Renaissance Humanism

Renaissance Humanism was an intellectual movement typified by a revived interest in

the classical world and studies which focused not on religion but on what it is to be
human. Its origins went back to 14th-century Italy and such authors as Petrarch (1304-
1374) who searched out 'lost' ancient manuscripts. By the 15th century, humanism had
spread across Europe.

Humanists believed in the importance of an education in classical literature and the

promotion of civic virtue that is, realizing a person's full potential both for their own
good and for the good of the society in which they live. The difficulty in defining
humanism and its ever-evolving character have not prevented it being widely regarded
as the defining feature of 1400 to 1600 Europe and the very reason why that period can
be identified as a Renaissance or 'rebirth' of ideas.

Defining Humanism
Humanism was a term invented in the 19th century to describe the Renaissance idea
that directly studying the works of antiquity was an important part of a rounded
education (but not the only part). From this position came the idea that the study of
humanity should be a priority as opposed to religious matters (which need not be
neglected or contradicted by humanist studies). Important classical ideals which
interested humanists included the importance of public and private virtue, Latin
grammar, techniques of rhetoric, history, conventions in literature and poetry, and
moral philosophy. This education did not create an all-encompassing philosophy or
worldview in its adherents. Someone who had a humanist education might be a
Catholic or a Protestant, for example, and many students went on to study very
different branches of thought such as theology, law, or medicine.

In modern times, the term 'humanism' has gained a different meaning (a rational and
non-religious way of life) and so to safeguard its original purpose, when applied to
1400-1600, it is often clarified as 'Renaissance Humanism'. It is important to remember,
though, that Renaissance thinkers did not themselves use the term humanism, and
neither did they agree on all subjects. Due to these problems of definition, some
historians prefer to use the term studia humanitatis, coined by
the Roman statesman Cicero (106-43 BCE) and revived by the Florentine scholar
Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406). Studia humanitatis refers to studies which, rather than
concentrating on religious matters, focus instead on what it is to be human, and more
precisely, consider what a virtuous individual is in its widest sense and how may that
individual fully participate in public life.

The main elements of Renaissance humanism include:

 an interest in studying literature and art from antiquity

 an interest in the eloquent use of Latin and philology
 a belief in the importance and power of education to create useful citizens
 the promotion of private and civic virtue
 a rejection of scholasticism
 the encouragement of non-religious studies
 an emphasis on the individual and their moral autonomy
 a belief in the importance of observation, critical analysis, and creativity
 a belief that poets, writers, and artists can lead humanity to a better way of living
 An interest in the question 'what does it mean to be human'?

Origins of the Classical Revival

The humanist movement can be traced back to a trio of Italian authors who lived before
the Renaissance period had even begun: Dante Alighieri (1265-1321 CE), Petrarch,
and Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375). All three would receive new interest in their work
during the Renaissance when they were recognized as its founding fathers. Dante was
the first, and his Divine Comedy (c. 1319), although a book with a central message on
how to reach salvation, was a subtle shift from entirely religious-focused works to those
considering humanity's role in God's universe. The Divine Comedy had many overtly
classical elements, from the Roman poet Virgil (70-19 BCE) acting as a guide to the
many ancient historical figures mentioned.

Next came Petrarch, who was an equally religious man but in his work criticized some
elements of the Catholic Church such as its corruption and excessive love of show.
Petrarch rejected scholasticism which grimly held on to Church dogma and created
endless rounds of fruitless debate amongst scholars. He made perhaps his greatest
contribution to the study of antiquity by finding manuscripts which had become 'lost' in
obscure monastic libraries. Amongst his famous discoveries were several works and
letters by Cicero.

etrarch believed that a new golden age of thought and politics could be achieved by
returning to the ideals of antiquity and by permitting poets and scholars to lead a
revolution in education. His idea that the period in which he lived was an intermediary
period between antiquity and this new dawn, what he called disparagingly 'a slumber'
was latched onto by later Renaissance thinkers and did much to foster the idea that the
Middle Ages was somehow a period of cultural darkness. Further, Petrarch's work with
ancient manuscripts encouraged the scholarship of non-religious subjects with
humanity at its centre, and this became a legitimate activity for intellectuals.
Consequently, Petrarch is often cited as the father of humanism.

Giovanni Boccaccio also searched out 'lost' manuscripts relevant to antiquity. In

addition, his Decameron (Ten Days), a collection of tales compiled between c. 1348 and
1353, appealed to later humanists because it dealt with everyday human experiences in
great detail. Boccaccio also created works that were of great use to humanist scholars
such as his Ancestry of the Pagan Gods.

All three of these writers promoted the use of the Tuscan vernacular (at least in poetical
works), and this eventually led to the dominance of Latin being challenged. Humanists,
though, continued to favor Latin for scholarly purposes and modelled their Latin on
that of Cicero for prose and Virgil for poetry. The arrival of the printing press in Europe
in 1450 was another boost to the trio of authors mentioned above and the
democratization of knowledge. Renaissance humanism gave great importance to
invention, and here, again, Dante with his creation of terza rima (poems formed of
stanzas of three rhyming lines) and Boccaccio's innovative promotion in written form of
the ottava rima (where stanzas are formed of eight 11-syllable lines) fit that sentiment
perfectly.

The Classical Ideal

After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, many Greek scholars fled the
collapsing Byzantine Empire and brought classical texts with them to Europe,
especially Italy. These were a very welcome addition to the Latin texts scholars like
Petrarch had found in monastic libraries. Consequently, by 1515 the works of all major
classical authors were available in print. Looking at these works as a whole, one idea
which especially interested Renaissance thinkers was virtus (virtue or excellence) and
civic duty. Petrarch had studied this half a century before but now the idea really took
off that the ancient world had something very valuable to teach the people of the 15th
century. Renaissance humanists now wanted to use, analyse, and critique ancient
sources to improve one's public life in service of the state. Theoretical knowledge was
not enough, what was gained from study had to be put into practice for the good of the
state and all who lived in it. Consequently, the great question, what does it mean to be
human that preoccupied Renaissance scholars provoked answers that included
religious, philosophical, scientific, and artistic considerations.
It today seems rather odd that scholars took such an interest in ancient sources which
might be considered outdated and irrelevant to contemporary society. For humanist
thinkers, though, antiquity, as seen in so many newly discovered manuscripts,
presented a fresh and vibrant alternative to the stagnant pool of thought so jealously
guarded by the medieval church. The new horizons offered by these texts and the
seemingly unbiased approach of ancient scholars in discussing and explaining the
world without any preconceived ideas made the whole Renaissance process seem, like
its very name indicates, an intellectual rebirth. Humanist scholars were not uncritical of
ancient sources, on the contrary, just like many ancient thinkers, they approached any
subject with critical analysis. Further, to approach a given subject objectively, one must
be intellectually free and with this idea came that of the free-thinking individual, one
unrestrained by religious or political bias. There were even those who thought that God
had given humanity the world as a test, to make of it what they will and apply their
virtue into making it a better place. In this way, humanism was not in opposition to
religion for many thinkers, but it did lead to the idea of a morally-autonomous
individual, which in turn led to individualism.

There was yet another reason to admire the ancients: their eloquence of argument. Cicero was
taken as the example par excellence of superb writing in Latin. Rhetoric - another term that
modernity has twisted out of all recognition from its original meaning - was then the art of
presenting eloquent argument. Further, this was not merely a trick to be used by scholars in
their writing, this was a tool to be used in everyday life. In other words, rhetoric is persuasion,
and with persuasion comes power. Rhetoric could become the means by which humanists
spread their ideas, persuading everyone from a literate merchant to the ruler of a dukedom that
theirs was the best way to be educated, live, work, and rule.

The Spread of Humanism

The printing press helped spread humanist ideas from their origins in Italy to the north
of Europe. Indeed, the most celebrated humanist scholar of his day was Desiderius
Erasmus of Rotterdam (c. 1469-1536). Erasmus believed that education was the answer
to the Catholic Church's problems (and not a radical Reformation). To this end, he
compiled editions of classical authors and provided a new Latin and Greek translation
of the New Testament. Erasmus' sharp and critical examination of original texts to
produce this, his textual analysis of current versions, and his interest in philology
would be influential on other Renaissance scholars.

Although early humanists were often Christians, the movement's emphasis on critical
inquiry did lead to an inevitable clash with Church authorities who depended on mass
and uncritical acceptance of secondhand interpretations of doctrine. That some
humanist scholars became champions of pagan texts was another bone of contention.

In the north of Europe, humanist scholars were more interested in religious reforms compared
to elsewhere, hence their brand of humanism is often called Religious Humanism. Sir Thomas
More (1478-1535), the English scholar and statesman, was one figure in this movement. A
defender of the Catholic Church against the Reformists, he famously wrote Utopia in 1516 about
an ideal society set on an imaginary island. More likely intended the work as a thinly-veiled
criticism of the reign of Henry VIII of England (r. 1509-1547), but its radical presentation of a
society where everyone works for the common good and shares equally in its success rang a
note of recognition in the minds of humanist scholars elsewhere. The obvious link
with Plato's Republic was another point of favour with the classical-loving humanists.

A Humanist Education
Erasmus was important in one other area: education for everybody. It was all very well
for scholars to debate the ideals of education in theory but more practical offerings were
needed to achieve the humanist goal of widening education. Erasmus, therefore, wrote
many textbooks such as his hugely popular On Copia (1512), which taught students how
to argue, revise texts, and produce new ones. His 1521 On Writing Letters taught how to
best write letters, aim for specific audiences, and employ eloquent expressions. Erasmus
even produced guides for those wishing to establish a school and compiled
recommended syllabuses.

Humanists emphasized the importance of an education which covered the liberal arts of
rhetoric, moral philosophy, grammar, history, and poetry. Physical exercise, just like in
ancient Greece, was also considered an essential part of a rounded education that
resulted in young people being able to realize their potential and become good citizens.
In addition, a humanist education continued for life, and it was never too late to learn
its benefits, especially so for rulers.

Humanism in Science
Observing, analyzing, and categorizing the world around us was an important part of
humanist thought, just as it had been in antiquity. For this reason, science made great
leaps forward during the Renaissance, powered at first by developments in
mathematics. The Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) proposed that
the solar system was heliocentric, amongst other innovative ideas, in his On the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, published in 1543. Copernicus was a classic
Renaissance scholar as he studied the works of antiquity, observed what he could in the
world personally, collated all that had been studied thus far in his field, and then came
up with a new view of the subject at hand. Perhaps the greatest contribution humanism
made to science was its thirst for answers and the confidence that they could be found
through human endeavor.

Humanism in the Arts

Rulers like Federico da Montefeltro (1422-1482 in Urbino and Cosimo I de' Medici
(1519-1574) in Florence were great admirers of antiquity and built up impressive
humanist libraries. They were, too, collectors of ancient art such as sculpture,
sarcophagi, relief panels, and coins. Both men also became great patrons of the arts,
encouraging humanist artists. This was a pattern imitated by rulers across Europe.

Renaissance painters and sculptors became very interested in classical mythology,

sometimes even combining it with Christian themes such as subtly
representing Venus as the Virgin Mary. Ancient thinkers were directly represented in
art, perhaps most famously in the School of Athens fresco in the Vatican
by Raphael (1483-1520).

There was, too, an appreciation of the skill of ancient artists, especially sculptors and
their ability to capture reality in bronze or marble. Renaissance artists were keen to
capture this reality themselves, a process going back as early as Giotto (b. 1267 or 1277 -
d. 1337) and culminating with the hyper-realistic portraits by late Renaissance
Netherlandish artists. Just like Renaissance writers, artists wanted not only to emulate
the classical tradition but also to improve upon it. Consequently, the correct use of
perspective became an ever-more precise endeavor for Renaissance artists. Artists were
also convinced that their ancient counterparts had somehow discovered mathematical
secrets of proportion, especially related to the human body.

Artists now gave emphasis to the human experience in their art. Portraits, for example,
might include a classical book next to the sitter to emphasize their humanist tendencies.
Even religious works of the period have a focus on the human figures and their story
within the scene. Just as humanist writers knew full well the powerful effect of their
words, so, too, artists knew the power they had to create a lasting aesthetic impression
on the viewer. Perhaps there is no better example of this wow-factor
than Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling. Finally, the emphasis on the individual
within humanism found expression in the way artists now viewed themselves -
superior artisans who used their intellect to study art and create masterpieces that
would carry their fame for generations to come.
Humanism pervaded Renaissance architecture where buildings were designed that
were elegant, symmetrical, functional, and harmonious with their surroundings, just as
they had been in ancient Rome. Above all, buildings displayed the classical ratios of
length and height.

Humanism, with its reverence for classical authors and what exactly a knowledge of
antiquity can teach us found expression in the performance arts, notably in the plays of
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) who was interested in characters that could reveal the
breadth and depth of the human experience. Shakespeare is not perhaps taking any
particular side in the humanist debates presented in his works but he does, at least,
make full masterly use of that humanist power tool - language - to achieve his effects.

The Legacy of Renaissance Humanism

Humanism transformed education and rejuvenated the world of ideas and art with its
discovery, promotion, and adaptation of classical works. It led to the creation of an
international network of scholars linked by letters and books, the separation of church
and politics, the critical examination of texts leading to the discovery of inaccuracies
and even forgeries, and the creation of public libraries.

Perhaps inevitably, though, humanist scholars and thinkers began to divide into groups
as they specialised into different areas of what was already a hopelessly broad area of
human endeavor. There were realists against moralists, those who wanted to forget all
about religion and those who did not, and those who were republicans and those who
were royalists. There were humanists who thought the study of language an end itself
while others thought it only a means to understand ideas. Some preferred a life of
contemplation in contrast to those who still stuck to the idea of putting humanism into
political practice. As science, the arts, history, philosophy, and theology all split away
from each other, so Renaissance humanism came to an end, broken apart as scholarly
specialization won the battle against earning a comprehensive overview of the human
condition.

Despite the breaking up of the humanist movement into its component parts, the
essential idea that humans were worthy of serious study is one that has never gone
away, of course. If anything, this idea has only widened and deepened. The subjects
that were considered important to study in classical sources such as philosophy,
history, and literature came to be collectively known as the humanities, and today, of
course, they form major faculties in colleges and universities worldwide.