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UNIT-III

CRYO INSULATION AND

DEVICES

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Topic : Cryogenic Insulations

 Why Insulation?

 Types of Insulation

 Expanded Foam and Powder Insulations

 Radiation Fundamentals

 Storage of a cryogen (say, LN2) is difficult, asthere is a continuous boil

off due to heat in leaks. These vessels cannot be sealed as boil off
generates huge volumes of vapour, resulting in large pressure rise. This
may lead to bursting.

 For example, vapor to liquid volume ratio for ageneral cryogen is 175
(1600 for water).To avoid the pressure, rise, the need of insulation is
vital. Insulation or a combination of insulations minimizes all these
modes of heat transfer.

 Consider a LN2 container .The inner vessel is housed inside an outer

vessel and these vessels are separated by some form of insulation.also,
the inner vessel is supportedusing lateral beams as shown.

The liquid boils off continuously due to the various modes of heat transfer

Heat Transfer
Different modes of heat transfer are

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Conduction: The heat is conducted through lateral beams, neck and residual
gas conduction.

Convection: The air between inner and outer vessels convect heat into the
liquid.

Radiation: The radiation heat transfer from 300 K outer vessel to 77 K inner
vessel.

Types of Insulation

 Expanded Foam – Mass

 Gas Filled Powders & Fibrous Materials – Mass

 Vacuum alone – Vacuum

 Evacuated Powders – Mass + Vacuum

 Opacified Powders – Mass + Vacuum + Reflective

 Multilayer Insulation – Vacuum + Reflective

Types of Insulation
The choice of insulation for a particular application is a compromise between
the following factors.

 Thermal Conductivity
 Temperature
 Effectiveness of Insulation
 Cost
 Ease of application
 Weight and reliability

A combination of insulations is used to prevent different modes of heat transfer

Apparent Thermal Conductivity, the different modes of heat transfer are
Gas and Solid Conductions, Convection and Radiation.

Consider an element of insulation, separated by two temperatures (T1 > T2) as

shown below.

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 Let Q be net heat transferred across this element by all possible modes
of heat transfer mentioned above.

 If A and L be the area of the cross section and length of the element
respectively, the apparent thermal conductivity (kA) is defined as

 From the above equation, the Q decreases and hence the kA decreases.

 In other words, this apparent thermal conductivity is calculated based on

all possible modes of heat transfer.

Expanded Foams

 Expanded foam is a low density, cellular structure which is formed by

evolving gases during the manufacturing process.

 Gases that are generally used are CO2 and Freon.

 In other words, it is a solid – gas matrix with void spaces. The solid
connections together with gas trapped in cellular spaces form a
continuous path.

 The heat is transferred only by conduction (solid conduction). The

contribution by convection and radiation are negligible.

Examples are,

Polyurethane foam, polystyrene foam, rubber, silica glass foam.

 kA and density are as shown below. The operating temperature is

between 77 K to 300 K .The kA of the foam depends on the type of gas
used and also the temperature of the insulation.

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Foam ρ (kg/m3) k (mW/mK)

Polyurethane 11 33 11 33

Polystyrene 39 33

Rubber 80 36

Silica 160 55

 For a given gas, the performance of the foam is improved by varying the
void size and bulk density.

 The adjacent figure shows the variation of kA with the mean cell
diameter.

 With the decrease in the mean cell diameter, the solid conduction path
increases in the foam insulation.At the same time, with the decrease in
the mean cell diameter, the bulk density of the foam increases.
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 Therefore, kA is also a function of bulk density and it increases with the

increase in bulk density.

The major advantage of an expanded foam is that it offers an ease of

fabrication.

 The foam is directly blown onto the surface of the vessel to be insulated.
It forms a self supporting structure.

 The cost of this insulation is also low as comparedto other types of

insulations.

 Exposure of a CO2 expanded foam to LN2 temperatures, increases the

thermal conductivity.

 At LN2 temperature, the vapor pressure of CO2 is less. As a result, most

of CO2 is condensed within the insulation and caters for the heat
transfer.
 Also over a period of time, air, hydrogen or helium diffuse into foam from
external atmosphere.

 The kA of the foam increases due to increase in the gas conduction at

room temperature.

 Expanded foams have large thermal contractions, which pose a major

disadvantage.

 A rigid foam has a large thermal contraction between -30 degbC to

+30deg C.

 For example, coefficients of linear expansion are

 aPolystyrene Foam : 7.20 x 10-5/oC

 αCarbon Steel : 1.15 x 10-5/oC

The foam when closely fitted around a LN2 vessel, crack due to difference in
shrinkages.

Gas Filled Powder & Fibrous Insulations

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 A gas filled powder or a fibrous insulation reduces or eliminates the gas

convection due to the small size of voids within the material.

 This is because, the distance between the powder particles within the
insulation is much smaller than the gas mean free path.

 As a result, the gaseous conduction mechanism shifts from continuum to

free molecular conduction decreasing the apparent thermal conductivity,
Ka
 The commonly used insulations of this type are Fiber Glass, Perlite (Silica
Powder), Santocel, Rockwool, Vermichlitine.

 kA and density are as shown below. The operating temperatures are

between 77 K to 300 K

 The advantages of a gas filled powder are low thermal conductivity, low
density and low particle distribution to minimize the vibration effects.

 The insulation can either be evacuated or non – evacuated. Heat transfer

by residual gas is further minimized by low vapor pressure of the gas.

 Finely divided particulate materials make solid conduction paths

disjointed and discontinuous

 The disadvantage is that moisture and air diffuse through the material to
the cold surface unless a vapor barrier is used. N2 purging is used.

 Fill – gas should be unreactive and compatible with powder material.

 Powder tends to settle and packs due to vibrations, thermal contraction

and expansion.

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 This creates increased solid conduction

Radiation – Fundamentals

 Consider two flat surfaces maintained at different temperatures (T1 >

T2)

 There is continuous heat transfer between the two plates due to the
radiation.

 This mode of heat transfer does not require any medium and is given by
the following equation.

Summary
 Cryogenic vessels need insulation to minimize all modes of heat transfer.

 The apparent thermal conductivity is calculated based on all possible

modes of heat transfer.

 Expanded foam is a low density, cellular structure. The heat is

transferred only by solid conduction.

 With the decrease in the mean cell diameter, the kA decreases. With the
increase in the bulkdensity, the kA also increases.A gas filled powder or a
fibrous insulation reduces gas convection due to the small size of voids.
The
 heat is transferred by free molecular conduction.

 Fill – gas should be unreactive and compatible with powder material.

Radiation heat transfer does not require any medium. It is reduced by
introduction of radiation shields.

 These shields are aluminium foils with a very high Reflectivity

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Vacuum
 It is important to note that even in vacuum, there is some residual gas.

 These gas molecules contribute to the heat transfer by gaseous

conduction.

 As the vacuum improves, this gas conduction decreases.

 In an ordinary conduction, a linear temperature gradient is built up. The

molecules exchange heat with each other and as well as with the
surfaces.
 But in vacuum, the mean free path (λ) of the molecules is more than the
distance between the surfaces; the molecules rarely collide with each
other.

 The energy is exchanged only between the surface and the colliding
molecules.

 This type of heat transfer is called as free molecular conduction or

residual gas conduction.

 This exists only at very low pressures or at very good vacuumFor the
sake of understanding, consider two plates with temperatures T1 and T2,
(T2 > T1) as shown.

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 The gas pressure is very low in order to ensure that the mean free path
(λ) of the molecules is greater than L.

 In such situations, the gas molecules collide only with the surfaces and
exchange energy.

 Consider a molecule colliding with bottom plate and leaving towards

upper plate.

 The gas molecule collides with this surface at T1 and it transfers some
energy to the surface.

 It leaves the cold surface with a kinetic energy corresponding to a

temperature T’1, higher than T1.

 Again, consider a molecule colliding with upper plate and leaving towards
bottom plate.

 This gas molecule collides with surface at T2 and leaves at a temperature

T’2, lower than T2.

 It is clear that, in both these impacts, thermal equilibrium is not attained.

This process is repeated and contributes to free molecular conductionIn
order to measure the degree of thermal equilibrium between the
molecule and the surface, we define Accommodation Coefficient (a).

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 It is a ratio of actual energy transfer to the maximum possible energy

transfer.

Evacuated Powder

 Gas conduction is the primary and the dominant mode of heat transfer in
a gas filled powder and fibrous insulations.

 One of the obvious ways to reduce this heat transfer is to evacuate the
powder and the fibrous insulations.

 Usually, the vacuum that is commonly maintained in these insulations is

in the range of 103 to 10-5 torr. 1 torr = 1 mm of Hg

 The adjacent figure shows the variation of kA with the residual gas
pressure inside an evacuated powder insulation.

 kA is independent of residual gas pressures lying between atmospheric

and 15 torr.
 With the lowering of pressure, 15 torr to 10-3 torr, kA becomes directly
proportional to the pressure.
 It varies almost linearly on a logarithmic chart as shown.
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 Here, the modes of heat transfer are due to radiation, solid conduction
and free molecular conduction (dominant)
 With the further lowering of pressure, below 10-3 torr, the variation of
kA is almost null.
 The mode of heat transfer is primarily due to solid conduction and
radiation.
 Evacuated powders are superior in performance than vacuum alone in
300-77 K, as the radiation heat transfer is comparatively less.
 At low pressures and temperatures, the solid conduction in evacuated
powder dominates the radiant heat transfer.
 Hence, it is more advantageous to use vacuum alone in 77 K to 4 K.
From Fourier's Law, we have

Q = ka Am (Th-Tc)/ Δx
where,
 kA = Apparent thermal conductivity
 Th – Tc = Temperature difference
 Δx = Distance
• Am = Mean area of insulation. Am for concentric cylinders
and concentric spheres is as given below

Opacified Powder Insulation

 Radiation heat transfer still contributes to the heat in leak in 300 K
to 77 K temperature range in case of evacuated powders.
 In the year 1960, Riede and Wang, Hunter et. al. minimized this
radiant heat transfer by addition of reflective flakes made of Al or
Cu to the evacuated powder.
 These flakes act like radiant shields in the tiny heat transfer paths
that are formed in the interstices of the evacuated powder
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 The figure shows the variation of % opacifier with thermal

conductivity for Cu – santocel and Al – santocel
 There exists an optimum operating point for each of these
insulations.
 It has been observed that, with these additions, kA can be
reduced by 5 times.
 Cu flakes are more preferred as compared to Al flakes.
 The Al flakes have large heat of combustion.
 These together with O2 can lead to accidents when used on
LOX containers.
 Another disadvantage of this insulation is that the vibrations
tend to pack the flakes together
 This, not only increases the thermal conductivity but also
short circuits the conduction heat transfer.
 The apparent thermal conductivity (mW/mK) and density
(kg/m3) of few commonly used opacified powder
insulations are as shown.
 The residual gas pressure is less than 10-3 torr for
temperatures between 77 K to 300 K
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Multilayer Insulation

 Multilayer Insulation (MLI) was first developed by Petersen of Sweden in

the year 1951.
 It consists of alternate layers of high reflecting shields or foils.
 Separated by low conductivity spacers
 And a very good vacuum.
 The high reflecting shields are generally made of either Al, Cu or
Aluminized Mylar.
 Aluminum sheet of 6µm thickness is commonly used at low
temperatures.
 In order to improve mechanical strength and ease of application, plastic
materials like Mylar and Kapton are coated with aluminum
 Low conductivity spacers are made of coarse silk or nylon net.
 Very often, substances like glass fiber, silica fiber, low density foam or
fiber glass mat are also used.
 Most common materials among fibers are Dexiglas and Tissuglas.
 One layer of MLI is defined as one sheet of reflective shield + one sheet
of spacer material.
Each component of this insulation is designed for a particular function.
 Radiation shields – Foils with high reflectivity reduce radiant heat
transfer.

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 Spacers – Nylon spacers with very low thermal conductivity reduce

conduction.
 Vacuum – Residual gas conduction, convection are minimized using
vacuum.

Types of MLI

MLIs are classified according to the type of spacers used.

 Multiple Resistance Spacers: Fibers are arranged in a parallel fashion

to minimize contact area.
 Point Contact Spacers: A grid of nylon spheres is used to separate
adjacent radiation shields

Single Component MLI: Reflective shields are crinkled or embossed to

minimize contact area. These MLI do not use any spacer material. Composite
Spacers: Few spacers consist of two or more materials. Each material has a
specific function to perform.

Composite Spacers: Few spacers consist of two or more materials. Each

material has a specific function to perform

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 Typically, thickness of each layer is 6 μm. • Residual gas conduction

inside an insulation depends on residual pressure of the gas.
 For an optimum performance, the usual levels of vacuum, that is
maintained around an MLI, are in the range of 7.5x10-5 torr

Applications

For an optimum performance, MLI is placed perpendicular to direction of heat

flow.
• The insulation performance is a function of following parameters.
• Applied compressive load
• Number of shields
• Gas type and its pressure
• Size and number of perforations
• Operating temperatur

 The variation of kA with residual gas pressure for a typical Multilayer

Insulation.
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 Insulation layer density is 24 layers/cm with boundary temperatures

maintained at 300 K and 90 K.
 It is clear that, kA is independent of residual gas pressure between
atmospheric and 15 torr.
 With lowering of pressure, kA is directly proportional to residual gas
pressure.
 The variation is almost linear on a logarithmic chart as shown in the
figure.
 The mode of heat transfer in this regime is mainly due to free molecular
conduction or residual gas conduction.
 With further lowering of pressures, that is less than 10-3 torr, kA
remains fairly constant

MLI bulk density (ρa) is an important parameter of the insulation. It depends

on
• Thickness of each reflective shield – tr
• Density of each reflective shield – ρr
• Mass per unit area of the spacer – Ss
• Layer density per unit thickness – N/Δx
The total mass per unit area is given by (ss +ᵖrtr)

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• Density being mass per unit volume, for N layers, ρa is given by

VACUUM

The net heat in leak into a cryogenic vessel is

QNet = QGas Cond. + QConv. + QSolid Cond. + QRad.

 Gas conduction and convection are minimized by having vacuum

between two surfaces of different temperatures.

 Use of evacuated/opacified powders decreases kA. Also, MLI functions

only in good vacuum.

 Therefore, vacuum technology forms a very important aspect in

Cryogenics

 The word Vacuum comes from the Latin roots. It means the Empty or the
Void.

 A perfect vacuum can be defined as a space with no particles of any state

(solid, liquid, gas etc.).

 It is important to note that the above definition is a theoretical

understanding, although it is practically impossible to achieve perfect
vacuum.

 The pressures in vacuum are lower than atmospheric pressures. The

degree of vacuum is decided by mean free path (λ).Mean free path (λ) is
defined as the average distance travelled by the molecules between the
subsequent collisions
Flow Regimes
 Consider a closed system in theWith the lowering of pressure
 The number of molecules arereduced

 The residual molecules are pulled apart.

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 As a result, mean free path (λ) of residual molecules becomes larger

than the dimensions of the systemIn such systems, the molecules collide
only with the walls of the container.

 Such a flow of fluid is called as FreeMolecular FlowIf λ is much smaller

than the characteristic lengths, such flows are called as continuum flows.

 In fluid mechanics, Reynold’s Number (Re) is used to categorize the pipe

flow regimes as shown above.

 In these flows, molecules collide with each other as well as physical

boundaries, if any.
 Based on the Knudsen Number (NKn), the above figure characterizes the
flow regimes in vacuum.
 Summarizing, we have

 Continuum Flow for NKn less than 0.01.

 Mixed Flow for NKn between 0.01 and 0.3.

 Free Molecular Flow for NKn greater than 0.3.Pressures are in the range
of atmospheric values .In an S. I. system, pressure is measured in Pascal
or N/m2. Very often, Bar is also used for pressure measurement.

For example, the standard atmospheric pressure can be expressed as

1.013x105 Pa

1.013x105 N/m2

1 bar

 760 mm of Hg column at standard sea levelin vacuum, normally unit for

pressure is Torr or milli bar.

 This unit is named after Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian physicist, in the

year 1644.

 1 Torr is defined as 1 mm of Hg column at standard sea level.

 Therefore, 1 Torr = 133.28 Pa = 133.28 N/m2

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Topic : Instrumentation in
Cryogenics
 Need of Cryogenic Instrumentation

 Measurement of Thermophysical Properties

 Instrumentation is needed To monitor the vacuum in insulation, as there

is a continuous gas in leak
 To monitor the liquid level so as to avoid any over flow of the cryogen.

 To monitor a sample’s temperature.This justifies the of instrumentation

for a safe Cryogenic operation.

 It is clear that conventional methods like bourdon pressure gauge or

thermometer cannot be used due to the following reasons.

 Working at extremely low temperatures.

 Sustainability to thermal and mechanical fatigues.

 Calibration at low temperatures

Special Requirements

 There are a few special requirements that are to be qualified by the

sensors, to use them in Cryogenic Technology. They are

 Remote Arrangements : Cryogenic vessels are closed containers. The

sensors should be capable of remote operation from outside.

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 Vacuum : The sensors should be able to withstand low pressures

prevalent in vacuum.

 Cryogen : The sensors should be chemically inert towards the cryogen

under useThere are a few special requirements that are to be qualified by
the sensors, to use them in Cryogenic Technology. They are

 Remote Arrangements : Cryogenic vessels are closed containers. The

sensors should be capable of remote operation from outside.

 Vacuum : The sensors should be able to withstand low pressures

prevalent in vacuum

 Cryogen : The sensors should be chemically inert towards the cryogen

under useThermophysical properties

 Magnetic Field : The property of the sensor should be intact even in

magnetic atmospheres.

 Accuracy : The accuracy, the calibration are very important at such low
temperatures.

 Losses : The heat release, for example, i2R losses, conduction via leads
should be very low.

 Material Properties : Thermal, mechanical properties of sensors must

be in allowable limits.
Thermo physical Properties

 Temperature
 Liquid Level
 Pressure
 Mass Flow Rate
 Viscosity and Density
 Electrical and Thermal Conductivity covered, which are very
important.
 The various measuring units of temperature are Kelvin, degree
Centigrade, degree Fahrenheit etc.

 The measurement of temperature is based on zeroth law of

thermodynamics. It states that when two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium, they are at the same temperature.

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 Temperature is measured to monitor thermal expansion and most

importantly pressure rise.

 The calibration of a temperature sensor is done using some fixed points

The international temperature scale is defined up to the triple point of
H2. Its value is 13.84 K.

 Recently, various scales are developed to measure much lower

temperatures.

 Germanium Resistance Thermometer – 4.2 K to 13.84 K.

 He4 Vapor Pressure Scale – 1.5 K to 4.24 K. It was invented in 1958 and
it is often called as T58 (He4)He3 Vapor Pressure Scale – 0.8 K to 1.5 K.

 This scale is also called as T62 (He3).

 For the temperatures between 0.006 K to 0.8 K, the scale is based on the
properties of Cerium magnesium nitrate (salt).

The variations in magnetic susceptibility of this salt are calibrated in terms of

temperature.
 Various sensors that are often used in Cryogenics to measure
temperature are,

 Thermocouples

 Metallic Resistance Thermometer

 Semiconductor Resistance Thermometer

 Constant Volume Gas Thermometer

 Vapor Pressure Thermometer

 Consider two conducting wires of different materials, A and B.

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 These metal wires are joined together as shown above.

 The left and right joints are LJ and RJ respectively. A voltmeter V is in
series with wire B .Consider two conducting wires of different materials,
A and B.
 Consider a situation, in which left and right joints are maintained at T1
and T2 respectively. (T1≠T2)

 Due to the temperature difference, a net voltage or an electromotive

force is developed in the loop. This is called as Seebeck effect.

 It is named after a German physicist, Thomas Johann Seebeck (1821).

 The voltage (e, mV) is directly proportional to the temperature difference

(t, deg C)

T type

 Cu and Cu – Ni alloy (Copper – Constantan).

 Range : 3 K to 673 K.

 Sensitivity : 4.6 µV/K at 20 K.

K type

 Ni – Cr and Ni – Al alloys (Chromel – Alumel).

 Range : 3 K to 1543 K.
 Sensitivity : 4.1 μV/K at 20 K.
 The different types of thermocouples in use are

E type

 Ni – Cr and Cu –
 Ni alloys (Chromel – Constantan).

 Range : 3 K to 953 K.

 Sensitivity : 68 μV/K at 20 K.

 This combination produces the highest Seebeck effect.

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Pressure Measurement

 We know that the cryogenic vessels are insulated, closed containers.

 Besides, temperature and liquid level, pressure is also a vital aspect in
Cryogenic Engineering.
 Pressure measurement is needed
 To check, whether the level of vacuum is maintained.
 To monitor the pressure rise inside a container, as there is a continuous
heat in leak.
 pressure measurement in Cryogenics deals with both pressures above
atmosphere and pressures below atmosphere (vacuum).
 The levels of vacuum range from atmosphere to 10–12 mbar or less.
 For different levels of vacuum, we have different gauges, working on
different principles.
 For example, up to a particular level of vacuum, thermal conductivity
gauges are used.
 Therefore, the choice of a gauge for a particular application or for a
particular vacuum level is an important aspect.
Different pressure/vacuum gauges which could be used are
• Hydrostatic Gauge – McLeod Gauge
• Diaphragm Gauge – Mechanical/Electrical
• Thermal Conductivity Gauge
• Thermocouple Gauge
• Ionization Gauge
 Thermionic Ionization Gauge
 Cold Cathode Gaug
Hydrostatic Gauge – McLeod
 Hydrostatic Gauge is one of the oldest type of vacuum gauges. It is also
called as McLeod Gauge.
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 The schematic of this gauge is as shown in the figure. It works on the

principle of Boyle’s Law
 The gauge consists of a glass U – tube, whose left arm has a spherical
bulb of a known volume.
 The right arm is branched into a capillary tube, to monitor the minute
changes in pressure.
 The capillary is marked with a zero reference point. It culminates back
into the right arm as shown in the figure.
 The lower end of the U – tube is connected to a mercury reservoir
equipped with a piston.

 The right arm is branched into a capillary tube, to monitor the

minute changes in pressure.
 The capillary is marked with a zero reference point. It culminates
back into the right arm as shown in the figure.
 The lower end of the U – tube is connected to a mercury reservoir
equipped with a piston.
 Initially, the apparatus is filled with mercury up to the indicated
level.
 Let the vacuum pressure to be measured be p1. It is applied on
the right arm as shown in the figure.
 In this situation, the pressure at any point in the system is p1.

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 With the application of piston load, the mercury level in the

apparatus rises.
 When the mercury crosses the junction, a known volume of gas is
trapped inside bulb and tube.
Hydrostatic Gauge – McLeod
The advantages are,
 The gauge reading is independent of gas.
 It serves as a reference standard to calibrate other low
pressure gauges.
 There is no need of any zero error corrections.
The disadvantages are
 The gas should obey the Boyle’s law.
 It does not give a continuous output.

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