that our city governments stop throwing away money on
city developments that inconvenience citizens. It may be necessary to find
a method of slowing down traffic, but speed humps are not the most wise
or even the most economical solution. Communities that protest speed
humps and want to keep them from their residential streets should band
together to brainstorm viable alternatives.
We need to find a way to slow drivers down without delaying
emergency response times and without increasing air pollution and
decreasing gas efficiency. Until the benefits of speed humps outweigh the
costs to community members and to the environment, we must continue to
protest their construction. The first steps to taking action on such an issue
are to discuss community concerns such as safety and street traffic with
neighbors and stay informed of considerations under review by your city
council. When you voice your opinions among neighbors, you will find
out whether you are speaking from a majority or minority opinion and will
be able to judge what action is appropriate. Hopefully, whether you are
supporting or protesting speed humps in your neighborhood, you will find
that your awareness of and participation in the democracy of city
government are freedoms that should be used.

Works Cited

Bedard, Patrick. “Promiscuous Trucking on the Rise, Say Sales Figures.”

Car and Driver June 2000: 22.

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City of Toronto. “Policy Report: Installation of Speed Humps on City
Streets.” Ontario: 1997.
http://old.city.toronto.on.ca/4service/spdhmp.htm (8 May 2000)
Houston Coalition for Free Streets. “Support for Speed Humps is
Emotional—Not Rational.” www.speedhumps.com. (8 May 2000)
King, Mary. Edgecliff Village Alderman. Personal interview. 5 May 2000.
Purcell, Regina G. “Pain in the Butt: Fort Worth Hops Headlong into the
Speed Hump Race, But Do the Things Work?” Fort Worth Weekly
20 April 2000.
http://www.fwweekly.com/archives/April_20_2000/metropolis
“Windows on Wheels.” DCI Communications Newsletter May 1998.

Satire

Satire is a form of argument that uses sarcasm, irony, and wit for the
purpose of critique. One famous example is Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest
Proposal,” which combines the methods of proposal and satire. While you
may read numerous examples of satire in your local newspaper and in
literature courses, generally in college, it is more important to be able to
recognize and to analyze a satire than it is to write one.

When you are asked to analyze a satire, read rhetorically, asking yourself
what lifestyles, events, or opinions are responsible for promoting the
sarcasm and irony in the text. Also consider whether the author’s true
purpose differs from the literal message revealed in the text. Finally, use
the skills of analysis discussed in Chapter 7.

Argument and Persuasion

Arguments in academic writing state a specific claim and place it in

dialogue with or in opposition to other claims within an ongoing
conversation regarding an issue. An event or idea qualifies as an issue
only if it is debatable, so attempting to argue about a non-issue—
something no longer open to discussion—would be a waste of time and
intellectual energy.

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Academic arguments in college often take the form of research papers
because before you can make a specific claim about an issue, it makes
sense to investigate the subject and familiarize yourself with existing
claims. When you are assigned an academic argument, take time to
research before you close in on a specific claim.

You will have an opportunity to read through an argumentative essay

written by a college student at the end of this chapter.

Persuasion is argument that seeks its audience to take action upon being
convinced. (Argument simply hopes to convince and to affect the realm of
belief.) For example, your friend may convince you through specific
evidence and statistics that donating blood helps countless hospital
patients, but you may choose not to give blood. You are not persuaded
until you act.

You may be asked to deliver a persuasive speech in a college-level

communications course, or you may be asked to write a persuasive essay
about an issue in your community in a political science or writing class.
Practice audience analysis and careful research so that you will know your
audience and have access to the most persuasive appeals.

The following essay was written by Melissa Odom, a first-year theater

major. Melissa’s paper is a classical argument advocating financial and
active support of the arts, especially in higher education. During this
research project, Melissa was able to write about concerns that are close to
home—in her own theater department at TCU. She interviewed faculty
members involved in theater on her campus to personalize her paper and to
build her own credibility. Melissa’s chosen audience is theater patrons
and parents of students involved in the arts and of young children. Read
her essay rhetorically, plotting out how she builds ethos and how she
supports her claims.

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Sample Argumentative Research Paper

To Fund or Not to Fund: That is the Question

by Melissa Odom

“All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely
players: That have their exits and their entrances.” Masters of wordplay
and emotion, playwrights and performers of the theater have astounded us
with their unforgettable excerpts for centuries, such as this one from
William Shakespeare’s play As You Like It. Like Einstein was to science,
playwrights and the like have been geniuses in the sciences of the senses.
Instead of building atom bombs in laboratories or growing hair in test
tubes, however, those involved in the arts are found creating in another
way. They mimic life and mirror nature in countless scores, scenes, plays,
and musicals, using tools like the mind, heart, body, voice, and soul.
Acting is one of the oldest forms of performance through art next to cave
paintings from the Stone Age. Over the ages, drama has told the history of
civilization and humanity. More people are involved in the field of
drama—whether through production or performance—than there are
doctors in the United States. Why then, one might ask, does this art suffer
so badly from lack of financial and active support?
Theater runs through the very veins of our history and has served
social and cultural functions as preserver of knowledge. Dr. Oscar
Brockett, author and Director of the Center for Dramatic and Performance
Studies in Austin, Texas, agrees that
[theater], one of the oldest and most enduring forms of art,
enables us to understand not only the past but also the
present. Theatre history and dramatic literature are
embodiments of the cultural assumptions and values that in
each era have made theatre a mirror of society and this
mirroring can bring the concerns of the time to the
forefront. (12)
Therefore, it would only seem logical to expose this vital tool to the very
future of our society: children. Children are very perceptive individuals.
Youth is perhaps the most crucial period of a person’s life. During this

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time, personality, interests, and intelligence are first developed through
observations and experience. Theater can influence our nation’s youth in
countless ways.
Understandably, many would argue that theater has no place or
purpose for today’s youth and question why there should be a need for a
child’s support of interest in such an activity. However, consider for a
moment the positive outcomes that may be attributed to children and their
exposure to the theater arts. Pat Murrell, Director Head at Mini-Versity
Child Development Center, believes that “it is important to introduce
children to the arts so that they become appreciative members of audiences
as adults” (Murrell and Watkins 10). Murrell sees children as an open
opportunity to instill a more artistically adept and sympathetic generation
into our society. He believes in the important task of seeking out and
nurturing the arts of tomorrow today. In fact, Murrell asks the question,
“Would Mozart have reached his potential if he had not been exposed to
music from infancy?” (11). Sam Watkins, also a Director-Head at Mini-
Versity, adds that in his time as child development administrator, he has
“experienced daily the tremendous positive impact of performing and
visual arts on disadvantaged children who have never experienced art as a
tool for growth and development” (10). Watkins agrees that federal and
private funding that is actually allowed to go to the arts should be
expanded and shaped amongst organizations like their development center.
He heartily disagrees with the lack in support, especially after having seen
such positive reactions in children.
There are also many success stories of famous people who once
had major situational barriers in their lives and have prevailed through the
influence of theater arts, offering more proof to the argument that arts
exposure for children is crucial. Henry Winkler, most known for his
character Arthur Fonzarelli on Happy Days, offers one such success story.
It is not common knowledge, but Winkler grew up as an inner-city youth
with a speech impediment and learning disability. However, through the
discovery of his theatrical acting talent, Winkler found a way to support
himself and overcome adversity by creating a positive channel for his
energy, all of which he did without a high school education. That is not to
say that every child with a setback should move to Hollywood, but

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Winkler is just one of countless examples of successful performers that
have overcome personal challenges and have found hope through the arts.
Similarly, film and television actor and spokesperson for arts
advocacy Hector Elizondo speaks on the importance of organizations like
Mini-Versity because of the positive influence arts had on his own
childhood. Elizondo admits, “The arts simply saved my life growing up in
Harlem. I was lucky” (qtd. in McQueen 10). He continues in his
testimonial to describe how unfortunate it is to see how many people in his
neighborhood who would have “flourished” if the institution of theater had
been introduced to them. The evidence supporting theater as a positive
influence is astounding, and stories like this one surround us. Not only has
its influence helped to find countless talents throughout the youth
community, but the arts have also become an outlet for inner-city children
and the underprivileged. Some of these children who are in danger of
becoming the next generation of criminals and dropouts are instead turning
to the world of theater arts. “Every child deserves access to the arts,”
urges Bob Morrison, executive director of the music network VH1’s Save
the Music school program. He continues, “Not just the best, not just the
brightest and certainly not just those who can afford it” (qtd. in McQueen
11). Additionally, recent reports have been released that indicate that arts
education deserves a place in the lives of America’s youth and most
importantly, in their classrooms. A study from the University of
California, Los Angeles, found that a national sample of students who
studied the arts in grades eight to ten made higher grades, scored better on
standardized tests, and were less likely to drop out of school. Seven in ten
of the arts students made top scores in reading, writing, history, geography,
and citizenship compared with the 45 percent of students who had few arts
classes or activities and still did as well in reading. Just 1.4 percent of the
arts-involved children left school by tenth grade, while almost 5 percent of
the non-arts children did. Another study from Stanford University, whose
results were provided to lawmakers in hopes of governmental financial
backing, showed that students who spent at least ten hours a week in arts
classes were four times as likely to participate in mathematics or science
fairs or to win awards for writing essays or poems (McQueen 10). It can
be said that these activities and classes actually helped the students

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become more well-rounded individuals and students. Actor William
Baldwin, President of the Creative Coalition, a star-studded lobbying
group, claims, “disparities come when schools, viewing arts education as a
luxury, cut the art curriculum while adding money to sports” (qtd. in
McQueen 11). Clearly, although sports provide a fun and challenging
alternative to boredom and mischief and offer benefits of coordination and
thought, what about those children who are unskilled in athletics or who
have disabilities? Theater may grant an equally challenging release to the
sometimes-intimidating pressures of youth. Secondary public school
graduates who seek higher education in the arts will feel extreme setbacks
in finding support and backing in their major field with more of these
budget cuts. Dr. Forrest Newlin, Department Chair of Theater at Texas
Christian University, stated in an interview that “it is unfortunate and
almost unethical, the lack of financial support TCU fronts for the
education of our theater students.” Renowned as one of the five best
private universities in the state of Texas for a bachelor’s degree in Fine
Arts, TCU has prevailed through financial depression. Dr. Newlin
explains, “All of our theater productions, ranging from five to eight a
semester, are performed free of charge.” The TCU Theater Department
has experienced other heartbreaking problems, besides lack of sufficient
funds, when they discovered inadequacies in their new facility. Graduate
student and Theater major Yvonne Campbell recalls the event:

The school finally recognized our needs for renovations.

All of a sudden, they forked over six million dollars to
build a beautiful new theater addition for us. We were all
so excited making plans for new productions to take place
there. I cried when we found out they spent all that time
and money and botched the whole job. (Personal interview)

What the new Hayes Theater TCU Administration had built was an
architectural disaster. The balcony extended over the end of the stage, so
100 seats are completely unusable; no one would be able to see the action
onstage without leaning fully over the edge. Also, the curtain system was

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completely unusable and the acoustics were lacking because of the shape
of the theater and the insulation materials used to make it.
Upon arriving at TCU for the first time after being hired earlier in
the fall, David Whillock, the new Fine Arts Department dean, was
appalled to see the old-fashioned, out-of-date, understaffed department.
Whillock made several comments during his tour of the school about the
ridiculous salary ranking professors in the department had versus those of
the other departments in the school, who make well over $115,000 a year.
TCU Theater Costume Designer Valerie Liberta comments, “They
have us making the same amount as a manager at McDonald’s makes in a
year” (Personal interview).
Another unfortunate setback to theater arts is the ready rebuttals
many money-distributing authorities, such as parents of college students,
have against theater in higher education. Admittedly, their fears are
warranted. Their claims include the concern that a career in the theater
business is neither reliable nor stable. However, this worry has much to
do with the fact that many people are unaware of the many facets and
opportunities that theater offers students. More and more, we are seeing
large, successful, name-brand companies, like IBM and Xerox, coming
together in support of a liberal arts university education. They say that
critical thinking and communication that students gain through such an
academic curriculum is exactly what they are looking for in employees.
These well-known and respected groups are the most recent advocates for
theater education and are working very hard to lobby the government into
more financial support for the arts. The Ontario Confederation of the
University Faculty Associations and chancellors of universities have made
similar public statements about the importance of funding arts programs.
David Ticoll, managing director and chief executive officer of the Alliance
for Converging Technologies, along with Alliance chairman Don Tapscott,
has drafted many statements and sent them to educational ministers,
politicians, and academics across the United States. Ticoll says, “In the
current funding strategy, people seem to be saying that in order to grow
you need to focus exclusively on technical skills.” He continues, however,
to claim that “We totally and enthusiastically support investment in
technology and technology-based learning, but we believe it’s critical to

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have a well-rounded society and well-rounded individuals” (qtd. in
Rushowy 5). This is an accurate statement on Ticoll’s part considering the
never-ending, fast-paced advancements we are seeing in our culture of
technology today. With the broad range of subjects and experiences a
person may touch on in a liberal arts curriculum, which most often
includes classes in theater, students are more likely to be prepared for new,
unexpected changes that require flexibility of thought and quick responses.
These leaders in technology agree that “Many of our technology workers
began their higher education in the humanities, and they are clearly the
stronger for it” (Rushowy 6).
Theater has perhaps one of the most effective diverse standings in
educational success. Endless testimonies have been gathered from
working professionals raving about how their technical training has helped
them have a stable and reliable handle on their careers. They claim that
theater is responsible for making them successful, and, surprisingly
enough, the majority of the testimonies are taken from people unaffiliated
with the theater business or the arts. Business and theater are so closely
tied to our cultural history that it is no wonder theater can aid a person in
the skills s/he needs to do well in a job that isn’t even a part of the arts. In
fact, in the Middle Ages, elaborate, well-organized productions were
presented yearly by guilds—unions of business workers. Each business
was assigned a topic of entertainment and educational meaning, and the
guilds organized, rehearsed, and presented their performances to the entire
town as a spectacle. Again, we are shown how business and theater are
closely integrated, or should be.
A study from New York University’s Centre for Research on Work
and Society shows that liberal arts graduates are getting as many jobs and
making as much money as those in technology (Rushowy 7). Paul
Axelrod, one of the men who began this study, states that “there’s the
thinking that if we train all of these engineers, that will somehow influence
the economy” (qtd. in Rushowy 7). That is why, Axelrod asserts, the
differences in funding other academic programs such as theater should be
equalized. For many forward-thinking educational institutions, the
integration is inevitable. In fact, George Fallis, Dean of Arts at New York

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University, says the school now includes arts courses in its information
technology degree.
In a recent publication of The Association for Theater in Higher
Education, authors suggest that an education in theater and performance
studies gives students useful tools to contribute and to create positive
changes in the public as well as the private sphere (Coast 1). Theater in
higher education creates not only strong theater artists and articulate
theater educators, but also effective public leaders and compassionate
visionaries in all the professions. Theater course work integrates topics
such as anthropology, history, music, English, psychology, and dance in
addition to its core theater-based studies. Theater in higher education
enables students to learn more about diverse historical eras, communities,
and styles of production, technologies, and playwrights through various
types of artistic productions. A major in theater arts or performance
studies prepares students to pursue professional goals as artists and
educators. They may choose careers as teachers, actors, directors,
playwrights, critics, dramaturges, designers, administrators, or managers.
Theater in higher education also provides students with crucial life skills,
which they can use in a wide range of professions as well as in their day-
to-day relationships with others because theater and performance studies
allow students to think precisely in the moment, to speak confidently in
public, to write with clarity and intelligence, and to work productively
with others, thereby providing them with useful skills for a host of other
professions, including business, government, law, journalism, the natural
and social sciences, economics, languages and literatures, the fine arts,
industry, and related disciplines. Psychologist Howard Gardner offers a
theory of multiple intelligence which claims that each individual learns
through seven intelligences: linguistics, logical/mathematical,
visual/spatial, kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.
Theater education cultivates all of these intelligences. Theater and
performance, then, can help enhance lives by acknowledging and
celebrating the cultures and contributions of diverse communities, helping
people learn and live in relation with one another (Costa 4).
Another warranted opposition to theater arts funding that dismisses
the importance of financial and active support for the arts is the belief that

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theater is a morally disgruntled medium. Granted, some may see acting as
something more than a harmless illusion for entertainment purposes, but to
go so far as to claim that theater is the art of lying is a little excessive. For
example, conservative congressman John McCain responded to questions
from The Times about continuing financial support of the National
Endowment for the Arts by adamantly claiming, “I oppose federal funding
for the National Endowment for the Arts because of the obscene and
inappropriate projects this organization has supported with tax dollars”
(qtd. in Freudenheim 14). However, refusing to support an organization
that helps fund artistic projects by calling it racy is like refusing to read the
Bible because it includes stories of sin and misfortune in it. McCain
makes a valid point but not a very substantial one because it limits the
unlimitable boundaries of theater—an art that does nothing more than
project life, society, morality, and human nature through story. Although
sometimes unappetizing to the palate of a conservative viewer, it is
undeniable that one can be entertained and learn a lesson when watching
or reading a play. Does the same not apply to the Bible when we read it?
Consequently, not every story you find—whether in the Bible or on
stage—is a representation of degeneration or smut. Therefore,
generalizations about theater should be made with care. Many faith, truth,
and lesson-learning qualities can be found within a good script.
Well-established organizations, such as The National Endowment
for the Arts and The Association for Theater in Higher Education raise
both governmental and private funds in support of furthering the cause of
theater. However, organizations such as these are still in short supply, and
the grants and donations they have can only go so far without a large
supportive force backing them. It is very important that we all take an
active role in the theater arts by sharing and celebrating the arts with each
other and with children. Taking a group of children to the local
community theater and letting them experience the magical possibilities of
theater or donating a few dollars to a local theater council can reap
numerous unforeseen rewards. Theater is not limited to a chosen few and
as Augusto Boal, a renowned author and playwright, claims:
All of us “are” theater; that’s the essence of our human
condition. As human beings, we are “actors” (we act

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 out our lives) and “spectators” (we observe ourselves in
action)—We are “playwrights” of our own word and
“directors” of our own deeds. To be human is to be able to
invent the future and not merely wait for it. To teach and
to learn theater, is to learn and teach humanity. (qtd. in
Costa 6)

There will always be a need for entertainment. As long as the human body
continues to possess the ability to feel, see, hear, taste, and touch, so will
theater continue to exist. The possibilities are endless when it comes to
the arts and the timeless boundaries of theater. If we truly are “poor
players on the world’s stage,” we certainly owe it, not to ourselves but to
the generations to come, to keep the “show” going.

Works Cited

Brockett, Oscar. The History of Theatre. Austin: U of Texas P, 1996.

Campbell, Yvonne. Personal interview. 25 April 2000.
Costa, Ann Marie. “Learning for a Lifetime.” Association for Theatre in
Higher Education. Berkeley, CA: U of California P, 1997.
Fact Book: Fall 1998. Collected by Texas Christian University
Department of Institutional Research.
Freudenheim, Susan. “NEA Funding: A Quiet but Persistent Issue—Arts.”
Associated Press 21 Mar. 2000.
Liberta, Valerie. Personal Interview. 25 April 2000.
McQueen, Anjetta. “Stars, Students Push for Funding of the Arts.”
Associated Press 21 Mar. 2000.
Murrell, Pat, and Sam Watkins. “Readers’ Forum ‘Positive Impact’ of
the Arts of Children.” The Courier Journal 21 April 2000.
Newlin, Forrest. Personal Interview. 25 April 2000.
Rushowy, Kristin. “The CEO’s Artfully Intervene.” The Toronto Star
April 2000.

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Projects for Writing and Reflection

1) Working in a group with a few of your classmates, answer the

following questions together regarding Melissa Odom’s essay above.
Share your answers with the rest of the class.
N What kind of tone does the writer use? Is it effective?
N How does the introduction draw readers in?
N At what points does the author address opposing viewpoints?
N What kind of evidence does the writer choose? Is it effective?
N Does the essay qualify as a research paper? Why or why not?
N How does she build her own credibility throughout the paper?
N What additional appropriate audiences can you think of for
Melissa’s essay? (She targets theater patrons and parents.)
N Were you convinced by the argument? Why or why not?

2) In a group with two or three of your classmates, analyze Andy

Neilson’s proposal essay above, looking for specific evidence for his
claims and the strategies he’s used to relate them. Then, brainstorm
together at least three points you could develop as a counterclaim to
his argument. Your purpose is to argue against Andy’s proposal by
creating your own.

3) Find a brief newspaper article that provides information on a debatable

issue. Then, write a one- to two-page essay that fulfills the following
assignment focusing on rhetoric:
N Describe the issue (main point of the article).
N Describe the stasis—the specific point at which the people
involved disagree. See Pages 121-122 for a discussion of stasis.
N Write a conclusion that outlines the problem posed and then
proposes a way for the people involved to use language to solve it.
N Turn in a copy of the newspaper article with your essay.

4) Working in a group with two or three of your classmates, come up

with a debatable issue. Develop a specific claim regarding that issue,

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and designate a specific audience for the argument you will make.
Write down strategies you would use to argue this claim using the
Rogerian method. Then, compare and contrast those to the strategies
you would employ if you were using the Toulmin method. See Pages
123-124 for explanations of the two methods. Draw conclusions
together about which key techniques would remain the same. Share
your group’s notes with the class.

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CHAPTER 9

Alternative Literacies and Blended Genres

Picture yourself walking into a friend’s apartment and seeing a group of

people participating in a discussion. Their faces are animated, and every
speaker engages other people to add to, question, disagree with, or affirm
what he or she is saying. In fact, you can tell by observing that knowledge
is being shared, compiled, and judged. You hear laughter, raised tones,
and once in a while, a “no way!” coming from the group. You listen in for
a minute to find out what topic the group is discussing, but you remain at
the door to the room, taking time to gauge different people’s knowledge
and opinions. You’ve read a few newspaper articles about the subject and
have heard students talking about it in your college classes. You decide to
join the conversation. The group welcomes you, expanding their circle to
give you room to sit down. Within minutes, someone looks to you and
says, “So, what do you think?”

You have just become a member, even if only temporarily, of a discourse

community—a group of people who share language and communication
practices. Think of other discourse communities to which you belong.
They may include family, a close-knit group of friends, workplace
communities, student organizations, community groups, volunteer
organizations, sports teams, fraternities, sororities, and so forth. These
groups communicate using shared terms, a common knowledge base, and
sometimes shared beliefs.

Academic disciplines work much the same way. Scholars specializing in

various fields contribute their parts of an ongoing academic conversation
in several ways. They call on colleagues within their departments to read
essays they have written. They often share their research on campus with
their students in class and with their colleagues in faculty workshops.
They submit abstracts of their research to published calls for papers, and
if their work is accepted, they travel to conferences all over the world to
present conclusions from recent research or ideas generated from ongoing

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research to an audience including scholars and students. Often, the written
work presented is expanded into an article for a scholarly journal or for a
book. Similarly, you may find that a brief journal entry or short writing
assignment in one of your classes becomes a ten-page research paper a
year later. Looking for ways to incorporate ongoing interests into your
research and major can make your college experience a more rewarding
one.

While you may begin to feel that each discipline expects different work
from you, the academic community as a whole shares certain basic habits,
functions, and procedures for sharing ideas. The move toward
interdisciplinarity in recent years will benefit you as you complete various
assignments and look for meaningful connections between your courses of
study. Many academic conferences are encouraging interdisciplinary
conversations by focusing their themes for discussion on broad
educational or cultural concerns. For example, the South Central
Women’s Studies Association and the American Popular Culture
Association invite presentations by literature experts, media experts,
scientists, social workers, medical practitioners, lawyers, and many others
who can offer a disciplinary perspective on an interdisciplinary subject.
Some academic majors are housed within larger related departments, such
as sociology departments that house women’s studies programs. Think of
your own academic major. What other fields of study would benefit you
in the pursuit of your degree?

Ongoing Conversations

Peshe Kuriloff, Director of the Writing Across the Curriculum program at

the University of Pennsylvania, discusses what teachers can do to prepare
students to enter the ongoing conversations within academic fields: “We
often tell student writers to know their subjects . . . . We less frequently
tell them, however, to write for readers they know or to get to know the
readers for whom they write. Such advice will stand all writers in all
situations in good stead” (496). Often, you may feel that you are writing
for a single professor who will grade your work. Granted, your professor
is one very important reader because s/he will evaluate the writing you

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produce, the exams you take. Because this audience member—your
instructor—will be assigning a final grade at the end of the semester, you
may struggle with the temptation to disown your own learning by catering
to the topical interests and political beliefs of your instructor. Try to avoid
this tendency by choosing writing topics that interest you and/or relate to
your major or career. Then, your professor becomes your first reader, not
the only reader.

Methods for Disseminating Knowledge in Academic Fields

Because there are so many methods for sharing knowledge within

academia today, it is important to analyze how they function within
academic rhetorical situations. Following, you will find descriptions of
the ways the academic community exchanges ideas and contributes to
knowledge-making:

N Lectures
A traditional teaching method, the lecture is a compilation of notes on
a subject or body of knowledge that instructors use to inform or to
outline their class presentations. Sometimes, instructors will provide
PowerPoint lecture notes via a course Web page or a course notebook
including important lectures, but lectures are usually given orally
during class time. In the traditional model of education, students are
expected to listen to lectures, take notes, and study those notes in order
to demonstrate mastery of material on an examination. Of course,
when there is a substantial body of historical and theoretical material
to be learned in a course, lectures are the expected method of
disseminating knowledge. Some instructors post online review
questions to help students review their lecture notes and study for tests.

Tips on taking lecture notes:

Use active listening strategies not only to absorb but to think critically
about lecture material. Writing questions in the margins alongside
note sections is a strategy that promotes active listening.

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 Practice using outlining methods by writing down main ideas during
class and then giving yourself twenty minutes after the class period to
fill in details and to arrange material by numbering, underlining, or
highlighting.

N Instructor-Student Conferences
Many instructors encourage or require students to conference with
them individually during a semester. In composition courses,
instructors often encourage students to bring rough drafts to
conferences. Taking advantage of this opportunity for feedback on
your writing before it is graded can help you gauge your strengths and
weaknesses as a writer, and on a practical level, get to know what
skills your instructor looks for and expects when reading student
essays.

Tips on conferencing:
If conferencing is encouraged, visit your instructors at the beginning of
the semester, before you are stressed out and working on final projects.
Then you can minimize nervousness and practice asking your
instructor small questions before the large ones loom.

Always bring a pen along with your class notes, a rough draft, and/or
your textbook to a conference. Writing down specific questions also
helps.

N Professional Conferences
Academics often participate in and attend conferences supported by
professional organizations. Theorists, administrators, and teachers
from a specific region and sometimes from all over the world come
together usually for three to five days to listen to keynote speeches and
presentations. Students benefit when instructors apply the theories or
techniques introduced to them at conferences.

Tips on professional conferences:

As a student, you may also have an opportunity to help organize a
conference in the field of your major or to attend sessions as a student

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 participant. Attending conferences is a great opportunity to hear
presentations on cutting-edge developments in science and technology
or on subjects such as political science or history.

N Student-Scholar forums
In your second or third year of college, when you have declared a
major and are enrolling in advanced courses in that field, you may
have the opportunity to participate in a campus-sponsored conference
allowing for student panels. Other mediums for student scholarship
include student publications such as campus newspapers, literary
magazines, or online publication forums.

Tips on forums for students:

To stay in tune with publications featuring articles written by students,
read your campus newspaper, newsletters published by student
organizations to which you may belong, and online publication forums
such as poetry pages or Web sites geared toward college student
readers. Familiarizing yourself with these publication forums will
expose you to styles of writing and a variety of writing genres that
may be used in your academic field.

N Published Scholarship
Scholarly publications offer another forum in which academics
contribute to ongoing conversations in their disciplines. While some
articles describe experiments or studies, others apply new theories to
existing ideas, analyze texts, or historicize trends with a new or
interdisciplinary approach. If you’re asking yourself, “What does this
academic jargon have to do with me?,” remember that academic
research papers require scholarly sources, and the sooner you become
familiar with such sources, the less difficulty you will have in finding
them and using them to serve your own writing needs as a student.

Tips on scholarly publications:

Take thirty minutes to visit the periodicals section of your campus
library. Using the online catalog to do a subject search, type in the
subject of either your academic major or of the course in which you

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 will be expected to do research. The names of academic journals will
probably appear in the list. Write down the call number of one of
them and then go to that shelf. Gather four or five journals, sit down
and relax, and look through them.

In this thirty-minute library session, you can accomplish several

practical goals:

1) practice using online databases;

2) become familiar with academic style in scholarly journals;

3) make a mental note of some of the key questions and ideas in

the journals that publish the work of academics in your field;
and

4) enjoy a head start on future research projects.

Assumptions about Audiences

At first, you may feel alienated by the tone or level of language in some of
these academic forums. Because of their highly theoretical content and
advanced levels of diction, some journals are difficult to read even for
seasoned academics. If you give yourself stress-free opportunities to
practice reading documents written in academic style, you will be less
intimidated by using that style as a model for your own writing when
academic style is required. Whether you are just trying to fulfill degree
requirements in your humanities and social sciences courses or planning to
be a professional academic yourself one day, be patient with your learning
curve and take academic language and writing one skill at a time.

Many college graduates would agree that half the battle of succeeding in
college is maintaining an open mind when faced with academic challenges
and new experiences. You may feel the urge to resist academic style,
especially if it requires you to write using words and “rules” with which
you are unfamiliar. At first, you may feel that it is “stodgy,” “professor-

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talk,” or far removed from your home language or from the conversational
style you use at work and with fellow students on a day-to-day basis. You
may also wonder when, in your career or lifetime, it will matter. When
completing the projects in your classes, you may become frustrated, even
discouraged, feeling that membership in an academic community is
exclusionary and elitist. You may listen to lectures and read articles in
your proposed major field and think to yourself, “How am I going to enter
this community when I can’t even understand its jargon?” Is academic
discourse a form of domination, a right, or a privilege? You have to
answer that question for yourself, but as you seek to do so, consider its
uses and applications. If you maintain a positive attitude toward what may
often feel like “academic culture shock,” you will be able to gauge
opportunities for moving actively into academic discourse communities,
learning how these communities interact and what they expect of student-
scholars.

There is much to be said for demystifying “academic style” so that college

writers can transfer skills from one assignment to another. For example,
critical thinking, collaborative learning, well-organized writing, and peer
accountability are all skills that will benefit you after college. Visualize
the daily activities of a PTA member, a public relations specialist, a
broadcast journalist, an engineer, a political scientist, an online
programmer, a lawyer, a social service organization publicist, an
educational administrator. Picture an elementary school principal
enrolling in diversity training so that she can learn to be sensitive when
labeling students. Picture PTA members creating a flyer to send to parents
of all students in a district. Now, picture a day of work within your dream
career. Do any of these careers exist in a vacuum without interaction with
people, ideas, and a specific content? If you answered “no,” you are on
your way to developing an academic attitude that will help you in
communicating in a variety of forums, whether family, career, or
community-oriented.

You are attending college at a very exciting time. Only one hundred years
ago, college students were predominantly male, white, and upper class.
Today, the diversity of college student populations has brought with it new

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motivations, new personalities, new ways to approach intellectual work.
And these new approaches are slowly making their way into scholarly
journals, books, and student papers. For example, in the social sciences,
researchers have come to value alternative research methods, moving
away from a strict adherence to methods that are quantifiable (quantitative
research) and toward intellectual work that seeks to know the quality of a
subject (qualitative research). These more subjective ways of knowing
have influenced the humanities as well. Writing theorist Patricia Bizzell
argues that “. . . in many, many academic disciplines today, traditional
academic discourse must share the field with new forms of discourse that
are clearly doing serious intellectual work and are received and evaluated
as such, even as they violate man of the conventions of traditional
academic discourse (“Hybrid” 8). So what do these alternative literacies
look like on paper, and how might you use them in your college writing?

Before we discuss alternatives to academic literacy, let’s review three

basic features of academic writing: 1) a grapholect (form of language
meant to be written and read, not spoken); 2) accepted genres that bring
expectations regarding the structure of an essay, including placement of
the thesis statement; and 3) a skeptical and argumentative tone that shows
the researcher ready to enter a debate and win it. Bizzell explains that
alternative literacies go beyond the boundaries of traditional academic
literacy to include the following possible characteristics:

N an openness to subjectivity, admitting that one’s perspective and

biases influence research studies and the writing that comes from
them;
N an appreciation of common ground rather than a preference for
adversarial argument;
N a non-aggressive style that shows a preference for indirection (a
stylistic flair for making “casual critical remarks” that allow
readers to make up their own minds about an issue but reveal the
writer’s position flirtatiously rather than directly);
N an experimentation with informal language that includes cultural
references to a wide variety of cultural experiences;

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 N incorporation of personal experience narratives and/or “history
retold” narratives to add credibility and emotional appeal to the
writing; and
N other writing techniques previously considered “taboo” in
academic style, including humor, memoir, non-standard English,
and reproduction of earlier work to respect it rather than a “rising
above it” (“Hybrid” 12-16).

These alternatives, according to Patricia Bizzell and her co-editors

Christopher Schroeder and Helen Fox, enable new kinds of intellectual
work that were difficult to accomplish using traditional forms alone. As
you can see, alternative literacies allow us to blend what we bring to the
writing table, who we are and what we feel strongly about on a personal
level, with our intellectual work. What results is a new approach to the
academic attitude, one that may feel more comfortable and one that may
interest you more than traditional academic literacy.

Approaching every assignment as a rhetorical situation will help you find

out whether alternative literacies are welcomed by a professor or other
audience. You may be so accustomed to the conformity expected in most
writing assignments that you have stopped asking what alternative styles
and genres are available to you. Don’t forget the value of your home
literacies, your technological literacies, your personal experiences, and
your creative subversions of the English language. All of your different
literacies are parts of who you are. Take time to ask your instructor if they
are appropriate for a given assignment. As the definition of “text” is
broadened more and more in our technological world, you have access to
the creativity that comes along with graphic design, visual Web media,
and electronic communications. In fact, many of you already have
expertise in these mediums because you read, watch movies, learn, and
socialize in electronic environments or through electronic media.

Academic discourse, as well as the culture in which it is valued, “develops

as a response to rhetorical geography, material conditions, and relations
among people, pressures, opportunities, and necessities that both constrain
and enable” (Bilansky 223). The last twenty years have shown that the

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rhetorical terrain of academia is changing, and academic style is becoming
more interesting, more diverse. When you think of academic literacy as a
way of responding to ideas within context, you’ll see that gaining
academic literacy doesn’t mean that you have to give up your other ways
of knowing, speaking, and writing—only that you have a way to ground
your academic learning in real circumstances and concerns. Making that
step will help you see that the supposed contrast between college and the
“real world” is really very blurred, that college is a “real” world, one
where people invest time and effort into ideas and words as they respond
to environmental circumstances and socialized expectations.

Keep competing ideas in dialogue with one another so that when you enter
the ongoing conversation of your discipline, you will do so with a critical
stance using rhetorical tools for revising existing ways of knowing within
academia. The effort you put into learning these rhetorical tools will not
be wasted: “discourse communities, particularly academic discourse
communities, are not monolithic and impervious to influence by new
voices joining the conversation” (Bizzell, Academic Discourse 28). You
have rhetorical power. Enact that power through language to bring about
improvement and change.

Sample Blended Analysis

The following essay, written by a first-year college student, illustrates

academic analysis. The author, Christopher Suffron, is an avid baseball
fan and through this assignment, found a way to write about his favorite
subject and analyze at the same time. Christopher’s chosen audience is
“anyone who enjoys baseball or wonders why others do,” and his purpose
is to analyze the different types of baseball fans and explain how they
function as a sports community. Read through Christopher’s essay, noting
how he analyzes a specific group—baseball fans—in order to examine and
discuss their various motivations for watching the game.

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Following the National Pastime
By Christopher Suffron

It was around before Communism hit Russia. It is older than the

Panama Canal. It has seen two world wars and numerous United States
presidents. It has become a billion-dollar industry and has branches in
most major U.S. cities and in Canada. Now known as the national
pastime, the game of baseball attracts fans from all walks of life.
Supporting players from Babe Ruth to Mark McGwire, Americans have
been fascinated by the sport and by the men who play it. But what about
baseball makes people stop thinking about the stress of everyday life and
follow a sport over a 162-game season? Well, with millions of fans across
the nation, encompassing a wide span of ages, nationalities, and sexes, it
would not be sensible to assume that everyone interested in the national
pastime is interested for the same reason. In fact, over the years, several
different reasons for following the game have evolved.
Although no two people follow baseball for exactly the same
reason (no one person watches for only one reason either), four general
groups can be designated based on motive: excitement-seekers, dollar-
makers, number-crunchers, and people-bonders. Excitement-seekers are
those who watch baseball for the excitement of the game: the big play, the
homerun, and the strike out. Dollar-makers are the ones who follow the
sport in order to make money for themselves. Number-crunchers are those
who like to analyze each play and manipulate statistics, while people who
enjoy the baseball experience because it helps them make strong
relationships with other people will be termed people-bonders. Evidence
of each kind of spectator’s reason for following baseball can be seen in
American culture.
Possibly the most obvious motivation for following baseball is the
excitement and fun that come from watching a game and keeping up with
it for an entire season. Does that mean that this group of people has left
the greatest effect on the culture of baseball? Maybe it does or maybe it
does not. The announcer known as the “play-by-play man” is in existence
mainly for the excitement-seekers, though. Since baseball is not a
continuous-action sport like football or basketball, broadcasters employ
the play-by-play man to build drama, suspense, and excitement during the

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big plays and the other more active parts of a game. But their influence
does not stop with television; excitement-seekers are appealed to in
magazines also. In the September 9, 1999 issue of Sports Illustrated, the
two feature stories on baseball encompass a total of fourteen pages.
Included in these articles are nine pictures of players in the act of fielding,
hitting, pitching, sliding, or celebrating, with five other photographs also
in the text (Verducci 56-58; 60; 61; Rushin 72-76; 78; 80; 82; 84). Such
images are used to draw a reader in who may not read an article without
pictures for fear of boredom.
The trading card industry has adjusted to fit the wants and desires
of the excitement-seekers too. Three semi-random 1994 baseball cards
selected from a limited supply includes a Topps Stadium Club card of
David Justice, a Tombstone Super-Pro Series card of Cecil Fielder, and a
Topps card of Tim Hulett from their regular series. All three front
photographs are action pictures, and the border of each is flashy and eye-
catching with bright and contrasting colors. Each has a picture of a player
on the back of the card as well, two of which—the Hulett and Justice
cards—are action shots. The cards also have a glossy finish that makes
them feel as if they were laminated to maintain the card’s appearance.
Such characteristics make the cards more exciting to view. However, out
of a selection of three semi-random cards from two card brands published
in 1989, not a single action photograph is included. They do not have a
smooth feel, nor is there a photograph on any of the backs (Hernandez,
Sutter, White). This change in design may cause one to think that the
excitement-seekers are given priority attention in the trading card industry.
However, before jumping to such a conclusion, one must look more
closely at the other categories of baseball fans.
Another prominent sub-group of baseball fans are those who
follow baseball in order to earn money—the dollar-makers. The people
who collect baseball cards for the eventual dollar value that the cards will
develop fall into this sub-group. Most magazine racks in the country will
contain some sort of magazine that lists the value of every baseball card
ever made. For example, in the December 1999 issue of the magazine
Tuff Stuff, there are thirty-four consecutive pages of listings of certain
cards and their corresponding value. Each page features seven columns of
listings and a small font (110-143). The few articles in the magazine, such

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as the one about Joe DiMaggio, always bring the reader back to the subject
of money (“Joe” 35). Such magazines allow collectors to know exactly
how much their cards are worth. In turn, collectors are able to make
intelligent decisions about which cards to sell, which ones to keep for a
higher profit in the future, and which not to give much attention. When I
was growing up, just about every kid I knew collected baseball cards
purely for the chance to make some money. Therefore, the trading card
industry also gives evidence to the existence of dollar-makers.
The money motivation can also be seen in those who participate in
fantasy baseball leagues widely spread across the country. In these
leagues, each participant drafts players to be on his team. Based on how
those players produce during the season, the fantasy teams build points,
producing a winner at the completion of the season. Each week in
Baseball Weekly, the editor of the magazine includes an article about
which players in baseball would be better for a fantasy general manager
and which players the people should stay away from (32). A show also
aired on the FOX Sports cable channel in which two or three analysts told
people the players that would be the most economical and would yield the
biggest product. The information provided to the fantasy leaguers allows
the managers to decide who should be drafted and what trades should be
made. The effort made by companies to help the fantasy league
participants with their hobby shows that this group of baseball followers is
growing.
The third major group of baseball fans, the number-crunchers, are
those who enjoy the sport on an analytical level. For this class of baseball
lovers, the broadcasters hire an announcer known as the “color man” to
work with the play-by-play man during televised games. The job of the
color man is to provide insights, strategies, and statistics during the game.
Through his words, viewers are able to manage the team themselves and
second-guess the manager. Magazines also acknowledge the analytical
fans by providing articles that analyze and give advice to teams and
managers as well as statistics. Baseball Weekly, for example, provides
complete seasonal and weekly statistics for every active major league
player throughout the season (33-39) and publishes a box score (player-
by-player statistics for a single game) for each game during the previous
week (40-41). The trading card industry provides for the desires of the

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number-crunchers, too. On the back of most cards is a listing of the
featured player’s statistics, whether for his whole career or for just a few
years. With information on how players are doing and how they have
performed in the past, the number-crunchers are able to create their own
trades and line-ups as well as predict which teams will win the division.
Such activities are what the number-crunchers love.
The final group of baseball fans includes those who enjoy the
game because it creates close relationships with other baseball fans. One
example of such a relationship is the bond made among the members of a
team. As a Little League team or a small-town softball team plays a
season, the members of the team—along with parents and friends who are
loyal fans—go through both excitement and disappointment. Teammates
begin to trust and count on one another. The movie, The Sandlot, provides
an excellent example of a group of kids that develop this kind of
relationship. In the film, one of the kids hits his stepfather’s autographed
baseball over a fence and into a yard where what is thought to be a
monstrous and ferocious dog known as “the beast” lives. Instead of
leaving the young boy to his own troubles, his teammates rally behind
him, and, in their minds, put their lives on the line to help their friend get
out of “the biggest pickle” he had ever gotten into. Another example of a
relationship that is solidified through the game of baseball is the one
between a father and a son. I have heard several sons say that the one
comfortable conversation they can count on with their fathers is one about
the game of baseball. One television commercial for Mastercard portrays
a father and son going to a baseball game. The father buys his son a
baseball, a hot dog, and some other items while the commercial’s narrator
tells the television audience the cost of each item in a calm, reminiscent
tone of voice. The entire commercial has a peaceful and happy air to it.
At the end of the commercial, the narrator states that “real conversation”
between father and son is “priceless.” Does this mean that people who
enjoy baseball for the relationships it helps them build can only build
relationships using baseball? Probably not; it just means that the sport is a
tool that is used as a similarity among people. It can be used as a
conversation-starter between family members or in an arena in which
friends bond through their love of a sport.

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 With baseball heading into its third century, it is important that its
followers stay with the game. Baseball must not isolate or neglect any of
the four sub-groups of fans because, individually, none of the groups can
exist. Dollar-makers must rely on number-crunchers to set up the fantasy
leagues and to keep the baseball trading card industry alive. People-
bonders must rely on all of the other sub-groups to bring more fans into
the sport in order to build relationships. As each group’s interests and
motivations coincide with those of other groups, the game of baseball will
flourish in the twenty-first century just as it has in the twentieth.

Works Cited

Baseball Weekly. 20-26 Oct. 1999: 32-41.

Fielder, Cecil. Baseball Card. Tombstone Super-Pro Series: Score, 1994.
Hernandez, Keith. Baseball Card. Donruss, 1989.
Hullet, Tim. Baseball Card. Topps, 1994.
“Joltin’ Joe.” Tuff Stuff Dec. 1999: 35.
Justice, David. Baseball Card. Stadium Club: Topps, 1994.
Mastercard. Advertisement. NBC 23 Oct. 1999.
Rushin, Steve. “Motley Crew.” Sports Illustrated 6 Sept. 1999: 72-76; 78;
80; 82; 84.
Sutter, Bruce. Baseball Card. Topps, 1989.
The Sandlot. Dir. David Mickey Evans. Twentieth Century Fox, 1993.
Tuff Stuff Dec. 1999: 110-43.
Verducci, Tom. “Glove Affair.” Sports Illustrated 6 Sept. 1999: 56-58; 60;
61.
White, Frank. Baseball Card. Topps, 1989.

Sample Media Analysis Assignment

The following essay written by a first-year college student is an example

of academic writing that takes as its subject of analysis a cultural
phenomenon. Diana Lucia, who goes by “Chia,” chose to focus her media
analysis paper on sources within pop culture—specifically the Internet and
popular women’s magazines. Chia chose as her audience her female
classmates, women considering breast enhancement surgery, and

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American women in general. In this essay, Chia describes, explores
causes and consequences, and analyzes a practice within America’s
“cosmetic culture” in order to support her own argument against breast
implants and the media messages regarding them. Notice how she blends
pop culture and academic culture, personal experience and research on
other women, informal language and formal language, humor and
seriousness in this essay.

Implanting Unhealthy Ideals: America Busted

By Diana Lucia Allag

What do Baywatch, Friends, WWF Wrestling, and Victoria’s

Secret have in common? Yes, the answer is breasts! It seems every
channel or page one turns is decorated with large, round breasts. Of
course, many of these breasts are not one of nature’s gifts, but sacks of
silicon or saline inserted into chests nationwide for five to six thousand
dollars. The growing number of extra-large boobs presented to the public
through media and advertisements really take away from the seriousness
of the surgery. For example, look at Pamela Anderson: one day she’s a
buxom blonde in Barbed Wire, and the next image we see of her, she is
sporting moderately sized breasts. It’s as if she has some kind of pump
inside her chest: they’re big, they’re normal; they’re big; they’re normal.
The presence of fake breasts is everywhere. Among other magazines,
Cosmopolitan is almost always adorned with a beautiful woman with hefty
cleavage. What does this message say to American women?: “You must
have large breasts to be attractive! It’s okay to overlook the dangers of
breast enhancement! Write that check and tough out the pain!” American
society influences women to undergo breast enhancement, often
neglecting the procedure’s dangers by overemphasizing the importance of
appearance.
What exactly is breast augmentation? It is a surgery
Typically performed to enlarge small breasts,
underdeveloped breasts, or breasts that have decreased in
size after a woman has had children. It is accomplished by
surgically inserting an implant behind each breast. An
incision is made either under the breast, around the areola

160
 (the pink skin surrounding the nipple), [near the navel], or
in the armpit. A pocket is created for the implant either
behind the breast tissue or behind the muscle between the
breast and the chest wall. (“Glossary of Aesthetic Plastic
Surgery Terms”)

According to statistics gathered by the American Society for Aesthetic

Plastic Surgery, in 1998, there were nearly 2.8 million cosmetic surgical
and nonsurgical procedures performed by physicians. Of this number,
126,934 procedures were breast augmentations, up 25 percent from 1997.
A 25-percent increase in two years represents a rather astonishing climb in
popularity of this procedure. It seems unfortunate that so many women
are willing to compromise their health and safety in order to possess large
breasts.
So what’s the “big deal”? What has caused this surge in breast
enhancement? A large number of celebrities on popular television shows
have large breasts, and billboards, magazines, and catalogs often display
women with large breasts or simply pictures of the large breasts
themselves. Dr. Diane Zuckerman, a psychologist and board member of
the National Women’s Health Network, says, “In many cases, . . . they
reflect an urge to conform to an image of sexiness defined by magazines
and lingerie catalogs full of beautiful models with implants” (qtd. in Grady
2). On the other hand, Dr. Roxane Guy, a plastic surgeon in Melbourne,
Florida, feels that for some women, breast implants—like tattoos or
pierced eyebrows—send out a personal statement. Guy comments,
“Women are more empowered, bold, more unabashed and free about their
bodies” (qtd. in Grady 2). Albeit, many women are unashamed and open
about their body image, but having a serious and expensive surgery that
can alter one’s physical appearance and have dangerous ramifications is a
bit different than getting a nose ring. Breast augmentation alters a
person’s image: “[I]t must be understood that plastic surgery can change
social perceptions of appearance and that . . . patients
. . . often have expectations for how other people will respond to the
surgical change” (qtd. in Thompson 114). To undergo breast enhancement,
a woman must want to be viewed by others in a new light; whether she
wants men to stare or women to glare, the sudden appearance of larger

161
breasts will encourage more attention. This mass desire for bust-directed
attention could stem from feelings of inadequacy partially due to the
presence of large, plastic-breasted role models.
While the media is busy producing images of the “perfect woman”
with large breasts, adolescents and teens are busy receiving those
messages. When teens see their parents going under the knife for a lift or
tuck and having chemical peels to look younger and better, why shouldn’t
they be able to do the same? Of course, teens tend to be melodramatic,
“[s]tanding in front of the full-length mirror, the girl fights back tears. Her
thighs are too big, her breasts too small and her nose bumpy. Or so this
sixteen-year-old thinks, comparing herself with “Baywatch” babes and
Victoria’s Secret models”(Gross 1). Unfortunately, most young girls are
not being melodramatic when they experience similar emotions. They are
simply feeling the burden of the unrealistic goals American society has set
for them. In addition to facing the strife and anxiety that accompany the
transition from adolescence to womanhood, teenage girls are expected to
uphold ideal body images reinforced by media images. They not only feel
obligated to behave in characteristically feminine ways, but look the part
too, even though the ideal “part” is set by people with plastic gloves and
scalpels. In 1992, among teenagers, there were 978 breast implants, and in
just four years, that number rose to 1,172 (Gross 2). This increase in breast
enhancement procedures among teens shows the extreme pressure girls
experience to fit an imposed body image.
When the majority of women people see in the media are large-
breasted, men come to hold that as the ideal body, and women feel
pressured to uphold that ideal even if that means undergoing surgery.
From the time Americans are children, they are bombarded with images of
women with large breasts, e.g., Barbie. With the prolonged exposure to
man-created busty icons, it is no wonder women feel the need for breast
enhancement. Thus, it is not surprising 59 percent of women say they
approve of cosmetic surgery, while 53 percent of men share their views
(The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery). Society has set a
standard, and the pressure is on to fit into its busty mold.
I myself am an eighteen-year-old woman who happily wears an A
cup. However, recently a young man I was involved with urged me to
undergo breast enhancement surgery. “Boob jobs” came up in a

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conversation, and he remarked, “Yeah, you ever thought about that?
You’d look really good with a big B or C.” Shocked, I had to think for a
second before responding. I laughed it off at the time, but later, when I
was alone, his suggestion brought up feelings of inadequacy and
undesirability in my mind. The fact that he is a medical doctor makes his
comment even more poignant. If a person’s profession is to take care of
and to heal the human body and he is still hung up on the “perfect female
body image,” what must the typical man think? After reasoning with
myself, I decided I am attractive without putting foreign objects in my
chest and endangering my health. Just when I stopped judging my body
by Victoria’s Secret models’ standards, a man in my life made sure to
remind me of implicit cultural standards.
The message that large breasts are “in” is everywhere. After
typing in the key words “breast enhancement” on the Internet search
engine Alta Vista, I was presented 2,832 different Web sites. The fact that
there are so many sites relating to this topic only displays how high the
interest in the procedure must be. In one issue of Cosmopolitan magazine
alone, I found three advertisements for breast enhancement products and
two for actual surgery. Among the products were Shape-Up Silicone
Enhancers, which are pads made of silicone-like material. The
advertisement states, “They Feel, Look and Bounce like real Breasts”
(Beauty Systems 297). Another product advertised was called Breast
Enhancer, which is, “For Women Who Have Always Dreamed About . . .
TERRIFIC BREASTS!” (Willows Nutrition Center 299). From the vague
and wordy description of the product, it seems to be some kind of
supplement made of “standardized herbal extracts, herbs and glandular
ingredients” (299). Another product described is the Wonderbra. The ad
for this item features a full two-page layout with a busty model and the
statement “instant upgrade” (52-53). This ad seems to send the following
message to women: “Boobs will put you in the metaphorical first class of
America.”
In addition to the products advertised, actual breast enhancement
surgeries were also promoted. The first ad shows a young woman smiling.
The picture doesn’t even show her breasts, yet features a small picture of a
bare-chested woman with her arms crossed over her breasts as if she is
hugging herself mixed in with the ad’s text. The words read, “Amber’s

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Choice.” The ad is similar to a dating service statement, with the words
“Proudest Achievement: Buying a Condo” (Mentor 193). It is also
interesting that Amber’s “Pet Peeve: [is] ‘people who pressure you into
doing things.’” That pet peeve is a good choice since constant media
pressure—compounded by certain men’s opinions—often make women
feel pressured into breast augmentation surgery. The other ad targets its
audience with a psychological approach. It is for “Perfectly Natural
ANATOMICAL BREAST IMPLANTS.” This ad shows only half of a
woman’s face, but her torso is propped on her elbows and clad in only a
pink lacy bra. The picture has the words “Beauty, Elegance, and
Sensuality” written in cursive around the woman’s figure (Mcghan 187).
The prevalence of these advertisements attests to the pressure America
puts on women to undergo breast enhancement. The advertising strategies
which could appeal to various types of women are doubly powerful. They
say breast implants are right for healthy, successful young women and that
they are helpful to women who want to be sensual or beautiful. All of this
rhetoric could start to make a woman without a C cup feel inadequate.
Still, while the media is busy telling American women to be
beautiful and how, what don’t they mention about implants? In 1992,
silicone implants were banned because of all the dangerous side effects
patients experienced. However, the silicone gel was replaced with saline,
which most women assume to be safe. Nevertheless, the covering of
saline implants is made of a rubbery form of solid silicone. After all the
pain and suffering women have endured in the past, it seems ludicrous for
anyone to go through with breast augmentation surgery:
Lawsuits have tried to link the silicone implants to
autoimmune illness like lupus and scleroderma, but those
links are still being debated because of absence of
conclusive evidence. Some women take that as a
reassurance that implants are safe. The recent $3.2
billion settlement between the Dow Corning Corporation,
a joint venture of the Dow Chemical Company and
Corning, Inc., and 170,000 women who claim to have
been injured by implants did not resolve the question of
whether silicone can cause systematic illness. (Grady 2)

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After 170,000 women sacrificed their health for beauty, science ruled
silicone is not a good filler for implants. And saline seems to be safe,
right? Wrong: with saline implants, women run the risk of “infection and
complications of anesthesia . . . as with any surgery. Painful scar tissue
can harden the breasts, and the implants can rupture, go flat and need
replacing. They can also interfere with mammography” (Grady 2). While
women are being bombarded with images of busty celebrities, they should
also think about the not-so-wonderful possibilities: loss of sensation in
their breasts, problems with breastfeeding, and costs of maintenance.
Even if surgery is successful and there are no major complications
with the implants, there are several displeasing effects of breast
augmentation the public does not regularly hear about. In a recent New
York Times article, Ms. Voog, a woman who underwent breast
enhancement, describes some unexpected results from her surgery, such as
being “in such severe pain that moving her arms became difficult, and her
boyfriend had to take care of her” (Grady 3). Worse yet, “scattered spots
on other parts of her breasts are a bit numb. And her breasts do not feel
the way she had expected they would.” Ms. Voog comments, “I’m self-
conscious when I hug anybody” (3). Still, the most ironic effect is that
after all the time, money, and pain sacrificed in the quest for “perfect”
breasts, “her nipples are not centered” (3). Perhaps the price women pay
for feeling more confident about their body image costs more physically
and psychologically than they realize.
While some feel women should not conform to fit into society’s
mold, and others feel the risks women take in order to have large breasts
are worthwhile, the fact remains that images and attitudes in American
society pressure women to have their breasts enlarged. Unfortunately, TV
and magazines are busy flaunting busty models and often neglect to
mention the dangers and problems that coincide with breast implants.
Instead of paying for plastic to be inserted into their bodies to fit society’s
images, women should remember healthfulness is attractive and beauty
appears in a variety of natural forms.

165
 Works Cited

The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery.

Wysiwyg://index.main.14/http:
//sur…g/media/statistics.1998_gender.html (29 November 1999)
Beauty Systems. ShapeUp Silicone Enhancers. Advertisement.
Cosmopolitan Nov. 1999: 297.
“Glossary of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery Terms.”
Wysiwyg:index.main.146/http:
//sur…media/journalistguide/glossary.html (29 November 1999)
Grady, Denise. “Cosmetic Breast Enlargements are Making a Comeback.”
The New York Times. Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe 29 Nov.
1998.
http:/web.lexis-nexis.com/universe…b3ab0a612520adeb147&
taggedDocs= (29 November 1999)
Gross, Jane. “In Quest for the Perfect Look, More Girls Choose the
Scalpel.” The New York Times. Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe.
21 July 1998.
http:/web.lexis-nexis.com/universe…e3664ce4c7da5ef07b8la4c&
taggedDocs= (29 November 1999)
Mcgahn Medical. Perfectly Natural Anatomical Breast Implants.
Cosmopolitan Nov. 1999: 299.
Mentor. Amber’s Choice. Advertisement. Cosmopolitan Nov. 1999: 173.
Willows Nutrition Center. Breast Enhancer. Advertisement. Cosmopolitan
Nov. 1999: 299.
Wonderbra. Advertisement. Cosmopolitan. Nov. 1999: 52-53.
Thompson, Kevin, ed. Body Image, Eating Disorders, and Obesity.
Washington: APA, 1996.

Sample Blended Analysis (Literary and Rhetorical)

The following rhetorical analysis was written by Jamie Jones, who is

majoring in both biology and English. In a literature course called “The
Victorian Period,” Jamie’s professor asked the class to write a rhetorical
analysis of a text “as a cultural artifact.” So, while the topic of the paper is
literature, the approach to the intellectual work is rhetorical. The

166
assignment required that Jamie analyze a famous literary text rhetorically
and consider how its author's life, the historical period in which it was
written, its contemporary readers, and other factors from the rhetorical
situation influenced the way it was written. Jamie chose as her subject
John Stuart Mill’s famous work On the Subjection of Women. As you read
this essay based on a nontraditional assignment, notice how the writer
blends biography, summary, analysis, and argument to discuss the various
rhetorical dimensions of a nineteenth-century treatise written by a man but
about women.

Rhetorical Analysis of J. S. Mill’s On the Subjection of Women

By Jamie Jones

For a man to write a logical, deliberate, carefully constructed essay

that argued for the rights of women was considered utterly absurd by most
of Victorian England, yet this is exactly what John Stuart Mill did in 1861.
His On the Subjection of Women, decidedly the most controversial of his
writings, at once gained him loyal followers and the strongest of enemies
(Packe 495). As such an important text in the progression of women, its
creation warrants thorough study. On finds upon doing such an
investigation that not only the author’s beliefs, but those of his father, his
friend and subsequent wife, Harriet Taylor, and of preceding social
thinkers led to development of the essay. Perhaps even more importantly,
historical and societal factors provided an environment ripe for change.
The convergence of all of these influences on Mill resulted in the work
Michael St. John Packe calls “his supreme contribution to practical
philosophy” (420).
On the Subjection of Women can be described as both a treatise on
and an analysis of the condition of women in nineteenth-century England.
In it, Mill advances the claim that the female state is, in fact, unnatural and
that the betterment of women will result in the betterment of society.
Adherents to what may be termed an early feminist movement, in both
England and America, often cited Mill in advocating their causes (Abrams
and Greenblatt 1155). Consequently, it played an unprecedented role in
the evolution of social, educational, and political rights for the subjected
sex well into the twentieth century (Packe 501).

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 A look at the early influences on John Stuart Mill helps provide
insight as to what inspired his then-unpopular philosophy on the opposite
sex. As a boy, Mill received most of his education from his father, the
learned and widely respected James Mill. This tutoring included a variety
of subjects, from Greek and Latin to arithmetic, as well as conversations
concerning “civilization, society, government, morality, [and] mental
cultivation” (Stillinger 40). The young pupil also read voraciously,
especially preferring histories and writings on experimental science. He
attributed to his later studies of logic and analytics “whatever capacity of
thinking I have attained,” as well as his skill in formulating or dissecting
arguments (Stillinger 47). Additionally, the Utilitarian beliefs of his father
and friend Jeremy Bentham contributed much to his moral and intellectual
makeup (Abrams and Greenblatt 1138). While these factors did much to
influence the style Mill would later employ in his writing, the inspiration
for the subject matter in Women lay elsewhere.
The “Woman Question,” as it came to be known during Victorian
times, constituted one of the most pressing and debated issues of the day
(Abrams and Greenblatt 1055). When On the Subjection of Women was
written, the Married Women’s Property Acts had not yet been passed, and
women did not enjoy the right to vote, hold political office, or obtain the
same education as men. Some progress had begun to take hold regarding
the marriage rights of women, however, as evidenced by the Custody Act
of 1839 (Abrams and Greenblatt 1055). Despite these small gains,
women, for the most part, remained the property of their husbands, or if
unmarried, were seen as lower class. Aina Rubenius describes this status
as she states, “‘woman’s mission’ was to be a wife and mother, her sphere
was the home. And as a wife her existence as an independent individual
was simply not recognized in English law” (2). The perception of the
female’s constrained state as natural, of an inherent difference between the
two sexes, would be given highest priority in Mill’s work.
Though the plight of women in general was of interest to Mill, one
woman in particular did much to inspire and provide insight for the
famous essay. Harriet Taylor was Mill’s friend for many years and
became his wife after the death of her husband in 1852 (Hayek 169). She
concerned herself with many of the same social and political issues,
particularly those regarding women. She wrote her own essays over many

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topics and Mill himself acknowledges her hand in many of his. He
attributes to her everything from “‘minuter matters of composition’” to his
taking, at times “‘wholly an exposition of her thoughts, often in words
taken from her lips’” (Hayek 117). On the Subjection of Women, it is
commonly thought, arose out of Taylor’s essay entitled “The
Enfranchisement of Women” (Packe 370).
Mill should not, however, be viewed as merely the name attached
to Taylor’s thoughts. Evidence that he truly believed in what he wrote
may be found in the brief essays the two wrote privately, and then
exchanged, concerning the institution of marriage (Packe 137-38). Before
wedding, he also drew up a contract which included a “formal promise
never to claim any of the rights that the law of marriage would confer
upon him” (Hayek 168). His ideas derived from reading other thinkers
who advocated equality for women, such as Bentham, Comte, and Fourier
(Stillinger 187). Above all, though, he was influenced by seeing his love,
Harriet, “shut out by the social disabilities of women from any adequate
exercise of her highest faculties in action on the world without” (Stillinger
152).
The text itself is very much a product of the time during which it
was produced, for each of the preceding influences are apparent within the
essay. In a very methodical and scientific manner, Mill examines the
reasons women are considered naturally different from men and the
resulting consequences of such a perspective. His vehicle of discussion
appears almost Socratic, as he repeatedly leads the reader through series of
questions or proofs culminating in radical conclusions. These
conclusions, however, are inevitable, given the preceding premises the
reader has acknowledged as true. This style, as noted earlier, may be seen
as derivative of his early education in logic. Mill in fact mentions the
great admiration he held for Socrates’ tactics in his Autobiography, saying,
“it [dialectic] became part of my own mind” (Stillinger 48).
Use of the Socratic method also suggests an awareness of his
audience. As the speaker in his writing, Mill sought to reach an educated
audience, one that could be persuaded through the employment of sound
argument (Mill 1156, 1159). The chosen form reflects not only his own
reliance on the sciences over religion, but the growing tendency for
society to do the same. In constructing his argument, Mill compares the

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subordination of women to slavery, the feudal system, and other outdated
social systems (Mill 1156-65). Interestingly, he seems to project an
objective view, sounding as if he and his audience are looking at the
society rather than living within it.
Certain limiting factors also contributed to the final product of
Women. Most obviously, Mill wrote the essay in 1861 but did not publish
it until 1869 (Packe 420, 494). His status as a Member of Parliament
seemed to be the reason for the delay, though Packe claims it was due to
his “awaiting the kindling moment” (494). It did take the perfect scenario
to induce Mill to publish, finally doing so after he had already introduced
the “question of a woman’s right to vote…for the first time in modern
history in the legislative assembly of a civilized country” (Packe 492).
His work also found footing in that the suffrage movement was gaining
ground in America, holding conventions in three states (Hayek 166). One
may find another constraint posed to Mill in the very public opinion he
endeavored to change. He had to keep the tone of his message controlled
so as not to alienate the very people needed to embrace his ideas.
Mill did not seek to see the fruits of his labor in his own time, but
merely to pose hard questions and force people to debate them. The ideas
he advocated arose in him through the influence of many people and
events, including his father, other writers and thinkers, Harriet Taylor, and
the social conditions of the Victorian period. On the Subjection of
Women, in particular, was born amidst a growing sense of dissatisfaction
with the condition of women. It subsequently became the most
controversial of any text he published. As time passed, however, his work
found its audience, and that audience its platform, and finally, results.

Works Cited

Abrams, M. H., and Stephen Greenblatt, eds. The Norton Anthology of

English Literature. 7th ed. Vol. 2B. The Victorian Age. New
York: Norton, 2003.
Hayek, F. A. John Stuart Mill and Harriet Taylor: Their Correspondence
and Subsequent Marriage. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1951.
Mill, J. S. On the Subjection of Women. Abrams and Greenblatt 1156-65.

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Packe, Michael St. John. The Life of John Stuart Mill. New York:
Macmillan, 1954.
Rubenius, Aina. The Woman Question in Mrs. Gaskell’s Life and Works.
Ed. S. B. Liljegren. Essays and Studies on English Language and
Literature, No. 5. New York: Russell & Russell, 1950.
Stillinger, Jack, ed. The Early Draft of John Stuart Mill’s Autobiography.
Urbana: University of Illinois, 1961.

Sample Combination of Genres

(Letter + Report + Proposal)

The following paper represents a combination of genres used to reach a

real audience regarding a real issue in which people have something real at
stake. The author, Carla Fortune, currently works full-time as a
paraprofessional in a public school and attends university classes in a
weekend and evening program for transfer students who want to complete
their bachelor’s degrees. Upon graduation, Carla would like to apply to
become a teacher in the school district where she now works, but the
district has a strict policy against hiring teachers who are not traditionally
certified by the state and within a university education department. Carla
decided to combine a professional cover letter, a report, and a proposal to
create a three-part document that could possibly influence her school
district to change its hiring policy. This project was written for an
advanced composition course, but most importantly, it was written with a
real writing purpose in mind. Notice also that much of Carla’s research
was conducted locally in person, which adds credibility to her personal
appeal to the superintendent even as she argues on behalf of others like
her. Blending genres allowed Carla to satisfy an academic assignment and
produce a document that could influence her own future at the same time.

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 PROPOSAL FOR HIRING
ALTERNATIVELY CERTIFIED TEACHERS
IN THE MANSFIELD INDEPENDENT
SCHOOL DISTRICT

Presented to the
Superintendent of Mansfield ISD

Prepared by
Carla Fortune
Paraprofessional
Charlotte Anderson Elementary

December 15, 2003

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER LETTER……………………………………………………3
INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………...4
Mansfield ISD’s Hiring Policy………………………………………4
Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………5
Scope of the Study…………………………………………………...5
Sources and Methods………………………………………………...5
RESULTS OF THE STUDY………………………………………...6
Effectiveness of Alternative Certification Programs
in Other Districts……………………………………………..6
Views of Alternative Certification
Among MISD Administrators………………………………..6
PROPOSAL………………………………………….……………….8
Discussion of the Problem……………………………………………8
Proposed Solution.....…………………………………………………9
Feasibility of Implementing Solution………………………………...9
Plan of Action………………………………………………………...9

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1 Comparison of Alternatively Certified Teachers
to Traditionally Certified Teachers...............................7

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5723 Red Cactus Court
Arlington, TX 76017
December 5, 2003

Mr. Vernon Newsom

Superintendent Mansfield ISD
605 East Broad Street
Mansfield, TX 76063

Dear Mr. Newsom:

As an employee of your school district, I am concerned about the district’s

refusal to hire teachers who are alternately certified. In response, I have
gathered research on the effectiveness of alternatively certified teachers
and composed a report of my findings. The study included exploring both
primary and secondary sources. The primary source focuses on a survey
of Mansfield ISD principals.

I understand the district’s interest in hiring only teachers who are highly
qualified by state regulations; in fact I agree that individuals without prior
experience in education are not as prepared to manage a classroom as
traditionally certified first year teachers. However, paraprofessionals who
obtain alternative certification are, in some ways, more qualified than
traditionally certified teachers in their first year because they are already
skilled in classroom management and have more realistic expectations of
their students. Paraprofessionals who become certified through an
alternative route become just as effective as traditionally certified teachers.
Additionally, paraprofessionals who currently work for MISD have
established loyalty to the district and have proven their commitment to the
children of Mansfield. Therefore, the refusal to hire these
paraprofessionals for teaching positions robs the district of valuable
employees.

Sadly, the district is losing many paraprofessionals with valuable

classroom experience due to the decision to hire only traditionally certified
teachers. Charlotte Anderson Elementary has lost two such individuals in

174
the past two years and will lose two more this year. I recommend that the
district consider hiring alternatively certified individuals with previous
classroom experience.

I am grateful to the principals in the district who took time out of their
busy schedules to answer my survey. The efforts of these individuals
greatly contributed to the success of this project.

Mr. Newsom, please contact me at (817) 472-3200 if I may provide

additional information or answer any questions you may have.

Sincerely,

Carla Fortune

175
 A PROPOSAL FOR HIRING
ALTERNATIVELY CERTIFIED TEACHERS IN
THE MANSFIELD INDEPENDENT
SCHOOL DISTRICT

INTRODUCTION

Since the early 1980’s, alternative certification programs have been

designed to overcome the problems of teacher shortages and the poor
academic quality of individuals entering the teaching field (Newman and
Thomas, 1999). Currently, 75 percent of the Educational Service Centers
in Texas offer Alternative Certification Programs (ACP). According to a
testimony by Dr. C. Emily Feistritzer concerning teacher quality and
alternative certifications programs in 1999, Texas is one of three states
that offer an exemplary ACP. An effective ACP is one that includes:

N Strong base of academic coursework;

N Field-based programs;
N Candidates learning from an experienced mentor teacher;
N Candidates go through certification in cohorts;
N Programs work with state departments of education,
universities, and school districts. (Feistritzer, 1999)

The ACP offered by Region 11 meets these standards. Therefore, those

who become certified through this program should grow to be effective
teachers.

Mansfield ISD’s Hiring Policy

Due to the exemplary nature of the education offered by Mansfield ISD,
the district is overwhelmed each year with certified teachers seeking
employment. Because the district easily obtains certified teachers,
individuals wishing to obtain certification through an ACP are
discouraged from applying.

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 Purposes of this Study
The purposes of this study are to (1) examine the effectiveness of
alternatively certified teachers, (2) increase the district’s awareness of
current employees who are working toward alternative certification, and
(3) recommend changes to the hiring policy. This report was compiled out
of the concerns of paraprofessionals within the district who are seeking
post-alternative certification employment in Mansfield.

Scope of the Study

This study investigates the attitudes of MISD principals toward
alternatively certified teachers, their willingness to hire such teachers, and
the benefits of bringing these teachers into the classroom. The study
focuses on paraprofessionals who plan to enter teaching through an ACP.

Sources and Methods

Current education periodicals were consulted to see how alternative
certification programs correspond with the “No Child Left Behind” Act of
2001 and to learn what other researchers have found in studying the
effectiveness of alternatively certified teachers. In addition, a
questionnaire survey (shown in the appendix) of MISD principals was
conducted to ascertain their attitudes toward alternative teacher
preparation. In all, a convenience sample of four administrators responded
to this self-administered survey. Furthermore, an interview was conducted
with an alternatively certified teacher to assess the anticipated challenges
of ACP graduates.

RESULTS OF THE STUDY

The results of this study will be presented in two categories: effectiveness
of alternative certification programs in other districts and findings of the
research conducted within MISD.

Effectiveness of Alternative Certification Programs in Other Districts

A significant amount of research has been conducted to determine whether
or not Alternative Certification Programs produce effective teachers.
Although more intense research has been done in recent years on this
topic, the research has been unable to clearly demonstrate the

177
effectiveness of the programs (Legler). However, many research reports
have concluded that there is little or no difference in student performance
between traditionally certified teachers and alternatively certified teachers.

An extensive report was presented to the Delaware Department of

Education in April of 2001 concerning Alternative Routes to Certification
(ARTC) (Hughes and Sianjina, 2001). Their findings indicate that of the
120 participants of the state’s ARTC program, 94 percent are performing
as well or better than other first-year teachers. This study also avows that
“almost all supervisors (89 percent) reported that their ARTC teachers
were performing as well as or better than their peers, and half (48 percent)
were rated better” (Hughes and Sianjina, 2001).

Several reports suggest that candidates with prior experience working with
children, such as paraprofessionals and substitute teachers, are more likely
to become effective teachers through an ACP than candidates without
prior experience.

Views of Alternative Certification Among MISD Campus

Administrators
According to the survey, MISD principals are not opposed to hiring
alternatively certified teachers. In fact, administrators indicate that 100
percent of the alternatively certified teachers on their campuses are
effective teachers. While most principals state that alternative certification
teachers struggle in their first year, they indicate that paraprofessionals
have a much better chance to develop into effective teachers. Because the
majority of teachers, whether they are traditionally certified or not,
struggle through their first year, the effectiveness of alternatively certified
teachers with paraprofessional experience is similar to that of traditionally
certified first-year teachers. The study of the surveys indicates that 66
percent of the respondents would be likely to hire someone from an ACP,
based on their previous experiences with alternatively certified teachers.
The surveys suggest that only 33 percent would be more likely to hire a
traditionally certified teacher.

178
 Figure 1
Comparison of Alternatively Certified
Teachers to Traditionally Certified
Teachers

Much Better Som ew hat Better About the Sam e

Som ew hat Poorer Much Poorer

While some administrators feel that alternatively certified teachers are

somewhat poorer than traditionally certified teachers, the majority of those
surveyed indicated that an ACP produces teachers that are about the same
as those who are traditionally certified.

PROPOSAL

Discussion of the Problem: The district is losing paraprofessionals to

ACPs
Due to the current hiring policy, Mansfield ISD loses valuable employees
each year who become alternatively certified. These paraprofessionals,
for whom the easiest route into teaching is an ACP, are forced to leave the
district to seek employment elsewhere.

Many paraprofessionals who leave the district for this reason plan to come
back to Mansfield ISD after they gain full certification. These individuals
are committed to the district and wish to contribute to the superior
academic environment that exists in the Mansfield ISD. Many of these
paraprofessionals have over five years of classroom experience and have

179
proven their excellence in a Mansfield school; however, the district does
not want to employ these people because they are one year away from
having proper credentials. MISD risks losing these educators forever once
they go to another district.

The chief objection to alternative certification is that its educators are

unprepared for the classroom experience. However, before an ACP
participant begins teaching, he or she must pass the ExCET exam, which
proves the individual’s competency in the grade level. Furthermore,
Texas has one of the finest alternative certification programs in the
country, so the teachers it produces are among the most well-prepared
alternatively certified teachers (Feistritzer, 1999). In addition,
paraprofessionals generally have several years of classroom experience
before their first year as a teacher, which gives them an edge over
traditionally certified first-year teachers.

Proposed Solution:
Consider hiring alternatively certified teachers with experience
Mansfield ISD should consider hiring alternatively certified teachers who
have experience as paraprofessionals, providing that they fulfill the
requirements for full certification. Individuals with previous classroom
experience have realistic expectations of the students, possess classroom
management skills, and understand the hard work and dedication required
to help the district maintain its Recognized status. These qualifications
help paraprofessionals become effective teachers.

Feasibility of Implementing the Solution

It is feasible for MISD to consider hiring these individuals. According to
the “No Child Left Behind” Act of 2001, a highly qualified teacher “has
obtained full State certification as a teacher (including certification
obtained through alternative routes to certification) or passed the State
teacher licensing examination, and holds a license to teach in such State”
(NCLB, Title IX, Section 9101). According to this definition, the district
would still be in compliance with the NCLB mandate that a highly
qualified teacher be in all core classrooms by the end of the 2005-2006

180
school year. The district should recognize these individuals as competent
candidates for teaching positions.

Plan of Action: Give these individuals a chance to interview

Instead of discouraging individuals with experience from applying for a
teaching position because they are alternatively certified, the district
should make sure they are considered, interviewed, and given an
opportunity to demonstrate their facility in the classroom.

Bibliography

Black, Susan. “Not Just Helping Hands.” American School Board

Journal. Vol. 189:5 May (2002). 31 Oct. 2003
<http://www.asbj.com/2002/05/0502research.html>.
“Definition of ‘Highly Qualified’.” NCLB, Title IX, Section 9101. Texas
Education Agency. 15 Oct. 2003.
<http://www.tea.state.tx.us/nclb/hottopics/hqdef.html>.
Feistritzer, Dr. C. Emily. “Teacher Quality and Alternative Certification
Programs.” National Center for Education Information. 13 May
1999. <http://www.ncei.com/Testimony051399.htm>.
Hughes, Dr. Linda A. and Dr. Rayton R. Sianjina. Report to the Delaware
Department of Education. Apr. 2001.
<http://www.udel.edu/artc/documents/2001AprilReporttoDOE.pdf
>.
Leglar, Dr. Ray. “Alternative Certification: A Review of Theory and
Research.” North Central Regional Educational Laboratory.
<http://www.ncrel.org/policy/pubs/html/altcert/index.html>.
Newman, Carol, and Kay Thomas. “Alternative Teacher Certification.”
Perspectives Vol. 5. Sept (1999) Association of Educational
Service Agencies. 31 Oct. 2003
<http://www.aaesa.org/Pubs/99perspect/altern_teacher_certif.html
>.

181
Life is not a five-paragraph essay. In the end, you create your own
academic literacy. Sometimes, the intellectual work that needs to be done
will call for new ways of knowing, new ways of thinking. You don’t have
to give up what you already know in an effort to conform to the rules and
conventions of academic discourse. A much more worthwhile pursuit is to
push the boundaries, exploring what kind of writing results when you
blend the various ways of knowing you already have with those you are
developing as a student. Not only will your intellectual work be more
meaningful to you personally, but you will be participating in a great
social movement that is slowly changing the ways we think, know, read,
and write within academia.

Projects for Writing and Reflection

1) Map out the structure of Christopher Suffron’s essay about

baseball using either an outline or a cluster. (See descriptions of
both in Chapter 4.) Write a paragraph explaining what kinds of
analytical thinking Christopher had to do before writing this essay.
In groups, compare your outline or idea cluster and conclusions
with those written by your classmates. After you and your group
have discussed the structure and analytical points of the essay,
discuss how the essay could be improved or further developed.

2) Find a scholarly journal published within your academic field or a

field of interest. (Ask an instructor what s/he recommends or do
an online keyword or subject search.) After you have located the
journal on the shelves or within a full-text database, choose a
recent issue. The project that follows is a three-part periodical
review. Use the following guidelines to complete this assignment:

N Write a description of the subjects covered and questions asked in

a typical issue.
N Choose one article in particular and discuss how it presents
information. Does it argue? Does it report? Does it present an
interview? Does it summarize? Does it rely on experimental or

182
 empirical research? Does it reveal any of the characteristics of the
alternative literacies discussed in this chapter?
N Write a paragraph describing the academic skills you would need
to develop before publishing in this periodical.

3) Now that you have explored specimens of academic scholarship

through periodical publications, have fun writing a one-page
parody of the specialized language in an academic field of your
choosing. A parody is an imitation of an original that playfully
makes a point about style or content. Use humor and sarcasm in a
one-page, jargon-filled parody of academic language. You can
even use textbooks, including this one, as examples of writing
within academia. Developing a critical stance through parody—a
special genre of writing—can help us see how important it is to
keep clarity a priority.

4) Complete an informal research project by interviewing a college

professor about the conventions s/he observes in teaching, reading,
and writing within a discipline. For example, what style of
documentation does s/he use in scholarly writing? What kinds of
intellectual work do her/his assignments for students require? You
will be able to broaden your knowledge of diverse academic fields
and to meet professors whose future classes you may want to
enroll in. To complete this project, follow these steps: 1) Call the
professor: introduce yourself, describe your assignment, ask if s/he
would be willing to be interviewed, and schedule an appointment
during office hours; 2) prepare for the interview by writing specific
and open-ended questions; 3) complete the interview; 4) document
answers; and 5) transform the answers to your interview questions
into a brief “professor profile” to be shared in your composition
course and turned in to your instructor.

5) Write about the ways of knowing and/or ways of speaking that you
use in your day-to-day life but avoid in your academic writing.
How does this “code-switching” between one style and another
make you feel? Do you see having to choose a different style for

183
 different situations as a hardship or a challenge? After answering
these questions, write an essay discussing how you use literacies
other than the “academic” in your life and how those literacies
contribute to who you are.

6) With your instructor's guidance, create a rhetorical revision of one

of the papers you wrote this semester. First, choose a new medium
for your message. Then, revise the text to fit the new medium of
choice, whether it be a Web page, a brochure, a series of posters, a
flyer, a postcard campaign, or even a documentary video. Be
creative!

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APPENDIX

Five Writing Projects

Writing Project #1

Discourse Community Analysis

This project will require creativity, information-gathering and organizing,
critical thinking, and written analysis of communication styles. The
PRESENTATION for this assignment will be both written and visual.

Compile a scrapbook with photos, images, pictures, memorabilia,

graphs, and so forth that indicate the discourse communities to which
you belong and how communication and argument function in the life
of each. Analyze your own participation in each community as well as
how members of the community must negotiate meaning through
communication, both written and verbal.

Think back to our discussion of discourse communities. What

communities do you participate and use language within on a daily or
weekly basis? What values, beliefs, and biases accompany your
participation in these communities? How does argument (as our textbook
defines it) function within these groups? These questions will help you
get started.
I’m including a list of possible discourse communities: family,
college students who research online, best friends, a group of people who
watch the same TV show or listen to the same radio program, volunteer
organizations to which you belong, athletic teams of which you are a
member, your age group across the U.S.

Assignment criteria (grading checklist):

1. complete, well-organized, and visually-stimulating packet;
2. minimum of five discourse communities depicted and analyzed
3. at least one page (double-spaced) of written analysis per community;

185
(You must specifically analyze the ways in which rhetorical strategies,
including argument, are used in this community. Provide EVIDENCE for
your claims.); and
4. grammatically-correct analyses that reveal college-level critical
thinking and writing skills.

Design your packet as you wish, but be sure to present written information
before visual for each discourse community.
**For each community, include the following:
a) a definition and description of the discourse community;
b) an explanation of how the community reflects your cultural
background and/or values;
c) an analytical discussion of how rhetorical strategies, including
argument, function within this community;
(You may want to include discussion of
how the community has shaped your attitudes toward
communication/argument/writing/language, etc.); and
d) visual information depicting the community and/or the ways its
members communicate and use argument to negotiate.

*You will be asked to choose ONE of your discourse communities for a

brief oral presentation to the class.

Writing Project #2

Personal/Public Commentary
Write a well-organized and well-developed essay of at least five pages in
the form of a narrative commentary—a story of a moment or collection of
moments relating a personal experience to a public issue. You may want
to focus on your process of “coming to know” about this issue or the
relevance of your own experience to experiences of others. Possibilities
for focusing this essay include

186
PERSONAL EXPERIENCE DOMINANT:

PERSONAL EXPERIENCE LINKED TO AN ISSUE THAT

CONCERNS OTHER MEMBERS OF A PUBLIC

PUBLIC ISSUE DOMINANT:

PUBLIC ISSUE EXPLORED WITH A PERSONAL TOUCH

To fulfill the research component of this essay, locate, read, and reference
in your paper a minimum of THREE outside sources. Both traditional
sources—book-length studies, journal and magazine articles, reference
works, etc.—and non-traditional sources—personal interviews, ads, music
lyrics, movies, billboards, catalogues, brochures, etc.—are appropriate as
long as they are clearly relevant to the point you are making in your public
literacy narrative.

Although the result of this project will be an academic essay, it is also a

memoir. Therefore, you will want to use personal experience, sensory
detail, and pacing strategies to compose an essay that uses story,
commentary, and exploratory analysis. Choose your topic very carefully
so that your writing will be meaningful to you and interesting for readers.

WRITING GOALS FOR THIS ASSIGNMENT:

N Blending of personal perspective with commentary on a public issue;
N Use of narrative techniques (pacing, metaphor, dialogue, scene-setting)
to help the reader identify with the experiences rendered and the issue
explored;
N Seamless incorporation of relevant research materials to achieve
coherence;
N Management of the dual role of the memoir writer as both participant
and observer;
N Commentary that positions the writer’s view within a broader context
to which others can relate.

187
 REMEMBER, there is a difference between OPINION and
INFORMED OPINION. Research is the best method for finding your
way from the former to the latter. You may find that you can use this
assignment to increase your knowledge of a subject about which you
have wanted to learn more or in which you have a vested interest.

Prewriting Activity: Choose a theme—work, power, social class, race,

gender, cultural heritage, relationships, “manners,” civil liberties, “family
values,” consumerism, convenience, multiculturalism, or education, to
name a few. Create two columns on a page, and write your theme at the
top in the center. Consider the various public settings in which you
participate, your memories of experiences that relate to issues that others
deal with, and the various social and academic purposes the public sphere
has served in your life. This will help you build perspective and see your
own story in light of the experiences of others. In the left-hand column,
connect the theme to your own existence. In the right-hand column,
connect the theme to a public issue in order to capture how individuals
function as members of larger communities.

Evaluation Criteria:
1) Well-organized essay with a clear, well-focused dominant
impression;
2) Specific detail to render the memoir writer as both participant and
observer;
3) Clear cultural/political/social/economic/historical perspective that
moves the essay beyond personal experience alone.
4) Use of scene-setting, description, dialogue, and action to interest
the reader.
5) Accurate and appropriate citations of at least THREE outside
source materials.
6) Well-introduced quotations from sources materials. (minimum of
two direct quotations required).
7) Correctly formatted Works Cited page.
8) Coherence (sentence-linking, use of transitions, and ordering
techniques).

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 9) Style (consistent tone, appropriate level of word choice, and clear
connection between purpose and audience.
10) Grammar (grammatically-correct and varied sentences;
demonstrated knowledge of sentence boundaries; precise and
effective word choice; appropriate transitions and pacing
strategies).

Additional challenges:
1) at least one unique metaphor or simile;
2) dialogue that enlivens the rendering of human communication;
3) smooth transitions from personal voice to discussion of public issue;
4) sophisticated incorporation of source materials; and
5) the ability to SHOW instead of simply TELLING (narrative
technique, descriptive detail and precise word choices).

Writing Project #3

Textual Analysis Focusing on Structure & Style

Analyze the style and structure of a one- to two-page printable text that
focuses on an issue open to discussion, interesting to you, and potentially
interesting to your classmates.

PURPOSE OF THE ASSIGNMENT: To learn how to analyze the style

and structure of an article; to demonstrate the rhetorical strategies
characteristic of analysis; to practice speaking in front of a group; to
practice planning an oral presentation focused on a text.

TEXT CHOICE REQUIREMENTS:

1) signed approval of instructor;
2) a minimum of 500 words (count words in an average line and
multiply by number of lines); and
3) copies of text for all class members on presentation day.
(Highlight or label particular sections/points to which you will
refer.)

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WRITTEN DOCUMENT REQUIREMENTS:
Analysis = two pages, double-spaced (one-inch margins; 12-point
font)
Analyze
1) Structure
a. appropriateness of length
b. purpose and intended audience
c. appropriate scope and coverage
d. organization / sequence of ideas / pacing
e. placement of information and graphics to
support message
f. dominant methods of development
2) Style
a. fairness in dealing with the subject / issue
b. rhetorical strategies (omission; emphasis;
outlining; forecasting; repetition; exclusion;
analogy-building; audience identification; use of
statistics or expert testimony; use of case study
or examples; appeals to emotion, credibility, or
logic, etc.)
c. tone (sarcasm, anger, praise, criticism, rebuttal,
etc.)
d. level of word choice (expectations of reader’s
education)
e. sentence-style characteristics

ORAL PRESENTATION REQUIREMENTS:

1. well-organized, timed and rehearsed ten-minute oral
presentation (you are leading the class and helping them
think about what the text you chose has to offer its readers);
2. a thoughtful and specific question for the class to promote
class discussion (at the beginning or end of presentation);
and
3. copies of your text passed out to all class members and
instructor before the presentation.

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TURN IN TWO-PAGE ANALYSIS AND COPY OF TEXT TO
INSTRUCTOR ON THE DAY YOU ARE SCHEDULED TO PRESENT
AND BEFORE PRESENTING.

GRADING CHECKLIST:
1) Well-organized and coherent analytical essay based on a specific
text;
2) Well-organized and coherent oral presentation, including a thought-
provoking question for the class;
3) Specific focus and clear points regarding structure and style of text;
4) Well-developed body paragraphs (including specific references to
text);
5) Balance of structural analysis and stylistic analysis;
6) ***Effective use of synthesis and analysis. (IF you evaluate, do so
only briefly and at the end. Your purpose is to analyze, not to judge.);
7) Prioritizing of points of analysis;
8) Coherence (sentence-linking, use of transitions, and ordering
techniques);
9) Style (consistent tone, appropriate level of word choice, and clear
connection between purpose and audience); and
10)Grammar (grammatically-correct and varied sentences).

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Writing Project #4
Argument Essay on a Localized Issue

Write an argument essay of at least four pages in which you position

yourself within an ongoing conversation about an issue important
LOCALLY. You must make a specific claim/proposal, offer reasons
and evidence in support of your position, and summarize/respond
to/refute alternative views

Your goal is to find an issue that has a specific EXIGENCE within a

specific RHETORICAL SITUATION within a local environment and in
which different people have different “investments” and stand to gain or
lose. Your rhetorical purpose in this essay is to argue a specific claim
CONVINCINGLY.

Developing strategies for exchanging perspectives, negotiating

differences, and seeking the best solution among various possibilities will
help you develop not only as a writer, but also as a critical thinker, public
speaker, and interpersonal communicator in personal, professional, and
civic life.

Avoid polarizing the issue as pro/con, black/white. Instead of looking for

only two sides, EXAMINE, GATHER information, and look for gray
areas, alternative perspectives, undiscovered positions. Choose your
battles carefully in order to create a well-focused and organized argument.

Tips for organizing a closed-form, thesis-driven argument paper:

INTRODUCTION:
Present your issue, provide background, and state the claim you intend to
support.

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BODY PARAGRAPHS:
Summarize, respond to, and/or refute alternative and opposing viewpoints;
Present reasons and evidence in support of your own position.
*You must decide which of these two steps should come first,
depending on your essay’s content.

CONCLUSION: End with your strongest argument and an effective

conclusion.

Additional objectives:
N to become knowledgeable about an issue in your local
environment;
N to show mastery of essay organization, placement of
analytical point, sentences, coherence, and style;
N to demonstrate knowledge of research, MLA
documentation, and appropriate citation methods; and
N to demonstrate the ability to argue one’s own point of view,
supporting that view with research materials.

Your essay must include CITATIONS from at LEAST five sources, three
of which may be substantive, documented, and transcribed interviews, and
two of which must be print sources.

Develop your own audience statement for this essay. Ideally, your
argument will go TO this reader. You will be evaluated on your use of
appeals to ethos, appeals to pathos, and appeals to logos. For a well-
rounded argument free of fallacies, practice using all three types of
appeals intentionally and responsibly.

GRADING CRITERIA:
A successful response to this assignment will demonstrate;
1. effective organization and argumentation;
2. paragraph development and detailed description and synthesis
of informative evidence from source materials;
3. precise and effective word choice;

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 4. management of an explicit thesis within a closed-form,
research-based essay;
5. clear argumentative claim;
6. careful use of audience identification strategies and awareness
of language bias;
7. use of transitions to achieve coherence;
8. clear relationship between audience, purpose, and style;
9. ability to engage with a variety of texts, using MLA
documentation format; and
10. command of sentence boundaries, agreement, spelling,
word usage, and general grammatical correctness expected in
all college-level writing.

Writing Project #5
Community Service Project: Letter, Report, and Report

Choose an agency, organization, group, club, or company that

somehow engages others, serves a community, or whose work
addresses an issue of public concern. This “community” will be your
writing subject. Write a three-part project that seeks to influence a
specific audience regarding a specific problem or need. Project #4 has
THREE parts: 1) cover letter, 2) report, and 3) proposal. Your total
project should be at least eight pages and should contain references to
at least five research materials from a variety of sources.

PART I: THE COVER LETTER

Write a concise and appropriately formatted letter of at least one page

single-spaced in one of these two formats:
N Letter of appeal, calling on readers to take action or to make a
contribution of some kind. In the letter, identify an organization or
cause that you believe deserves support and design a letter that
presents the aims and activities of the organization and that calls on
readers to do something—to become a member, to send a donation, to

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 donate time, to respond, to pass on enclosed information, to participate
in an event, to write a letter in protest or support, etc.
N Open letter written to a specific person or group—on a public issue in
your community, either on campus, at home, or in the national or
international scene that has captured your interest and made you want
to comment, argue, or get involved (still an appeal letter but with a
creative twist plus a personal voice).

Regardless of the kind of letter you choose, you will have to practice skills
of organization to convince your reader. Your opening should establish
the occasion/timeliness of your letter and establish the relationship you are
seeking between yourself as writer and your reader as audience. Also
format an appropriate date, salutation, message, closing, and signature.

Prewriting Questions:
What is the rhetorical purpose for writing this letter?
What level of formality will you need to maintain?
What values do you want to make implicit or explicit?
How will you build good will?
What specific action are you calling for from your reader?

GRADING CHECKLIST for LETTER:

1) Well-organized letter that does not waste words.
2) Specific focus and clearly identifiable purpose (asking for ONE
response).
3) Effective use of informative and persuasive writing.
4) Adequate evidence to support claims.
5) Coherence (sentence-linking, use of transitions, and ordering
techniques).
6) Style (consistent tone, appropriate level of word choice, and clear
connection between purpose and audience).
7) Accurate and appropriate formatting and spacing.
8) Grammar (grammatically-correct and varied sentences).

Use block format as illustrated below:

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Shanna Hays (325)-555-1234
7000 Carnival Court shays@sprynet.com
Hallihoo, TX 76004

6 February 2004

Dr. Carlos Martinez

School of Education
Texas Wesleyan University
1201 Wesleyan St.
Fort Worth TX 76105

Dear Dean Martinez:

Please accept this letter and the enclosed materials as a proposal for
improving the teacher education program at Texas Wesleyan University.
[continued content of letter—in this case, a letter of appeal/proposal.]

[Paragraph explaining occasion for the letter and detailing the urgency of the
situation/need.] Because the State of Texas now requires . . . , . . . .

Please find enclosed a research report outlining the changes in certification

made by the state legislature and a discussion of how these changes will
affect college students majoring in education and the departments that
educate them. . . . . Within the report, you will find a profile of Samantha
Palacios, a senior at Texas Wesleyan who is seeking certification in English at
the secondary level. Her experiences illustrate the need for. . .

[Closing paragraph detailing the specific solution explained in the proposal.

TELL THE READER WHAT YOU WANT FROM HIM/HER AT THIS
POINT. Good letters ask for one belief/conviction/action of the reader and
do so persuasively. [Single space all text. Double space between paragraphs
only. No indentations at the beginning of paragraphs.]

Sincerely,
[Signature goes here]
Shanna D. Hays

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PART II: THE REPORT

Write a research-based REPORT of at least four pages in which you

INFORM your reader on research findings. The organization is
entirely up to you, but you should use subheadings to lead your reader
through the content. Possible headers include “Introduction,”
“Discussion of the Research Question,” “Methods,” “Summary of
Findings,” and “Conclusions.” Design your format to match your
subject and the kind of information you are relating to your reader.
Ask yourself, “What organizational strategy would yield the most
effective reporting of this data?” Use visual diagrams, tables, or charts
if appropriate. You may want to include a PROFILE to demonstrate
rich description through research. Number the pages of the report and
proposal in the top right-hand corner.

This component must rely on information gathered from research and

should reveal appropriate references to sources. Be very careful not to
plagiarize. Do not replicate material that already exists. Instead, use
existing material to create something NEW or to see an existing
problem “anew.” Remember, your PURPOSE is to INFORM through
credible, well-researched report writing.

GRADING CHECKLIST FOR REPORT:

1) Well-organized report written in an informative/persuasive tone.
2) Intentional and creative organizational strategies—which includes
making strategic decisions about format, graphics, sequencing of
information, and headings.
3) Tone of researcher/activist
4) Evident research component with clear references to sources.
5) Sufficient specific evidence to support claims.
6) Use of sentence ties to achieve unified body paragraphs.
7) Overall Coherence (sentence-linking and use of transitions).
8) Style (consistent tone, appropriate level of word choice, and clear
connection between purpose and audience).
9) Grammar (grammatically-correct and varied sentences).

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PART III: THE PROPOSAL

Write a two-page proposal including the following four parts (set off with
subheadings and devoting approximately a half of a page to each section):
1) discussion of problem (consequences, stakeholders, etc.);
2) proposed solution;
3) feasibility of implementing solution; and
4) action plan (method, possibly including budget and/or cost/benefit
analysis).
*The keys to writing effective proposals are feasible plans and specific
details.

NOTE: ALL THREE PARTS MUST FUNCTION TOGETHER TO

FORM A COHERENT PROJECT WITH A CLEARLY IDENTIFIABLE
SUBJECT AND AUDIENCE TO EARN A PASSING GRADE.

Use the prewriting activity below for Writing Project #5:

Letter + Profile + Report

Prewriting activity Name:__________________

Organization/group/department/company I’d like to help:

What documents this group NEEDS that I could provide:

What kinds of research on this topic have not already been done?:

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Type of letter I could write that would “get results” in the “real
world”:

Interesting person/place/people I could profile to create a relevant

dominant impression within my report:

A plan of action for my research:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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GLOSSARY
academic attitude: an orientation toward education that accepts the challenge of critical
thinking and the commitment to transforming that thought into meaningful action.

academic discourse: ways of speaking and writing within the college setting. Students,
teachers, researchers, administrators, and academic committees create forums for
academic speaking and writing.

academic field: a discipline within the academy that studies a body of knowledge and
participates in an ongoing scholarly conversation to question existing knowledge and to
create new knowledge.

academic literacy: proficiency in reading and writing that contributes to the ongoing
conversation of an academic field.

analysis: method of thought and writing that seeks to examine ideas by looking at the
relationships among the thinking and discursive practices that inform them.

annotated bibliography: a list of references including a brief description and/or

summary of each source.

annotation: a brief note that summarizes content. (writing in the margins)

argument: stating a specific claim and placing it in dialogue with other claims within an
ongoing conversation regarding an issue. See Rogerian Method and Toulmin Method.

assertion: a statement in which a worldview or value is shared. Assertions may lead to

argument but are not necessarily argumentative unless the audience participates and
makes them so.

audience: reader/listener. Analyzing the expectations of an audience helps a

writer/speaker gauge the audience’s level of interest and engagement.

claim: in the Toulmin method of argument, the claim is the central thesis or assertion.
See also Toulmin Method.

coherence: characteristic of a piece of communication that is well-organized, with its

parts working individually and together to reveal a structurally unified message. Also
known as the “flow” of an essay.

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constraints: one of the five elements of the rhetorical situation; the factors that may be
limiting certain possibilities within the rhetorical dynamic. Constraints may be physical,
abstract, or, in the instance of a literary text, fictionally created.

context: the material, cultural, historical, and social factors that influence and thus define
any idea, strategy, or practice.

conventions: customary practices of language use and style in academic discourse.

critical consciousness: an academic attitude that sets a high priority on critical thinking
and questioning of the status quo in order to use discourse in ways that will ultimately
lead to public citizenship and social justice.

critical literacy: language use with the purpose of questioning the status quo and
initiating a dialogue of critique. The goal of critical literacy is to orient thoughts and
actions toward critical consciousness.

critical thinking: a skill required in all college-level discourse communities; the ability
to use discernment and a healthy skepticism when considering an idea or argument.
Critical thinking requires a combination of other academic mental frameworks such as
synthesis, response, analysis, evaluation, and critique.

critique: to evaluate an idea or argument, specifying its strengths and its weaknesses.

cultural literacy: language use within and knowledge of a shared culture, including its
dominant ideologies and values.

cyber literacy: the ability to read, navigate, and write and respond within
communication forums via the Internet and other electronic databases.

deduction: logical reasoning in which the progression of argument moves from the
general to the specific, beginning with a general claim and then using examples and
reasons as supporting evidence. See also induction.

discipline. See academic field.

discourse communities: groups of people who share certain language-using practices

(Bizzell, Academic Discourse, 222).

documentation: process in academic writing of giving credit to others’ ideas; requires

mastery of conventions for introducing and incorporating outside sources and a
disciplinary style for citing those sources.

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ethos: one of the three types of rhetorical appeals: ethos, pathos, and logos. Ethos
depends upon the speaker or writer’s credibility, influenced by the audience’s perception
of the speaker or writer as trustworthy, well-informed, and reasonable.

evaluation: a judgment about the value of a text, whether written, verbal, or visual. Like
critique, evaluation focuses on pinpointing strengths and weaknesses.

evidence: specific details—facts, statistics, expert testimony, proofs—that support an

analysis or argument.

grapholect: form of language characteristic of academic discourse; meant to be written

and read, not spoken.

image analysis: an examination of an image with the purpose of explaining how

rhetorical appeals are constructed and targeted within visual messages.

induction: a form of logical reasoning that begins with specific examples and moves
toward a generalization or claim. See also deduction.

kairos: the Greek concept of timely opportunity, including the historical, social, and
cultural influences that lead to that opportunity. In Greek mythology, Kairos was
personified as a robust and muscular young man with large wings and a curled “forelock”
on his forehead; thus, to “take Kairos by the forelock” meant to take advantage of a
timely opportunity.

literal literacy: the ability to read and write in order to function as a member of society.

literary analysis: within the academic community, an examination of literary text(s),

typically including a discussion of literary terms and theories, and sometimes building
upon connections to theories within other social sciences.

logos: one of the three rhetorical appeals: ethos, pathos, logos. Logos is
an appeal to reason emphasizing sequential and ordered thought patterns.

organization: a consideration of arrangement and style in which the writer/speaker

strategically places and balances information parts to form a coherent presentation.

parenthetical citation: form of documentation that occurs within a text, placed in

parentheses ( ) after the section or sentence in which the reference to a source appears.

pathos: one of the three types of rhetorical appeals: ethos, pathos, and logos; Pathos is
an appeal to the needs, values, or emotions of the audience.

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pedagogy: the practice and theory of teaching.

peer review: a form of collaboration in college courses during which classmates review
one another’s ideas or writing.

persuasion: form of argument that attempts to convince its audience to take action after
being convinced.

prewriting: preparation for the drafting in the writing process, including brainstorming,
researching, note taking, mental planning, freewriting, clustering, and outlining.

proposal: a kind of argument that seeks to persuade an audience to take action; a claim
that something should or should not be done.

purpose: the reason for writing, including the plans for reaching your target audience.

response: a type of academic writing that combines summary, judgment, reader

response, and personal commentary.

rhetor: person who uses and studies rhetoric—verbal and written communication and its
effects on an audience.

rhetoric: broadly defined as the study of communication and its effect on an audience.
Aristotle, a classical Greek philosopher and rhetorician, defined rhetoric as the art of
finding the available means of persuasion. Patricia Bizzell, a compositionist and
historian of rhetoric producing scholarship today, defines rhetoric with an emphasis on its
social dimension: “Rhetoric is the study of the personal, social, and historical elements in
human discourse—how to recognize them, interpret them, and act on them, in terms of
both situational context and verbal style” (Academic Discourse 218).

rhetorical appeal: an argument used to persuade; there are three kinds of appeals: 1) the
appeal to ethos, which draws its force from the author/speaker’s credibility; 2) the appeal
to pathos, which depends upon the emotions and values of the audience; and 3) the
appeal to logos, which persuades by creating reasonable, logical truth claims.

rhetorical analysis: a kind of academic analysis in which the writer examines a text
studying the rhetorical situation that influenced it and the dynamics of tension within the
text that result. A careful rhetorical analysis considers the five elements of the rhetorical
situation: author, text, reader, constraints, and exigency.

Rogerian Method: method of argument developed from the theories of psychologist

Carl Rogers; depends upon analysis of common ground, active listening, and negotiation
instead of dispute and contention. Contrast with Toulmin Method.

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scholarship: in academic communities, scholarship denotes a body of knowledge
produced, read, studied, and critiqued by members of an academic field.

stasis: the point of issue in an argument. Stasis theory helps determine which arguments
will be successful and which are likely to fail. The four levels of stasis are 1) stasis of
fact, 2) stasis of definition, 3) stasis of quality, and 4) stasis of policy.

statistical analysis: the study and examination of evidence presented as forms of

numerical data that represent the collection of factual information. Statistical analysis
requires rhetorical reading of lists, graphs, and charts in order to analyze how numbers
are used strategically to create arguments.

summary: a concise account of someone else’s written ideas, including only the essential
points or ideas. Most summaries are one-third or less of the original text.

synthesis: a summary that accounts for more than one text and considers how the plural
texts being studied speak to one another.

thesis statement: the sentence in a work of academic writing that clearly and forcefully
expresses the main idea or claim for the reader.

topoi: Greek term for the mental frameworks that predispose an audience to a certain
kind of appeal. Topoi act as guides for rhetorical invention and are discovered through
the careful study of human thought patterns that help the rhetor to gauge audience needs,
values, and expectations.

Toulmin Method: method of argumentation developed by Stephen Toulmin, a

contemporary philosopher; to use the method, you create or analyze an argument’s thesis
or claim, the warrant(s) for that claim, the reasons and supporting evidence, and any
qualifiers or conditions of refutation/rebuttal used by the writer. Contrast with Rogerian
Method.

visual rhetoric: a communicative “text” that appeals to an audience visually, with or

without words; for example, a movie, poster, bumper sticker, or advertisement “speaks”
to viewers just as a text “speaks” to readers.

warrant: in the Toulmin method of argument, a warrant is the implicit assumption that
supports the argumentative claim. For example, in the claim, “All college students
should be required to enroll in a three-hour course entitled ‘community service,’ two of
those hours each week being spent in the community, and one in the classroom.” The
warrants for this claim include: 1) community service benefits college students, and 2) it

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is important that academics administering the course place the students in actual
community settings. See also Toulmin Method.

works cited: last page of an academic paper in MLA style presenting a list of sources
referred to, or “cited,” within the body of the paper.

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