Professional Documents
Culture Documents
HANDBOOK
Enquiries regarding translation rights should be addressed to Amalgamated
Wireless Valve Company Pty., Ltd., 47 York Street, Sydney, Australia.
Edited By
F. LANGFORD-SMITH
B.Sc., B.E. (Ist class honours)
Senior Member I.R.E. (U.S.A.)
A.M.l.E. (Atm.)
FOURTH EDITION
under direction of
Commercial Engineering
RCA Victor Division
RADIO CORPORAnON OF AMERICA
Harrison, New Jersey
February, 1954
PREFACE
This book has been written as a comprehensive, self-explanatory reference hand-
book for the benefit of all who have an interest in the design and application of radio
receivers or audio amplifiers. Everything outside this field-television, radio trans-
mission, radar, industrial electronics, test equipment and so on-has been excluded
to limit the book to a reasonable size.
An effort has been made to produce a handbook which, in its own sphere, is as self-
contained as possible. Extensive references to other sources of information have
been included for the reader who might require additional detail.
The success of the previous edition, of which over 280,000 copies have been sold
throughout the world, encouraged Amalgamated Wireless Valve Company Pty. Ltd.,
to undertake the compilation of the present up-to-date edition which is more com-
plete, great pains having been taken to fill in many of the gaps in the data published
hitherto. This has involved a considerable amount of both experimental and an-
alytical work by the editor and by engineers assisting in the project. Some original
work, previously unpublished, has been included.
Although the various crw.pters have been vv-ritten by individual authors, all are ta.-.uly
the result of team work, each having been carefully and critically examined by several
other engineers specializing in that particular field. In this way the accuracy of
mathematical ,calculations and of individual statements was checked and re-checked
to ensure that the reader would not be misinformed.
I wish to express my grateful thanks to Mr. R. Lambie, Manager, Mr. D. M.
Sutherland, Works Manager, and to the following collaborating engineers-
J. E. Bailey, Dr. W. G, Baker, D. Barnett, J. D. G. Barrett, Dr. G. Builder,
N. V. C. Cansick, W. N. Christiansen, Dr. E. R. Dalziel, K. G. Dean, H. L.
Downing, J. Gilchrist, 1. C Hansen, R. Herbert, F. Holloway, 1. Hood, D. G.
Lindsay, W. S. McGuire, E. J. Packer, J. Pritchard, R. J. Rawlings, B. Sandel,
J. Stacey,R. D. Stewart, J. E. Telfer, R. Vine, E. Watkinson.
I also wish to express my thanks to Mr. R. Ainsworth for his invaluable work in
sub-editing and assistance in indexing and to Mr. R. H. Aston for compiling data.
F. LA..."lGFORD-SMITH
NOTES
References to valve types are to the prototype (e.g. 6J7) and include all equivalent
types (e.g. 6J7-G, 6J7-GT etc.) unless otherwise indicated.
If any errors are noted, please write to the Editor, Radiotron Designer's Handbook,
Amalgamated Wireless Valve Co. Pty. Ltd., 47 York Street, Sydney, Australia.
(v)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The editor wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the publishers of the
following periodicals for permission to reproduce the diagrams listed below. In
some cases the diagrams are based largely on the originals, although modified.
PERIODICALS
Audio Engineering 13. 500, 50E. 14. lA, B, C, 0, E, F, G, H. 15. 15,. 16,
57A, 57B, 60. 16. 15. 17. 7, 8, 15A, 15B, 15C, 18, 19A, 19B, 19C, 20, 22, 24B,
24C, 27A, 27B, 27C, 31, 37A. 19. 6A. 20. 10, 13, 14.
A.W.A. Technical Review 25. 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39. 26. 6. 27. 44.
Communications 7. 72, 73. 16. 16. 18. 17, 18. 23. 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,
24, 25, 26.
Electronic Engineering 5. 13E, 13F, 13G, 13H, 13J, 13K, 13L, 13M, 13N, 13P,
13Q, 13R, 13S, 13T, nu, Table 5. 7. 510. 11. 7,8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13. 12. 3B,
3C, llA, llB. 15. '4, 63. 17. 21, 26. 18. 6A, 6B.
Electronic Industries 17. 6.
Electronics 1. 8. 4. 34. 5. 21, 22. 7. 51. 9. 17, 18, 12, 47A, 47B, 48.
15. 17, 18A, 18B, 38, 39, 45, 46, 52, 53,61. 16. 4,10,12,17, 18,19,20,21,22,23,
24, 25, 26, 27, 28. 21. 9. 35. 24, 25. 36. 3, 5.
FM-TV Radio Communication 17. 35. 20. 25, 26, 27.
Journal Acoustical Society of America 20. 28.
Journal British I.R.E. 5. 13C, 130.
Proceedings I.R.E. (U.S.A.) 7. 58, 59. 12. 7C. 13. 9B. 14. 6. 20. 24. 25.
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,20,21. 30. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
37. 2, 3, 4.
Proceedings I.E.E. 7. 60, 65, 69, 70.
Proceedings I.R.E. Australia 35. 19, 20, 21.
Q.S.T. 16. 13.
Radio 13. 500, 50E. 15. 47A, 47B.
Radio and Hobbies (Australia) 15. 14B, 35B, 37B, 37C.
Radio and TV News 15. 43A, 43B. 16. 14. 18. 7A, 7B.
Radio Craft 15. 42, 44A, 49, 54. 17. 33.
Radio Electronics 15. 64.
R.C.A. Review 17. 37A. 27. 20, 21, 25, 27.
Te1e-Tech 15. 14A. 36. 2. 38. Chart 38.4.
T.V. Engineering 10. 10.
Wireless Engineer 5. 13B. 7. 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83. 11. 1, 6A.
Wireless World 4. 10, 26. 7. 51A, 54B, 54C, 551), 55E, 55F, 59C. 12. 34, 35,
39. 15. 5, 13,41,50,51,55, 56A, 56B, 58A. 16. 8,9, 11. 17. 24A, 28, 32, 35B,
35C, 350, 35E, 35F, 35G. 18. 26. 20. 5, 9, 11, 12, 16, 17. 31. 6.
Reference numbers are given either in the titles or in the text. Lists of refer-
ena;.. giving authors' names and details of articles are given at the end of each chapter.
(vii)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (Continued)
The editor desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to the authors and publishers
of the following books and publications for permission to reproduce the diagrams and
tables listed below.
Redrawn by permission from ELECTRONIC TRANSFORMERS AND CIRCUITS
by R. Lee, published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1947. Fig. 5.23.
Redrawn by permission from General Electric Company from TRANSFORMER
ENGINEERING-1st ed. by Blume, Camilli, Boyajian & Montsinger, published
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1935. Fig. 5.1SB.
Redrawn by permission from ELEMENTS OF ACOUSTICAL ENGINEERING
(2nd ed.) by H. F. Olson, copyrighted by D. Van Nostrand Company Inc. Table
19.7. Fig. 20.30.
Redrawn by permission from NETWORK ANALYSIS AND FEEDBACK AM-
PLIFIER DESIGN by H. W. Bode, Bell Telephone Laboratories Inc., copyrighted
1945 by D. Van Nostrand Company Inc. Figs~ 7.55A, 7.5SB, 7.55C, 7.S6A.
Other acknowledgements are given in the titles.
OTHER PUBLICATIONS
Aerovox Research Worker, Vol. 11, Nos. 1 and 2, January-February 1939, Figs. 5
and 6. Published by permission of Aerovox Corporation. Tables 3S. 43, 44.
Charts 38. 1, 2.
Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation---curves 3.6% silicon steel. Fig. 5. 20.
American Standards Association "American Standard for Noise Measurement"
Z24.22-1942. Figs. 19. 7, S.
Australian Radio Technical Services and Patents Co. Pty. Ltd.-Technical Bulletins.
Figs. 15. 22, 23, 24, 2S, 26, 27, 43. 31. 3, 4, 5.
Amalgamated Wireless Australasia Ltd. Figs. 18. 7. 28. 2.
Electrical and Musical Industries. Fig. 17. 25.
Jensen Manufacturing Company-Jensen Technical Monograph No.3. Figs.
14. 2, 3, 4, 5.
P. R. Mallory & Co. Inc. "Fundamental Principles of Vibrator Power Supply"
Figs. 32. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, S, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.
National Bureau of Standards Circular C74, Fig. 20S redrawn and published by per-
mission of National Bureau of Standards. Fig. 10. 3.
Standard Transformer Corporation" Engineering a transformer." Figs. 5. ISC,
18D. Table 38. 70.
General Electric Company Ltd. "Radio receiver for use with high fidelity ampli-
fiers." Fig. 15. 62A.
Radio and Television Manufacturers Association (U.S.A.)-Extracts from, or sum-
maries of, the following Standards:
ET-107, ET-I09, ET-ll0, REC-ll , REC-I01, REC-I03, REC-I04, REC-I05,
REC-I06-A, REC-I07, REC-IOS, REC-113, REC-114, REC-llS-A, REC-116,
REC-117, REC-llS, REC-119, REC-121, REC-12S, S-410, S-416, S-417, S-418,
S-S04, SE-IOl-A, SE-I03, SE-105, TR-IOS-A, TR-113-A.
Note :-References in the text to R.M.A. Standards should be taken as having
been issued by RTMA.
I.R.E. Standards, Figs. 3. lIB, IS. 37. I, 2, 3, 4.
Radio Industry Council-Information from standards on resistors and capacitors.
Chapter 3S Sections 2 and 3.
Radio Corporation of America. 1. 6. 2. 32A, 33, 34, 3S, 47. 3. 16, 17. 10. 6.
13. 26, 30, 48. 17. SA. 23. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, IS, 16. 30. 2A, 2B, 2C, II.
33. 14. 35. 17.
(viii)
CHAPTER HEADINGS
PART 1: THE RIDIO VALVE
CHAPTER PAGB
1 INTRODUCTION TO THE RADIO VALVE 1
2 VALVE CHARACTERIsTICS 13
3 THE TESTING OF OXIDE-COATED CATHODE HIGH-VACUUM RECEIVING VALVES 68
PART 7: SUNDRY.DATA
38 TABLES, CHARTS AND SUNDRY DATA 1328
See next page for detailed List of Contents.
SUPPLEMENT 1475
(ix)
CONTENTS
PART 1: THE RADIO VALVE
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE RADIO VALVE
SECfION PAGE
1. ELECTRICITY AND EMISSION ...
2. THE COMPONENT PARTS OF RADIO VALVES 4
(i) Filaments, cathodes and heaters 4
(ii) Grids 5
(iii) Plates 5
(iv) Bulbs 5
(v) Voltages with valve operation ... 5
3. TyPES OF RADIO VALVES 6
(i) Diodes 6
(ii) Triodes 7
(iii) Tetrodes 7
(iv) Pentodes 7
(v) Pentode power amplifiers 8
(vi) Combined valves 8
(vii) Pentagrid converters 8
4. MAxIMUM RATINGS AND TOLERANCES 9
(i) Maximum ratings and their interpretation 9
(ii) Tolerances 9
5. FILAMENT AND HEATER VOLTAGE/CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS 10
6. VALVE NUMBERING SYSTEMS 10
7. REFERENCES 12
(x)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGB
(V) Cathode loadlines 29
(vi) With reactive loads 30
5. TRIODE OPERATION OF PENrODES 34
(i) Triode operation of pentodes 34
(ii) Examples of transconductance calculation 34
(iii) Triode amplification factor 35
(iv) Plate resistance ... 36
(v) .Connection of suppressor grid 36
6. CONVERSION FACTORS, AND THE CALCULATION OF CHARACTERISTICS OTHER
THAN THOSE PuBLISHED 36
(i) The basis of valve conversion factors 36
(ii) The use of valve conversion factors 37
(iii) The calculation of valve characteristics other than those pub-
lished 40
(iv) The effect of changes in operating conditions 42
7. VALVE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS AND VECTORS 45
(i) Constant voltage equivalent circuit 45
(ii) Constant current equivalent circuit 46
(iii) Valve vectors 47
8. VALVE ADMITTANCES ..• 49
(i) Grid input impedance and admittance 49
(ii) Admittance coefficients 50
(iii) The components of gridadmittance--input resistance--
input capacitance-grid input aci'TIi!1".ance 51
(iv) Typical values of short-circuit input conductance 55
(v) Change of short-circuit-input capacitance with transconduct-
ance ... 55
(vi) Grid-cathode capacitance 56
(vii) Input capacitances of pentodes (published values) ... 56
(viii) Grid-plate capacitance 57
9. MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS 57
(i) General 57
(ii) Resistance load ... 58
(iii) Power and efficiency 59
(iv) Series expansion; resistance load 61
(v) Series expansion; general case 63
(vi) The equivalent plate circuit theorem 63
(vii) Dynamic load line--general case 64
(viii) Valve networks-general case ... 64
(ix) Valve coefficients as partial differentials 64
(x) Valve characteristics at low plate currents 65
10. REFERENCES 66
CHAPTER 3. THE .TESTING OF OXIDE-COATED CATHODE
HIGH-VACUUM RECEIVING VALVES
1. BASIS OF TESTING PRACTICE 68
(i) Fundamental physical properties 69
(ii) Basic functional characteristics 70
(iii) Fundamental characteristic tests 73
(iv) Valve ratings and their limiting effect on operation 75
(A) Limiting ratings 75
(B) Characteristics usually rated 75
(C) Rating systems 77
(D) Interpretation of maximum ratings 77
(E) Operating conditions ... 80
(v) Recommended practice and operation 80
(a) Mounting 80
(b) Ventilation 81
(xi)
CONTENTS
SBCTlON PAGB
(c) Heater-cathode insulation 81
(d) Control grid circuit resistance 82
(e) Operation at low screen voltages 84
(f) Microphony 84
(g) Hum 84
(h) Stand-by operation 84
2. CONTROL OF CHARACTERISTICS DURING MANUFACTURE 85
(i) Importance of control over characteristics 85
(ii) Basic manufacturing test specification 85
(iii) Systematic testing 86
(iv) Tolerances on characteristics 88
3. METHODS OF TESTING CHARACTERISTICS 89
(i) General conventions 90
(ii) General characteristics ... 91
(a) Physical dimensions 91
(b) Shorts and continuity ... 91
(c) Heater (or filament) current... 93
(d) Heater to cathode leakage 94
(e) Inter-electrode insulation 94
(f) Emission 94
(g) Direct inter-electrode capacitances 95
(iii) Specific diode characteristics 99
(a) Rectification test 99
(b) Sputter and arcing 100
(c) Back emission ... 100
(d) Zero signal or standing diode current 101
(iv) Specific triode, pentode and beam tetrode characteristics... 101
(A) Reverse grid current... 101
(B) Grid current commencement voltage 102
(C) Positive grid current ... 102
CD) Positive voltage electrode currents ... 103
(E) Transconductance or mutual conductance... 103
CF) Amplification factor 104
(G) Plate resistance 104
(H) A. C. amplification 105
(1) Power output ... 105
0) Distortion 106
(K) Microphony 107
(L) Audio frequency noise 107
(M) Radio frequency noise 107
(N) Blocking 107
(0) Stage gain testing 108
(P) Electrode dissipation ... 108
(v) Specific converter characteristics 108
(A) Methods of operation including oscillator excitation 108
(1) Oscillator self-excited 108
(2) Oscillator driven 109
(3) Static operation 109
(B) Specific characteristics 109
(a) Reverse signal grid current 109
(b) Signal-grid current commencement 109
(c) Mixer positive voltage electrode currents 109
(d) Mixer conversion transconductance 109
(e) Mixer plate resistance 111
(f) Mixer transconductance 111
(g) Oscillator grid current III
(xii)
CONTENTS
S~ON PAGE
(h) Oscillator plate current 113
(i) Oscillator transconductance 113
(j) Oscillator amplification factor 113
(k) Oscillator plate resistance 113
(1) Signal-grid blocking... 113
(m) Microphony ... 113
(n) R-F noise 113
(vi) Tests for special characteristics 113
(A) Short-circuit input admittance 113
(B) Short-circuit feedback admittance 117
(C) Short-circuit output admittance 117
(D) Short-circuit forward admittance 117
(E) Perveance 117
(vii) Characteristics by pulse methods-point by point ... 118
(viii) Characteristics by curve tracer methods 119
4. ACCEPTANCE TESTING .•. 120
(i) Relevant characteristics ... 120
(ii) Valve specifications 120
(iii) Testing procedure 120
5. SERVICE TESTING AND SERVICE TESTER PRACTICE ... 121
(i) Purpose and scope of service testing and discussion of as-
sociated problems ... 121
(ii) Fundamental characteristics which should be tested 122
(iii) Types of commercial testers ... 122
(iv) Methods of testing characteristics in commercial service testers 123
(a) Shorts testing ... 123
(b) Continuity testing 123
(c) Heater to cathode leakage 123
(d) Emission testing 123
(e) Mutual conductance testing 123
(f) Plate conductance testing 124
(g) Reverse grid current testing ... 124
(h) Power output testing ... 124
(i) Conversion conductance testing 124
(j) Oscillator mutual conductance testing 124
(k) Noise testing ... 124
(1) A.C. amplification testing 124
(v) A.C. versus d.c. electrode voltages in testers 124
(vi) Pre-heating 125
(vii) Testing procedure 125
6. REFERENCES 125
(xiii)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
3. POw"ER 133
(i) Power in d.c. circuits 133
(ii) Power in resistive a.c. circuits ... 133
4. CAPACITANCE 134
(i) Introduction to capacitance 134
(ii) Condensers in parallel and series 135
(iii) Calculation of capacitance 135
(iv) Condensers in d.c. circuits 136
(v) Condensers in a.c. circuits 137
5. INDUCTANCE 140
(i) Introduction to inductance 140
(ii) Inductances in d.c. circuits 141
(iii) Inductances in series and parallel 141
(iv) Mutual inductance 142
(v) Inductances in a.c. circuits 142
(vi) Power in inductive circuits 143
6. IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE 144
(i) Impedance, a complex quantity 144
(ii) Series circuits with L, C and R 144
(iii) Parallel combinations of L, C and R 147
(iv) Series-parallel combinations of L, C and R .. . 149
(v) Conductance, susceptance and a5imittance .. . 153
(vi) Conversion from series to parallel impedance 157
7. NETWORKS 158
(i) Introduction to networks 158
(li) Kirchhoff's Laws 160
(iii) Potential dividers 161
(iv) Thevenin's Theorem 164
(v) Norton's Theorem 165
(vi) Maximum Power Transfer Theorem ... 165
(vii) Reciprocity Theorem 165
(viii) Superposition Theorem .. . 165
(ix) Compensation Theorem .. . 166
(x) Four-terminal networks .. . 166
(xi) Multi-mesh networks 167
(xii) Non-linear components in networks 170
(xiii) Phase shift networks 170
(xiv) Transients in networks .. . 171
(xv) References to networks .. . 171
8. FILTERS 172
(i) Introduction to filters 172
(ii) Resistance-capacitance filters, high-pass and low-pass 172
(iii) Special types of resistance-capacitance filters 176
(iv) Iterative impedances of four terminal networks 176
(v) Image impedances and image transfer constant of four ter-
minal networks 177
(vi) Symmetrical networks 179
(vii) "Constant k" filters 179
(viii) M -derived filters 182
(ix) Practical filters ... 184
(x) Frequency dividing networks 184
(xi) References to filters 185
(xiv)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGB
9. PRACTICAL REsISTORS, CONDENSERS AND INDUCTORS 186
(i) Practical resistors 186
(ii) Practical condensers 191
(iii) Combination units 197
(iv) Practical inductors 197
(v) References to practical resistors and condensers 198
(xv)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
CHAPTER 6. MATHEMATICS
1. ARITHMETIC AND THE SLIDE RULE 255
(i) Figures 255
(ii) Powers and roots 255
(iii) Logarithms 255
(iv) The slide rule 257
(v) Short cuts in arithmetic 258
2. ALGEBRA 259
(i) Addition ... 260
(ii) Subtraction 260
(iii) Multiplication 260
(iv) Division 260
(v) Powers 260
(vi) Roots 261
(vii) Brackets and simple manipulations 261
(viii) Factoring . 262
(ix) Proportion 262
(x) Variation 262
(xi) Inequalities 262
(xii) Functions 263
(xiii) Equations 263
(xiv) Formulae and laws 265
(xv) Continuity and limits 265
(xvi) Progressions, sequences and series 266
(xvii) Logarithmic and exponential functions 267
(xviii) Infinite series 268
(xix) Hyperbolic functions 269
(xx) General approximations 271
3. GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY 272
(i) Plane figures 272
(ii) Surfaces and volumes of solids 275
(iii) Trigonometrical relationships ... 275
4. PERIODIc PHENOMENA ••• 278
5. GRAPHICAL REpRESENTATION AND j NOTATION 279
(i) Graphs 279
(ii) Finding the equation to a curve 281
(iii) Three variables ... 281
(iv) Vectors and j notation ... 282
6. COMPLEX ALGEBRA AND DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM 285
(i) Complex algebra with regular coordinates 285
(ii) Complex algebra with polar coordinates 286
(iii) De Moivre's Theorem ... 287
7. DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS 289
(i) Slope and rate of change 289
(ii) Differentiation 291
(iii) Integration 294
(iv) Taylor's Series 298
(v) Maclaurin's Series 299
8. FOURIER SERIES AND HARMONICS 299
(i) Periodic waves and. the Fourier Series 299
(ii) Other applications of the Fourier Series 302
(iii) Graphical Harmonic Analysis 302
9. REFERENCES 304
(xvi)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
(xvii)
CONTENTS
SBCTJON PAGE
(xviii)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
(xix)
CONTENTS
SECTION ~.G1!
(xx)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
(xxi)
CONTENTS
~:FCTION PAGE
3. CLASS A MULTI-GRID VALVES 560
(i) Introduction 560
(ii) Ideal pentodes . .. 561
(iii) Practical pentodes-operating conditions 561
(iv) Graphical analysis-power output and distortion 563
(v) Rectification effects 565
(vi) Cathode bias 565
(vii) Resistance and inductance of transformer primary 566
(viii) Loudspeaker load 566
(ix) Effects of plate and screen regulation 568
(x) Beam power valves 569
(xi) Space charge tetrodes ... 569
(xii) Partial triode (" ultra-linear") operation of pentodes 570
4. PARALLEL CLASS A AMPLIFIERS 570
5. PuSH-PuLL TRIODES CLASS A, ABI 571
(i) Introduction 571
(ii) Theory of push-pull amplification 573
(iii) Power output and distortion . .. 577
(iv) Average plate current ... 579
(v) Matching and the effects of mismatching 580
(vi) Cathode bias 582
(vii) Parasitics... 582
6 PuSH-PuLL PENTODES AND BEAM POWER AMPLIFIERS, CLASS A, ABl 583
(i) Introduction 583
(ii) Power output and distortion . .. 583
(iii) The effect of power supply regulation 584
(iv) Matching and the effects of mismatching 584
(v) Average plate and screen currents 584
(vi) Cathode bias 585
(vii) Parasitics... 585
(viii) Phase inversion in the power stage 585
(ix) Extended Class A 587
(x) Partial triode (" ultra-linear") operation 587
7. CLASS B AMPLIFIERS AND DRIVERS . ~ . 587
(i) Introduction 587
(ii) Power output and distortion-ideal conditions-Class B2 588
(iii) Power output and distortion-practical conditions-Class B2 588
(iv) Grid driving conditions... 590
(v) Design procedure for Class B2 amplifiers 592
(vi) Earthed-grid cathode coupled amplifiers 592
(vii) Class Bl amplifiers-quiescent push-pull 592
8. CLASS AB2 AMPLIFIERS 593
(i) Introduction 593
(ii) Bias and screen stabilized Class AB2 amplifier 593
(iii) McIntosh amplifier 594
9. CATHODE-FoLLOWER POWER AMPLIFIERS 596
10. SPECIAL FEATURES 596
(i) Grid circuit resistance 596
(ii) Grid bias sources 597
(iii) Miller Effect 598
(iv) 26 volt operation 598
(v) Hum from plate and screen supplies... 599
11. COMPLETE AMPLIFIERS 599
(i) Introduction 599
(ii) Design procedure and examples 599
(iii) Loudspeaker load 600
12. REFERENCES 601
(xxii)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
(xxiii)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
HIGH FIDELITY REPRODUCTION 630
(i) The target of high fidelity 630
(ii) Practicable high fidelity ... 630
(iii) The ear as a judge of fidelity ... 632
13. REFERENCES 632
(xxiv)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
(vi) Step-type tone control using negative feedback 662
(vii) Continuously-variable controls-general 662
(viii) Single control continuously-variable tone controls 662
(ix) Ganged continuously-variable tone controls 664
(x) Dual control continuously-variable tone controls 664
9. FEEDBACK TO PROVIDE TONE CONTROL 669
(i) Introduction 669
(ii) Amplifiers with feedback providing tone control 669
(iii) Whistle filters using feedback ... 672
10. AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY-COMPENSATED TONE CONTROL ... 672
(i) IntroduCtion 672
(ii) Methods incorporating a tapped potentiometer 672
(iii) Methods incorporating step-type controls 673
(iv) Method incorporating inverse volume expansion with
multi-channel amplifier 673
11. WmSTLE FILTERS 673
(i) Resonant circuit filters 673
(ii) Narrow band rejection filter 675
(iii) Crystal filters 675
(iv) Parallel-T network 675
(v) Filters incorporating L and C 676
12. OTHER METHoDs OF TONE CONTROL 676
(i) Multiple-channel amplifiers 676
eii) Synthetic bass 676
13. THE LISTENER AND TONE CONTROL 677
14. EQUALIZER NETWORKS 677
15. REFERENCES 677
(xxv)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGI!
4. VOLUME EXPANSION 686
(i) Introduction 686
(ii) Expanders incorporating lamps 687
(iii) Expanders utilizing feedback .. , 688
(iv) Expanders incorporating remote cut-off pentodes 688
(v) Expanders incorporating remote cut-off triodes 689
(vi) Expanders incorporating suppressor-grid controlled pentodes 689
(vii) Expanders incorporating valves with five grids 691
(viii) Expanders incorporating plate resistance control 692
5. PUBLIC AnDRESs A.V.C. 693
6. SPEECH CLIPPERS 693
7. NOISE PEAK AND OUTPUT LIMITERS... 694
(i) Introduction 694
(ii) Instantaneous noise peak limiters 694
(iii) Output limiters ... 698
(iv) General remarks 699
8. RE~NCES 699
(xxvi)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
(vi) Equalizers for crystal pickups 741
(vii) Equalizers applying negative feedback to the pickup 743
(viii) Miscellaneous details regarding equalizing amplifiers 743
(ix) Complete amplifiers 744
(x) Pickups for connection to radio receivers 751
(xi) Frequency test records 752
6. DISTORTION AND UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS 757
(i) Tracing distortion and pinch effect 757
(ii) Playback loss 760
(iii) Wow, and the effects of record warping 760
(iv) Distortion due to stylUS wear 761
(v) Noise modulation 761
(vi) Pickup distortion 762
(vii) Acoustical radiation 762
(viii) Distortion in recording 762
7. NOISE REDUCTION 763
(i) Analysis of noise 763
(ii) High-frequency attenuation 763
(iii) High-frequency pre-emphasis and de-emphasis 763
(iv) Volume expansion 763
(v) Olson noise' suppressor 763
(vi) Scott dynamic noise suppressor 764
(vii) Price balance,d clipper noise suppressor 765
8. LACQUER DISC HOME RECORDING (DIRECT PLAYBACK) 766
(i) General description ... 766
(ii) Recording characteristic 766
(iii) Cutting stylus ... 767
(iv) Cutter head 767
(v) Equalization of cutter 767
(vi) Motor and turntable ... 767
(vii) Amplifier 767
(viii) Pickups for use on lacquer discs 768
(ix) Recording with embossed groove 768
9. REPRODUCTION FROM TRANsCRIPTION DISCS 769
(i) Introduction 769
(ii) Characteristics of record material, wear and noise 769
(iii) Sound track 770
(iv) Recording characteristics and equalization 770
(v) Translation loss and radius compensation 770
10. REFERENCES TO LATERAL DISC REcORDING ... 771
(xxvii)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
(xi) The directional characteristics of microphones 780
(xii) The equalization of microphones 781
(xiii) Microphone transformers 781
(xiv) Standards for microphones 781
2. PRE-AMPLIFIERS 782
(i) Introduction 782
(ii) Noise 782
(iii) Hum 784
(iv) Microphony 786
(v) Valves for use in pre-amplifiers 786
(vi) Microphone pre-amplifiers 788
(vii) Pickup pre-amplifiers 793
(viii) Gain-controlled pre-amplifiers 793
(ix) Standard pre-amplifiers for broadcasting 793
(x) Standard pre-amp~ers for sound equipment 793
3. ATTENUATORS AND MIXERS 794
(i) Potentiometer type attenuators (volume controls) 794
(ii) Single section attenuators--constant impedance 795
(iii) Single section attenuators--constant impedance in one direction
only 795
(iv) Multiple section attenuators 796
(v) Electronic attenuators 797
(vi) Mixers and faders-general 798
(vii) Non-constant impedance mixers and faders 798
(viii) Constant impedance mixers and faders 801
4. REFERENCES 804
(xxviii)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
5. LoUDNESS 826
(i) Introduction to loudness 826
(ii) The phon 826
(iii) Loudness units ... 827
6. THE MEAsUREMENT OF SOUND LEVEL AND NOISE .•• 821
(i) Introduction 827
(ii) The sound level meter 828
(iii) The measurement of noise in amplifiers 829
(iv) The measurement of radio noise 829
7. REFERENCES 830
(xxix)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGB
(iii) The overlap region 861
(iv) Compromise arrangements 861
6. LOUDSPEAKERS IN OPERATION 861
(i) Loudness 861
(li) Power required 861
(iii) Acoustics of rooms 864
(iv) Loudspeaker placement 865
(v) Stereophonic reproduction 865
(vi) Sound reinforcing systems 866
(vii) Open air Public Address 867
(viii) Inter-communicating systems 867
(ix) Background music in factories 867
7. DISTORTION IN LOUDSPEAKERS 868
(i) Non-linearity 868
(li) Frequency-modulation distortion in loudspeakers 869
(iii) Transient distortion 869
(iv) Sub-l¥umonics and sub-frequencies 871
(v) Intermodulation distortion 871
8. SUMMARY OF ACOUSTICAL DATA 871
(i) Definitions in acoustics 871
(ii) Electrical, mechanical and acoustical equivalents 872
(iii) Velocity and wavelength of sound 872
(iv) Musical scales 873
9. STANDARDS FOR LoUDSPEAKERS 874
(i) Voice coil impedance for radio receivers 874
(li) Loudspeaker standard ratings for sound equipment 874
10. REFERENCES TO LOUDSPEAKERS 876
(xxx)
CONTENTS
SEcrION PAGE
(xxxi)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
5. EFFECTS OF VALVE INPUT ADMITTANCE 927
(i) Important general considerations 927
(li) Input loading of. receiving valves at radio frequencies 928
(A) Input conductance 929
(B) Cold input conductance 929
(C) Hot input conductance 930
(D) Change in input capacitance 932
(E) Reduction of detuning effect 933
6. VALVE AND CIRCUIT NOISE ... 935
(i) Thermal agitation noise 935
(li) Shot noise 936
(ill) Induced grid noise 939
(iv) Total noise calculations 940
(v) Sample circuit calculations 941
(vi) Conclusions 942
7. INSTABILITY IN R-F AMPLIFIERS 942
(i) Causes of instability 942
(li) Inter-electrode capacitance coupling 943
(ill) Sununary ... 944
8. DISTORTION 944
(i) Modulation envelope distortion 945
(li) Cross modulation distortion 945
9. BmLIOGRAPHY 945
(xxxii)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
(v) Conclusion 984
(vi) Appendix ... 985
2. CONVERTER APPLICATIONS 987
(i) Broadcast frequencies 987
(ii) Short waves 990
(iii) Types of converters 996
3. SUPERHETERODYNE TRACKING... 1002
(i) General 1002
(ii) (A) Formulae and charts for superheterodyne oscillator
design 1005
(B) Worked examples 1011
(iii) (A) Padded signal circuits 1013
(B) Worked example 1015
4. REFERENCES 1017
(xxxiii)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGB
(xxxiv)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
(x) A.V.C. with battery valves 1114
(xi) Special case with simple a.v.c. 1115
(xii) The a.v.c. filter and its time constants 1115
(xiii) A.V.C. characteristics ... 1117
(xiv) An improved form of a.v.c. characteristic 1118
(xv) Design methods 1120
4. MUTING (Q.A.V.C.) ... 1125
(i) General operation 1125
(ii) Typical circuits ... 1125
(iii) Circuits used with F-M receivers 1128
5. NOISE LIMITING 1130
6. TuNING INDICATORS ... 1132
(i) Miscellaneous 1132
(ii) Electron Ray tuning indicators 1133
(iii) Null point indicator using Electron Ray tube 1134
(iv) Indicators for F-M receivers 1135
7. CRYSTAL DETECTORS ... 1136
(i) Old type crystal detectors 1136
(ii) Fixed germanium crystal detectors 1136
(iii) Fixed silicon crystal detectors .. . 1137
(iv) Theory of crystal rectification .. . 1138
(v) Transistors 1138
8. REFERENCES 1138
(xxxv)
CONTENTS
SucnON PAGB
(xxxvii)
CONTENTS
SRCTION PAGB
5. A.C. OPERATED RECEIVERS 1256
(i) Four valve receivers 1256
(ii) Five valve receivers 1259
(ill) Larger receivers 1260
(iv) Communication receivers 1260
6. A.C./D.C. REcEIVERS ... 1264
(i) Series-resistor operation ... 1264
(li) Barretter operation 1266
(ill) Dial lamps 1266
(iv) Miscellaneous features 1267
7. BATTERY OPERATED RECEIVERS 1268
(i) General features ... 1268
(ii) Vibrator-operated receivers 1270
(ill) Characteristics of dry batteries 1272
8. CAR RADIO 1275
(i) Interference suppression 1275
(ii) Circuit considerations '" 1276
(iii) Valve operating conditions 1277
9. MISCELLANEOUS FEATURES 1278
(i) Spurious responses 1278
(ii) Reduction of interference 1279
(iii) Contact potential biasing 1280
(iv) Fuses 1281
(v) Tropic proofing ... 1282
(vi) Parasitic oscillations 1283
(vii) Printed circuits ... 1283
(viii) Other miscellaneous features 1285
10. REFERENCES 1285
(xxxviii)
CONTENTS
SECfION PAGE
(iii) Test procedures and operating conditions 1315
(iv) Receiver adjustments 1316
(v) Performance tests 1317
3. AUDIO FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 1321
(i) Equipment and measurements 1321
(ii) Tests 1321
4. MEAsUREMENTS ON COILS 1325
(i) Measurement of coefficient of coupling 1325
(ii) Measurement of primary resonant frequencies of aerial and r-f
coils ... 1325
(iii) Measurement of distributed capacitance across coils 1325
5. REFERENCES 1327
(xxxix)
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
(iii) Some Ul"'Jts and multipliers 1363
(iv) Magnitude letter symbols 1364
(v) Subscripts for magnitude letter symbols 1364
(vi) Magnitude letter symbols with subscripts 1365
(vii) Mathematical signs 1366
(viii) Abbreviations 1366
(ix) Abbreviations of titles of periodicals ... 1367
(x) References to periodicals 1369
(xi) References to standard symbols and abbreviations... 1369
7. STANDARD GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS 1370
8. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS AND CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CONSTANTS 1372
(i) Properties of insulating materials 1372
(ii) Properties of conducting materials 1374
(iii) Composition of some common plastics 1375
(iv) Weights of common materials... 1375
(v) Resistance of a conductor at any temperature 1376
(vi) References to properties of materials... 1376
(vii) Chemical and physical constants 1376
9. REACTANCE, IMPEDANCE AND RESONANCE 1377
(i) Inductive reactances 1377
(ii) Capacitive reactances 1378
(iii) Impedance of reactance and resistance in parallel 1380
(iv) Impedance of reactance and resistance in series 1382
(v) Resonance... 1386
(vi) Approximations in the calculation of impedance for reactance
and resistance in series and parallel 1386
(vii) Reactance chart 1387
10. SCREW THREADS, TWIST DRILLS AND SHEET GAUGES 1388
(i) Standard American screws used in radio manufacture 1388
(ii) B.A. screw threads 1389
(iii) Whitworth screw threads 1389
(iv) Unified screw threads '" 1390
(v) Drill sizes for self-tapping screws 1391
(vi) Wood screws 1391
(vii) Twist drill sizes... 1392
(viii) Sheet steel gauges 1393
11. TEMPERATURE RISE AND RATINGS 1394
12. FUSES 1395
13. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT; PANEL LAMPS 1396
(i) Visibility curves of the human eye and relative spectral energy
curves of sunlight and tungsten lamp 1396
(ii) Velocity of light ... 1396
(iii) American panel lamp characteristics 1397
14. GREEK ALPHABET 1397
15. DEFINITIONS .•. 1398
16. DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF FRACTIONS 1404
17. MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES 1405
18. (i) Numerical values... 1406
(ii) Factorials... 1407
19. WIRE TABLES ... 1408
20. LOGARITHM TABLES 1418
21. TRIGONOMETRICAL TABLES 1420
Hyperbolic sines, cosines and tangents 1421
22. LoG SCALES AND LOG SCALE INTERPOLATOR 1422
(xl)
CHAPTER 1.
Section Page
1. Electricity and· emission 1
2. The component parts of radio valves 4
3. Types of radio valves 6
4. Maximum ratings and tolerances 9
5. Filament and heater voltage/current characteristics 10
6. Valve numbering systems 10
7. References ... 12
It is interesting to note that the totai current Bow, equivaient to the total move-
ments of all the free electrons, irrespective of their directions, is very much greater
than that which occurs under any normal conditions of electric current flow. The
directions of movement are such that the external effects of one are generally cancelled
by those of another. Thus, in a metal, the oft-quoted picture of a flow of electrons
from the negative to the positive terminal is only a partial truth and apt to be mis-
leading. The velocity of the free electrons is very much less than that of the electric
current being of the order of only a few centimetres per second. The electron
current may be piCtured as the successive impacts between one electron and another
in the direction of the current. In an insulator the number of free electrons is
practically zero, so that electric conduction does not take place. In a partial insulator
the number of free electrons is quite small.
The nucleus is a very complex body, including one or more protons which may
be combined with a number of neutrons *. The proton has a positive charge equal
and opposite to the charge on an electron but its mass is very much greater than that
of an electron. The simplest possible atom consists of one proton forining the nucleus
with one electron in an orbit around it-this is the hydrogen atom. Helium consists
of two protons and two neutrons in the nucleus, with two electrons rotating in orbits.
The neutron has a mass slightly greater than that of a proton, but the neutron has
no electric charge. An example of a more complicated atom is that of potassium
which has 19 protons and 20 neutrons in the nucleus, thus having a- positive charge
of 19 units. The number of electrons in the orbits is 19, thus giving zero charge
for the atom as a whole, this being the normal condition of any atom. The common
form of uranium has 92 protons and 146 neutrons in the nucleus, with 92 electrons
rotating in orbits.
Under normal circumstances no electrons leave the surface ot a substance since
the forces of attraction towards the centre of the body are too great. As the tem-
perature of the substance is raised, the velocity of the free electrons increases and
eventually, at a temperature which varies from one substance to another, some of the
free electrons leave the surface and may be attracted to a positive electrode in a vacuum.
This phenomenon is known as thermionic emission since its emission takes place
under the influence of heating. There are other types of emission such as photo
emission that occur when the surface of the substance is influenced by light, or
secondary emission when the surface is bombarded by electrons.
The radio valve makes use of thermionic emission in conjunction with associated
circuits for the purpose of producing amplification or oscillation. . The most common
types of radio valves have hot cathodes, either in the form of a filament or an indirectly-
heated cathode. Many transmitting valves have filaments such as tungsten or
thoriated-tungsten, but nearly all receiving valves have what is known as an oxide
coated filament or cathode. The filament, or cathode sleeve, is usually made of
nickel or an alloy containing a large percentage of nickel and this is coated with a
mixture of barium and strontium carbonates that, during the manufacture of the
valve, are turned into· oxides. A valve having an oxide-coated cathode has -a very
high degree of emission as compared with other forms of emitters but requires very
great care during manufacture since it is readily poisoned by certain impurities which
may be present in the cathode itself or which may be driven out in the form of gas
from the bulb or the other electrodes.
Oxide-coated cathodes are generally operated at an average temperature of about
1050° Kelvin (777° C) which looks a dull red. Temperatures much above HOooK
generally cause a short life, while those below 960 0 K are very susceptible to poisoning
of the emission, and require careful attention to maintain a very high vacuum.
The thermionic valve is normally operated with its anodet current considerably
less than the maximum emission produced by its cathode. In the case of one having
a pure tungsten filament no damage is done to the filament if all the electrons emitted
·This is in accordance with the theory generally held at the time of writing; it is, however, subject
to later modification.
tThe anode (also called the plate) is the positive electrode; the cathode is the neaative electrode.
1.1 ELECTRICITY AND EMISSION 3
are drawn away immediately to the anode. This is not so, however, with oxide coated
cathodes and these, for a long life and satisfactory service, require a total emission
very much greater than that drawn under operating conditions. In such a case a
cloud of electrons accumulates a short distance from the surface of the cathode and
supplies the electrons that go to the anode. This space charge as it is called, is
like a reservoir of water that supplies varying requirements but is itself replenished
at an average rate. The space charge forms a protection to the cathode coating against
bombardment and high electrostatic fields, while it also limits the ,current which would
otherwise be drawn by a positive voltage on the anode. If the electron emission
from the cathode is insufficient to build up this " space charge," the cathode coating
is called upon to supply r.igh peak currents that may do permanent injury to the coat-
ing and in extreme' cases may even cause sputtering or arcing.
In multi-grid valves, if one grid has a positive potential and the next succeeding
grid (proceeding from cathode to plate) has a negative potential, there tends to be
formed an additional space charge. This outer space charge behaves as a source of
electrons for the outer electrodes, and is known as a virtual cathode.
An oxide-coated cathode, operated under proper conditions, is self-rejuvenating
and may have an extremely long working life. The life is, therefore, largely governed
by the excess emission over the peak current required in normal operation.
A valve having a large cathode area and small cathode current may have, under
ideal conditions, a life of the order of 50000 hours, whereas one having extremely
limited surface area, such as a tiny battery valve, may have a working life of less than
1000 hours.
Under normal conditions a valve should be operated with its filament or heater
at the recommended voltage; in the case of an oxide coated valve it is possible to
h~ye fluctuations of the order of 10% up or down withQut seriously affecting the
life or characteristics of the valve [see Chapter 3 Sect. 1(iv)DJ . The average voltage
should, however, be maintained at the correct value. If the filament or cathode is
operated continuously with a higher voltage than that recommended, some of the
coating material is evaporated and permanently lost, thus reducing the life of the valve.
Moreover, some of this vapour tends to deposit on the grid and give rise to what is
known as grid emission when the grid itself emits electrons and draws current
commonly known as negative grid current [for measurement see Chapter 3 Sect. 3
(iv)A].
If the filament or heater is operated for long periods at reduced voltages, the effect
is a reduction in emission, but no damage is generally done to the valve unless the
cathode currents are sufficient to exhaust the "space charge." Low cathode tem-
perature is, therefore, permissible provided that the anode current is reduced in the
proper proportion.
During the working life of the valve, its emission usually increases over the early
period, reaches a maximum at an age which varies from valve to valve and from one
manufacturer to another, and then begins to fall. The user does not generally suffer
any detriment until the emission is insufficient to provide peak currents without
distortion.
Tests for the measurement of the emission of an oxide-coated cathode are described
in Chapter 3 Sect. 3(ii)f.
If a slight amount of gas is present some of the electrons will collide with atoms
of the gas and may knock off one or more electrons, which will serve to increase the
anode current, leaving atoms deficient in electrons. These are known as positive
ions since they carry a positive charge (brought about by the loss of electrons), and
the process is known as ionization. The positive ions are attracted by the negative
cathode, and being comparatively massive, they tend to bombard the cathode coating
in spite of the protection formed by the space charge.
Some types of rectifiers (e.g. OZ4) have no heaters, and the oxide-coated cathode
is initially heated by ion bombardment; this flow of current is sufficient to raise the
cathode temperature so as to enable it to emit electrons in the usual manner. The
gas is an inert variety at reduced pressure. Although some types of gaseous thermionic
4 ELECTRICITY AND EMISSION 1.1
rectifiers will operate (once they have been thoroughly heated) without any filament
or heater voltage, this is likely to cause early failure through loss of emission.
Most thermionic valves are vacuum types and operate under a very high degree
of vacuum. This is produced during manufacture by a combination of vacuum
pumps and is made permanent by the flashing of a small amount of " getter" which
remains in the bulb ready to combine with any impurities which may be driven off'
during life. Valves coming through on the production line are all tested for gas by
measuring the negative grid current under operating conditions; methods of testing
are described in Chapter 3 Sect. 3(iv)A, where some values of maximum negative
grid current are also given. If a valve has been on the shelf for a long time, it fre-
quendy shows a higher gas current, but this may usually be reduced to normal by
operating the valve under normal conditions, with a low resistance connection between
grid and cathode, for a shon period. When a valve is slightly gassy, it usually shows
a blue glow (ionization) between cathode and anode. In extreme cases this may
extend outside the ends of the electrodes~ but a valve in such condition should be
regarded with suspicion and tested before being used in any equipment, as it might
do serious damage. A slight crack may permit a very small amount of air to enter
the bulb.. giving rise to a pink/violet glow which may readily be identified by anyone
familiar with it; this is a sign of immediate end of life.
The anode current of a thermionic valve is not perfectly steady, since it is brought
about by a flow of electrons from the cathode. When a valve is followed by very
high gain amplifiers, the rushing noise heard in the loudspeaker is panly caused by
the electrons in the valve, and panly by a somewhat similar effect (referred to as the
"thermal agitation" or " Johnson noise") principally in the resistance in the grid
circuit of the first valve-see Chapter 4 Sect. 9(i)l, and Chapter 18 Sect. 2(ii). This
question of valve noise is dealt with in Chapter 18 Sect. 2(ii)c and Chapter 23 Sect. 6.
Some valves show a fluorescence on the inside of the bulb, which may fluctuate
when the valve is operating. This is perfectly harmless and may be distinguished
from blue glow by its position in the valve. In occasional cases fluorescence may also
be observed on the surfaces of the niica supports inside the valve.
A B c D E r G H
FIG. 1.1
Fig.1.1. A)B, C types offilaments ; D,E,Ftypeso!cathodes; G,Htypeso!
heaters.
In an indirectly-heated valve, the function of the heater is solely to heat the cathode.
No emission should take place from the heater and the insulation between heater
and cathode should be good. The heater is generally made of tungsten or a tungsten
alloy wire coated witl a substance capable of providing the necessary insulation at
high temperature, such as alundum. In all applications where hum is likely to be
troublesome, the heater is preferably of the double helical type, as G in Fig. 1.1.
Power valves and other types having elliptical or rectangular cathode sleeves, often
employ a folded heater as in H. These are not generally suitable for use in very low
level amplifiers whether for radio or audio frequencies.
(ii) Grids
Grids are constrUcted of very fine wire wound around one, two or four side rods-
two being by far the most common. Some valves have two, three, four or five grids
inside one another, but all of these are similar in genercil form although different in
dimensions.
In the case of some grids it is necessary to take precautions to limit the grid tem-
perature either to avoid grid emission, in the case of control grids, or to limit the grid
temperature to preveD[ the formation of gas, in the case of screen grids. These may,
for better heat radiation, be fitted with copper side rods and blackened radiators either
above or below the other electrodes. Grids are numbered in order from the cathode
outwards, S'J that No.1 grid will be the one closest to the cathode, No.2 grid the one
adjacent to it, and No.3 the one further out again.
(iii) Plates
The plate of a receiving valve is the anode or positive electrode. It may be in one
of a great number of shapes, dependent on the particular application of the valve.
The plates of power valves and rectifiers are frequently blackened to increase their
heat radiation and thereby reduce their temperature.
(iv) Bulbs
The inside surfaces of glass bulbs are frequently blackened. This has the effects
of making them more or less conductive, thereby reducing the tendency to develop
static charges, and reducing the tendency towards secondary emission from the bulb.
(v) Voltages with valve operation
All voltages in radio valves are taken with respect to the cathode, in the case of
indirectly-heated valves, and the negative end of the filament with directly-heated
6 COMPONENT PARTS OF VALVES 1.2
FIG. 1.2
also been manufactured for special purposes. Fig. 1.2 shows the circuit of a diode
valve in which battery A is used to heat the filament or heater, and battery B to apply
a positive potential to the anode through the load resistor. The plate current is
measured by a milliammeter connected as shown, and the direction of current flow
is from the positive end of battery B towards the anode, this being the opposite of the
electron current flow~ It should be noted that the negative end of battery B is re-
turned to the negative end of battery A in accordance with the usual convention. It
would be quite permissible to connect the negative end of the battery B to the positive
end of battery A so as to get the benefit of the voltage A applied to the anode, but
in this case, the total voltage applied to the anode would be A + B. If voltage of
battery B is reversed, it will be noted that the plate current is zero, thus indicating
the rectification that takes place in a diode. If an alternating voltage is applied,
current will only flow during the half-cycles when the anode is positive. This is
caned a half-wave rectifier since it is only capable of rectifying one half of the cycle.
1.3 TYPES OF RADIO VALVES 7
Full wave* rectifiers are manufactured with two anodes and Ii common cathode and
these are arranged in the circuit so that one diode conducts during one half-cycle
and the other during the other half-cycle.
(ii) Triodes
A triode is a three electrode valve, the electrodes being the cathode, grid and anode
(or plate). The grid serves to control the plate current flow, and if the grid is made
sufficiently negative the plate current is reduced to zero. The voltage on the grid is
controlled by battery C in Fig. 1.3, the other part of the circuit being as for the diode
in Fig. 1.2. When the grid is negative with respect to the cathode, it does not draw
appreciable current; this is the normal condition as a class Al amplifier. Although
an indirectly heated cathode has been shown in this instance, a directly heated valve
could equally well have been used. The heater in Fig. 1.3 may be supplied either
froin an a.c. or d.c. source, which should preferably be connected to the cathode or
as close as possible to cathode potential.
As the grid is made more negative, so the plate current is decreased and when the
grid is made more positive the plate current is increased. A triode is, therefore,
capable of converting a voltage change at the grid into a change of power in the load
resistor. It may also be used as a voltage amplifier or oscillator.
(iii) Tetrodes
The capacitance between the grid and plate can be reduced by mounting an addi-
tional electrode, generally called the screen or screen grid, between the grid and plate;
The valve thus has four electrodes, hence the name tetrode. The. function of the
screen is to act as an electrostatic shield between grid and plate, thus reducing the
grid-to-plate capacitance. The screen is connected to a positive potential (although
less than that of the plate) in order to counteract the blocking effect which it would
otherwise have on the plate current-see Fig, 1.4. Owing to the comparatively
large spaces between the wires in the screen, most of the electrons from the cathode
pass through the screen to the plate. So long as the plate voltage is higher than the
screen voltage, the plate current depends primarily on the screen voltage and only
to a slight extent on the plate voltage. This constrUction makes possible a much
higher amplification than with a triode, and the lower grid-to-plate capacitance makes
the high gain practicable at radio frequencies without instability.
GRID
Fig. 1.4. Fundamental circuit LQ\D
including indirectly-heated tet- GRID
Rf:SlSTOR
(iv) Pentodes
Electrons striking the plate with sufficient velocities may dislodge other electrons
and so cause what is known as " secondary emission." In the case of tetrodes, when
*These are sometimes called biphase half-wave rectifiers.
8 TYPES OF RADIO VALVES 1.3
the plate voltage swings down to a low value under working conditions, the screen
may be instantaneously at a higher positive potential than the plate, and hence the
secondary electrons are attracted to the screen. This has the effect of lowering the
plate current over the region of low plate voltage and thus limits the permissible
plate voltage swing. This effect is avoided when a suppressor is inserted between
screen and plate. The suppressor is normally connected to the cathode as in Fig. ] .5.
Owing to its negative potential with respect to the plate, the suppressor retards the
movements of secondary electrons and diverts them back to the plate.
A valve with three grids is known as a pentode because it has five electrodes. Pen-
todes are commonly used as radio frequency amplifiers and as power amplifiers.
Pentode r-f amplifiers are of two main varieties, those having a sharp cut-off* charac-
teristic and those having a remote cut-off*. Valves having sharp cut-off charac-
teristics are generally used as audio frequency voltage amplifiers and anode bend
detectors, while remote cut-off amplifiers are used as r-f and i-f amplifiers. The
BEAM-
CONFINING
ELECTRODE
Fig. 1.6. Internal structure of ty~ 6L6 or 807 aligned grid beam jJoflJer valvi (diagram
by courtesy of R. C.A.).
(which do not normally require external oscillators) and those of the hexode or heptode
"mixer" type which are used with separate oscillators. Pentagrid conveners are
of two main groups, the first of these being the 6A8 type of construction which in-
corporates an oscillator grid and oscillator anode (" anode grid ") as part of the main
cathode stream. The other group comprises the 6SA7, 6BE6 and IR5 type of con-
struction which has no separate oscillator anode, the screen grid serving a dual pur-
pose. The various types of pentagrid conveners are described in detail iri Chapter 25.
screen voltage dropping resistor is undesirable with such valves and if the screen is
required to be operated at a lower voltage than the plate, it should be supplied from
a voltage divider having a bleed current of preferably 5 times the nominal screen
current. Alternatively, the screen voltage should be determined for the extreme cases
of zero and twice nominal screen current.
6
'/
L
I
2
/
/
/ Fig. 1.7. Filament current versus
/ filament voltage for a valve
having a 1.4 volt 50 milliampere
V filament.
6
/
1/
/
42
V
4
V
1·0 H 1'2 1-3 1·4 1·5 I' 17
FILAMENT VOLTS
FIG. 1.7
The heater voltage should be maintained at an average voltage equal to the recom-
mended voltage, thus leaving a margin of plus or minus 10% for line fluctuations
under normal conditions-see Chapter 3 Sect. 1(iv)D. If any wider variation is
required, this will involve decreased maximum grid circuit resistance for a higher
heater voltage and decreased plate current for lower heater voltage.
the normal operating voltages remain at 6,3 volts. In the case of tapped filaments
or heaters the first figure indicates the total voltage with both sections in series.
The second symbol is a letter which is allotted in sequence commencing with A,
except that I and 0 are not used; rectifiers follow the sequence backwards com-
mencing at Z. When all the single letters of a group are exhausted, the system then
proceeds with two lettters commencing with AB; combinations of identical letters
are not normally used. The single-ended a.c. range has a first letter S while the second
letter may be that of the nearest equivalent in the double-ended .range--e.g. type
6SK7 is the nearest single-ended equivalent to type 6K7. Another special case is the
first letter L which is used for lock-in types in the battery range.
t-
IL
130
,.- ..~
~c,
110 ~~
';tr
~II: VI I I
II:
;:)
'. £,ft"'' 'uft..!
"(~p
U
i.o"
If
I_- I"'}'
"'"
1..0'
"'" L.oo
90 io""
~ 1..0'
Z
1&1
U If
Ill:
1&1 I I I
Q.
80 I
:
T
70
/I
", I !
IT
:/
f' I
1/
60
7S 80 90 ~ I~ 120 125
PER CENT OF BASIC VOLTAGE
FIG.I.a
Fig. 1.8. Filament or heater current, dissipation and temperature plotted against
filament or heater voltage, per cent (Ref. 7).
12 VALVE NUMBERING SYSTEMS 1.6
The final figure denotes the number of "useful elements U brought out to an
external connection.
The envelope of a metal valve, the metal base of a lock-in valve, and internal shield-
ing having its separate and exclusive terminal(s) are counted as useful elements.
A filament or heater counts as one useful element, except that a tapped filament or
heater of two or more sections of unequal rated section voltages or currents counts
as two useful elements. An octal-based glass valve having n useful elements exclusive
of those connected to Pin No.1 is counted as having n + 1 useful elements. Elements
connected to terminals identified as " internal connection, do not use" do not count
as useful elements. Combinations of one or more elements connected to the same
terminal or terminals are counted as one useful element. For example a directly
heated triode with a non-octal base is denoted by 3; an indirectly-heated triode,
with a non-octal base is aesignated by 4; a directly-heated tetrode with a non-octa1
base is designated by 4. A pentode with the suppressor internally connected to
filament or cathode is numbered as a tetrode. A metal envelope or octal-based glass
triode with an indirectly-heated cathode is designated by 5, a tetrode (or pentode with
the suppressor internally connected) by 6, and a triode-hexode converter usually by 8.
The suffix after the hyphen denotes the type of construction used. In general,
metal valves, lock-in types and miniature types have no suffixes, but octal-based glass
valves types are given the suffix G for the larger glass bulb or GT for the smaller
parallel-sided T9 bulb. The letter M indicates a metal-coated glass envelope and
octal base. X indicates a " low loss" base composed of material having a loss factor
of 0 ·035 maximum (determination of loss factor to be in accordance with ASTM
Designation D-150-41T). The letter Y indicates an intermediate-loss base com-
posed of material having a loss factor of 0·1 maximum. The letter W indicates
a military type. The letters, A,B,C,D,E and F assigned in that order indicate a
later and modified version which can be substituted for any previous version but not
vice versa.
SECTION 7 : REFERENCES*
(A) GENERAL READING
1. Henderson, F. E. (book) " An Introduction to Valves, including reference to Cathode Ray Tubes ..
(published by Wireless World, London on behalf of The General Electric Co. of England, 1942).
2. Spreadbury, F. G. (book) .. Electronics" (Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons Ltd., London. 1947) Chapters
1-4, 8-10.
3. Reich, H. J. (book) "Theory and Applications of Electron Tubes" (McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York & London, 2nd ed., 1944).
4. Chaffee, -E. L. (book) .. Theory of Thennionic Vacuum Tubes" (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York and London, 1933).
5. Emergency British Standard 1106: 1945 " Code of practice relating to the use of electronic valves
other than cathode ray tubes," British Standards Institution, London.
6 ... Radio Valve Practice" (The British Radio Valve Manufacturers' Association, London, 1948).
7. Haller. C. E ... Filament and heater characteristics" Elect. 17.7 Guly, 1944) 126.
8. "R.M.A.-NEMA Standards for designation system for receiving tubes" (Radio Manufacturers'
Association, U.S.A.-Standard ET-110).
9. Couch, W ... Oxide-coated cathodes" Elect. 22.10 (Oct. 1949) 164.
10. ('..ouch, W ... Oxide cathode theory I I Elect. 22.10 (Oct. 1949) 190.
11. Koller, L. R. (book) " Physics of Electron Tubes" (McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1934) pp. 41-51.
AA.ditional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
(B) ATOMIC STRUCTURE
12. Stranathan, J. D ... Elementary particles of physics I I Elect. 16.8 (Aug. 1943) 122.
13. Darrow, K. K. " Beginnings of nuclear physics" E.E. (Sept. 1945) 315.
14. Stranathan, J. D. (book) .. The Particles of Modem Physics I I (The Blakiston Co., Philadelphia,
U.S.A. 1943).
15. Cork, J. M. (book) "Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics I I (D. van Nostrand Co. Inc., New York,
1947) pp. 13-18.
16. Smith, J. J... The atom and its nucleus II E.E. 66.12 (Dec. 1947) 1165.
17. Shoupp, W. E .• and H. Odishaw .. The nucleus-its structure and reactions I I E.E. 67.2 (Feb. 1948)
125.
18. Lapp, R. E., and H. L. Andrews" Atomic structure I I Proc. I.R.E. 36.9 (Sept. 1948) 1068, 1070.
Extract from book" Nuclear Radiation Physics I I (Prentice-Hall Inc.).
and many others.
*For abbreviations of titles of periodicals and references to periodicals see pages 1367-1369.
CHAPTER 2.
VALVE CHARACTERISTICS
Section Page
1. Valve coefficients 13
2. Characteristic curves 15
3. Resistance-loaded amplifiers 24
4. Transformer-coupled amplifiers 27
5. Triode operation of pentodes 34
6. Conversion factors and the calculation ef characteristics- other
than those published... 36
7. Valve equivaientcircuits and vectors 45
8. Valve admittances ... 49
9. .M..athematiOl..1 relationships 57
10. References ... 66
The triode or multi grid radio valve is a device which allows, under certain operating
conditions, an amplified replica of a voltage applied between grid and cathode to
appear across an impedance placed between plate and cathode.
A valve, in itself~ does not provide amplification of the applied grid-to-cathode
voltage. The amplified voltage across the load impedance is due to the action of
the valve in controlling the power available from the power supply. The amount
of power which can be so controlled is determined by the operating conditions and
the characteristics of the valve and of its associated circuits.
The maximum voltage amplification which a valve is capable of giving under ideal
conditions is called the amplification factor, generally designated by the Greek symbol
,.,. (mu). This is not truly constant under all conditions (except for an imaginary
"ideal valve") and varies slightly With grid bias and plate voltage in the case of a
triode, and is very far from being constant with most multi-electrode valves.
The ampllficatioD factor (,.,.) is the ratio of the incremental* change in plate
voltage to the incremental change in control grid voltage in the opposite direction,
under the conditions that the plate current remains unchanged, and all other electrode
voltages are maintained constant.
There are two other principal Valve Coefficients, known as the mutual conductance
and the plate resistance (or anode resistance), the values of these also being somewhat
dependent upon the appJied voltages .
• An incremental change of voltage applied to an electrode may be taken as indicating a chanQ;e 10
smaU that the curvatu~ of the characteristics may be neglected. For the mathematical treatment of
rate of change, see Chapter 6 Sect. 7(i) and (ii). For treatment of valve coefficients as partial ditferenti6ls
see Chapter 2 Sect. 9(ix).
13
14 VALVB COEFFICIENTS 2.1
orrJl = gm.
The calculation of these" valve coefficients" from the characteristic curves is
given in Section 2 of this Chapter, while their direct measurement is described in
Chapter 3 Sect. 3. The mathematical derivation of these coefficients and their
relationship to one another are given in Section 9 of this Chapter, as is also the repre-
sentation of v'alve coefficients in the form of partial differentials.
The reciprocals of two of these coefficients are occasionally used-
1
- = D where D is called the Durchgriff (or Penetration Factor) and which
/A
may be expressed as a percentage.
1
= g'P where gJl is called the Plate Conductance (see also below).
T"
Other valve coefficients are described below:-
The Mu-Factor, of which the amplification factor is a special case, is the ratio
of the incremental change in anyone electrode voltage to the incremental change in
any other electrode voltage, under the conditions that a specified current remains
unchanged and that aU other electrode voltages are maintained constant. Examples
are
11-/11·112, 11- G2·S'·
The Conductance (g) is the incremental change in current to any electrode divided
by the incremental change in voltage to the same electrode, all other voltages remain-
ing .unchanged.
Examples are grid conductance (g /1), plate conductance (g 1').
Transconductance is the incremental change in current to any electrode divided
by the incremental change in voltage to another eJectrode, under the condition that
all other voltages remain unchanged. A special case is the grid-plate transconductance
which is known as the mutual conductance. Another example is the plate-grid
transconductance (g n).
Conversion transconductance (S c) is associated with mixer (frequency changing)
valves, and is the incremental change in intermediate-frequency plate current divided
by the incremental change in radio-frequency signal-grid voltage producing it.
The Resistance (T) of any electrode is the reciprocal of the conductance; for
example plate resistance is the reciprocal of plate conductance,
T'P = l/g'P.
Perveance (G) is the relation between the space-charge-limited cathode current
and the three-halves power of the anode voltage. It is independent of the electrode
voltages and currents, so long as the three-halves law holds:
G=~
3 2 eb /
The measurement of perveance is covered in Chapter 3 Sect. 3(vi)E.
tThis is strictly the "variational plate resistance" and must be distinguished from the d.c. plate
resistance.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES 15
fiG. 2.1 +
The method of measuring the plate and grid currents of a triode valve is shown in
Fig. 2.1 in which a tapping on the grid bias battery is returned to the cathode so as
to permit either positive or negative voltages to be connected to the grid. The grid
microammeter and vcltmeter should be of the centre-zero type~ or provision made
for reversal of polarity. For more elaborate testing see Chapter 3 Sect. 3.
(i) Plate characteristics
The Plate Characteristic may be drawn by maintaining the grid at some constant
voltage, varying the plate voltage step-by-step from zero up to the maximum available,
and noting the plate current for each step of plate voltage. These readings may then
be plotted on graph paper with the plate voltage horizontal and plate current vertical.
This procedure may be repeated for other values of grid voltage to complete the Plate
Characteristic Family.
The Plate Characteristic Family for a typical triode is shown in Fig. 2.2 .. It
is assumed that the plate voltage has been selected as 180 volts, and the grid bias
-4 volts. By drawing a vertical line from 180 volts on the E.b axis (point K), the
quiescent operating point Q will be determined by its intersection with the
" E c = -4" curve. By referring Q to the vertical scale (J b) the plate current is
found to be 6mA. The plate resistance at the point Q is found by drawing a tangent
(EF) to the curve for E tJ = -4 so that it touches the curve at Q.
The plate resistance (r.,,) at the point Q is then EK in volts (65) divided by QK
in amperes (6 mA = 0.006 A) or 10800 ohms.
The amplification factor (p.) is the change of plate voltage divided by the change
of grid voltage for constant plate current. Line CD is drawn horizontally through ~
and represents a line of constant plate current. Points C and D represent grid volt-
ages of -2 and -6, and correspond to plate voltages of 142 and 218 respectively.
The value of p.* is therefore (218 - 142) plate volts divided by a change of 4 grid
volts, this being 76/4 or 19.
The mutual conductance (g m) is the change of plate current divided by the change
of grid voltage for constant plate voltage. Line AB, which is drawn vertically through
Q, represents constant plate voltage. Point A corresponds to 9.6 mA, while point B
corresponds to 2.6 mA, giving a difference of 7 mAo Since points A and B also
differ by 4 volts grid bias, the mutual conductance* is 7 mA divided by 4 volts, which
is 1.75 mA/volt or 1750 micromhos.
*The value so determined 15 not exactly the value which would be obtained with a very small swing.
but is sufficiently accurate for most practical purposes.
16 (i) PLATE CHARACTERISTICS 2.2
~r---~-----r-r--~~~L-~~~~
~
Fig. 2.2. Plate charact-
~ t----i----~--~~~~~~_h~~ eristic family of curves
::I
$ for a typical triode.
j4r---~--~-r~-+~-T~~~~~~
i
F"lG.2·~
The plate characteristics of a pentode for one fixed screen voltage are shown
in Fig. 2.3. Owing to the high plate resistance of a pentode the slope C'f the portion
of the curves above the " knee" is frequently so flat that it is necessary to draw ex-
tended tangents to the curves as at A, B and Q. A horizontal line may be drawn
through Q t'J intersect the tangents at A and B at points C and D. As with a triode,
points A and B are vertically above and below Q. The mutual conductance is AB
(4.1 rnA) divided by 4 volts change of grid bias, that is 1.025 rnA/V or 1025 micromhos.
The amplification factor js the change of plate voltage (CD = 447 volts) divided by
the change of grid voltage (4 volts) or 111.7. The plate resistance is EK/QK, i.e.
180/0.001 65 or 109000 ohms.
The plate characteristics of a beam tetrode are somewhat similar to those
of a pentode except that the "knee" tends to be more pronounced at high values
of plate current.
The plate characteristics of a screen-grid or tetrode are in the upper portion
similar to a pentode, but the " knee" occurs at a plate voltage slightly greater than
the screen voltage and operation below the "knee" is normally inadvisable due to
instability.
The plate and screen characteristics of a pentode are shown in Fig. 2.4,
from which it will be seen that the total cathode (plate + screen) current for any
fixed grid bias is nearly constant, except at low plate voltages, and that the plate
current increases at.the expense of the screen, and vice versa. A pentcde is frequently
described as a " constant-current device," but the plate current is not so nearly con-
(ii) MUTUAL CHARACTERISTICS 17
stant as the combination of plate and screen currents, with fixed grid bias and screen
voltage.
Cii) Mutual characteristicst
The Mutual Characteristics may be drawn by maintaining the plate voltage con-
stant, and varying the grid from the extreme negative to the extreme positive voltage
desired. For any particular plate voltage. there is a negative grid voltage at which
the plate current becomes zero; this is called the point of plate current cut-off, and
any increase of grid voltage in the negative direction has no effect on the plate current,
which remains zero. If the mutual characteristic were perfectly straight, the point
of plate current cut-off would be at a grid voltage of E b/ fL; in reality, it occurs at
a point slightly more negative, owing to the curved foot of the characteristic.
10
The Mutual Characteristics of a triode are shown in Fig. 2.5. Each curve
corresponds to a constant plate voltage. Let P be a point on the E b = 250 curve,
and let us endeavour to find out what information is available from the curves. The
bias corresponding to P is given by R (-6 volts) and the plate current is given by
S (6 rnA). Let now a triangle ABC be constructed so that AP = PC, AB is vertical,
CB is horizontal and point B comes on the E b = 200 curve.
The mutual conductance is given by AB/BC or 2·32 mA/4 volts, which is 0·580
rnA/volt or 580 micromhos. Thus the slope of the characteristic is the mutual
conductance. **
t Alllo known all Transfer Characteri!'tics•
• "'This &imple con.~truction assumes that A P C is a straight line. In practice it is sliJzhtlv curved but
the construction gives a very clost: approximation to the slope at pomt P because the slope of the tangent
at P is approximately the slope of the chord joining A and C.
18 (ii) MUTUAL CHARACTERISTICS 2.2
The amplification tactor is given by the change of plate voltage divided by the
change of grid voltage for constant plate current, that is
tJ = Ebt - Eb'J. =E b1 - Eb2 = 250 - 200 = 12.5.
. CB l::.Ec 4
The plate resistance is given by the change of plate voltage divided by the change
of plate current for constant grid voltage; that is
E bl - E b! E bt -_~b2 = 250 - 200 = 21 600 ohms.
T'll = AB b.1b 2·32 X 10- 3
These curves hold only if there is no series resistance in the plate circuit. They
could therefore be used for a transformer-coupled amplifier provided that the primary
of the transformer had negligible resistance. In the present form they could not be
used to predict the operation under dynamic conditions. The static operation point
P may, however, be located by their use.
The mutual characteristics of a pentode, for a fixed screen voltage, are very
similar to those of a triode except that each curve applies to a different value of screen
(instead of plate) voltage. The plate voltage of pentodes having high plate resistance
has only a very minor effect on the plate current, provided that it does not come
below the screen voltage-.
12
tr-e'"!oVOL TS
PLAn: VOLTs-7>OO
!.UPPRE!eOfl; VOLTS-O
-10 -8 -e -" -2 o
F'lG.2·7 CONTROL GRID VOLTS(Ea)
-8
FIG •• "
-. -4 -~
V
CONTROL GRlO VOLT5\.Ec
Fig. 2.7. Mutual characteristics of a pentode, with constant plate voltage, and five
fixed screen voltages.
Fig. 2.8. Screen current mutual characteristics of a pentode (same as for Fig. 2.7).
voltages are changed. The grid current commencement point in perfectly hard
battery valves is usually slightly positive, so that they may be operated at zero bias
with negligible positive grid current (Curve B).
A typical valve at its normal negative bias will have negative (or reverse) grid current
which is the sum of gas (ionization) current, leakage current and grid primary emission
current. If the two latter are negligibly small, negative grid current (i.e. gas current)
will be roughly proportional to the plate current, and will increase with the pressure
of gas in the valve. If the plate current is maintained constant, the gas current varies
approximately as the square of the plate voltage; reduced cathode temperature has
little effect on this relationship (Ref. AI2). See Chapter 1 Sect. 1 for general in-
formation regarding gas current and Chapter 3 Sect. 3(iv)A for the measurement of
reverse grid current.
References to grid current characteristics-AI2, HI, H2.
f:,b
/ A
,
, B
!
I
I
I
ICI I IcJ I
-ECI
/ y /
/f I /
/
I
I
J +
---- ---
C
-lei
rIG.2·9
Contact potential is only one of several effects acting on the grid to change the
cr.OSs-over point (X)-the ethers include gas current, grid (primary) emission, leakage,
and the internal electron velocity of emission.
The grid variational conductance is equal to the slope of the grid cbaracteristic
at the operating point. The conductance increases rapidly as the grid voltage is made
less than that corresponding to point Y, irrespective of the value of ionization current,
so that input circuit damping due to the flow of electrons from cathode to grid (i.e.
the positive component of the grid current) occurs in a typical valve even when the
grid current is zero or negative (grid voltages between X and Y in Fig. 2.9). It is
possible for the damping on the positive peaks of applied input voltage to be
quite serious even when the microammeter reads zero. This point is applied
in connection with r.c. triodes in Chapter 12 Sect. 2(iv).
If the valve has a leakage path between grid and cathode, the leakage current
is given by the line OF, which must be added to the gas current to give the grid current
characteristic G. If it has leakage between grid and plate (or screen) the leakage
current is given by the line HJ, whicb intersects the hcrizontal axis at a positive voltage
equal to the plate (or screen) voltage; this also must be added to the other components
to provide the grid current characteristic. The combined leakage currents may be
measured by biasing tbe grid beyond the point of plate current cut-off provided that
the grid emission is negligibly small-otherwise see below.
If valve is operated with its grid completely open-circuited, the operating point
will be at D, since this is the only point corresponding to zero grid current~ unless
the grid characteristic has a second point of zero grid current at a positive grid voltage
(see under grid blocking). . .
If the valve is operated with zero bias, that is with the grid resistor returned to
cathode, the grid static operating point will be at E, the intersection of the grid current
characteristic and the grid loadline through O. If the valve is one with positive
cross-over point, operating at zero bias, the grjd static operating point will occur at F.
In all cases considered above, the operating points are for static conditions, and
any large signal vcltages applied [0 the grid may have an effect: in shifting the operating
point. If the signal voltage swjngs the grid sufficiently to draw positive grid current,
the operating point will shift ats the result of rectified current flowing through R II"
The e.tlect of negative grid current on the maximum grid circuit reshtance and the
operation of a-f amplifiers is described in Chapter 12 Sect. 2(iii) and (iv); Sect. 3(iv)C
and (v); also Chapter 13 Sect. lOCi).
-I'OWA
flG.2·n
~
of electrode currents versus suppressor
8
voltage are given in Fig. 2.13, and in-
dicate that the plate current curve rises
fairly steadily from the point of cut-off 1
at a high negative voltage but :Battens ~~b-
out while still at a negative suppressor 'I j
voltage. The screen current falls as
the plate current rises, as would be fLit
expected, and the suppressor current
commences at a slight positive voltage, f /~
although in this case it becomes negative
VI'
at high voltages due to secondary
emission. IiV ......;-::iii 2
The suppressor is occasionally use4
~~V
......~'t
Ib
If the suppressor grid has the same
~ /v bias control voltage as the control grid,
" ),/
I\.
Eb a250V
ECI-IOOV
Ec.a-3V
the control characteristic will be as
shown by the curve marked "Eel =
E C3," but in this case the plate resist-
V "~ I--..... I". ance, although initially slightly lower
j for B c3 = -3 than for E c3 = 0, rises
..
c
--
lea
.i 0
rapidly as Eel = E c3 is made more
!!"-5
negative.
li - 60 -40 -20 0 20
ii: SlIIIS"ssor Grid 't'bItogc
FIG. 2.13
(v) Constant current curves
Fig. 2.13. Suppressor characteristics of The third principal type of valve
a pentode (6SJ7) for fixed control grid, characteristic is known as the "Con-
screen and plate voltages. stant Current " Characteristic. A
2.2 (v) CONSTANT CURRENT CURVES 23
typical family of Constant Current Curves is shown in Fig. 2.15, these being
for a typical triode (type 801). The slope of the curves indicates the ampli-
fication factor, and the slope of the loadline indicates the stage voltage gain.
The operating point is fixed definitely by a knowledge of plate and grid supply volt-
ages, but the loadline is only straight when both plate and grid voltages follow the
same law (e.g., both sine wave). Distortion results in curved characteristics, so that
this form of representation is not very useful except for tuned-grid tuned-plate or
" tank-circuit" coupled r-f amplifiers. Constant Current Curves may be drawn
by tramlferring points from the other published characteristics. For a full treatment
the reader is referred to
(1) Mouromtseff, 1. E., and H. N.
Kozanowski "Analysis of the
operation of vacuum tubes as Class
C Amplifiers" Proc. I.R.E. 23.7
(July, 1935) 752: also 24.4 (April,
1936) 654,
(2) Everest, F. A., " Making life more
simple" Radio 221 (July, 1937) 26.
(3) "Reference Data for Radio En-
gineers" (2nd edition, Federal
Telephone and Radio Corporation,
New York, 1946).
general direction showed rapid changes in the rate of change, and usually at ieast
one temporary reversal of direction.
It was found that minimum drift occurred for plate currents between 0·1 and 1·0 mA
for indirectly-heated types, or between 10 and 100 #LA for small filament types.
This drift occurs in diodes and all types of amplifying valves, being particularly
noticeable in its effects on high-mu triodes (on account of the short grid base) and on
power amplifiers (on account of the decrease in maximum power output). In direct-
coupled amplifiers this drift becomes serious, the first stage being the one most affected.
Most of the drift usually occurs during the first hundred hours of operation. If
stability is required it is advisable to age the valves for at least 2 days, but in some
cases this does not cure the rapid drift. Reference A12, pp. 730-733.
120 II _ Ic-<IO
~, 1 I
~~~
IH ~~ PI' 200
rIIIio,
o
/'~
...... 1000...
....... ~"'"
-
. . . r-.. ...... '5CI
r-....
r-..r--.,
r-..
-,......
....
,.......~
IIIIlI
SLOP~- S~G£G~IN:
r- ..... t:'== ~ J .....
-~ - r- ~
-r::- ~
-120
"'"OPE -ir
r--- ~I""'I:~2l1
I
j
l
-
..... ~Io
Ec.
-leO
o 200 400 eoo 100
fIG.2·llI !'L ... n VOLTS
Fig. 2.15. Constant current characteristics for a typical small transmitting triode (801).
Fig. 2.16. Triode plate characteristics with loadlines for five va:ues of load resistance.
(i) Triodes
When there is a resistance load in the plate circuit, the voltage actually on the plate
is less than that of the supply voltage by the drop in the load resistor,
E" = E." - RLI".
This equation may be represented by what is known as a Load Line on the plate
characteristics. Since the load is a pure resistance it will obey Obm's Law, Imd the
relationship between current and voltage will be a straight line; the loadline will
therefore be a straight line.
2.3 RESISTANCE-LOADED AMPLIFIERS 25
The static operating point is the intersection of the loadline and the appropriate
characteristic curve. Fig. 2.16 shows several loadlines, corresponding to different
load resistors, drawn on a plate characteristic family. Zero load resistance is indicated
by a verticalloadline, while a borizontalline indicates infinite resistance.
A loadline may be drawn quite independently of the plate characteristicsl as in Fig.
2.17. The point B is the plate supply voltage EbII (in this case 300 V); the slope· of
the 10adline AB = -1/RL and therefore AO = Eu/RL (in this case 300/50000 =
0-006 A = 6 mA). The voltage actually on the plate can only be equal to Ebb when
the current is zero (point B). At point A the voltage across the valve is zero and the
whole supply voltage is across R L; this is what happens when the valve is short-
circuited from plate to cathode. The plate current (E billR L) which flows under these
conditions is used as a reference basis for the correct operation of a resistance coupled
amplifier (Chapter 12). As the plate voltage, under high level dynamic conditions,
must swing about the operating point, the latter must be somewhere in the region of
the middle of AB; the plate current would then be in the region of 0-5 E u/R L and
the plate voltage 0·5 Ell b-in other words, the supply voltage is roughly divided equaUy
between the valve and the load resistance. Actually, the operating point may be
anywhere within the limits 0-4 and 0-85 times E lib!R L -see Chapter 12 Sect. 2(vi)
and Sect. 3(vi).
In most resistance-loaded amplifiers, the plate is coupled by a capacitor to the grid
of the following valve, whicb has a grid resistor R g to earth. This resistor acts as a
load on the previous valve, but only under dynamic conditions. In Fig. 2.18 the
loadline AB is <haw1l, as in Fig. 2.17, and the operating point Q is fixed by selecting
the grid bias (here -6 volts). Through Q is then drawn another line CD having a
slope of -(I/R L + I/Rg); this is the dynamic loadline,and is used for determining
the voltage gain) mpvimum output voltage and distortion (Chapter 12).
o~~~~ __~~~~____
°O~------~IOO~-------2~~~----~~~--~--r-s- o
riG 2·17 Eb FIG.2-IS
The dynamic characteristic is the effective mutual characteristic when the valve
has a resistive load in the plate circuitt. While the slope of the mutual characteristic
is g fit or p./r ", the slope of the dynamic characteristic is p./(r 1> + R L)' Owing to
(r" + R /) being more nearly constant than r p, the dynamic characteristic is more
nearly straight than the mutual characteristic.
*The slope of AB is negative ~ince the plate voltdge is the difference between the supply voltage and
the voltage drop in R L. and the invened fonn (1/R L) is due to the way in which the n1ve .characteristics
are drawn with current vertically ..net voltaste hori7.ontally_ The slope (\f AB i'l often loosely spoken
of.iS being the resistance of R L .the negativ~ sign and inverted form being undentood.
+It does not mllke al1ow:mce flOr the full,'Wing grid n'5tstor. and does not Iherefore correspond to
the dynamic loadline. It is. of coun.e, possible to derive from the dynamic loadline a modifiea dynamic
characteristic which does make allowance for the grid resistor.
26 (i) TRIODES
.... 0 +EC
Fig. 2.19. Triode dynamic characteristic (solid line) for resistance loading.
Fig. 2.20. Illustrating power dissipation in a resistance-loaded triode.
Cii) Pentodes
Pentodes with resistive loads are treated in the same manner as triodes, the only·
complication being the screen voltage which must be selected at some suitable value
tii) PENTODES 27
and maintained constant (Fig. 2.21). The operating point as an amplifier will norm-
ally, as with a triode, be in the region of the middle of the loadline so that the voltage
across the valve and that across R L will be approximately the same. The only
special case is with very low values of R L (e.g. 20 000 ohms) where grid current
occurs at approximately E cl = 0, thereby limiting the useful part of the loadline.
-:::::'::~~..::::I~~"""'.
MA o
With any value of screen voltage, and any value of load resistance, it is possible
to select a grid bias voltage which will give normal operation as an amplifier. With
load resistance of 0·1 megohm and above, pentodes give dynamic characteristics
which closely resemble the shape of triode dynamic characteristics with slightly
greater curvature at the lower end; at the upper end, provided that the screen voltage
is not too low, the pentode has a curved portion where the triode runs into grid current.
The top bend of the pentode dynamic characteristic is often used in preference to
the bottom bend for plate detection-see Chapter 27 Sect. 1(ii)C.
For further information on resistance coupled pentode amplifiers, reference should
be made to Chapter 12 Sect. 3.
I.r-~~~~=---r----------.
5CR£EN VOLTS - 100
!oUPPRE~OR 1IOLTS - 0
8
CONTROL GRID VOLTS EcI--4-S
~~~~~~-2B
o sao 100 200 tb ~o 400
F'1G.2·24 PLATt VOLTS
Fig. 2.23. Triode plate characteristics and loadlines with transformer-coupled load,
allowing for the resistance of the primary winding.
Fig. 2.24. Plate characteristics of typical remote cut-off pentode with fixed screen and
suppressor voltages.
Remote cut-off r-f pentodes are similar, except that the mutual characteristics are
curved, and the distortion is greater. Fig. 2.24 shows the plate characteristics of a
typical remote cut-off pentode, with E b = 250 volts. Two load lines (AQB, A' Q' B')
have been drawn for grid bias voltages of -3 and -12 volts respectively, with a slope
corresponding to a load resistance of 200000 ohms, as for an i-f amplifier. This
application of the loadline is not entirely valid, although it gives some useful informa-
tion, since the tuned plate circuit acts as a "flywheel n to improve the linearity and
reduce the distortion. This is a case in which constant current curves could be
used with advantage. However, the ordinary plate characteristics at least indicate
the importance of a high Q (high dynamic resistance) second i-f transformer if it
is desired to obtain high output voltages at even moderately high negative bias volt-
ages; a steeper loadline would reach plate current cut-off at the high voltage peak.
Eb- Z50V.
ECCZ. Z50V.
Fig. 2.25. Plate current characteristic of remote cut-off pentode with" sliding screen."-
The straight lines indicate the mutual conductances at several points.
resistor designed to provide the correct screen voltage for tbe normal (minimum bias)
operating condition. The screen requires to be by-passed to the cathode.
The same method may be used with a sharp cut-off pentode to provide a longer
grid base. This does not make it possible to obtain the same results as with a pro-
perly designed remote cut-off pentode, although it does increase the maximum input
voltage which can be handled with a limited distortion. It is important to remember
that the extended plate current characteristic curve obtained by this method cannot
be used to determine the dynamic slope, since the latter is higber than would be cal-
culated from the characteristic. This is demonstrated in Fig. 2.25 which shows the
"sliding screen" plate current characteristic, with straight lines drawn to indicate
the mutual conductance at several points.
The procedure for deriving the " sliding screen" plate current characteris-
tic from the fixed voltage data is as follows-
Let plate and screen current curves be available for screen voltages of 50,75, 100
and 125 volts (Fig. 2.26) and take the case with a series screen resistor (R.) of 250000
ohms from a supply voltage of 300.
Ed E dro 1)* Ie'!.** Point Eelt Point I,,:j:
50V 250 V l'OmA A -0'1 E' 3·7mA
75 225 0-9 B -1-7 F 3·15
100 200 0·8 C -3·3 G 2·6
125 175 0-7 D -5·2 H 2-1
.Tbe voltage drop in the screen resistance = 300·- E CI.
"1 cl ... EdrofJ/Rs.
DeriVed from the Scret'1l characteristics and tranSferred to the plate characteristics.
! Derived from the plate cl13racteristics.
in Fig. 2.27 applies to the voltage between plate and cathode-the total supply voltage
will be greater by the drop in the cathode resistor R e'
Through 0 should be drawn a straight line 00, having a slope of -liRe ohms.
The point P where 00 intersects the curve corresponding to the plate-to-cathode
voltage (here 250 V) will be the static operating point, with a bias -Eel and plate
current 1 ht.
In the case of pentodes, with equal plate and screen voltages, the " triode" mutual
characteristic should be used, if available. With the plate voltage higher than the
screen voltage, the triode mutual characteristic may be used as a fairly close approxi-
mation, provided that the triode curve selected is for a voltage the same as the screen
voltage.
Alternatively, pentodes may be treated as for triodes, except that the slope of 00
should be
Rk 1 b +1 c2
where 1 b and· 1 c2 may be taken to a sufficient degree of accuracy as being the values
under published conditions. The plate current (1,/) may then be read from the curve,
and the screen current calculated from the ratio of screen to plate currents.
For the use of cathode loadlines with resistance coupled triodes and pentodes,
refer to Chapter 12 .
...
-10 -e -I -4 -~ 0
CONTROL-GRID VOLTS(tc,}
FIG.2·ZI
Fig. 2.26. Plate and screen current characteristics of pentode illustrating procedure
for deriving "sliding screen" characteristics.
Fig. 2.27. Triode mutual characteristics with cathode bias loadline OD.
For convenience in application, the horizontal and vertical scales should be the
same as in the valve characteristics to which the loadline is to be applied. For example,
if on the plate characteristics one square represents 1 rnA in the vertical direction and
25 V in the horizontal direction, the same proportion should be maintained for the
ellipticalloadline. Having drawn the ellipse for any convenient value of Eo, it may
be expanded or contracted in size, without changing its shape (that is the ratio of the
major to the minor axis when both are measured in inches).
FIG.2·29
Fig. 2.29. Resistive loadline (R L); ind~tive loadline (wL); and elliptical resultant
for R L in series with wL (dashed curve).
FJ = FG + FH. With similar procedure in the other three quadrants, the com-
bined loadline is shown to be an ellipse CJADB which is tilted, or rotated in the
clockwise direction as compared with the original ellipse. The maximum voltage
drop is greater than that across either R L or L alone, as would be expected.
32 (vi) WITH REACTIVE LOADS 2.4
If an elliptical loadline is known, as for example the dashed ellipse of Fig. 2.29,
its series componep.ts may readily be determined. Mark points A and B where the
ellipse reaches its maximum and minimum current values, then draw the line AB ;
the slope of AB gives R L' Mark 0 as the centre of the line AB; draw COD hori-
zontally to cut the ellipse at points C and D.
Then wL = Eollo ohms,
where Eo = voltage corresponding to length OD
and 10 = current (in amperes) corresponding to max. vertical height of
ellipse above line COD.
Alternatively
wL = Length of horizontal chord of ellipse through O~ in volts •
Maximum vertical extent of ellipse, in amperes
(b) Resistance and inductance in parallel
When the load is a resistance R L in parallel with an inductive reactance wL, the
maximum voltage across both will be Eo, and the resistive loadline and reactive ellipse
may be drawn as for the series connection. In this case, however, the curreLts have
to be added. In Fip; 2.30 the maximum current through RL is CK (corresponding
to +Eo), while the maximum current through L is OE. When the voltage is zero
and increasing, the current through R L is zero, and that through L is the
minimum value OP; point P is therefore on the desired loadline. When
the voltage is its positive maximum (OC), the current through RL is CK and
that through L is zero; point K is therefore on the desired loadline. Simil-
arly with points E and M. At an intermediate value, when the voltage is negative
and approaching zero (OR), the current through R L is RS, and that through L is
RT; the total current is therefore RT + RS = RW, and W is on the desired loadline.
The loadline is therefore the ellipse PKEMW.
If an elliptical loadline is known, as for example the dashed ellipse of Fig. 2.30,
its parallel components may readily be determined. Mark points K and M where
the ellipse reaches its maximum and minimum voltage values, then draw the line KM ;
the slope of KM gives R L' Mark 0 as the centre of the line KM; draw EOP vertic-
ally to cut the ellipse at points E and P.
Then wL = Eollo ohms,
where Eo = voltage difference between points 0 and K,
and 10 = current corresponding to length OE, in amperes.
Alternatively
wL = Maximum horizontal length of ellipse, in volts
Length of vertical chord of ellipse through 0, in amperes·
(c) Resistance and capacitance
A similar shape of loadline is obtained when the inductance is replaced by a capacit-
ance of equal reactance, except that the direction of rotation is opposite.
2.4 (vi) WITH REACTIVE LOADS 33
12
TYPE 6SN7
(EACH UNIT)
8
~
!...... -16
~ -'8
'-.
300 400
FIG. i..?. PLATE VOLT~
in each direction. The examples taken have all been based on an arbitrary current
CIo) or voltage (Eo)} which may be made larger or smaller as desired. In Fig. 2.31
there is shown the elliptica1loadline correspond.i.ilg to a resistance of 25 Oop ohms in
series with a reactance of 18000 ohms, on triode plate characteristics with Ell = 250
volts, Ee = -10 volts and peak grid amplitude Egm = 8 volts.
TYPE 6V6-GT
EC2"'2!>o VOLTS
-!)
-10
-I!>
-20
-2$
-?to
400 500
Fig. 2.32. Beam power amplifier plate characteristics with elliptical loadline corres-
pondi'ng to a resistance of 4750 ohms in parallel with a reactance of 23 000 ohms.
Fig. 2.32 shows a typical beam power amplifier with an elliptical loadline with a
resistive load of 4750 ohms shunted by a reactance of 23 000 ohms. The plate volt-
age is 250 volts, grid bias -12,5 volts, and grid swing from 0 to -25 volts ..
34 (i) TRIODE OPERATION OF PENTODES 2.5
The assumption (or approximation) which must be made is-That the plate current
of a pentode valve does not change as the plate voltage is increased from the same voltage
as that of the screen up to the voltage for pentode operation•
. This assumption means, in essence, that the plate resistance is considered to be
infurite-a reasonable approximation for most r-f pentodes, and not seriously in
error for power pentodes and beam power valves.
In this typical example we can take the published characteristics, and assume that
the plate current and transconductance are the same for 100 as for 250 volts on the
plate. From then on the procedure is exactly as in the previous example. It is
important to note that the calculated triode characteristics only apply for a triode
plate voltage of 100 volts and a grid bias of -3 volts:
Example 3: To find the screen transconductance under the conditions of Example 1.
From eqn. (2) we may derive the expression-
g, = gt - gm = 1482 - 1185
= .297 micromhos. -
This could equally well have been derived from eqn. (4) or (5).
Alternatively, if only the plate characteristics are available, much the same result
may be obtained by observing the grid bias for the lowest curve, which is generally
very close to plate current cut-off.
In the case of remote cut-off characteristics it is essential to adopt the tangent
method, and the result will only apply to the particular point of operation, since the
triode amplification factor varies along the curve.
The amplification factor of the screen grid in a pentode valve with respect to the
control grid is almost exactly the same as the triode amplification factor.
The amplification factor of the plate of a pentode valve with respect to its screen
grid may be calculated from the expression-
f'gl'p = f'al' a2 f'g2'p
(7)
where f'g).p = pentode amplification factor
and f'g2'p = screen grid-plate mu factor.
This expression can only be used when the pentode amplification factor is known.
If this is not published, it may be determined from a knowledge of the plate resis~ce
and mutual conductance. If the former is not published, it may be derived graphic-
ally; this derivation is only very approximate-in the case of sharp cut-off r-f pentodes,
since the characteristics are nearly horizontal straight lines.
36 (iii) TRIODE AMPLIFICATION FACTOR 2.5
The same result may be obtained \\ith pentodes, provided that both the grid and
screen voltages are varied in the same proportion as the plate voltage. This result
is the basis of Valve Conversion Factors, so that we must always remember that their
use is restricted to cases in which all the electrode voltages are changed in the same
proportion.
Let Fe be the factor by which all the voltages are changed (i.e. grid, screen, and
plate), and let I,,' be the new plate current.
Then 1,/ oc (F 6.E,,)3/2. (5)
But I,,' = F t .1"
where F i is the factor by which the plate current is changed.
Therefore F t .1" oc (F 6.E,,)3/2. (6)
From the combination of (4) and (6) it will be seen that
F, = F e3 {S (7)
Now the power output is proportional to the product of plate voltage and plate
current so that
Po oc E".I" (8)
and Po' oc (F e.E,,) (Ft .1/J) (9)
so that Po' oc F e.Fi (E".I,,) (10)
oc F ".Fi (Po). (11)
We may therefore say that the power conversion factor F l' is given by the expression
FD = F e.Fi. (12)
Therefore F1' = F ,,5/2. (13)
The mutual conductance is given by
_ change of plate current
IS m = change of grid voltage
6 -
4 ..
3 ~.
3
2
, /
, .J1
1-'
fc~ t....
if L....
III
cr
J~ .---r """"'"
o /. --~ I
t- 1'" I£- ~ 1'0
u
«
'- . F'", -
z
o
III
cr 0
w
>
Z
o ,... .
u
-
O· fe - APPLIES TO PLATE, SCREEN ~i()03
4. CONTROl GRID VOLTAGE.
f~ - APPLIES TO PLATE 4. SCREEN
CURRENT.
III I I I I 111
III I I I I I I I I II
III I I I I I I I I I I I I
o 0.4 ()O6 0'8 1'0 1'5 2'0 2·!)·
VOLTAGE CONVERSION fACTOR [feJ
The example given below is a straightforward case of a pentode valve whose charac-
teristics are given for certain vo]tages and which it is desired to operate at a lower
plate voltage.
Plate and screen voltage 250 volts
Control grid voltage -15 volts
Plate current 30 rnA
2.6 (ii) USE OF VALVE CONVERSION FACTORS 39
Fig. 2.33. Zero bias plate characteristics for type 807 beam power amplifier with six
values of screen voltage (Ref. E2).
Greater accuracy in the use of conversion factors over a wide range of screen voltages
may be obtained, if curves are available for zero bias at a number of different screen
voltages as in Fig. 2.33 (Ref. E2).
When the plate, screen, and grid voltages of a pentode or beam power amplifier
are multiplied hy the same voltage conversion factor, the ratio of the plate current
at a given grid bias to that at zero bias does not change. In order to convert a given
family of plate characteristics to a new screen voltage condition, it is therefore only
necessary to have a zero-bias plate characteristic for the screen voltage of interest.
40 (ii) USE OF VALVE CONVERSION FACTORS 2.8
Example
SupPose that the family of plate characteristics shown in Fig. 2.34, which obtains
for a screen voltage of 250 volts, is to be converted for a screen voltage of 300 volts.
The zero-bias plate characteristic for E c2 = 300 volts, which is shown in Fig. 2.33,
is replotted as the upper curve in Fig. 2.35.
Since all bias values shown in Fig. 2.34 must be multiplied by 300/250 = 1'2,
corresponding plate characteristics for the new family obtain for bias values that are
20 per cent. higher than those shown in Fig. 2.34. Consider the conversion of
-10-volt characteristic of Fig. 2.34. At a plate voltage (Eo \ of 250 volts in Fig. 2.34,
AB/AC = 100/187 = 0·535. On the new characteristic in Fig. 2.35 which corres-
ponds to a bias of -12 volts, A'B' j A'C' must also equal 0·535 at Eo = 300 volts.
Therefore, A'B' = 0·535 x A'C'. From the given zero-bias characteristic of Fig.
2.35, A'C' = 244 at E b = 300 volts; hence A 'B' = 131·milliamperes. At E b = 200
volts in Fig. 2.34 DEjDF = 98/183 = 0·535. Therefore, at E b = 200 x 1·2 =
240 volts in Fig. 2.35, D'E' = 0·535 x 238 = 127 milliamperes. This process
is repeated for a number of plate voltages and a smooth curve is drawn through the
points on the new characteristic.
FIG. 2.34
:1'1
:r
:~
.~
..,
r
l>
;;l
~
r
.~:.~
r
l>
~
;Jl
.~
::: .~
:H
g
~oo 300
PLATE
4
VOLTS
:'00 ~
Fig. 2.34. Plate characteristics for type 807 with fixed screen voltage and eight values
of grid voltage (Ref. E2).
The factor 0·535 cari be used for the -10-volt characteristic at plate voltages
greater than that at which the knee on the zero-bias characteristic of Fig. 2.34 occurs;
for plate vo]tages in the immediate region of the knee, a new factor should be deter-
mined for each point. The plate characteristics of Fig. 2.34 should not be converted
to the left of the dashed line of Fig. 2.34 because of space-charge effects. This
limitation is not a serious one, however, because the region over which the valve
usually operates can be converted with sufficient accuracy for most applications. The .t!i~·'
converted plate characteristic of Fig. 2.35 for Eel = -30 volts was obtained in a , ' : '
similar manner to that for Eel = -12 volts. \
The curves of Fig. 2.35 were checked under dynamic conditions by means of a ' b,
cathode-ray tube and the dotted portions show regions where measured results de-
parted from calculated results.
(iii) The calculation of valve characteristics other than those pub-
lished
It is frequently desired to make minor modifications in the operating conditions
of a valve, such as by a slight increase or decrease of the plate voltage, change in grid
2.6 (iii) CALCULATION OF CHARACTERISTICS 41
bias or load resistance. It is proposed to describe the effects which these changes
will have on the other characteristics of the valve.
The procedure to be adopted is summarized below : -
FIG. 2.35
CALCULATED
- MEASURED
Fig. 2.35. Derived plate characteristics fot type 807 with diffe;ent screen voltage,
making use of Figs. 2.33 and 2.34 with conversion factors (Ref. E2).
conversion factors of 1·2 to the plate, screen and grid voltages so as to provide the
desired conditions.
If curves are availabJe for the new value of screen voltage) use conversion factors
to bring the screen voltage to the desired value, then apply the method below to adjust
the plate voltage, load resistance and grid bias.
FIG. 2.36
__ ---Ec~O
IWII~--~------------~--------~--~~----~~------~~~~~
Fig. 2.36. Plate characteristics of power pentode illustrating effect of change of plate
voltage.
Since the power output is proportional to the area ofthe triangle under the loadline>
it is also proportional to the value of the load resistance> all triangles having ML as a
common side. It may readily be shown that
- Ebl - Emifl
RL -
1maz - 1bl
I _ E b2 - E min
and RL - •
1mu - 1b2
Therefore
RL' _ Eb2 - E fl1in 1maz - 1bl
(17)
RL - Ebl - E min ' l maz - 1 b;
which is also the ratio of the output powers. If 1 b2 = 1111 or the rise of plate current
is neglected as an approximation> then
R L' Eb2 - E min
(18)
R";. Ebl - Emf'll
As an example, apply this to type 6V6.,.GT under the following conditions--
Published Desired
Condition Condition
Plate voltage 250 300 V
Screen voltage 250 250 V
Grid voltage -12·5 -12·5 V
Load resistance 5000 (see below) ohms
Plate current (1 b1) 47 48* ~
Peak plate current (1 maz) 90* 90* ~
N...in. plate current (1 min) 8* 8* ~
Min. plate voltage (E min) 35 35 V
Power output 4·5 (see below) W
*From curve.
Using equation (17)--
RL' = 300 -35. 90 -47 = 265. ~= 1'26
RL 250 - 35 90 -48 215 42
whence R L' = 1'26 x 5000 = 6300 ohms.
The increase of power output is in proportion to the increase in load resistance.
i.e. Po = 4·5 x 1·26 = 5·66 watts.
This method is remarkably accurate when there is very small rectification in the
plate circuit, as is usu:Jly the" case with power pentodes. With beam power amplifiers
of the 6L6 and 807 class, in which the rectification is considerable (strong second
harmonic component), the " corrected" loadline should be used as a basis> and the
values of 1 maa:, 1 bl and Em; 'II should be those corresponding to the corrected loadline.
If the rise in plate current (61 b) is considerable> the point pi will be above the
centre point of the loadline MH> and there will be an appreciable amount of second
harmonic distortion; this may be reduced to zero (if desired) by increasing the load
resistance slightly.
*The voltage gain is also affected by the plate resistance. but this is quite a secondary effect unless
the plate resistance is less than 0.5 megohm. In most remote cut-off pentodes the plate resistance falls
rapidly as the bias is decreased towards the minimum bias. but this is more than counterbalanced by the
rise in mutual conductance.
2.7 (i) CONSTANT VOLTAGE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 45
Much useful information can be derived from an equivalent circuit of a valve even
though this may only be valid under limited conditions. The equivalent cir~t is
~lnly a ~nvenien~ fiction, and it must be remembered that it is the plate supply which,
In reality, sUl?phes the power-the valve merely controls the current by its varying
d.c. plate reSIstance. The equivalent circuit is merely a device to produce in the
Joad the same a.c. currents and voltages which are produced by the valve when alter-
nating voltages are applied to its grid.
FIG.2,l1
and
E
--.l:- = voltage gain ---
fLRL (3)
Eg r:JI +RL
If the load is made up of a resistor R L and an inductor X L in series-
Complex Values Scalar Values
ZL = RL + jX L yRL2 + XL' (4)
pEi = (r:JI + RL + jX L) 121 y(r:JI + RL)2 + XL"·I v (5)
EL _ p.(R L + jXJ = fLYR. L 2 + XL'" (6)
E, - - rp + RL +jX L VeT,. + RL)2 + XL!
and similarly for any other type of load.
46 (i) CONSTANT VOLTAGE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 2.7
The interelectr04e capacitances are shown in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.38,
and may be taken as including the stray circuit capacitances. This circui~ may be
applied at frequencies up to nearly 10 Mc/s, beyond which the inductances of the
leads and electrodes become appreciable. It may also be applied to a screen grid
(tetrode) or pentode, provided that th~ screen is completely by-passed to the cathode;
in this case C. k becomes the input capacitance (C.1• i + C'Il.a2) and C pk becomes
the output capacitance (Cp to all other electrodes).
FIG. 2')9.
K
FIG. 2·40
In the constant voltage generator equivalent circuit, the current varies with load
impedance and plate resistance; in the constant current equivalent circuit, the voltage
across the load and plate resistance varies with load impedance and plate resistance.
A constant current generator equivalent circuit, in which account is taken of
capacitances, is shown in Fig. 2.40. This circuit may be. applied at frequen.cies
up to nearly 10 Mc/s, beyond which the inductances of the leads become appreciable.
It will be seen that CPA: (which may be taken to include all capacitances from plate
to cathode, and the output capacitance of a pentode) is shunted across both r ~ and Z L'
In the case of a resistance-capacitance coupled stage, Z L would be the resultant of
R I. and R 11 (following grid resistor) in parallel.
Maximum power output is obtained when the valve works into a load resistance
equal to its plate resistance provided that the valve is linear and completely distortion-
less over the whole' range of its working, and also that it is unlimited by maximum
electrode dissipations. or grid current. In practice, of course, these conditions do
not hold and the load resistance is made greater than the plate resistance.
At frequencies of 10 Mc/s and above, the effects of the inductance of connecting
leads (both internal and external to the valve) become appreciable. Although it
is possible to draw an equivalent circuit for frequencies up to 100 Mc/s, in which
2.7 (li) CONSTANT CURRENT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 47
each ~p~ci?IDce is split. into an electrod~ part and a circuit part (Ref. B21 Fig. 38)
the CIrCUIt IS too complicated for analYSIS, and the new circuit elements that have
been introduced cannot be measured directly from the external terminals alone.
At f;eq~enci:~ a~ove about 50 Mc/s, transit time effects also become appreciable.
The CIrCUIt which IS commonly used for frequencies above 50 Mc/s is Fig. 2.47 in
which the valve is treated as a four terminal network with NO input and two output
terminals. This is. described in Sect. 8(iii)e.
\/OLTAGEa.
Ebb
<"IG.2·41
iJI
TIME .
G p
f"IG.2·42
~t --l~
RLEL
' - - - - - ( ) . . : . . - - - J __
fIG.2·4?>
!:
FIG. 2'44
When the equivalent circuit includes more than one mesh, it is usual to proceed
around each mesh in tum, using some impedance, common to both, as the link
between each pair of meshes. For example Fig. 2.43 shows a valve with a capacitor
GflP from grid to plate, and a resistive load. Firstly, set down E L in any convenient
direction (here taken horizontally to the right) and I L in the sanle direction; then
draw Ie leading by approximately 90° (actually Ie leads E c by 90°) and complete the
parellelogram to find the resultant current I p; then draw I'Dr 'D in the same direction
as I p and complete the parallelogram to find the resultant JLE II-this completes the
first mesh. Finally take Ell along JLE!J and complete the parallelogram to find the
resultant of Efland E L' which will be E c.
It will be noted that this procedure gives different vector relationships from those
derived for the simpler case, this being the result of the different approach. With
respect to E c' both Eiland E L are nearly in phase; with respect to JLE 9' both I'Dr p
and E L are nearly in phase.
2.7 (iii) VALVE VECTORS 49
If the load is partially inductive (Fig. 2.44) the plate current and I'lIr 'P lag behind
ELand the resultant p.E g is determined by the parallelogram; E g and E L combine
to give the resultant E t; Ie leads E c by 90°, and I L is determined by completing
the paralJelogram of which I c is one side and I'D the resultant.
Fig. 2.45. Vector diagram of valve with partially capacitive load and capacitance
from grid to plate.
With a partially capacitive load (Fig. 2.45) the plate current and I fJr 'D lead E L' and
the resultant p.E g is determined by the parallelogram; E g and E L combine to give
the resultant E c; I c leads E c by 90 0, and I L is determined by completing the parallelo-
gram of which I c is one side and I p the resultant.
(i) Grid input impedance and admittance (ii) Admittance coefficients (iii) The com-
ponents of grid admittance-Input resistance-Input capacitance-Grid input admittance
(a) with plate-grid capacitance coupling; (b) with both plate-grid and grid-cathode
capacitance coupling; (c) with grid-screen capacitance coupHng; (d) with electron transit
time; (e) equivalent drcuit based on admittances (iv) Typical values of short-circuit
input conductance (v) Change of short-circuit-input capacitance with transconductance
(vi) Grid-cathode capacitance (vii) Input capacitances of pentodes (published values)
(viii) Grid-plate capacitance.
(16)
(17)
.Sturley, K. R. " Radio Receiver Design, Part 1 .. (Chapman & Hall, London, 1943) p. 37 et S"I
52 (iii) THE COMPONENTS OF GRID ADMITTANCE 2.8
Cg = C [1 + G:2m:~L2J
gjl (19)
When B L is infinite, i.e. when Z L = 0, Rg is infinite and C g = CgJ)'
When the load is inductive, the input resistance is usually negative, thus tending
to become regenerative, although for values of B L between 0 and
-·Bgj) (gp + G L + gm)/gm,
the input resistance is positive.
When the load is capacitive, the input resistance is always positive, thus causing
degeneration.
As an approximation, if B g" ~ g m and B gjl ~ (g:ll + G L)' the positive and negative
minimum values of r g are given by
.) ±2(g" + G /) (20)
Tg (nnn ~ gm Bgp
and these occur at B L = ± (gjl + G L)'
r---~--o B1"
~----~-----eB- ~----~-------oB-
FIG. Z·46A. FlG.Z·46B.
which occurs at B L = - B gpo This is the well known" Miller Effect" [see Chapter
12 Sect. 2(xi) for a-f amplifiers]. The effect on the tuning of r-f amplifiers is treated
in Chapter 23 Sect. 5, and on i-f amplifiers in Chapter 26 Sect. 7.
In the circuit of Fig. 2.46B, which includes an impedance Z k in the cathode circuit,
with the screen decoupled to the cathode, the input resistance is given approximately by
~ ~ G L + B L\I [I + g meg m + 2G2k) ]
2
r II = (22)
gg gmBg~ L G k2 + Bk
where B (J'{J and g p are neglected in comparison with the other components, and
(B LG Ie - B leG L) is very small. Thus the reflected resistance is increased, and the
damping decreased, as the result of the insertion of Z k.
The input capacitance under these conditions is given by
C = C [(G L +gm)G L +BLII _gm[gm 2G L +gm(GJcG L -BkBL)]] (23)
II (11J G L2+BL2 (Gl2+BLB)[(G~+gm)1I+B1r.2]
which is less than with Z Ie = O.
If the screen is by-passed to the cathode,
rll = .!-.
gil
= G+
L'J B L2
gmBu~ L
[1 + g, (g,G 2++2G,;)]
k BJc2
(24)
FIG. 2-47
Fig. 2.47. Alternative form of equivalent circuit for deriving input admittance.
Since the input and output circuits are separated, allowance may be made for their
interaction by an additional constant current generator in each. A constant current
generator is shown at the output terminals producing a current equal to the product
of the short-circuit forward admittance and the input voltage. A similar generator
is shown at the input terminals producing a current eqaaJ. to the_ product of the shorr-
circuit feedback admittance and the output voltage.
The principal differences in the performance of receiving valves at high and low
frequencies can be attributed to the variations of the short-circuit input conductance
with frequency. The other short-circuit admittance coefficients, however, contribute
to the input admittance actually observettln an operating circuit as follows :
VoItage gam . (A', -- Y Y 'or Y ~ Y gill Y (34)
ost + LOU' + 1-
Added current at input terminals due to presence of load ;::: e,A Y , b. (35)
2.8 (iv) TYPICAL VALUES OF INPUT CONDUCTANCE 55
Phase angle of added component = phase angJe of voltage gaitl + phase angle
of feedback admittance. (36)
Grid input admittance (Y fI) = Yin + AY/ b
_ Y + Ytor Yfb (37)
- tIl You + Y
L
See also Ref. B21.
. The measurement of the four .short-circuit admittances is covered in Chapter 3
Sect. 3(vi) A, B, C and D and also Refs. B17, B21. .
(i) General
Valve characteristics may be represented mathematically as well as graphically
(see Chapter 6 for mathematical theory).
The plate (or space) current is a function (F) of the plate and grid voltages and may
be expressed exactly as
ib = F (eb + p.e c + el) (1)
where e1 is the equivalent voltage which would produce the same effect on the plate
current as the combined effects of the initial electron velocity of e!!'iss!on together
with the contact potentials. The amplification factor p. is not necessarily constant.
There will be a small current flow due to e1 when eb and e c are both zero.
As an approximation, when eb and JI.Bc are large, el may be neglected. The func-
tion in eqn. (1) may also be expressed approximately in the form
ill ~ K(ell + fLe c)f1 (2)
in which K is a constant. The value of n varies from about 1·5 to 2·5 over the usual
operating range of electrode voltages, but is often assumed to be 1·5 (e.g. Conversion
Factors) over the region of nearly-straight characteristics, and 2·0 in the region of
the bottom bend (e.g. detection). We may take the total differential* of eqn. (2),
(3)
dz. b = -
(ji bd · (ji
eb + - bde r-
aeb (je c
which expresses the change in i b which occurs when e b and e c change simultaneously.
Now~ee (ix) below-provided that the valve is being operated entirely in the region
in which p" g m and T f) are cOnstant,
ai ll 1 (jib
- = - and - = gm ,
aeb Tf) ae c
or .
'f) = eJl + ,.,.,,, . (9)
r"
This only holds under the condition that ,.,., g", and r" are constant over the operating
region.
Tf) is (gm ell - if)' Eqn. (18) is the basis of the constant current equivalent
circuit a~ in Sect. 7(ii). .
The voltage gain (A) of an amplifying stage with a load resistance R L is
A eL i~L I-I
-I- e; I· --I e;- J- Tf) +
P.RL
RL
I' (19)
When the load is an impedance Z L' the voltage gain may be shown to be
A .= I ~~
T" L 1 = 11 + ;11/Z L I (20)
where r 11 and Z are complex values (see Chapter 6).
If Z L = R L + jX L' the scalar value of A is given by
A = P. vRLs + XLs (21)
V(Tf) + RJs + XLI
The voltage gain may also be put into the alternative form
A. = 1 g m rp Z L I (22)
r" +ZL
~lgmZLI if Tp > ZL' (23)
= Ib02RL + 0 + Par
i.e'P L = P llc + Pac (28)
1 J211 .
Plate dissipation P'II = - e ~J bd( wt) (30)
2r.
o
From eqns. (28) and (29) it will be seen that the power absorbed by the load increases
when the signal voltage increases, but the power input remains steady; the plate
dissipation therefore decreases as the power output increases,
i.e. P 1l = PbI) - P L (31)
from (26), (28) = Ebb1bo - E LaI bo - P ae (32)
= E bu I bo - Par
= P'IIO - Pac (33)
where P po = Ebo1bo.
That is to say, the plate dissipation (P jI) is equal to the apparent d.c. power input
to the valve (P flO) minus the a.c. power output.
The plate efficiency 7Jp = power ou~put
d.c. power mput
_ Pac
(34)
- Ebu I bo •
With sinusoidal grid excitation, linear Class Al valve operation and resistive load,
P ae = EIll' = lp2RL'
Applying equation (16),
(36)
Differentiating with respect to R L and equating to zero in order to find the condition
for maximum power output,
dP ac _ 2E 2 [(r p + RL)2 - 2R L(r p + R L)] = 0
---/-'
dR L
II
(r1J + R L)'
i.e. when (rv + R L)2_-2R L(r'll + R i) = 0
or when R L = r'll (37)
and the maximum power output is
2.9 (iii) POWER AND EFFICIENCY 61
p.2Eg2 Eg2
Poem = - - = - ,.,gm· (38)
47" 4
The factor p.g m is a figure of merit for power triodes.
If the load is an impedance (Z L = R L + jX L)the condition for maximum power
output is when
RL = VTp2 + X L 2. (39)
In the general case, with a resistive load, the power output is given byeqIi. (36) which
may be put into the form
p.2Eg2 1
P oc = ----.----------. (40)
I'll ~+2+RL
RL Tv
If R dr'l1 = 2, the loss of power below the maximum is only 11 %, while if R dT p = 4
the loss of power is 36%, so that " matching" of the load is not at all critical.
The treatment above is correct for both triodes and pentodes provided that both
are operated completely within the·linear region, that is with limited grid swing. A
pentode is normally operated with a load resistance much less than the plate resistance
on account of the flattening of the output voltage characteristic which would other-
wise occur at low plate voltages.
This subject is considered further in Chapter 13, under practical instead of under
ideal conditions.
e = eg +~
p.
where 'V" = instantaneous value of plate excitation voltage. (Normally for an amplifier
'V p= 0 and e = e g ).
ae e
The value of ar 11/ b may be determined by plotting a curve of T p versus b for the
given operating bias, and drawing a tangent at the point of operating plate voltage.
The value of a2r ae
p/ b 2 may be determined by plotting a curve of fir p versus b and ae
treating in a similar manner.
The higher terms in the series expansion (41) diminish in value fairly rapidly,
so that a reasonably high accuracy is obtained with three terms if the valve is being
used as an amplifier under normal conditions with low distortion.
*Reich, H. J. "Theory and Applications of Electron Tubes" (2nd edit.). McGraw-HiD, New
York snd London, 1944), pp. 74-77.
62 (iv) SERIES EXPANSION-RESISTANCE LOAD 2.9
The first term ale = p.e/(rp + RV is similar to eqn. (16) above, which was re-
garded. as approximately correct for small voltage inputs; that is to say for negligible
distortion.
The first and second terms
if} = ale + ale ll
express the plate current of a " square law detector" which is closely approached
by a triode operating as a grid or plate (" anode-bend ") detector with limited ex-
citation voltage.
The second and higher terms are associated with the production of components
of alternating plate current having frequencies differing from that of the applied
signal-i.e. harmonics and (if more than one signal frequency is applied) intermodula-
tion frequencies.
For example, with a single frequency input,
e = Em sin wt (45)
Therefore
(46)
and
e3 = IEm 3 sin wt - lEma sin 3wt. (47)
The second term (ell) includes a d.c. component (iEml) and a second harmonic com-
ponent. The third term includes a fundamental frequency component (lEm l sin wt)
and a third harmonic component.
If the input voltage contains two frequencies (A and Is) it may be shown that the
second term of eqn. (41) produces
a d.c. component
a fundamental II component
a second harmonic of II
a fundamental la component
a second harmonic of Is
a difference frequency component (f1 - 1'1)
a sum frequency component (f1 + Ill)
The third term of equation (41) produces
a fundamental II component
a third harmonic of It
a fundamental I. component
a third harmonic of 12
Ii difference frequency component (2/1 - /2)
a difference frequency component (2ft. - II)
a sum frequency component (2/1 + Is)
a sum frequency component (2/2 + Il)
In the case of an A-M mixer valve,!. may be the signal frequency andl1 the oscillator
frequency. The normal i-f output frequency is (f1 - 10 while there are spurious
output frequencies of (f1 + 10, (2/1 + Is), (2/. + Il), (2/1 - Is) and (2/. - fl)·
Even though no oscillator harmonics are injected into the mixer, components with
frequencies (2/1 + I.J and (211 - i2) are present in the output, thus demonstrating
mixing at a harmonic of the oscillator frequency.
If the input voltage contains more than two frequencies, or if the terms higher
than the third are appreciable, there will be greater numbers of frequencies in the
output. The effect of this on distortion is treated in Chapter 14.
It may be shown that the effect of the load resistance, particularly when it is greater
than the plate resistance, is to decrease the ratio of the harmonics and of the inter-
modulation components to the fundamental. This confirms the graphical treatment
in Chapter 12.
2.9 (vi) EQUIVALENT PLATE CIRCUIT THEOREM 63
The statement may therefore be made, that the plate dissipation is equal to the d.c.
plate dissipation minus the a.c. power output.
A more general statement covering all types of valve amplifiers and oscillators is
that the plate input power is equal to the plate dissipation plus the power output.
This analysis, based on the equivalent pl~te circuit, reaches a conclusion in eqn. (46)
which is identical with eqn. (33) derived from a direct mathematical approach. It is,
however, helpful in clarifying the conditions of operation of a distortionless Class Al
amplifier.
The preceding treatment only applies to amplifiers (e = efJ in eqn. 41), but it
may be extended to cover cases where the load impedance contains other e.m.f's,
by using the principle of superposition-see Chapter 4 Sect. 7(viii).
It is possible to adopt a somewhat similar procedure to develop the Equivalent
Grid Circuit, or that for any other electrode in a multi-electrode valve.
Then fL = - Oel1
s- (.tp = constant,
) (55)
ue g
+ oi l1 ( el1
::1- = )
constant. (56)
ue g
-oe p
+ lJi (e g = constant), (57)
l1
or more correct1y* +
Oi'lJ/oep
In a corresponding manner the gain (A) and load resistance (R L) of a resistance-
loaded amplifier may be given in the form of total differentials-
A I = Ide'l>\t
Ide
(58)
I g
Section Page
1. Basis of testing practice 68
2. Control of characteristics during manufacture 85
3. Methods of testing characteristics 89
4. Acceptance testing ... 120
5. Service testing and service tester practice 121
6. References ... 125
·Senior Engineer, in charge of Quality Control and Valve Application Laboratory, Amalgamated
Wireless Valve Co. Pty. Ltd.
68
3.1 (i) FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 69
I, ~ G [ e c2
(e cl + ft) + - - + - - +
ILl- 2
e cl
IL1- 8
0 + -ell-
..
1'1- II J (1)
3.1 (ii) BASIC FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS 71
electrodes, with the cathode emitting, are termed " static characteristics". These
characteristics consist of-
(a) the voltage-current relationship for each electrode, when constant voltages are
applied to all remaining electrodes.
e.g., Diode, - I b - E b,
Triode, - I b - E b, E cl constant
I cl - E cU E b constant
and similarly in the case of other types.
(b) the mutual voltage-current relationships between electrodes, when constant
voltages are applied to all electrodes except· the voltage-varying electrode.
e.g., Triode, - I b - E cl E b constant
Pentode, - I b - E cl E b, E c3, E c2 constant
I c3 - E cl E b, E c3) E c2 constant
I c2 - E ci E b, E c3, E c2 constant
and similarly in the case of other types.
Derived Characteristic Parameters-By considering infinitesimal changes of
voltage and current of the static characteristics, described under (a) and (b) above, the
characteristic parameters-amplification factor, transconductance and variational plate
resistance are obtained, which are related as follows,
Amplification. Factor
Transconductance = Pla R '
te eSlstance
These characteristic parameters are derived by the following relations-
SIb
transconductance = SE Cl; E b, E c3, E c2 constant (3)
3.mpI1'ficatIon
' f :actor SE-b ,•
= - E c3, E c2 constant (4)
SE Cl
·
p late resistance SE b
=~; E c3, E m E cl constant (5)
alb
The amplification factor is a function of the electrode geometry only, but becomes also
dependent on the control grid voltage as the cut-off condition is approached. The
transconductance, as defined by eqn. (3) may be derived from the general space current
eqn. (1), and is a function of the electrode geometry, the total cathode space current
and uniformity of activation of the cathode surface.
The characteristic parameters normally used to describe the electrode geometry,
and in terms of which performance is interpreted, are-the amplification factor,
transconductance of the control grid with respect to the plate and the (a.c.) plate to
cathode resistance.
Dynamic Characteristics-By superimposing alternating voltages on the direct
voltage(s) of the control electrode(s), with suitable impedances in series with the
output electrode(s), dynamic characteristics are obtained which depend directly on
the static characteristics and characteristic parameters. These dynamic characteristics
include rectification, frequency conversion, voltage and power gain, oscillation, and
impedance transformation characteristics.
The static characteristics, characteristic parameters and the fundamental properties
previously described comprise the basic mechanical and electrical characteristics,
which determine the serviceability and application of a valve and its performance under
given conditions.
In order to appreciate the significance and limitations of the various tests, which
normally are applied to determine the condition of a valve and the probability that it
will continue to operate satisfactorily, the performances and individual tests must be
properly interpreted in terms of all the relevant characteristics and corresponding
fundamental physical properties. The manner and extent of the dependence and inter-
dependence of the various characteristics and fundamental physical properties must also
be recognized and understood.
3.1 tii) BASIC FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS 73
Notwithstanding the ratings shown against each type, the actual ratings of an indi-
vidual type depend entirely on its intended applications and may not include all those
listed. The absence of a rating for a particular characteristic may be taken to indicate
either that it has not previously been necessary to specify a rating for this characteristic,
or that the type in question was not intended originally for this application and has not
been processed accordingly. In the latter case, operation may not be satisfactory, and
reference should be made to the valve manufacturer for specific information.
(C) Rating systems
Valves are rated by either of two systems-the" absolute maximum" system, or the
" design-centre maximum" system. The absolute maximum system originated in the
early days of valve development and was based on the voltage characteristics of battery
supplies. Battery voltages could fall below their nominal values but seldom appreciably
exceeded them, so that valve maximum ratings set on the basis of specified battery
voltages were absolute maximum ratings. This system is still widely used by British
and European valve manufacturers and is the system of ratings used in the British
Services' Electronic Valve Specification Kl00l and the U.S.A. Services' Specification
for Electron Tubes, JAN-IA (Ref. S2). With the introduction of power line and
car-radio operated receivers and the tendency of many designers to interpret absolute
maximum ratings as nominal values, it became necessary to re-rate valves according to
a system in which allowance was made in the ratings for the variations which occur
under both conditions of operation. Accordingly, the design-centre system was
adopted in U.S.A. by the Radio Manufacturers Association in 1939 for the rating of
receiving valves and since then has become the standard system for rating most
receiver types of American design, manufactured both in U.S.A. and elsewhere.
With either system, each maximum rating for a given valve type must be considered
in relation to all other maximum ratings for that type, so that no one maximum rating
will be exceeded in utilizing any other maximum rating.
Thus it will often happen that one rating alone will determine the limiting operating
conditions while other characteristics are below their maximum ratings.
(D) Interpretation of maximum ratings
In the absolute maximum or" absolute" system (except for filament or heater
voltage) the maximum ratings are limiting values above which the serviceability of the
valve may be impaired from the viewpoint of life and satisfactory performance.
Therefore, in order not to exceed these absolute ratings, the equipment designer
has the responsibility of determining an average design value for each rating below
the absolute value of that rating by an amount such that the absolute values will
never be exceeded under any usual condition of supply-voltage variation, load varia-
tion, or manufacturing variation in the equipment itself. '
The equipment should be designed to operate the filament or heater of each valve
type at rated normal value for full-load operating conditions under average voltage-
supply conditions. Variations from this normal value due to voltage-supply fluctuation
or other causes, should not exceed ± 5 per cent. unless otherwise specified by the
valve manufacturer.
Under the" British Standard Code of Practice" B.S.1106, 1943 (Ref. 49) and the
British Radio Valve Manufacturers' Association's publication" Radio Valve Practice,"
August, 1948 (Ref. 48), recommended British practice is that in general it is not
permissible that the heater voltage should vary more than 7 per cent. from the rated
value.
It is a matter of experience; however, that the heaters and filaments of most modern
receiving valve oxide-coated cathode and filament types may be operated at voltages
whose maximum fluctuations do not exceed ± 10 per cent. from their rated values,
without serious effect on life or marked reduction in performance, provided that the
·maximum ratings of the other electrodes are not exceeded. In cases where the
heater or filament voltage variations exceed, or are likely to exceed, ± 10 per cent., the
maximum ratings should be reduced and recommendations obtained from the valve
manufacturer as to the maximum ratings permissible under the particular conditions.
In the design-centre maximum or " design-centre" system, the maximum
ratings are working design-centre maxima. The basic purpose underlying this system
78 (iv) VALVE RATINGS: LIMITING EFFECT ON OPERATION 3.1
permitted. IIi. such cases it may be inferred that the grid has not been suitably treated
to permit dissipation.
(E) Operating conditions
Typical operation-In addition to maximum ratings, information is published
on typical operating conditions for most of the various types, when used in particular
applications. These typical operating conditions are intended to provide guiding infor-
mation for the use of each type. They must not be considered as ratings, because each
type can, in general, be used under any suitable conditions within its rating limitations.
Datum point for electrode potentials-In published data, it is standard practice
for the values of grid bias and positive-potential-electrode voltages to be given with
reference. to a specified datum point, as follows :-For types having filaments heated
with direct current, the negative filament terminal is taken as the datum point to which
other electrode voltages are referred. For types having filaments heated with alter-
nating current, the mid-point (i.e., the centre tap on the filament transformer secondary,
or the mid-point on a resistor shunting the filament) is taken as the datum point. For
types having equi-potential cathodes (indirectly heated) the cathode is taken as the
datum point.
Grid bias for a.c. or d.c. filament excitation-If the filament of any type whose
data are given for a d.c. filament voltage is to be operated from an a.c. supply, the grid
bias given for d.c. filament operation should be increased by an amount approximately
equal to one half the rated filament voltage and be referred to the filament mid-point.
Conversely, if it is required to use d.c. filament excitation on any filament type whose
data are given for an a.c. filament voltage, the value of grid bias given should be de-
creased by an amount approximately equal to one-half the rated filament voltage, and be
referred to the negative filament terminal, instead of the mid-point as in a.c. operation.
This rule is only approximate and does not, in general, provide identical currents for
both types of filament excitation.
(v) Recommended practice and operation
The following additional limitations on valve practice and operation are based partly
on the recommendations of the British Standard Code of Practice (Ref. 49) also on the
B.V.A. Radio Valve Practice (Ref. 48), and on established design practice.
(a) Mounting-(l) Unless otherwise stated it is desirable that valves should be
mounted base down and in a vertical position. Where it is necessary to depart
from vertical mounting, the plane of the filament of directly heated valves should be
vertical. Similarly, the plane of the grid side rods (or major axis of the control grid)
of indirectly heated valves having a high transconductance and/or a long unsupported
cathode, should be vertical. This reduces the possibility of filament- and cathode-to-
grid short circuits and microphony in filament valves.
It is particularly undesirable that valves having high plate dissipation ratings should
be mounted base upwards without agreement from the valve manufacturer, as this
method of mounting seriously affects the flow of air around the bulb and may result
in the limiting temperature being exceeded.
Depending on the distribution of the bulb temperature, gas may Qe released from
the getter deposit under these conditions and the vacuum and emission affected.
(2) It is particularly important that the connections to floating contacts of sockets
for glass based valves should be as flexible as possible and that the contacts themselves
should float properly and not become rigidly locked in position. The use of a wiring
jig, having the nominal specified dimensions for the base type, inserted in the valve
socket during wiring, is desirable in order to locate the socket contacts correctly, so
that strain on the base pin seals is minimized when the valve is inserted. Prior to
insertion, the base pins of miniature valves should be straightened by means of a
pin-straightener, if misaligned. The pin-straightener may consist simply of a steel
block drilled with countersunk holes of the correct diameter and location, to slightly
larger tolerances than those specified for the pins of the base type. For specific
information and design, reference should be made to the valve manufacturer.
(3) It is undesirable to use socket contacts as connecting tags in circuit wiring because
of circumstances which may arise if the valve is subsequently replaced by another
3.1 (v) RECOMMENDED PRACTICE AND OPERATION 81
exist across the insulation, there is a risk of modulation hum, particularly in cathode-
coupled oscillators and the like.
Cd) Control grid circuit resistance
In all cases where published recommendations are available from the valve manu-
factUrer, they should be followed. The maximum value of grid circuit resistance in the
case of a particular type of valve cannot be specified without knowledge of the valve
characteristics and conditions of operation. In no circumstances should valves be
operated without a d.c. connection between each electrode and cathode.
The maximum value of control grid circuit resistance which may be used under any
condition of operation depends initially upon the stability of performance required but
ultimately upon the transconductance under that condition, the increase in cathode
current and electrode dissipations which may occur due to the cumulative effects of
reverse grid current (gas, grid emission and leakage) permitted by the specification,
the maximum ratings for these characteristics, and the limiting effect of resistances in
series with the cathode and in the electrode circuits in series with the various electrode
supply voltages. The following formulae, expressing the relationships between the
various resistances, direct currents and electrode parameters in typical grid controlled
triodes, tetrodes and pentode circuits hold providing the control grid current is negli-
gible in comparison with the total cathode current.
For pentodes and tettodes (Ref. 41)
R = LJI k[~+Rk(I+_I_) +P RfI'I.] (6)
lll
LJI gk
cl }LIIl'/I'I. }LIIl'1I2
For triodes (Ref. 41)
discretion. In cases where the valve is being operated below maximum rated condi-
tions and at a total cathode current less than that for the grid current test conditions,
the value of AIel may be taken as varying approximately as the cathode current. *
It should be clearly understood that equations (6) and (7) are fundamental, and, in
cases where no maximum grid circuit resistance values are published, may be used to
calculate maximum safe values. These equations are based on the margin (AI,,)
between the operating plate current and that value of plate current which gives
maximum plate dissipation or maximum cathode current or which gives the maximum
tolerable change in performance, the limiting condition of operation being determined
by the rating which is reached first. It may happen that the published typical operating
conditions give maximum rated plate dissipation-in this case AI" or AIIe is zero, and
the equations cannot therefore be applied to calculate Rill directly. In such a case the
procedure is to assume reasonable values of Rill and AI cu and then to use the equations
to derive Alb or AI k. The operating plate or cathode current would then be made less
than the permissible maximum by the margin AI" or AI k. Alternatively a lower value
of Rill may be chosen and the conditions of operation recalculated.
If a maximum value of R rl is published for fixed bias operation, then the value for
cathode bias may be determined from equations (8) to (13) :
For pentodes and tetrodes-generaI case
Rill for cathode bias . [( 1)
-:....:.-----.-=I+g k Rk 1 + - - +---
PRII!-'J (8)
Rill for fixed bIas /LIII·II! /LIII.II!
which may be used under these conditions without grid blocking occurring, is that
value of resistance represented by the line drawn from the operating bias point on the
abscissa, tangential to the cross-over loop of the grid current characteristic below the
abscissa as shown in Fig. 2.11.
If the grid circuit resistance is such that the line cuts the loop of the characteristic
below the abscissa, blocking will occur if the instantaneous values of grid voltage
exceed the voltage of the point at which the line crosses the grid characteristic nearer
to the origin. See also Chapter 2 Sect. 2(iii).
Because of the difficulty of controlling the grid current commencement point of
oxide-coated cathode and filament valves during manufacture, due mainly to contact
potential variations caused by variable control grid surface conditions, it is desirable
that operating conditions should be chosen, such that the control grid bias is always suffi-
ciently large in relation to the contact potential, so that variations of the latter produce
only minor effects on performance. In general, the grid current commencement
voltage of indirectly heated cathode types is negative and may have a value up to
-1.0 volt but as a rule varies during life. The grid current commencement voltage
of filament types is usually positive and seldom exceeds about +0.5 volt, but usually
becomes less positive during life and may even become negative. The plate current
commencement voltage of diodes due to contact potential behaves in a similar manner.
(e) Operation at low screen voltages
As the grid current commencement voltage may in certain cases be dependent on the
value of screen voltage and may become more negative as the screen voltage is reduced,
it is in general undesirable to operate valves having low or zero control grid-bias at low
screen voltages. In the case of zero-bias operated filament types, operation at low
screen voltages may result in the grid current commencement voltage becoming nega-
tive and in the flow of positive current, causing either a change in operating conditions
due to additional negative bias developed across the grid resistor or damping of tuned
grid circuits due to lowered input resistance. In either case undesirable and often
wide yariations in performance may result.
(f) Microphony
Small variations of electrode spacing cause corresponding variations in the output of
the valve, and it is desirable to ensure that little or no vibration reaches the valve.
Such vibration may reach the valve by way of the valve socket or acoustically, and it
should be noted that microphonic trouble may originate in the converter or i-f stages
through modulation of the signal or i-f carrier at audio frequencies. It is recommended
that, if possible, the position of the valve in relation to the source of vibration be so
chosen that microphony effects will be at a minimum. Methods which may be used to
minimize microphony effects are described in Chapter 35 Sect. 3(iv).
(g) Hum
Hum due to conditions within the valves is analysed in Chapter 31 Sect. 4(i). See
also Ref. 91 on heater-cathode leakage as a source of hum.
(h) Stand-by operation
Where it is necessary to maintain cathodes and filaments at normal operating
temperatures during stand-by periods, better life in general will be obtained
when the equipment is so designed that some, rather than no, cathode
current flows during such periods. It is also essential that the heater or filament
voltage be maintained as close to the rated value as possible. Continuous operation
of heaters or filaments at voltages exceeding their rated values by more than 10 per
cent., without cathode current flowing, will result, generally, in progressively short
life being obtained.
In equipments which are designed so that no cathode current flows during stand-by ~
periods for periods of less than 15 minutes, the filament voltage of quick-heating fila-
ment types should be reduced to 80 per cent. of normal, while the heater voltage of
indirectly heated cathode types should be maintained at normal rated value. For
longer periods, both filament and heater power should be turned off.
1
3.2 (i) IMPORTANCE OF CONTROL OVER CHARACTERISTICS 85
however comprehensive, the performance obtainable from any particular valve under
operating conditions, and it is necessary to rely on recorded observations of characteris-
tic variation during continuous or intermittent operation under controlled test condi-
tions, to determine ultimate performance. Such tests are known as Life Tests.
Provided maximum ratings have not been exceeded, the life of most oxide-coated
cathode high vacuum valves, assuming that the initial emission and electrode insulation
are satisfactory, is determined almost entirely by the extent to which the initial vacuum
is maintained during storage and during periods of operation and non-operation, as in
general the supply of emission-producing material available on the average filament or
cathode greatly exceeds that required for the lives normally obtained in practice.
The average rate and uniformity of deterioration of the vacuum- and emission-
dependent characteristics which normally occur slowly and uniformly in all valves
during operation, and which vary from valve to valve, and any excessive deterioration of
mechanical and electrical characteristics due to defective manufacture are controlled by
regular life tests of srr...all samples of each type. These life tests are operated normally
under maximum rating conditions, for a specified period during which the performance
determining characteristic(s) may not deteriorate beyond prescribed values, or for the
period (which may not be less than a prescribed minimum) required for such deteriora-
tion to occur.
Owing to limitation~ of equipment and cost, regular control life tests are run usually
for periods of 500 to 1000 hours on small samples of the order of 5 valves per type per
week for types in continuous production. As variations in characteristics are most
liable to occur early in life, readings are usually spaced at increasing intervals to give
an indication of the complete life characteristic over the control periods.
A typical life test acceptance criterion of satisfactory life is that the average life
obtained per valve, considering all valves of the sample, must be not less than 80 per
cent. of the specified duration of the life test. The valves used must also be selected at
random and comply with the production and design test acceptance criteria.
In the event of the completed product failing to comply with the life test criteria,
delivery of the product is then withheld from "he warehouse, until satisfactory life has
been re-established.
*The assistance of A. H. WardaIe, Member I.R.E. (U.S.A.) and D. H. Connolly, A.S.T.C., is ack-
nowledged.
90 METHODS OF TESTING CHARACTERISTICS 3.3
Pre-heating·
Pre-heating with heater voltage applied to the heater only is generally adequate for
all ordinary purposes where it is necessary to conserve time, except where full electrode
dissipation pre-heating is required by particular valve specifications under acceptance
testing conditions, or when testing for reverse grid current (gas, grid emission and hot
leakage). When full electrode dissipation is applied, the time of pre-heating is normally
2 minutes (JAN-IA) to 5 minutes (R.M.A.). Maximum valve ratings should not be
exceeded during pre-heating.
See References S2, S7.
(ii) General characteristics
(a) Physical dimensions-Valves may be checked for overall length and maximum
diameter either by the use of " go/not go" gauges or by an adjustable length gauge
and outside calipers respectively.
Standard ring gauges for checking maximum and minimum base and sleeve dia-
meters, also pin alignment gauges, are specified by RM.A. Standard ET-106 (Ref. S6).
(b) Shorts and continuity-It is important to ensure that electrodes such as control
and signal grids and suppressors, which do not normally dissipate any power, should
not be subjected to any appreciable power dissipation during the shorts and continuity
test, otherwise the valve may be damaged as the degassing treatment of these grids
during manufacture is normally much lighter than that of electrodes which are required
to dissipate power. In addition, the cathode current drawn, particularly in filament
types, should not be excessive. It is also important that shorts be checked between the
various electrode pin connections and pins designated as no connection, also that the
continuity of internal jumper connections between base pins be checked.
The circuit arrangement accepted as the most generally satisfactory for both shorts
and continuity with regard to sensitivity and speed of testing is that known as the
hexaphase shorts and continuity test. This circuit is now widely used, particularly by
valve manufacturers (e.g., Ref. 1, Fig. 54). A modification is shown in Fig. 3.2 which
uses 6110 volt t watt neon lamps and is entirely satisfactory for valves not requiring
more than 6 independent electrodes. The values shown for this circuit have been
92 (ii) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 3.3
chosen to suit the majority of receiving type valves in that the dissipations of the normal-
ly negative electrodes are kept low for reasons previously stated-see (b) above--and
may not be satisfactory for all valve types. In the case of a semi-universal tester it is
essential that the requirements above be observed, and also that all electrode dissipa-
tions and peak and average currents be kept within their maximum ratings, otherwise
valves may be damaged. It is also essential as in any shorts tester that the cathode-
to-grid voltage, and battery-type filament-to-grid voltage particularly,-be
kept to a value not exceeding approximately 100 volts, owing to the small
spacing between these electrodes resulting in unreliable " flick" indications of the
neon lamps in normally good valves. The -test is carried out with the cathode hot, and
the resistor Rl is for the purpose of limiting the peak cathode current to a safe value
(3 mA per 50 milliamp. filament strand for 1.4 volt battery valves). The tester uses
split anode neon lamps and continuity of each valve electrode is indicated by the
glowing of one half of the split-anode neon lamp connected to that electrode. In the
case of a short-circuit to cathode, one lamp will light on both electrodes, while in the
case of a short-circuit between two or more other electrodes, two or more lamps will
so light. There is an optimum arrangement of connections from the terminals
A, B, C, D and E to give fairly low voltages between cathode and control grid or other
low-dissipation electrodes and to give uniform illumination on all lamps. In some cases,
experimenting may be necessary in changing over connections to obtain fairly uniform
illumination on all lamps. It is necessary that the insulation of the sockets and
wiring be sufficiently good to avoid residual glows on the neon lamps when a valve is not
in the socket. This is particularly important in humid climates.
f ",C. Types
R N
FIG. 3.2 R7
Fig. 3.2. Hexaphase shorts and continuity tester. Suitable values are R=5000 ohms,
Rs=R/i=7500 ohms, Ri= 1500 ohms, R , =5000 ohms, Rl =50000 ohms for battery
valves other than power output, 33000 ohms for normal a.c. types, or 15000 ohms for
power output valves. Lamps (N) are 110 volt! watt split-anode neon.
If more than six lamps are required, additional lamps may be incorporated at suitable
points in the " ring " network, but all such arrangements have the limitation that one
or more conditions exist where no shorts indication is possible on one or more pairs
of lamps.
In addition to the neon shorts and continuity test, filament type lamps may be used
to indicate continuity from shield to cathode or along a " jumper" linking two pins.
Continuity of heaters and filaments is indicated by means of a current meter of
suitable scale in series with the heater or filament, an open-circuit being indicated by
3.3 (ii) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 93
zero current. In the absence of a current meter and where a rheostat is used to drop
the filament/heater source voltage, the voltmeter reading may be used to indicate
open-circuited filaments or heaters since the voltmeter reading will then be much higher
than normal .
FIG. 3.3
The older type of shorts tester is shown in Fig. 3.3 and operates on single phase
and requires a total voltage of 880 volts for 8 lamps. This may be used as a hot or cold
cathode shorts tester, but has the disadvantages that it only indicates electrode continu-
ity of those electrodes which draw sufficient current to operate lamps to which they are
connected. It also has the severe disadvantage that the voltages cannot be arranged
conveniently with regard to the electrode configuration for semi-universal testing, as all
voltages are in phase, and quite high voltages- may be developed between adjacent
electrodes in the absence of complicated switching.
When using this type of tester with either hot or cold filament (or cathode), it is
essential to connect grid No.1 to the lowest voltage in the chain with respect to earth,
otherwise damage may be done to the valve, or else good valves may indicate as having
a short circuit. The other points in the chain should be connected in the same sequence
as the grids and plate.
A fairly satisfactory form of single lamp
shorts and continuity tester commonly used
in service testers is shown in Fig. 3.4. The
electrode switch S is rotated with the
cathode heated. If the neon lamp glows
on one side only the particular electrode is
connected; if on both sides a short-circuit Fig. 3.4. Simpler type of shorts and
is indicated. If only one electrode indicates continuity tester, employing a single
short-circuit, the short is to heater (fila- lamp.
ment) ; if two or more electrodes indicate a
short-circuit, they are shorted together. The continuity test only works well for the
electrodes close to the cathode, the sensitivity decreasing towards the anode.
The same circuit Fig. 3.4 may also be used for a cold cathode shorts test.
(c) Heater (or filament) current-This is measured with a d.c. heater source,
using the heater circuit as in Fig. 3.1. The heater voltmeter current passes through
the ammeter A, so that it is necessary for greatest accuracy to subtract the voltmeter
94 (li) GENERAL CHARACTERI~TICS 3.3
current from the current reading. However, with a 1000 ohms-per-volt meter, the
current is less than 1 mA and the error is quite small with heater currents of the order
of 0.3 A. When measuring filament currents of small battery valves (e.g., 50 mA),
the ammeter zero may be set to read zero when the voltmeter is at its nominal reading
(e.g., 1.4 volts). The current is normally measured with no connections to any other
electrodes. See also Ref. S12, Sect. 2.1.
(d) Heater-to-cathode leakage-This may be tested by applying the maximum
rated direct voltage between one heater terminal and cathode and measuring the
current with a microammeter (say 0-500 pA) with a safety resistance in series (not
greater than 100 000 ohms). The leakage current should be not greater than 20 p.A
for ordinary 6.3 volt 0.3 ampere valves, or 50 to 100 p.A for power valves, with 100
volts applied.
The heater may be operated with either a.c. or d.c. supply if below 35 volts; at 35
volts and above it is usual to operate it on a.c. supply. The voltage between heater and
, cathode should be applied with both polarities, except in the case of rectifiers where the
heater must be negative with respect to the cathode.
(e) Inter-electrode insulation-This is not normally a regular commercial test,
except to meet service specifications. The test voltage specified is normally 300 volts
for small valves or 500 volts for those which are able to stand the higher voltage.
The insulation resis~ may be measured by any ordinary type of insulation tester,
but preferably by an e~ectronic megohm-meter. In this test, the cathode should always
be positive. The testfis carried out on a valve which has reached a stable temperature
under normal operating conditions. The minimum permissible insulation resistance
usually specified is 10 megohms (Ref. S2).
Tills test is not used between heater and cathode.
(f) Emission-The purpose of the emission test is to ensure that the cathode
emission is adequate to provide the peak and average space currents for the particular
application of the type by a margin which has been found to be satisfactory for good
life and performance.
Emission is normally tested by applying a suitable direct positive voltage to all grids
connected together with the plate, and measuring the total cathode current.
Becaus~ of the very high value of the emission current normally drawn from the
cathode, the resulting excessive dissipation of the inner grids and the gas produced as a
result of this dissipation and also as a result of ion bombardment of the cathode, the
emission test is a damaging test and should be performed as seldom as possible and then
always very carefully.
In order to avoid damage to the cathode by this test, the applied voltage must be
sufficiently large to approach current saturation without drawing sufficient current to
damage the valve due to excessive dissipation of the inner grids. At the same time the
test must be of sufficient duration to enable the stability of the emission to be indicated
without being so long as to give risk of poisoning the emission. A safe value generally
accepted for the duration of the emission test is 3 seconds. During this period the
emission should not fall below a value recommended by the valve manufacturer.
In general, emission is a minimum reading. As most of the cathode current goes to the
No. 1 grid, which is usually wound with very fine wire, and treated lightly during
manufacture, the applied voltage must be restricted to a value such that the emission
current drawn does not result in damage to the valve. The voltages normally used in
manufacture are listed below.
Emission testing with applied alternating voltage is also used, but in this case the
test becomes one intermediate between a peak emission test and a high current trans-
conductance test. In practice, there is no exact and simple correlation between a.c.
and d.c. emission tests due to the fact that the a.c. emission current depends in part on
the emission capability of the valve as well as on its geometry. Experience has shown
that mains frequency a.c. emission tests tend to be unreliable owing to the fact that the
emission " gets a rest" between cycles and, in a practical case, the rating of peak to
average emission current drawn cannot be made sufficiently high to be effective.
Voltages given below are based on JAN-1A (Ref. S2); values of voltages and mini-
mum emission currents are given by Ref. 65.
3.3 Cii) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 95
Signal diodes are normally tested for emission with an applied direct voltage of
10 volts, except that 20 volts are normally applied to type 6H6.
Power rectifiers are normally tested with applied voltages as listed below (suffixes
of valve types have been omitted) :
20 volts-IV, I2A7, 32L7.
25 volts-84j6Z4,70L7.
30 volts-5V4, 6ZY5,7Y4, I2Z3, 25A7, 25Z5, 25Z6, 35Z3, 35Z4, 35Z5, 45Z3,
45Z5, 50Y6, 83V, 117N7, 117Z4, 117Z6.
50 volts-5Z4, 6W5, 6X5, 7Z4, 28Z5.
75 volts-5R4, 5T4, 5U4, 5W4, 5X3, 5X4, 5Y3, 5Y4, 5Z3.
Amplifier valves are normally tested for emission with an applied direct voltage of
30 volts. Some of the exceptions are listed below :
10 volts-lAB5,6AC7, 6AG5, 7E5, 7F8, 7G8, 7V7, 7W7, 26A7.
15 volts-6BE6.
20 volts-lD8, lJ6, 2A3, 3A8, 6AB7, 6AG7, 6SD7, 6SQ7, 6SH7, 7G7, 7H7, 7J7,
7L7, 7Q7, 7R7, 7S7, 19, 28D7~ 35L6, 70L7.
25 volts-II7N7.
50 volts-6A6, 6B5, 6L6, 6N6, 6N7; 12A5, 24A, 53, 59, 79.
A.ll the voltages listed above are subject to variation by different valve manufacturers.
(g) Direct iuterelectrode capacltances-The following information is based on
recognised engineering practice by the manufacturers of American-type valves, and is
in line with the LRE. St2!ldard (Ref. SI" SI2)" the RM.A.-NEM..-\ Standard (Ref. S8)
and with JAN-IA (Ref. S2).
The capacitances which are measured are direct interelectrode capacitances, and not
the total (self) capacitances which are the sum of two or more direct capacitances.
The measured value of inter-electrode capacitance of a valve is dependent upon the
valve shield or, in the absence of a shield, upon the geometry of the external environ-
ment. It is therefore necessary for the test to be made under strictly specified conditions
of valve shielding and of electrode and internal valve screen connections.
Published values of interelectrode capacitances are stated either for the condition
where the valve is. shielded with a specified standard valve shield (see below) or is
unshielded. Interelectrode capacitances are normally measured with the cathode cold
and with no direct voltage applied to the electrodes. The base pins and leads are
shielded from each other and from other elements of the valve so that they and their
connections do not form part of the capacitance being measured. All external metal
parts integral with the valve should be connected to the cathode; such parts include
lock-in valve bases, metal base shells, and pins with no connection. When capacitance
measurements are made on indirectly-heated valves the heater should be connected
to the cathode unless in special cases the measurement is between the cathode only and
other elements, or the heater and other elements. For valves having elements other
than a control grid, a plate, and a cathode, the additional elements of the active section
including internal shields should be connected to the filament or cathode by the shortest
possible connections. For a multiple-unit valve structure, all elements of the other
section(s) should be earthed except when reading inter-section coupling capacitances.
The test sockets should be Standard Capacitance Sockets as specified by R.M.A.-
NEMA (Fig. 3.4A). Valves with top caps should be tested with the R.M.A.-NEMA
Standard Cap Connectors (Fig. 3.4B).
The connections to be made to the electrodes while testing for interelectrode
capacitances are given below :
Input capacitance is tested by measuring the capacitance between grid and cathode,
the latter being connected to heater, screen and shields; the plate is earthed.
Output capacitance is tested by measuring the capacitance between plate and
cathode, the latter being connected to heater, screen and shields; the grid is earthed.
Capacitance from grid to plate for all types of valves is measured with all other
electrodes earthed.
96 (ii) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 3.3
In multiple unit valves, the capacitance between the grid of one section and the
plate of the other is measured with all other electrodes earthed; similarly from one .
plate to the other.
The input capacitance of a diode is measured between its plate and cathode,
the latter being connected to heater and shields; other sections are earthed.
The capacitance between diode-plate and grid or plate of other sections is
measured with all other electrodes earthed.
In a converter, the r-f input capacitance is measured between the signal grid
and all other electrodes connected together.
The mixer output capacitance is measured between the mixer plate and all other
electrodes connected together.
The capacitance from oscillator grid to oscillator plate is measured with all
other electrodes earthed.
The oscillator input capacitance is measured between oscillator grid and cathode,
the latter being connected to heater and shields; the oscillator plate and all electr04es
of the other section being earthed.
The oscillator output capacitance is measured between oscillator plate and
cathode, the latter being connected to heater and shields; the oscillator grid and all
electrodes of the other section being earthed.
The capacitance between oscillator grid and signal grid, or oscillator plate
and signal grid, is measured with all other electrodes earthed.
In converters ill which there is usually a r-f voltage between cathode and
earth (e.g., 6BE6), the oscillator output capacitance is measured between cathode
and heater, the latter being connected to screen and shields; the oscillator grid being
earthed.
The oscillator input capacitance is measured between oscillator-grid and all other
electrodes connected together. The capacitance between oscillator grid and cathode
is measured with all other electrodes earthed.
Standard sockets, cap connectors and shields for use in the measurement of
valve capacitances (R.M.A.-NEMA, Ref. S8).
(1) Sockets
The construction and shielding of capacitance sockets and leads shall be such that
when the holes for the insertion of the base pins are covered with a grounded, flat metal
pJate, the capacitance between anyone socket terminal and all other socket terminais
tied together does not exceed 0.000 10 ,.",."F for receiving valves.
t-------- B -------'l~
The socket shall be so constructed that the base of the valve under test will seat
on the face plate. .
Table 1.
.Base Designation Max. diameter (A)* Max. diameter (B)*
Standard 4,5,6 or 7-pin 0.250 in. 3 in.
Octal 0.175 in. 3 in.
Lock-in 0.093 in. 3 in.
7-pin miniature 0.075 in. 2! in.
9-pin miniature 0.075 in. 21 in.
*see Fig. 3.4A.
(2) Cap connectors.
Standard Cap Connectors shall be made as shown in Fig. 3.4B. A thin insulating
film may be placed on surface X in Fig. 3.4B. Dimensions in inches shall be as
tabulated below.
Designation A B C
Medium H±-h 0.556 0.850
Small i£±ck 0352 0.750
Miniature 'i!±-h 0.242 0.750
Fig. 3.4B. RMA-NEMA Standard Cap Connectors for use in measurement of valve
capacitances (Ref. 8'8).
(3) Shidds.
S~#rd. &~d$- are ~9wn in Fig. ;;.4C. It is recommended that these shields be
~a.sindiatid below, or as specified by the valve manufacturer.
Max. seated height
Shield with without
No. top cap top cap
30.8 GT glass types with T9 bqlbs* 3 2i in.
309 G~Ss types with T9 bulbs* 31 3/s in.
311 G glass types with ST12 bulbs* 4ii;- 3n in
312 G glass types with ST14 bulbs* 4H 4-t\- in.
{ G glass types with ST16 bulbs* 5k 41 in.
315 Miniature types with T6t bulbs* 21 in.
316 Miniature types with T5i bulbs* 21 in.
(4) Methods of measuring inter-electrode capacitances are described in the
I.R.E. Staudard (Ref. SI2). The R.M.A.-NEMA Standard (Ref. S8) states that the
r-f bridge method (Refs. 77, S8, S12) and the transmission method (Refs. S8, S12)
shall be the stalildar.d methods of meas.uring interelectrode capacitances; both methods
are ciescribed. These measurements are normally made only in valve laboratories.
*'The IQll'Ximum outside Qiameters fif these bqlbs are: T9 1-3/16 in.; ST12 1-9/16 in.; ST14
1-1:3/16 in.; STl6 2-1116 in. ; T5! 3/4 in.; T6! 7/8 in.
98 (ii) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 3.3
NQ,loa
No.3IS
NQ,309 •
AMAX. RADIUS ALLOWABLE ON ALL INTERNAL EDGES
31:"t~
o
I.®I P- - - - Ll JI~@
1. 1 )1--- 0
I': 'lI'!~
li"ti{ ®
K
F
: I SOCKET
FACEPLATE ~
®
I·...,
w.J..I.._ _ _ ~...----'""'"
'1
1I\t:
@l
",1 __ _
NO.lll 1......
__ --III\f2·~ SOCKET
EITHER SHIELD MAY BE 11-0 FACEPLATE
SLOTTED FOR EASE OF FIT No.312 FIG. 3. 4C
0.0001 to 2 f'f'F, between any two electrodes of a valve with all the other electrodes
earthed, at a frequency of 400 Kc/s.
. Capacitances above 2 f'pF are usually measured on a simple capacitance bridge at
1000 cis. Commercial bridges having a logarithmic scale are available for this purpose,
reading from 0 to 30 f'f'F. However, audio-frequency bridges are out of the question
for very low capacitances, because the insulation resistance between electrodes may be
lower than the reactance of a 0.0001 f'f'F capacitance. Even at 1000 Kc/s the re-
actance of this value of capacitance is 1500 megohms.
The capacitance measured with an audio-frequency capacitance bridge is frequently
higher than that measured with a capacitance bridge operating at radio frequency.
This effect is associated with the presence·ofresistive films on the insulators supporting
the valve electrodes. Such films may be caused by deposition of getter or by the evap-
oration of metal from the cathode either during the manufacture or during the life of
the valve. The value of the resistance may be as high as 1000 megohms or more, but is
capable of modifying the measured value of the capacitance and prevents the prediction
of the performance of the valve at frequencies higher than that of the measurement
(Ref. 23).
The actual capacitance of a valve depends on its operating conditions and the im-
pedances in the electrode circuits. For purposes of specification testing the valve is
tested with the cathode cold and without any voltages applied to the electrodes. In any
particular case under specified operating conditions the interelectrode capacitances
will differ from the static capacitances measured in this way. For further information
see Chapter 2 Sect. 8(lin and the references there listed.
FIG. 3.5
The plate supply impedance is that of transformer Tl which should be one having
good regulation and low winding resistance.
In a transformer the plate supply impedance per plate is given approximately by
Rs~N2Rflri+R.ee (1)
where N = voltage ratio of tt:ansformer at no load (primary to half secondary in the
case of full-wave rectification)
_ (half) secondary voltage I d
- . I at no oa
pnmary vo tage
Rpri=resistance of primary winding in ohms
and Rue = resistance of secondary winding in ohms (or half-secondary in the case of
full-wave rectification).
If the transformer plate supply impedance per plate is less than the required value,
two equal resistances should be added at points. XX in Fig. 3.5 to make up the defi-
ciency. If the transformer plate supply impedance per plate is greater than the required
100 (iii) SPECIFIC DIODE CHARACTERISTICS 3.3
value, the test will not be so severe since it will reduce the peak plate current and also
reduce the output voltage or current.
In view of this limitation, a rectification test which may be used and which should
be satisfactory for all practical purposes is to make use of the maximum published
conditions with a condenser input filter. These conditions include the maximum
r.m.s. applied voltage, the maximum d.c. load current, the minimum plate supply
impedance per plate and the maximum filter capacitance for these conditions, if
published. In cases where the latter information is not available~ it is usually safe to
test with the maximum value of filter capacitance used in the published curves or
typical operation data, provided that the plate supply impedlince per plate is equal to
the minimum rated value or to the value used for the curves or typical operatipn data,
whichever is the greater. In all cases it is essential that the maximum peak plate
current rating per plate be not exceeded.
The rectification test may be used for the purpose of checking the output voltage
and so determining end of life. The circuit constants for the rectification test may be
obtained by the following procedure. The value of R L is given by Eo/lo where Eo
and 10 are the direct voltage arid current respectively across the load resistance under
maximum ratings. The value of Eo is obtainable from the usual operational curves
published by valve manufacturers, and is the direct voltage for the maximum r.m.s.
applied voltage at the maximum value of load current (10)' If curves are published
for more than one value of filter capacitance, the curve corresponding to the highest
capacitance should be selected. The rectification test should be carried out with the
value of C L equal to that used for the derivation of Eo, while the total effective plate
supply impedance per plate should be as specified above. Under these conditions
an average new valve should give a voltage Eo and a current 10 approximately equal to
the published values, and individual valves will have values either higher or lower than
the average as permitted by the manufacturing tolerances. The end-of-life point is
commonly taken as 80 per cent. of the value obtained with a valve having bogie charac-
teristics (R..M..A., Ref. S7).
The rectification test may be carried out either with full-wave rectification as in
Fig. 3.5 or with half-wave rectification, each unit being tested separately with half the
total average load current. The test is usually performed by inserting a cold valve and
waiting until it has attained normal temperature.
In all cases, rectifier valves are required to operate satisfactorily in the rectification
test without arcing or sputtering.
Where valve failure has been due to arcing or sputtering, the conditions under
which this occurred may be reproduced for the purposes of testing either by
(1) allowing the valve to heat up to normal temperature from cold, the heater and
plate supply voltages being applied simultaneously, or
(2) operating the valve at normal temperatures with heater and plate voltages
applied, and then" keying" the plate' voltage.
(b) Sputter and arcing
Sputter and arcing are closely akin. When an indirectly-heated close-spaced
rectifier is warming up with plate voltage applied, there is no space charge and the
electrostatic field gradient at any sharp peaks on the cathode surface may be high
enough to vapourize the coating material and lead to the formation of an arc. Even
when there are no sharp points on either cathode or plate, a discharge of gas leading to
an arc may occur when there is no space charge, and the peak current required is
greater than the available emission. Sputter does not usually occur with directly-
heated rectifiers.
Signal diodes may be tested in a rectification test as an alternative or addition
to the emission test. Diodes in diode-amplifier valves may be tested as half-wave
rectifiers with R L =0.25 megohm, C L =2 JLF and an applied voltage of 50 volts
r.m.s.
(c) Back emission-Back emission is emission from the plate to the cathode during
the half-cycle when the cathode is positive with respect to the plate. Any appreciable
3.3 (iii) SPECIFIC DIODE CHARACTERISTICS 101
C,
NULL POINT INDICATOR
electrode conditions normal. It is a matter
of experience that the grid current com- T~)
mencement voltage moves in a negative
direction in some filament type pentodes as
the screen voltage is reduced. T,
'ff..
(D) Positive voltage electrode currents
The currents of the positive electrodes
may be measured at the electrode voltages
specified under typical (or any other) opera-
ting conditions, by using the circuit of
Fig.3.1. The vaive may be damaged if it
FIG. 3.7
is operated, even momentarily, at electrode
currents and dissipations in excess of the
maximum ratings. Fig. 3.7. Dynamic voltage-ratio method
The electrode currents may tend to drift, of measuring mutual conductance (or
particularly when the valve is operated at transconductance).
other than the cathode current at which it has been stabilized. If a series of curves is
to be plotted, it is desirable to check one of the earlier readings at intervals during the
test, to see whether the valve has drifted.
(E) Transconductance or mutual conductance*
Tr:msconductance may be determined from the slope of a characteristic which has
been plotted carefully. An approximation to the grid-plate transconductance, which
generally errs on the high side, is to measure the plate current at equal grid-voltage
increments on either side of the desired voltage, and to calculate the slope-see· Chapter
2 Sect. 2(ii).
Grid-plate transcondUCi"..ance and mutual conductance Ir~Y be measured by many
methods, but the most satisfactory and most generally used laboratory method is the
dynamic voltage ratio method developed by Tuttle (Ref. 2).
A simple adaptation which is satisfactory for all practical purposes is described
below. In Fig. 3.7 a 1000 cis generator is connected to a voltage divider and voltages
E2 and El are applied to the plate (through R, and C 1 ) and grid respectively of the
valve under test. Resistor R, is then adjusted to give a null point on the indicator.
Condenser Ca is provided to balance out reactive currents arising from stray capaci-
tances ~ the secondary of transformer Tl should be connected in the direction which
allows capacitive balancing. .
At balance, the value of mutual conductance is given by
(3)
One convenient form is shown in Fig. 3.7 where El and E2 are adjustable in steps
of 10, while R, is variable from 5000 minimum to 100000 ohms maximum.
Range Grid tap Plate tap E21El Rs min. R, max.
ohms ohms
1-lO JA-mhos C B 1/10 10000 100 000
10-100 B B 1 10 000 100 000
1oo-lOoo B C 10 10000 100000
1000-20000 A C 100 5000 100000
Values of the other components may be:
C 1 =0.5 JA-F, C a =l JA-F, both 400 V working
Ca = one gang condenser section
Tl = step up transformer, 1 : 2 turns ratio
T2 =electrostatica11y shielded output transformer, with primary
resistance not greater than '5J ohms.
The reactances have been selected to give an error in mutual conductance not greater
than 1 per cent. in each case.
·For definitions, see Chapter 2 Sect. 1.
104 (iv) TRIODE, PENTODE, BEAM TETRODE CHARACTERISTICS 3.3
NULL
POINT
INDICATOR
Fig. 3.8. Bridge test for measuring Fig. 3.9. Method of testing for plate
amplification factor. resistance.
The amplification factor test of Fig. 3.8 may be used for pentodes with the addition
of a suitable screen supply. For values of amplification factor over 1000 a higher ratio
of the plate and grid arms of the bridge is required, that is R4/R. This will result in
some loss in accuracy at the higher values of IL due to capacitance effects.
References to measurement of mu factor and amplification factor: Refs. 2, 15,
16, 17, 18,21,22, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82,84, S12.
(G) Plate resistance
Plate resista~ce may be measured conveniently by the dynamic voltage ratio method
developed by Tuttle (Ref. 2) and an adaptation is shown in Fig. 3.9. The value of
plate resistance is given by
RIR2
rll = - -
R3
where R 1, R2 and Ra may have any convenient values of resistance.
One possible combination of resistances is :
3.3 (iv) TRIODE, PENTODE, BEAM TETRODE CHARACTERISTICS 105
;~~~~-,
OUTPUT POWER
VOLTAGE OUTPUT
A.C. METER
L-~_~[I~_III _____1
- Ebb + FIG.3.IO
Fig. 3.10. Method of testing for a.c. Fig.3.11. Methodfor testing for power
amplification (after RMA). output.
(H) A.C. amplification
The standard R.M.A. test for a.c. amplification (Ref. S7) is shown in Fig. 3.10.
This is applied to audio frequency voltage amplifier pentodes, and to a-f voltage
amplifier high-mu triodes. This is a resistance-coupled amplifier test normally per-
formed at zero bias with a 10 megohm grid resistor. The internal impedance of the
signal source should not exceed 2500 ohms. The test is made at rated heater or filament
voltage and normally with a plate load resistor of 0.5 megohm, and an appropriately
by-passed screen resistor in the. case of a pentode. In performing this test, it is
important to specify whether the output voltage is to be read across the plate load
resistor alone (as in the R.M.A. test of Fig. 3.10) or across a capacitively-coupled
following grid resistor of specified value. It is also important, if accurate results are
to be obtained, that the valve voltmeter used be true r.m.s. reading-that is, one having
a square-law characteristic.
(1) Power output
Power output from the plate may be measured under the conditions indicated in
Fig.3.11. The peak value of the sinusoidal voltage Eg applied to the grid is normally
106 (iv) TRIODE, PENTODE, BEAM TETRODE CHARACTERISTICS 3.3
equal to the bias voltage Bee) unless otherwise specified. The signal frequency is
preferably either 400 or 1000 cis, in order to reduce the size of Land C. The impe-
dance of the choke L at the signal frequency should be at least, say, 7 times the im-
pedance of the load, while the reactance of C should be less than, say, one seventh of
the load impedance.
The power output meter for approximate and routine testing may be of the rectifier/
d.c. meter type. In this case the load resistance will be incorporated in the power
output meter as drawn in Fig. 3.11.
For accurate measurements, however, it is essential to measure either the true r.m.s.
voltage across, or the current through, a load resistor of specified value and unity
power factor. Generally the latter measurement is the more convenient as the current
through the load may be measured by means of a thermo-couple ammeter.
The power output of a Class B amplifier may be measured either with push-pull
operation or on each section separately. In the latter case the load resistance is one
quarter that of the plate-to-plate value for push-pull operation, and the unit not
under test is tied to the cathode. The power output from one section! owing to shifting
of the loadline, is greater than half the power output with push-pull operation (Ref.
58), but the relationship must be established experimentally in each case. Alternatively,
a resistive load may be connected directly in the plate circuit to give a closer approach
to normal push-pull operation. The value of the resistance is arranged to be one
quarter of the plate-to-plate load resistance with push-pull operation, and the plate
supply volwge equal to the specified plate voltage for normal push-pull operation.
Under these conditions the power output is given by (Ref. 58) :
Po~2.47 (/b-0.25Ibo)2RL (4a)
where Po = power output from one section, in watts
Ib=direct plate current in amperes, as measured by a d.c. meter
I bo=plate current with no signal, in amperes,
RL = load resistance per section, in ohms.
The value of I bo may be taken, with sufficient accuracy for many purposes, as the
publ shed value.
In'all cases with Class B amplifiers the specified value of input voltage is applied
to the grid circuit in series with a specified value of resistance. The plate voltage
source should have good voltage stability, an electronic voltage regulator being satis-
factory. If a plate source impedance is specified, a series resistor of the appropriate
value must be inserted in the plate supply circuit.
The relevance of a particular output measured under specified conditions is signi-
ficant only in relation to the distortion present under those conditions.
(J) Distortion
Distortion in the power output test may be measured by one of several suitable
methods, provided that the signal source is truly sinusoidal. The effect of harmonics
from the signal source may be reduced by connecting a low-pass filter between the
signal source and the grid.
The distortion may be measured by a harmonic analyser, of which several types have
been described in the literature. When merely the value of the total harmonic dis-
tortion is desired, as in determining the undistorted output, those analysers which
measure the root-mean-square value of all harmonics present are preferable to those
which measure the separate harmonics.
The method of Suits (Ref. 85) is a particularly good example of the type of analyser
which measures the harmonics separately. The Suits method requires only the simp-
lest apparatus, and where laboratory facilities are limited this advantage may outweigh
the disadvantages involved in the computation of the total harmonic distortion.
The Belfils analyser (Refs. 86, 87) utilizes an alternating-current Wheatstone-bridge
balance for the suppression of the fundamental, and is particularly useful for direct
measurement of the total harmonic distortion. For maximum convenience, the
frequency of the audio-frequency source should be very stable. This instrument can
be operated so that it is direct reading, by maintaining a constant input voltage.
3.3 (iv) TRIODE, PENTODE, BEAM TETRODE CHARACTERISTICS 107
In the McCurdy-Blye analyser (Ref. 88), low- and high-pass filters are used to
separate the harmonics from the' fundamental. This instrument is superior to the
Belfils type" in that the frequency of the source may v~ somewhat without necessi-
tating readjustment.
A differential analyser especially designed for power-output work has been described
by Ballantine and Cobb (Ref. 89).
If an iron-cored choke is employed for shunt feed in the plate circUit (Fig. 3.11),
care should be exercised in its selection or design to avoid the generation of harmonics
in it due to the non-linear and hysteretic behaviour of the iron.
For measurement of distortion see Chapter 14 Sects. 2, 3; Chapter 37 Sect. 3.
(K) Micropbony
There is no published standard test for microphony outside of Service or manufac-
turers' specifications. However an indication of the niicrophony of valves may be
obtained using ·~he same conditions as the R.M.A. standard audio frequency noise
test (see below). It is reasonable to adjust the amplifier gain to be of the same order
as the gain of the subsequent portion of the amplifier in which the valve is to operate.
Nevertheless, valves unless specifically designed for low-level high-gain pre-amplifier
use, should not be expected to be non-microphonic and free from noise at low levels
when tested under such conditions.
In radio receiver factories the valves are usually tested in the chassis in which they
are to operate, the set being tuned to a signal generator with internal modulation, and
the volume control set at !!laximum. p...ny !Ilicrophonic sounds which quickly die
away are not considered as cause for removal of the valve, but a sustained
howl is so considered. Such a valve may not be' microphonic in another
position in the chassis or in another model of receiver. Actions to be
taken to reduce microphony have been described in Chapter 35 Sect. 3(iv). Not-
withstanding the considerations above, all valves cannot be expected to be non-
microphonic when placed directly in the acoustic field, of, and close to, the loudspeaker
in a receiver, particularly in small cabinets.
Ref. S2.
(L) Audio frequency noise
The R.MA. standard for audio frequency noise test is with normal voltages applied
to all electrodes, and the plate of the valve under test is coupled to the input of an
amplifier with a frequency range of 100 to 2000 cis (±5 db of response at 400 cis).
A dynamic loudspeaker with a rating of at least 2.5 watts is connected to the output
of the amplifier. The minimum external grid resistance is 100 000 ohms. The gain of
the amplifier and the plate load resistance of the valve under test are to be as specified.
The valve under test may be tapped lighdy with a felt or cork mallet weighing not over
t ounce. Any objectionable noise heard in the loudspeaker, is cause for rejection
(Ref. S7). See also Ref. S2.
(M) Radio frequency noise
The R.M.A. standard test for radio frequency noise is for normal voltages applied
to all electrodes of the valve under test; the plate is coupled to the input of a r-f
amplifier (of a radio receiver) at a frequency within the range o{ 50 to 1600 Kc/s.
The minimum band-width is to be 5 Kcls jlt 10 times signal. The audio frequency
response is to be within ±5 db of the response at 400 cis over the frequency range
from 100 to 2000 cis. A suitable tuned transformer givmg a resonant impedance of
50 000 to 200 000 ohms is to be used to couple the valve under test to the amplifier~
The external grid circuit impedance of the valve un.der test is to be from 5000 to 25 000
ohms. Other conditions of test are as for the audio frequency noise test (Ref. S7).
See also Ref. S2.
(N) Blocking
Tests on grid blocking are normally applied only to certain types subject to this
characteristic. A valve may be tested for blocking by either of two methods. In the
first method a high positive grid voltage (say 100 volts) is applied instantaneously
with normal electrode voltages and the maximum value of grid resistance. The plate
current should return to its initial value on the removal of the applied voltage.
108 (iv) TRIODE, PENTODE, BEAM TETRODE CHARACTERISTICS 3.3
The second method (" cross-over ") is to apply a gradually increasing positive grid
voltage with substantially zero grid circuit resistance. and to plot the grid current
characteristic for positive values of grid voltage up to the point at which the grid
current changes from positive to negative (" cross-over" point). See Chapter 2
Sect. 2(iii).
(0) Stage gain testing
A circuit such as that shown in Fig. 3.1 lA can be used to measure the gain of a r-f
pentode operating under typical i-f amplifier conditions. Stage gain testing has the
advantage of evaluating at the one time and under operating conditions at the appropri-
ate frequency the effects of all valve characteristics which influence gain, such as mutual
conductance, output impedance, input resistance, reverse grid current and even the
effect of high screen or plate currents in increasing control grid bias or decreasing
screen grid voltages
IM.n
ITO
f]FIG. 3. IIA
UDVOLTMETER
VALVE
This value divided by twice the peak value of the sinusoidal voltage applied to the
signal input electrode is taken as the mixer conversion transconductance. Specified
voltages are applied to the valve electrodes under specified circuit conditions and the
oscillator excitation voltage is adjusted to the specified value or to give the specified
oscillator grid current. Other methods of testing are acceptable if correlated with this
method.
The relationship may be expressed in the form
1111 -1112
g r= 2E (4b)
1m
where g c=conversion conductance in mhos
1"1 = plate current for the in-phase condition of signal and oscillator voltages
E1 and E2 in amperes
I"2=plate current for the out-of-phase condition of EI and E 2, in amperes
and Elm=peak vruue of the signal voltage.
It should be clearly understood that the value of conversion transconductance
measured by this method is dependent on the signal grid voltage and on the curvature
of the mixer chru;acteristics and consequently only approaches a true " differential ,.
transconductance at the point of operation, as distinct from an average value, if the
signal grid voltage amplitude is sufficiently small. In most cases, if the signal grid
voltage does not exceed say 25 mY, exact corr.elation can be obtained for all types.
At higher values, up to 100 mY, the error may be acceptable, depending upon the type
and the condition of operation.
I
I _ II
L _______ ____ _.J
~
FIG. 3.13
Fig. 3.13. Side-band method of measuring conversion transconductance.
The voltage across the resonant circuit comprising the oscillator frequency, the signal
frequency and the two resulting sidebands are applied to a radio frequency amplifier
followed by a diode detector across whose diode load is connected a valve voltmeter
to indicate the amplitude of the audio frequency components. If an r-f amplifier is not
used,the region of non-linearity of the diode characteristic results in the calibration of
the system being dependent on the voltage developed across the tuned circuit and would
thus be unsatisfactory for valves of low conversion conductance. However, the r-f
amplifier may be omitted provided the signal applied to the diode is sufficiently high
to ensur.e linear rectification. Where this is not so, the simplified circuit may not be .
suitable for measurements of low values of conversion conductance.
If the r-f amplifier is omitted, the signal voltage El may be about 0.5 volt peak, and
Rl may be 10000 ohms.
The tester must be calibrated against the standard phase reversal method and the
circuit may be adjusted so that the meter is direct reading.
(e) Mixer plate resistance .
This may be measured either with a self-excited or driven oscillator, the value of
plate resistance being not affected by the method used. Measurement of plate resistance
is performed as for a pentode, except for the excitation of the oscillator.
(f) Mixer transconductance
This may be measured as for a pentode valve, except that the oscillator should be
either self-excited or driven.
(g) Oscillator grid current
The oscillator performance of a converter valve depends upon several valve and
circuit parameters that are not simply defined.
112 (v) SPECIFIC CONVERTER CHARACTERISTICS 3.3
The oscillator grid current may be used as the criterion of oscillator performance
in a self-excited oscillator, operating under specified conditions. The circuit should
be designed to draw typical peak and average total space currents. The Boonton
Converter Oscillator test circuit is widely used to check oscillator performance, owing
to its simplicity of design and ease of adjustment and control and, while not giving an
exact criterion of oscillator performance, does provide a dynamic test of the usual
parameters under conditions that simulate average receiver operation.
The circuit (Fig. 3.14) is a series-fed Hartley having a fixed feedback ratio and having
the tank circuit impedance variable so that the magnitude of oscillation may be
adjusted. Normal voltages are applied to all electrodes.
It is necessary to specify the oscillator plate voltage, oscillator plate series
resistor (if used), oscillator grid resistor CRg) the inductance of each section of the coil
(L1' L 2 ), the mutual inductance between the two sections (M), the capacitance shunted
across the whole coil (G), the grid coupling capacitance (G g ), and the resonant imped-
ance of the tuned circuit (Rd)' Normally a coil having a higher reactance than the
specified value of resonant impedance is used and is shunted by a variable resistance
(R t ) to give the specified resonant impedance. Bias is obtained by means of a capacitor
and a wire-wound gridleak. The wire-wound grid resistor is used because it has con-
siderably higher impedance to radio frequencies than to direct current. The high
radio-frequency impedance diminishes the shunting effect of the gridleak on the tuned
circuit. The rectified grid current is read on a microammeter (suitably by-passed) in
series with the grid resistor. Before the test oscillator is used, the relationship between
the tuned impedance of the tank circuit and the setting of the variable resistor must
be determined
The R.M.A. standard (Ref. S7) and JAN-IA (Ref. S2, sheet dated 19 July, 1944)
specify the component and coil design values as being: G=100 p.p.F (mica); C g '=
200 p.p.F (mica); R 1 =50 000 ohms potentiometer; R g =50 000 ohms wire-wOQ1ld
resistor; Ll=83p.H; L 2 =48p.H: M=23.3p.H; coildiameter=1.25in.;,win4U)g
length = 59/64 in.; wire No. 30 a.w.g. enamelled copper; turns =83; tap at 33
turns from anode end. See also Ref. S12.
The constants quoted above have been selected to simulate average circuit conditi01'l6
in broadcast receivers for composite converters having trans conductances less than
1500 p.mhos at zero bias. For valves having higher transconductances or for circuits
above broadcast frequencies, the circuit with the constants given may not be satis-
factory, as spurious oscillations may make it impossible to obtain correlation between
test readings and receiver performance.
The ability of a valve to oscillate when the shunt impedance of a tank circuit is low
is one criterion of the value of a valve as an oscillator. The oscillation test is made by
applying the desired electrode potentials to the valve under test and reading the rectified
grid current at some known setting of tank-circuit impedance. A valve that willllOt
oscillate with the tank-circuit impedance below about 9000 ohms is considered to be a
VI'C~ oscillator. A valve that will oscillate with a tank-circuit impedance as low as
3OQO ohms is considered to be a strong oscillator. The minimum tuned impedance at
which oscillation will start or cease as indicated by the rectified grid cun:ent will
depeng on the oscillator characteristics of the particular type and WI'1 vary from ~
to type.
3.3 (v) SPECIFIC CONVERTER CHARACTERISTICS 113
II2lL
measurement of the four admittances, but at higher frequencies some version of the
susceptance-variation or resistance-substitution method is necessary.
SIGNA<
GENERATOR~
X~
a----I.I
I
v, Y, Yo.
I 2
FIG.3.15
Fig. 3.16. Circuit diagram of equipment used for measurement of short-circuit input
admittance (Ref. 51).
A practical form (Ref. 51) for the frequency range 50 to 150 Mc/s is shown in Figs
3.16 and 3.17. The valve under test is used as a part of a resonant circuit which includes
a continuously-variable inductor and a small concentric-cylinder capacitor built on a
micrometer head. The high-potential end of the inductor is connected to the high-
potential electrode of the micrometer capacitor inside a cylindrical cavity open at the
top. Fig. 3.17 also shows the positions of some of the by-pass capacitors used with the
octal socket. These are button-type, silver-mica capacitors of approximately 500 I-'I-'F
capacitance. The socket is of the moulded phenolic type. Terminals 1, 3, 5 and 7 are
connected directly to the mounting plate at a point direedy below the terminal in each
instance. Terminals 2 (heater) and 6 (screen grid) are by-passed to ground, and a lead
is brought from each of these terminals through the mounting plate to a small r-f
choke and a second by-pass capacitor. Terminal 8 (plate) is by-passed and fitted
with a spring contacting the terminal for one of the circuits. Terminal 4 (grid) has
only the contact spring. A similar arrangement is used with miniature valves. In
this case, the socket is of the wafer type with mica-filled rubber insulation. Terminals
2, 3 and 7 are grounded and terminals 4, 5 and 6 are by-passed to ground. Terminals
1 (grid) and 5 (plate) have contact springs. The by-pass capacitors are closer to the
mounting plate than in the case of the octal socket; the capacitors at terminals 4 and
6 overlap the capacitor to terminal 5. A 10 ohm resistor, mounted inside a cylindrical
shield to minimize lead inductance, is connected between socket terminal 5 (plate)
and the by-pass capacitor. This component was added to suppress a parasitic oscilla-
tion observed with certain type 6AK5 valves. The resistor was found to have no
3.3 (vi) TESTS FOR SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS 115
FIG. 3.17
~CITAHCEP~
FROM RECEIVER
BLOCKING CAPACITa«
AT TERMINAL OF'
VARIAIILE INOUCTOR
CAL.18RATING CAPACITOR
MOUNTING SUIISTI"I'UTED
FOR TUllE MOUNTING
Fig. 3.17. Physical arrangement of circuit elements of Fig. 3.16 (Ref. 51).
measurable effect on input admittance readings obtained wint valves, either of the
6AK5 type or of other types, not subject to the parasitic oscillation.
In order to obtain susceptance values, the circuit must first be caijbrated for the
capacitance required for resonance at each test frequency. The circuit is calibrated
by determining the inductor settings for resonance with each of a number of small,
disc-shaped, calibrating capacitors substituted for the valve. The insert in the lower
left comer of Fig. 3.17 shows a cutaway view of the cavity with one of the calibrating
capacitors in place. The length of the phosphor-bronze contact spring used with the
calibrating capacitors is approximately the same as that used with the valve. Thus,
the inductance of this lead is accounted for in the calibrating procedure. The reference
terminals for the valve are the socket plate and the grid terminal of the socket or,
possibly, a point on the grid terminal a little inside the body of the socket. The
calculated inductance of the contact spring is 4.5 milli-microhenries per centimeter of
length within about ±25 per cent., but the difference in effective lengths of the springs
for the socket connection and the calibrating connection is not more than 2 or 3
millimeters. .
The range of the micrometer capacitor is sufficient for measurements of the circuit
with the calibrating capacitors, with most cold valves, and with some valves under
operating conditions. For other cases, adjustment of the inductor is required.
If the conductance being measured is small enough to be measured by the available
range of the micrometer capacitor, the susceptance and conductance variations between
1/ V2 voltage points are given by
JB=wJC
and JG=O
where w is the angular frequency of measurement and ..:j C is the micrometer capaci-
t ance variation between the half-power points.
The calibration curves used at each test frequency are :
(1) Capacitance for resonance
(2) Slope of the capacitance curve
(3) Conductance at resonance of the circuit with the calibrating capacitors.
These three quantities are plotted against the inductor adjustment readings. Since
the conductance values for the calibrating capacitors themselves are too small to affect
the calibration appreciably, the conductance curve corresponds, essentially, to the
equipment.
116 (vi) TESTS FOR SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS 3.3
Y t = Y sinh yx 2 Y sinh
1 yx ]----
[Sinh y[] [ 1+ y. sinh y[sinh y (I-x)
(11)
Conversely, the admittance Y t is the admittance that would have to be placed at the
open end of the line to produce the same effect there as the known admittance Yat the
position x. Equation (11) then represents the property of the transmission line of
converting admittance Y at position x into admittance Y t at position I. This expression
can be simplified for a low-loss line having a characteristic admittance Yo large com-
pared with the bridging admittance Y. Thus if Yo~ Y,
I~ s:::ZSinhY(l-X) I~1, (12)
and the real part of the propagation constant i' of the line is small,
GT=~[s::~:z r
If Yis a pure conductance of value l/R, then Y t is the pure conductance
(15)
In the measurement of the short-circuit input admittance Y w a low-loss transmission
line of large characteristic admittance is coupled loosely to an oscillator near the short-
circuited end. At the open end are a voltage-detecting device and a calibrated
capacitor, by means of which Bll is obtained from (9). With the unknown transducer
across the open end and the capacitor adjusted to obtain resonance, a voltage reading
3.3 (vi) TESTS FOR SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS 117
is taken. The transducer is removed and one of the standard resistors placed across the
line bridging the two conductors. The position of this resistor along the line is then
adjusted and the system is readjusted for resonance with the calibrated capacitor until
the voltage, as measured at the end of the line, is the same as before. By (15) we have
Gl1=GT=~[s:~:z J
where R is the resistance of the standard placed x centimeters from the short-circuited
(16)
end of the line. It is evident that a resistor must be selected having a resistance value
near to but not larger than the reciprocal of G u .
Since the transmission line should have low loss and low characteristic impedance,
a coaxial line is desirable. The line will require a longitudinal opening or slot in order
to permit one of the standard resistors to bridge the line at an adjustable position to
satisfy the required voltage condition. .A valve voltmeter is capacitively coupled
to the open end of the line across which the electron-tube transducer may be attached.
Socket and filter arrangements for wire-lead valves can be attached to this Ime.
Radiation difficulties arising from the longitudinal opening in the line, together with
the increasing difficulty in obtaining resistance standards at frequencies much above
300 Mc/s., appear to make this type of measuring equipment impracticable for measure-
ments at higher frequencies on surface-lead valves. Ref. S12.
(B) Short-circuit feedback admittance (Y12)
Susceptance-variation method of measurement
See (A)l above for general description.
(a) With the input termination still set at the value for resonance obtained in step (c)
in (A) above, excite the output circuit through Y C2. In the event that oscillation diffi-
culties are encountered, detune the output circuit Y 2 or load it untii osciilation stops.
(b) Record the voltmeter readings VIand V 2.
The magnitude of the feedback admittance is then given by the relation
or IY121~1~!Li:l[I+1J+1J2J (18)
LiBIIVll
or IY121~2 '!V~ (19)
where LiG l and LiBl are the values obtained in the preceding measurement of Yu.
Ref. S12.
(C) Short-circuit output admittance (Y22)
The short-circuit output admittance may be measured by following the procedure
outlined for the short-circuit input admittance, the signal being coupled through Y C2.
If the subscripts 1 and 2 are interchanged, all of the above formulae concerning Yu
may. be used to relate Y22 to the measured data.
Ref. S12.
(D) Short-circuit forward admittance (Y21)
The magnitude of the forward admittance may be measured by following the
procedure outlined previously for the measurement of the magnitude of Y12. If the
subscripts 1 and 2 are interchanged, all of the formulae concerning Y12 may be used to
relate Y21 to the measured data.
Ref S12.
(E) Perveance
(1) Perveance of a diode
The perveance of a diode may be derived by plotting the current against the three-
halves power of the voltage, when the slope of the curve will give the value of G.
Voltages should be chosen sufficiently high so that such effects as those produced by
118 (vi) TESTS FOR SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS 3.3
contact potential and initial electron velocity are unimportant. If this is not possible,
a correction voltage £ should be added to the diode voltage, where
£=(3/2)1 brb-eb
where r b = anode resistance of diode.
Ref. S12.
CATHODE
GRID
HEATER
Fig. 3.18. Circuit for measuring electrode currents using single pulse generator method
(I=peak-reading current indicator, E=peak-reading voltage indicator, V=moving coil
voltmeter). If high accuracy is required, correction should be made for the voltage drop
across the current indicators. The regulation of the electrode supplies is not important
for point by point testing, provided that the shunt capacitors are sufficiently large.
•
3.3 (vii) CHARACTERISTICS BY PULSE METHODS 119
The plate voltage versus plate current characteristic may be traced by maintaining
the grid (and screen, if any) at constant voltage and by applying the pulse voltage to
the plate. This requires a peak voltage of several hundred volts for receiving valves,
together with high peak currents. The grid voltage must be maintained constant, the
regulation requirements being severe. The regulation requirements of the other
electrodes are not important, if large capacitors are used.
A method of showing the two axes for any single characteristic is described in Ref. 73
which makes use of a standard vibrator.
References to curve tracer methods: 37,39,69,70,71,72.
Display of valve characteristics
If it is desired to view a family of curves, the voltage of one electrode must be
changed in steps for successive pulses. This may be accomplished by means of
synchronous contactors (Refs. 34, 35, 36) or by electronic means (Ref. 39). Good
regulation (high stability) for the electrode voltage supplies is very important.
See also Refs. 37, 90, 94, 96, S12.
pentodes. The method of testing for mutual conductance with a high grid swing is
not the equivalent of a power output test. Neither mutual conductance nor emission
testing is a satisfactory substitute for a.c. amplification testing of high-mu triodes or
a-f pentodes.
It is obvious, therefore, that any ordinary commercial service tester does not give a
true indication of the condition of aU types of valves, and its readings should be used
with discretion.
(iv) Methods of testing characteristics in commercial service testers
(a) Shorts testing
Testing for shorts should be carried out at mains frequency or on d.c., and the
voltage applied to the neon lamp circuit should not exceed 110 volts r.m.s. The use
of higher voltages results in some good valves being classed as filament-te-grid short
circuits.
With a.c. supply, it is usual to design the circuit so that resistances over 0.5 megohm
do not indicate as shorts ; this is to avoid capacitance effects. With d.c. supplies there
is no similar limitation, but different models vary considerably in their shorts testing
sensitivity. •
The most satisfactory switching arrangement is one which tests for shorts from any
pin to all other pins tied together. The circuit of Fig. 3.4 may be used, except that the
cathode need not be heated.
(b) Continuity testing··
Continuity testing may be carried out in a manner closely resembling shorts testing~
but with the cathode hot. Positive or alternating voltage is applied through the neon
lamp to each electrode in turn; a glow indicates continuity.
The circuit of Fig. 3.4 may be used in a simple service tester, but a more elaborate
tester such as the hexaphase (Fig. 3.2) is much more satisfactory for general use.
For further information on continuity testing see Sect. 3(ii)b.
(c) Heater to cathode leakage
The maximum leakage resistance from heater to cathode in new valves varies from
1 or 2 megohms for power valves to 5 megohms for ordinary 6.3 volt 0.3 ampere
voltage amplifier valves and even higher for rectifier types having separate heaters
and cathodes. A neon lamp will normally glow slightly when used in a shorts tester
and applied between heater and cathode. A neon lamp may be de-sensitized either
by shunting by a resistor (of the order of 0.1 to 0.5 megohm) or by a mica condenser
(a value of 0.01 fLF gives a sensitivity of about 5 megohms-this is only useful with
a.c. supply).
(d) Emission testing
Of the 7 commercial testers which included emission testing of amplifying valves,
5 used a.c. testing, 1 used half-wave rectified a.c. testing, and 1 used d.c. testing. Owing
to the poor regulation obtainable from most service valve testers with d.c. supplies,
other than batteries, it is doubtful whether this has any practical advantages over a.c.
testing. With a.c. supply, the voltage in most service testers is 30 volts r.m.s.; this is
only a compromise which is far from the optimum for all cases. For laboratory
testing of emission see Sect. 3(ii)f.
(e) Mutual conductance testing
Of the 17 commercial testers having a mutual conductance test, 7 used some form of
a.c. signal voltage applied to the control grid, and 6 used some grid shift method, the
methods used by the other 4 being unknown.
All the American mutual conductance testers examined apply an a.c. signal to the
grid, and measure the signal current in the plate circuit; all but one of these use a
mains frequency signal, the exception being one with a 5 Kc/s signal and a tuned signal
plate current meter. .
In most cases this is not an accurate g til test for all types of valves because the signal
voltage on the grid is fairly high-between 4 and 5 volts r .m.S. in some cases-sufficient
to run beyond grid cut-ofi'in one direction and well on to the " flat top" in the other,
124 (iv) METHODS OF TESTING IN COMMERCIAL TESTERS 3.5
with short grid-base valves. Even those testers with reduced signal voltages have
quite appreciabJe errors with some types of valves.
On the other hand, all but one of the examined English mutual conductance testers
use a grid shift method. This introduces some errors due to plate supply regulation
and curvature of the characteristics, but these can be allowed for in the calibration.
(f) Plate conductance testing
This is used by one American tester only as a reasonably close equivalent of the
mutual conductance test, the amplification factor being assumed to be constant.
Pentodes are triode-connected. A moderately high signal voltage is applied, this being
possible with less error than with direct g m measurement owing to the slight compensa-
ting change of fL with plate current.
(g) Reverse grid current testing
Of the post-war testers examined, all those of English design incorporate reverse
grid current testing (often referred to as " gas testing ") but this test was incorporated
in only two of American design. The usual methods of testing are either by grid current
meter or by a shorted grid resistor. For further details see Sect. 3(iv)A.
A valve which passes the reverse grid current test on a service tester may not operate
satisfactorily in a receiver. The usable maximum value of negative grid current depends
upon the application, the mutual conductance of the valve, the resistance in the grid
circuit, the type of bias, the bias voltages, the total dissipation of the valve and its
ventilation. The valve may be checked in the actual receiver after running for a
period sufficiently long for the valve to reach its stable operating temperature; it
Iruly be tested by variation in the plate current of the valve under test when its grid
resistor is shorted.
(h) Power output testing
This is not incorporated into any of the commercial service testers examined, but
is the most satisfactory test for all power valves. Triode testing of pentode and beam
power valves is quite satisfactory. Methods of testing are described in Sect. 3(iv)I.
(i) Conversion conductance
Only one of the testers examined provided a test for conversion conductance, the
method being by phase reversal. For further details see Sect. 3(v)Bd.
A satisfactory alternative is to measure the transconductance of the mixer, this
being the method commonly employed.
(j) Oscillator mutual conductance
None of the testers provided a test for oscillator grid current under self-oscillating
conditions, although this is the most satisfactory form of test. For details see Sect.
3,v)Bg. _
The method commonly employed is to measure the oscillator mutual conductance.
The measurement of oscillator grid current in a suitable receiver is a simple way of
checking the oscillator section of a converter.
(k) Noise
The usual form of noise test is to connect the two neon lamp terminals to the aerial
and earth terminals of a receiver, during the shorts test. For other forms of noise test
see Sect. 3(iv)L and M.
(1) A.C. amplification
This test should be carried out with zero bias and a high value of grid resistor, as
described in Sect. 3(iv)H. No test with fixed or self-bias is able to determine how a
valve will operate with grid resistor bias.
(v) A.C. versus d.c. electrode voltages in testers
All but four of the commercial testers examined, which made provision for some form
of g m test, used d.c. electrode supplies. The general trend seems to be in the direction
of using d.c. supply to all electrodes, and the additional circuit complications appear
to be justified.
For comparison between laboratory testing of emission by a.c. or d.c. methods,
see Sect. 3(ii)f.
3.S (vi) PRE-HEATING 125
(vi) Pre-heating
When more than one valve is to be tested, a pre-heating socket should be provided
to save time. If not incorporated into the tester itself, the pre-heater may be a separate
Unit with one of each type of socket and a filament voltage switch and transformer.
No voltages need normally be applied to the other electrodes except in cases when the
valve is initially satisfactory but becomes defective during operation.
(vii) Testing procedure
Always test for shorts before carrying out any other test. When testing for emission,
allow ample time for the valve to heat thoroughly before pressing the emission switch ;
then press only long enough to give a reading. Do not leave the valve for more than
three seconds on the emission test as otherwise the valve may be permanently damaged.
The reading may be regarded as satisfactory provided that it is not below the limit
and that it does not fall rapidly to the limit in the three second period.
When testing for mutual conductance, the switch may be pressed for any desired
length of time, as no damage will be done to the valve provided that the valve is
operated within its maximum ratings.
If a valve is gassy, the readings of emission and mutual conductance will be affected
(usually increased for a slight amount of gas and decreased by excessive gas). If a
valve is both gassy and of low emission, the true fault is " gas ".
If a valve indicates " no emission " while the heater is continuous, the fault may
be excessive gas, air in the bulb., cathode coating" poisoned" by gas, or open-circuited
cathode. Air in the bulb is indicated by a continuous heater, a cat.hode not visibly
red, and a bulb which gradually becomes warm.
References to service testing: Refs. 55, 56, 57, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64.
SECTION 6: REFERENCES
1. Benjamin, M., C. W. Cosgrove and G. W. Warren. "Modern receiving valves: design and
manufactUre" Jour. I.E.E. 80.484 (April 1937) 401.
2. Tuttle, W. N. "Dynamic measurement of electron tube coefficients" Proc. I.R.E. 21.6 (June
1933) 844.
3. Lehany, F. J., and W. S. McGuire. "A radio-frequency interelectrode-capacitance meter"
A.W.A. Tee. Rev. 7.3 (April 1947) 271. See also Ref. 5.
4. Pockman, L. T. "The dependence of interelectrode capacitance on shielding" Proc. I.R.E.
32.2 (Feb. 1944) 91.
5. Dobbie, L. G., and R. M. Huey. "A.W.A. interelectrode capacity meter Type R1782 for screen
grid valves" A.W.A. Tee. Rev. 2.4 (Oct. 1936) 107.
6. Van der Bijl (book). "The TheImionic Vacuum Tube" (McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1920).
7. Pidduck, F. B. (book). "A Treatise,on Electricity" (Cambridge University Press, 1925).
8. Hague, B. (book). "Alternating Current Bridge Methods" (Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons Ltd.,
London, 5th edit., 1943).
9. Hartshorn, L. (book). "Radio Frequency Measurements by Bridge and Resonance Methods"
(Chapman & Hall Ltd., London, 1942).
10. Thomson, J. J. (book). "Elements of Electricity and Magnetism" (Cambridge University Press,
5th edit., 1921).
11. Jeans, J. (book). "The Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism" (Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 5th edit., 1943).
12. Smythe, W. R. (book). "Static and Dynamic Electricity" (McGraw-Hill Book Co., 2nd ed. 1950).
13. Maxwell, J. C. (book). "Electricity and Magnetism" (published 1892).
14. Valley, G. E., and H. Wallman (editors). •• Vacuum Tube Amplifiers" Radiation Laboratory
Series, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1948.
15. Reich, H. J. (book). •• Theory and Applications of Electron Tubes" (McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1939).
16. Chaffee, E. L. (book) ... Theory of Thermionic Vacuum Tubes" (McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1()33).
17. Scroggie, M. G. (book) ... Radio Laboratory Handbook" (Wireless World, London).
18. Terman, F. E. (book) . . . Measurements in Radio Engineering" (McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1935).
20. Wireless Telegraphy Board Specification Kl00l- radio valves.
21. Hund, A. (book). .. High Frequency Measurements" (McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933).
22. Miller, J. M. .. A dynamic method for determining the characteristics of three-e1ectrode vacuum
tubes" Proc. I.R.E. 6 (June, 1918) 141.
23. James, E. G., and B. L. Humphreys. .. Resistive films in valves -effect on intere1ectrode capaci-
tance" W.E. 26.306 (March 1949) 93.
24. Booth. R. H. (letter). .. Triode interelectrode capacitances" W.E. 26.309 (June 1949) 211. .
25. Walsh, L. .. A direct capacity bridge for vacuum-tube measurements" Proc. I.R.E. 16.4 (April
26. ~~~~l~:H. A. ,. Measurement of vacuum-tube capacities by means of a transformer balance"
Proc. I.R.E. 16.4 (April 1928) 476.
126 REFERENCES 3.6
27. Hoch, E. T. "A bridge method for the measurement of interelectrode admittance in vacuum
tubes" Proc. I.RE. 16.4 (April 1928) 487.
28. Loughren, A. V., and H. W. Parker. "The measurement of direct interelectrode capacitance of
W'CUum. tubes" Proc. I.R.E. 17.6 (June 1929) 957.
29- Jones, T. L " The measurement of the grid-anode capacitance of screen-grid valves" Jour. I.E.E.
74.UO (June 1934) 589.
:30. ,Astbury. N. :p., and T. I. Jones. "A capacitance attenuator and its application to the measurement
of very small capacitances" Jour. Sci. Instr. 13.12 (Dec. 1936) 407.
31. Barco, A. A. .. AD. improved interelectrode capacitance meter" RC.A. Rev. 6.4 (April 1942) 434.
32- TiUman, J. R., and A. C. Lynch. .. Apparatus for the measurement of small three-terminal
capa~·' Jour. Sci. Instr. 19.8 (Aug. 1942) 122.
33. Pioctor, R F., and E. G. James. .. A radio-frequency and conductance bridge" Jour. I.E.E. 92
rart III. 20 (Dec. 1945) ~7.
3:4. ~ Sucbtelen. H. "Applications of cathode ray tubes: iv-the recording of diagrams" Philips
·T~. ReV. 3.11 (Nov. 1938) 339.
35. Douma, Tj., and P. Ziilstra. "Recording the characteristics of transmitting valves" Philips Tec.
36.
Rev. ".2 (Feb. 1939) 56.
van der Yen. A. J. H. .. Testing amplifier output valves by means of the cathode ray tube"
PNiips Tec. Rev. 5.3 (March 1940) 61.
31. ~an, J., and S.Moskowitz. .. Tracing tube characteristics on a cathode ray oscilloscope"
Elect. 14.3 (Marcil 1941) 36.
3S. EastOn, E. C., and E. L. Chaffee. "Pulse-type tester for high-power tubes" Elect. 20.2 (Feb.
1947) 97.
39. Webking, H. E. .. Producing tube curves on an oscilloscope" Elect. 20.11 (Nov. 1947) 128.
40. Herold, E. W. "An improved method of testing for residual gas in electron tubes and vacuum
systems" RC.A. Rev. 10.3 (Sept. 1949) 430.
41. Kauzmann, A. P. "New television amplifier receiving tubes" RC.A. Rev. 3.3 (Jan. 1939) 271.
42. Dodge, H. F., and H. G. Romig. "Single sampling and double sampling inspection tables"
B.S.T.J. Jan. 1941 20.1 (Jan. 1941) 1.
43. Dodge, H. F., and H. G. Romig (book). .. Sampling Inspection Tables" (John Wiley & Sons
Inc., New York, Chapman & Hall. London, 1944).
44. Keeling, D. B.• and L. E. Cisne. "Using double sampling inspection in a manufacturing plant"
B.S.T.J. 21.1 (June 1942) 37.
45. Davies, J A. "Quality control in radio tube manufacture" Proc. I.RE. 37.5 (May 1949) 548.
46. HaiTis. J. A. "On the co-ordination of circuit requirements, valve characteristics and electrode
design ,. J. Brit. I.RE. 9.4 (April 1949) 125.
47. Slonczewski, T. "Transconductance as a criterion of electron tube performance" B.S.T.J.
28.2 (A~ 1949) 315.
48- British Radio Valve Manufacturers' Association (booklet). "Radio Valve Practice" (August 1948).
49. British Standard Code of Practice BSl106 (Feb. 1943). "The use of radio valves in equipment."
it. Application Note. "Input admittance of receiving tubes" (AN-U8, April IS, 1947) Radio
CQrporation of America.
52. .. Tube Handbook" HB3. Radio Corporation of America.
53. " Rlldia Components Handbook" (1st ed. 1948, Technical Advenising Associates, Cheltenham,
Penn., U.S.A.).
<55. Hartkopf. R E. "Simple valve tester-checking insulation, mutual conductance and emission"
W.W. -42.12 (Dec. 1946) 386.
56- Ewrett Edg~be Service Valve Tester. W.W. 42.12 (Dec. 1946) 416.
57. ~. I)ywuniC mutual conductance tube tester" (Hickok design) Service 16.3 (March 1947) 2.
~. Heacock.. D. P. .. Power measurement of Class B audio amplifier tubes" RC.A. Rev. 8.1 (March
1!W1) 147.
~. Walker~ H. S., C. G. Mayo and J. Tomlinson" Ponable sub-standard of mutual conductance"
B.B.C. Research Dept. Repon H.OO9 (27 Oct. 1938).
60. .. A universal tUbe checker" Radio Craft (Feb. 1944) 292.
61. Dcwar~ J. A. .. Dynamic tube tester" Radio Craft (Nov. 1944) 94.
62. Planer, F. E. .. Valve Testing-rapid determination of amplification factor and anode impedance
under operating conditions" W.W. 51.6 (June 1945) 20.
63. Sim~on. .. Dynamic tube tester" Elect. 19.2 (Feb. 1946) 338.
64- "Hickok. Tube Tester Models 532C and 532P" Elect. 19.3 (Mar. 1946) 282.
65. Blackburn, J. F. (editor). .. Components Handbook" (M.I.T. Radiation Laboratory Series,
No. 17, Ist ed. 1949. McGraw-Hill Book Co.).
M. Laws, F. A. (book). "Electrical Measurements" (McGraw-Hill Book Co. 2nd ed. 1938).
67. AJll?leton, E. V. (book). "Thermionic Vacuum Tubes" (Methuen & Co. Ltd., London).
68. Livingston, O. W. .. Oscillographic method of measuring positive-grid characteristics" Proc.
I.R-E. 28.6 Gune 1940) 267.
~. Kozanowski, H. N., and I. E. Mouromtseft'. .. Vacuum tube characteristics in the positive grid
region by an oscillQgraphic method" Proc. I.RE. 21.8 (April 1933) 1082.
70. Cbaffee, E. L. .. Oscillographic study of electron tube characteristics" Proc. I.RE. 10.6 (Dec.
1922) 440.
71. Schneider2 W. A. "Use of an oscillograph for recording vacuum tube characteristics" Proc.
I.R-E. 16.5 (May 1928) 674.
72. Chaffee. E. L. .. Power tube characteristics" Elect. 11.6 aune 1938) 34.
73. Walker, A. H. B. "Cathode-ray curve tracer" W.W. 50.9 (Sept. 1944) 266.
74. Zep.ler, E. E. "Triode interelectrode capacitances" W.E. 26.30? (Feb. 1949) 53.
75. Jottes, T. I. "The dependence of the inter-electrode capacitances of valves upon the working
conditions" Jour. I.E.E. 81 (1937) 658.
76. Humphreys, E. L., and B. G. James. "Interelectrode capacitance of valves-change with operating
conditions" W.E. 26.304 (Jan. 1949) 26.
77. Young, C. H. "Measuring interelectrode capacitances" Tele-Tech 6.2 (Feb. 1947) 68.
78. Terman, F. E. "Radio Engineers' Handbook" (McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1943).
79. Dawes, C. L. (book). "A Course in Electrical Engineering" Vol. 2 (McGraw-Hill Book Co.
3rd edit., 1934).
80. Hickman, R., and F. Hunt. .. The exact measurement of electron tube coefficients" Rev. Sci.
Instr. 6 (Sept. 1935) 268.
81. Eastman, A. V. (book). "Fundamentals of Vacuum Tubes" (McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1937).
82. Alben, A. L. (book). "Fundamental Electronics and Vacuum Tubes" (The Macmillan Co.,
New York. 1938).
3.6 REFERENCES 127
83. Aiken, C. B., and J. F. Bell. "A mutual conductance meter" Comm. 18.9 (Sept. 1938) 19.
84. Millman, J., and S. Seely (book). "Electronics" (McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1941).
85. Suits, C. G. "A thermionic voltmeter method for the harmonic analysis of electrical waves" Proc.
I.R.E. 18 Oan. 1930) 178.
86. Belfils. G. "Mesur du 'residu ' des courbes de tension par la methode du pont filtrant" :Rev.
Gen. d'Elect. 19 (April 1926) 526. ,
·87. Wolff, Irving. "The alternating current bridge as a harmonic analyzer" Jour. Opt. Soc. Amer.
15 (Sept. 1927) 163.
88. McCurdy, R. G., and P. W. Blye. "Electrical wave analyzers for power and telephone systems"
Jour. A.I.E.E. 48 Oune 1929) 461.
89. Ballantine, S., and H. L. Cobb. "Power output characteristics of the pentode " Proc. I.R.E. 18
(March 1930) 450.
90. "Curve generator for tubes" developed by M. L. Kuder of N.B.S., Elect. 23.7 Ouly 1950) 144.
91. "Heater-cathode leakage as a source of hum " Elect. 13.2 (Feb. 1940) 48.
92. Zepler, E. E. and S. S. Srivastava" Interelectrode impedances in triodes and pentodes" W.E.
28.332 (May 1951) 146.
93. Wagner, H. M. "Tube characteristic tracer using pulse techniques" Elect. 24.4 (Apr. 1951) 110.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing 'on page 1475.
Standards Specifications.
Sl. Standards on electronics (1938) The Institute of Radio Engineers. U.S.A. See also S12.
S2. Joint Army-Navy Specification JAN-IA (U.S.A.).
S3. Joint Army-Navy Specification JAN-S-28 Sockets, electron tube, miniature.
S4. RMA-NEMA'" Standards for electron tube bases caps and terminals (Feb. 1949)-RMA
Standard ET-I03A. .
S5. RMA-NEMA* Dimensional characteristics of electron tubes Oan. 1949)-RMA Standard
ET-105A.
S6. RMA-NEMA-JETEC Standard ET-I06A (Feb. 1952) Gauges for electron tube bases.
S7. RMA Standard ET-107 (Dec. 1946) Test methods and procedures for radio receiving tubes.
S8. RMA-NEMA*' (Dec. 1947) Standards for measurement of direct interelectrode capacitances-
RMA Standard ET-109.
S9. RMA-NEMA* (Feb. 1948) Standard for designation system for receiving tubes-RMA Standard
ET 1'" .
SIO. RMA:NEMA* (Feb. 1949) Designation system for electron tube shells -RMA Standard ET-H2.
Sll. "Tube Ratings"-RMA Standard M8-210 (Jan. 8,1940).
S12. "Standards on electron tubes: methods of testing 1950" Proc. I.R.E., Part 1,38.8 (Aug. 1950)
917; Part 2, 38.9 (Sept. 1950) 1079.
THEORY OF NETWORKS
Batteries (or cells) may be-connected in series as in Fig. 4.2 and the total voltage
is then equal to the sum of the voltages of the individual batteries (or cells). When
calculating the voltage of any intermediate point with respect to (say) the negative
terminal, count the number of cells passed through from the negative termiRal to the
tapping point, and multiply by the voltage per cell. When batteries are connected
in series, each has to supply the full load current.
DRY CELLS ACCUMULArORS
Batteries (or cells) are occasionally
r
connected in parallel as in Fig. 4.3.
-+ In this case the terminal voltage is
the same as the voltage per battery
+ tCURRENT (or cell). The current does not
I~
necessarily divide uniformly be-
6V
6V tween the cells, unless these all have
identical voltages and internal re-
I sistances.
1-5vqJ_ ·1 CURRENTL-f-+----...... Direct current may also be ob-
tained from a d.c. generator,. or
' - - - - - - - - < 0 - fLOW ' - - - - - - - < 0 - from rectified and filtered a.c.
fiG. 4·2 supply. In all such cases there is a
Fig. 4.2. Cells in series. certain degree of ripple or hum
which prevents it from being pure
d.c.; when the a.c. component is appreciable, the supply may be spoken of as "d.c.
with superimposed ripple (or hum) " and must be treated as having the characteristics
of both d.c. and a.c. When we speak of d.c. iIi a theoretical treatise, it is intended to
imply pure, steady d.c.
O--~--~----~----r--~----~-~G~-
Fig. 4.4. Fqrm of sitle-
wave alternating current.
1 - - - - - - - - - - - - " " TI ME
"IG.4-4
Most power supplies have frequencies of either 50 or 60 cycles per second (cis).
The period is the time taken by one cycle, which is 1/50 or 1/60 second, in these
two cases.
*For mathematical treatment of .periodic phenomena see Chapter 6 Sect. 4.
130 (ii) ALTERNATING CURRENT 4.1
The precise shape of the wave is very important, and the sine wave has been adopted
as the standard a.c. waveform, since this is the only one which always has the current
waveform of the same shape as the voltage, when applied to a resistance, inductance
'or capacitance.t In practice we hav~ to deal with various waveforms, some of which
may be considered as imperfect (" distorted ") sine waves, while others are of special
shapes such as square waves, saw-tooth, or pulse types, or rectified sine waves. How-
ever, when we speak of a.c. in any theoretical treatise, it is intended to imply a dis-
tortionless sine wave. Other waveforms may be resolved by Fourier Analysis into a
fundamental sine wave and a number of harmonic frequency sine waves, the latter
having frequencies which are multiples of the fundamental frequency. This subject
is treated mathematically in Chapter 6 Sect. 8.
When deriving the characteristics of any circuit, amplifier or network, it is usual
to assume the application of a pure sine-wave voltage to the input terminals, then to
calculate the currents and voltages in the circuit. In the case of a valve amplifier
(or any other non-linear component) the distortion may be either calculated, or
measured at the output terminals. If the device is to operate with a special input
waveform (e.g. square wave), it is usual to resolve this into its fundamental and har-
monic frequencies, and then to calculate the performance with the lowest (funda-
mental) frequency, an approximate middle·· frequency, and the highest harmonic
frequency-all these being sine waves.
(iii) Indications of polarity and current flow
In circuit diagrams the polarity of any battery or other d.c. voltage source is usually
indicated by + and - signs; alternatively it may be indicated by an arrow, the head
of the arrow indicating positive potential (e.g. Fig. 4.2). A similar convention may
be used for the voltage between any points in the circuit (e.g. Fig. 4.14A). The
direction of d.c. current flow is indicated by an arrow.
In the case of a.c. circuits a similar convention may be used, except that an arbitrary
instantaneous condition is represented (Fig. 4.18A).
SECTION 2: RESISTANCE
(i) Ohm's Law for d.c. (ii) Ohm's Law for a.c. (iii) Resistances in series (if)
Resistances in parallel (f) Conductance in retistif)e circuits.
(i) Ohm's Law for direct current
All substances offer some obstruction to the flow of electric current. Ohm's Law
states that the current which flows is proportional to the applied voltage, in accordance
with the equation
1= EjR (1)
where R is the total resistance of the circuit. For example in Fig. 4.5 an ideal battery,
having zero internal resistance, and giving a constant voltage E under all conditions,
is connected across a resistance R. The current which flows is given by eqn. (1)
above, provided that
I is expressed in amperes,
E is expressed in volts,
and R is expressed in ohms.·
Ohm's Law may also be arranged, for convenience, in
the alternative forms FIG.4·!>
E IR (2) Fig. 4.5. Circuit illus-
and R = EjI (3) trating Ohm's Law for d.c.
t A sinewave has its derivative and integral of the same form as itself.
**Preferably the geometrical mean frequency which is given by v'f 1 f 2 where f 1 and f 2 are the lowest
and highest frequencies.
*It is assumed that the resistance remains constant under the conditions of operation. For other
cases see Sect. 7(i).
4.2 (i) OHM'S LAW FOR DIRECT CURRENT 131
In a circuit containing more than one battery (or other source of diJ;.ect voltage),
the effective voltage is determined by adding together those voltages whiCh are in the
same direction as the current, and subtracting any opposing voltages.
Ohm's Law also holds for any single resistor or combination of resistances. The
voltage drop across any resistance Ru no matter what the external circuit may be,
is given by
Voltage drop = IRI (4)
where I is the current flowing through R 1 •
l l
RI Ri RI
B B
+ +
:::=::E R2 :::=::E R2
c C
R~ R~
0 0
I'"IG.4·6 FIG.4"7
If the battery has any appreciable internal resistance the circuit must be modified
to the form of Fig. 4.7 where Ri is the equivalent internal resistance. Here we have
four resistances effectively in series and I = BI(R; + Rl + Rs + Ra). The
132 (iv) RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL 4.2
voltages between any of the points A, B, Cor D will be less than in the corresponding
case for zero internal resistance, the actual values being
Rl + R2 + Rs
Ri + Rl + Ra + Rs x voltage for Ri = O.
If Ri is less than 1 % of CRl + R~ + R s), then its effect on voltages is less than 1%.
(iv) Resistances in parallel
When two resistances are in parallel (Fig. 4.8) the effective total resistance is given by
RlRa
R=~+~ 00
When Rl = R a, R = Rd2 = R 2 /2.
When any number of resistances are in parallel (Fig. 4.9) the effective total resistance
is given by
111
=R-+-+-R+.... (7)
R 1 Ra 3
When two or more resistors are in parallel, the total effective resistance may be de-
termined by the graphical method of Fig. 4.10. This method* only requires a piece
of ordinary graph paper (or alternatively a scale and set square). As an example,
to find the total resistance of two resistors, 50 000 and 30 000 ohms, in parallel take
any convenient base AB with verticals A C and BD at the two ends. Take 50 000
ohms on BD and draw the straight line AD; take 30 000 ohms on A C and draw
CB; draw the line XY from their junction perpendicular to AB. The height of
XY gives the required result, on the same scale.
1
.
• RI R2 R3
fIG.4·9
I
Fig. 4.8. Two resistances in parallel. Fig. 4.9. Several resistors in parallel.
The same method may be used to determine suitable values of two resistors to be
connected in parallel to give a specified total resistance. In this case, select one
value (C) arbitrarily, mark X at the correct height and then find D; if not a suitable
vaiue, move C to the next available value and repeat the process until satisfactory.
*" Resistances in ParaIlel--capacitances in Series," W.W. 48.9 (Sept. 1942) 205.
" Diallist" "Series C and Parallel R," W.W. 51.4 (April 1945) 126.
4.2 (v) CONDUCTANCE IN RESISTIVE CIRCUITS 133
When a network includes a number of resistors, some in series and some in parallel,
firstly convert all groups in parallel to their effective total resistances, then proceed
with the series chain.
(v) Conductance in resistive circuits
The conductance (G) of any resistor is its ability to conduct current, and this is
obviously the reciprocal of the resistance--
G = 1jR (8)
Applying Ohm's Law, we derive
[ = EG (9)
The unit of conductance is the mho (i.e. the reciprocal ohm).
When resistances are in parallel, their effective total conductance is the sum of their
individual conductances-
G = G1 + G 2 + G s + . . . . (10)
When a number of resistors are in parallel, the current through each is proportional
to its conductance. Also,
~-~ (11)
[total - Gtotal
SECTION 3: POWER
(i) Power in d.c. circuits (ii) Power irz resistive a.c. circuits.
FIG.4·11
instantaneous current at any point in the cycle. The curve of instantaneous power
(P) may be plotted point by point, and is always positive.
The heating of a resistor is obviously the result of the average or effective power,
which is exactly half the peak power.
P'])eak = Emu Imu (3)
(4)
SECTION 4: CAPACITANCE
(i) Introduction to capacitance (ii) Condensers in parallel and series (iii) Calcula-
tion of capacitance (iv) Condensers in d.c. circuits (v) Condensers in a.c. circuits.
The unit of capacitance-the Farad (F)-is too large for convenience, so it is usual
to specify capacitance as so many microfarads (fLF) or micro-microfarads*, (fL fLF).
Any capacitance must be converted into its equivalent value in farad~ before being
used in any fundamental equation such as (1) above-
1 fLF = 1 X 10-6 farad
1 fLfLF = 1 X 10-12 farad
Note: The abbreviations mF or mmF should not be used under any circumstances
to indicate microfarads or micro-microfarads, because mF is the symbol for milli-farads
(1 x 10-3 farad). Some reasonable latitude is allowable with most symbols, but here
there is danger of serious error and misunderstanding.
The energy stored in placing a charge on a condenser is
W = t (QE) = t (CE'!.) = Q2/2C (2)
where W = energy, expressed in jou1es (watt-seconds)
Q = charge in cou1ombs
C = capacitance in farads
and E = applied voltage.
I I I I !
~ 1+ ell e~ e~
T-
E:
T I T
T
flG.4·12
I fiG. 4·1~
AK
or C= 4.45d I-' I-'F when dimensions are in inches
where A = useful area of one plate in square centimetres (or inches). The useful
area is approximately equal to the area of the smaller plate when the square root of
the area is large compared with the gap.
K dielectric constant (for values of common materials see Chapter 38
Sect. 8. For air, K = 1.
d gap between plates in centimetres (or inches).
Capacitance with air dielectric, plates 1 mm. apart
C = 0.884 I-'I-'F per sq. em. area of one plate.
Capacitance with air dielectric, plates 0.10 inch apart
C = 2.244 I-' I-'F per sq. inch area of one plate.
When there are more than two plates, the " useful area " should be interpreted as
the total useful area.
Cylindrical condenser (concentric cable)
7.354K
C I-' I-'F per foot length
- loglo Did
where D inside diameter of outside cylinder (inches)
d = outside diameter of inner cylinder (inches)
and K = dielectric constant of material in gap.
(iv) Condensers in d.c. circuits
An ideal condenser is one which has no resistance, no leakage, and no inductance.
In practice, every condenser has some resistance, leakage and inductance, although
these may be neglected under certain conditions of operation.
!l,
o T TIME
nC.4·14
Fig. 4.14. Condenser charge and discharge (A) Circuit (B) Discharge current
characteristic (C) Charge voltage characteristic (D) Discharge voltage characteristic.
(8)
which is of the same form as diagram B, except that the current is in the opposite
direction. - - --
The curve of voltage (and also charge) against time for a discharging condenser is
in diagram D, and is of the same shape as for current, since e = Ri. These charge
and discharge characteristics are called transients.
In order to make a convenient measure of the time taken to discharge a condenser,
we adopt the time constant which is the time taken to discharge a condenser on the
assumption that the current remains constant. throughout the process at its initial
value. In practice, as explained above, the discharge current steadily falls with
time, and under these conditions the time constant is the time taken to discharge the
condenser to the point where the voltage or charge drops to 1/ e or 36.8 % of its initial
value. The same applies also to the time taken by a condenser in process of being
charged, to reach a voltage or charge of (1 - 1/ e) or 63.2% of its final value.
The time constant (T) is equal to
T = RC (9)
where T is the time constant in seconds,
R is the total resistance in the circuit, either for charge or discharge, in ohms,
and C is the capacitance in farads.
This also holds when R is in megohms and C in microfarads.
i.e., dqldt
But q Ce = GEm sin wt
Therefore i ~ (CEm sin wt)
Therefore i wGEm cos wt (10)
Eqn. (10) is the equation of the current flowing through the condenser, from which
we may derive the following facts :
1. It has a peak value of wGEm; the current is therefore proportional to the applied
voltage, also to the capacitance and to the frequency (since f = wI2'TT).
2. It has the same angular velocity (w) and hence the same frequency as the applied
voltage.
3. It follows a cosine waveform whereas the applied voltage has a sine waveform.
This is the same as a sinewave advanced 90° in phase-we say that the current
leads the voltage by 90° (Fig. 4.15).
Considering only the magnitude of the condenser charging current,
1m = wGEm (peak values)
Therefore I rms = wGE rmB (effective values)
Where I and E occur in a.c. theory, they should be understood as being the same as
I rm , and Erma.
This should be compared with the equivalent expression when the condenser is
replaced by a resistance (R) :
E rm•
I rm • = R·
therefore be the applied (line) voltage. It will be seen that the current I leads the
voltage E by an angle q, where .
I 1 1 IXcl
tan q, = wC 'RI = wCR = Ii: . (lOa)
If R = 0, then tan q, = 00, and q, = 90°.
Since q, is the phase angle of the current with respect to the voltage, the angle ~
in the circuit of Fig. 4.16A is positive.
The instantaneous current flowing through the circuit of Fig. 4.16A is therefore
given by
i = 1m sin (wt + q,) (lOb)
where 4> = tan-I (1/ wCR).
The value of 1m in eqn. (lOb) is given by
1m = Em/ Z (lOc)
where Z is called the impedance.
Similarly in terms of effective values,
1= B/Z ClOd)
Obviously Z is a vector (or complex) quantity having phase relationship as well as
magnitude, and is printed in bold face to indicate this fact. This may be developed
further by the use of the j notation.
®
e.,_,~'
I "",c
I I
Fig. 4.16. (A) Resistance and capacitance across a.c. line (B) Vector diagram of
'Voltage relationships (C) Vector diagram of impedance (Z) with its real component
(R) and reactive component - j (1/ wC).
for selected capacitances and frequencies are given in Chapter 38 Sect. 9 Table 42.
Even if R = 0, we still write the impedance in the same form,
Z = 0 - j 15.9 (I3b)
Thus Z is a complex* quantity, that is to say it has a " real" part (R) and an " imagin-
ary tt part (1/ wC) at 90° to R, as shown in Fig. 4.16C. The absolute magnitude
(modulus) of Z is :
IZI = v'R2 +(1/ WC)2 (14)
and its phase angle cp is given by
1
tancp=--- (15)
wCR
which is the same as we derived above from the vector diagram, except for the sign.
The negative sign in eqn. (15) is because cp is the phase shift of Z with respect to R.
In a practical condenser, we may regard R in Fig. 4.16A as the equivalent series
loss resistance of the condenser itself.
It is obvious from Fig. 4.16B that
cos cp = R/Z (16a)
where Z is given by equation (13) above.
Cos cp is called the "Power factor."
If cp is nearly 90°, X is nearly equal to Z, apart from sign, and so
cos cp ~ R/IXI (16b)
where IXI indicates that the value of the reactance is taken apart from sign. With
this approximation we obtain
Power factor = cos cp ~ wCR (17)
Note that the power factor of any resistive component is always positive. A negative
power factor indicates generation of power.
The total power dissipated in the circuit (Fig. 4.16A) will be
P =EI cos cp = EI x power factor- (17a)
E2
[2R = R[1 + Xc2/R2] (17b)
where P power in watts
Xc I/wC
and cos cp is defined by eqn. (16a) or the approximation (16b).
The Q factor of a condenser is the ratio of its reactance to its resistance-
Q = 1/ wCR = tan cp ~ I/(power factor) (18)
SECTION 5: INDUCTANCE
(i) Introduction to inductance (ii) Inductances in d.c. circuits (iii) Inductances
in series and parallel (iv) Mutual inductance (v) Inductances in a.c. circuits (vi)
Power in inductive circuits.
and drfo rate of change (differential with respect to time) of the flux.
dt
The direction of the induced e.m.f. is always such as to oppose the change of current
which is producing the induced voltage. In other words, the effect of the induced
e.m.f. is to assist in maintaining constant both current and field.
We may also express the relationship in the form :
di
e = -L dt (2)
where all the values are expressed in practical units-
e = e.m.f. induced at any instant, in volts
L = inductance, in henrys
i = current in amperes
di .
and dt = rate of change of current, m amperes per second.
The inductance L varies' approximately* with the square of the number of turns
in the coil, and may be increased considerably by using iron cores** (for low fre-
quencies) or powdered iron (for radio frequencies). With iron cores the value of L
is not constant, so that eqn. (2) cannot be used accurately in such cases.
The energy stored in a magnetic field is
energy = t L12 (2a)
where energy is measured in joules (or watt seconds)
L is measured in heniys
and 1 is measured in amperes.
I'1c...·11I
Fig. 4.17. Two inductances coupled by mutual inductance (M) with the secondary
loaded by a resistance.
Fig. 4.18. (A) Equivalent circuit diagram of practical inductance (B) Vector
diagram of voltage relationships.
(Fig. 4.18A). If there is any other resistance in the circuit, it may be added to the
resistance of the inductor to give the total resistance R. ~
If an alternating voltage is applied across L and R in series (Fig. 4.18A) the vector
diagram may be drawn as in (B). The current vector I is first drawn to any con-
venient scale; the vector of voltage drop "across R is then drawn as RI in .phase with
I; the vector of voltage drop across L is then drawn as ooLI so that I wi11lag behind
it by 90 0 -hence ooLI is drawn as shown; the parallelogram is then completed to
give the resultant E = ZI with a phase angle such that tan 4> = ooLIR.
Using the j notation we may write:
E = RI + jooLI (11)
where +j indicates 90 0 vector rotation in a positive direction.
From (11) we can derive:
Z = Ell = R +jooL (12)
For example, if R = 150 ohms, L = 20 henrys and f = 1000 cis, then
00 = 21T X 1000 = 6280
ooL = 6280 x 20 = 125 600 ohms
and Z = 150 + j 125 600 (12a)
Eqn. (12a) indicates at a glance a resistance of 150 ohms in series with a positive
reactance (i.e. an inductive reactance) of 125600 ohms. Values of inductive re-
actances are given in Chapter 38 Sect. 9 Table 41.
The magnitude (modulus) of Z is : _ _ __
IZI = yR2 + (ooL)2 (13)
and its phase angle is given by
tan q, = ooLIR (14)
as aiso shown by the vector diagram.
From eqn. (15) the power is equal to the product of the effective voltage and current
multiplied by cos q" which is called the Power Factor, its value being given by
cos q, = R/y'R2 + (wL)2.
When the load is purely resistive, L = 0 and the power factor = 1 ; the power is
therefore P = E rmB I rm8'
From (15) we may derive for the general case:
P = EI cos q, = EI • R/y'R2 + (WL)2
Therefore P = I • Iy'R2 + (WL)2 X R/y'R2 + (wL)2 = J2R (16a)
E2
or P = R[1 + (wL)2/R2] (16b)
Therefore R = P / 12 (17)
where P = power in watts
wL = inductive reactance in ohms
R = resistance in ohms
and I =c current in amperes.
In other words, the total power taken from the line in the circuit of Fig. 4.18A is
the power dissipated by the effective total resistance R. There is no loss of power
in an ideal inductance with zero resistance, although it draws current from an a.c.
line, because the power factor is zero(q, = 90°, therefore cos cp = 0). The product
of I x E in this case is called the wattless power or reactive power, or more cor-
rectly the reactive volt-amperes.
The power factor at any given frequency gives the ratio of the resistance of a coil
to its impedance and may be used as a figure of merit for the coil. A good coil should
have a very small power factor.
The power factor is almost identical with the inverse of the coil magnification factor
Q (Chapter 9), and the error is less than 1 % for values of Q greater than 7 :
Q = wL/R = tan cp
Power factor = cos q, = R/Z
tan q, R:> I/cos q, (error < 1 % for cp > 82°)
Therefore Power Factor R:> 1/Q for Q >- 7.
(i) Impedance a complex quantity (ii) Series circuits with L, C and R (iii) Parallel
combinations of L, C and R (iv) Series-parallel combinations of L, C and R (v)
Conductance, susceptance and admittance (vi) Conversion from series to parallel
impedance.
FIG. 4·20
This may be illustrated by means of a vector diagram (Fig. 4.20 B) where I is drawn
to any convenient scale. The voltage-dJiop vectors are then drawn, to the selected
voltage scale, RI in phase with I, j wLI at 90° in advance of I and -jII wC lagging
90° behind I. The simplest method of combining the three vectors is to take either
wLlor II wC, whichever is the greater, and then to subtract the other from it, since
these two are exactly in phase opposition. In diagram B, wLI is the greater, so that
II wC is subtracted from wLI to give (wL - II wC)I. The two remaining vectors,
RI andj( wL - II wC)I are then combined by completing the parallelogram, to give
the resultant ZI which, of course, must be equal to the applied voltage E.
A special case arises when wL = II wC in eqn. (1); the reactive component
becomes zero and Z = R. This is the phenomenon of series resonance which
is considered in greater detail in Chapter 9.
Special cases of equation (1)
R and L only: Put I/wC = 0, Z = R +jwL
R and Conly: Put wL = 0, Z = R - jlwC = R + I/jwC
L and Conly: Put R = 0, Z = j(wL - l/wC)
R only: Z = R +jO
L only: Z = 0 +jwL
Conly: Z = 0 -j/wC = I/jwC
NotethatQ = ltan,pl = IXIIR.
A table of inductive reactances is given in Chapter 38 Sect. 9(i) Table 41.
A table of capacitive reactances is given in Chaptt::r 38 Sect. 9(ii) Table 42.
A table and two charts to find X, R or Z, when a reactance and resistance are con-
nected in series, any two values being known, is given in Chap. 38 Sect 9(iv) Table 44.
Series Combinations of L, C and R .....
~
L1(M)L. +jW(Ll + LIl ± 2M) W(Ll + L~ ± 2M) +11"/2 -j/ W(LI + LIl ± 2M)
~
~
~
C1 + Cs _j~(Cl + C a) ~(CI +C2 ) 11" . ( C1Cs ) en
W C1C. W C 1C 2 -2 JW C 1 + C Il
~
R+L R +jwL '\IR2 + w 2LI!
tan- l
wL
R
R -jwL
R2 + w 2LS
~
S""
R+C R -J
. I- V W2 C2R2 + I
- tan- 1
I W2 C2R + jwC C':)
~
--
wC w l C2 wRC ~C2R2 + I
R+L+~
R +j '( wL - wC
I ) V R I + ( wL - :C) I tan
_ (wL - l/wC)
1 R
R -j(wL - l/wC)
RI + (wL - l/wC)B
General case with a number of arms connected in series, each arm being
of the form R + X
Arm (1) : Zl = Rl + jXl (i.e. Rl in series with Xl)
Arm (2):· Z2 = Rs + jXa
Arm (3) : Za = Ra + jXa etc.
then the total impedance is given by
Z = (R I + Ra + Rs + ...) + j (Xl + X 2 + Xs + ...)
12 (<1>=+90°)
C R r
....-
I
hi' IJ~ 1
FIG.4.20C I. (<1>"-90,,) FIG.4.200
Fig. 4.20.C Circuit of R, Land C in parallel across a.c. line.
Fig. 4.20.D Vector diagram of voltage relationships.
~
Ru RI RlR2 RlR2 0 Rl + R2
Rl + R; Rl + Rs RIRz
-
Cu C2 -j
w(Cl
1
+ C 2) w(Cl
1
+ C2) -2
11'
+ jw(C I + C 2)
~
w 2L2R + jwLR" wLR R 1 j 8
~
L,R tan- l -
w 2L2 + R2 Vw"L2 + R2 wL R - wL
z
R, C R _jwR2C R tan-Ie - wRC) 1 . ~
1 + w 2R2C2 VI + w 2R2C2 1i+ JwC ~
~
CI)
~L)
L, C . wL wL 11'
+ J 1 - wlLC 1 - wZLC ±-
2 j (wC - o"l1
----
S"'
L1(M)L z . L1L" - MZ LILz - M2
±-2
11'
_ j !... (Ll + L0 2M) C)
+ J wLl + L2 =f 2M wLI + L2 =f 2M w LIL2 - M2
~tj
.!. _ j( wC _ _
1 )
R
R wL ~
L, C, R w~ ~ +j (wc _ _
1)
W~)2 JI + R2( wC - W~)2
tan -1 - R ( w C - )
(1)2 + -( wC - R wL
--~-
- ---
·See Sect. 6(v) below. Note that Q ",. Itan cp I. ~
=
4.6 (iii) PARALLEL COMBINATIONS' OF L, C AND R 149
when L and C }
{ are in parallel (3d)
VI + R2 (wG - l/wL)2
B
A table and a chart to find X, R or Z when a reactance
'and resistance are connected in parallel, is given in
Chapter 38 Sect. 9(iii) Table 43.
A simple graphical method for determining the re-
sultant impedance of a reactance and a resistance in
parallel is given in Fig. 4.20E where OA and OB repre-
sent R and X respectively and OD is drawn at right
angles to the hypotenuse. The length OD represents
the scalar value of the resultant impedance, while the
angle DOA is equal to the phase angle 4> between t.lte
applied voltage and the resultant current.
For other graphical methods for impedances in parallel Ir:::-....:.....L_--=-_ _ _ ~A
Fig. 4.21. (A) Network incorporating 4 elements for impedance calculations (B)
Simplified network with 3 elements.
(a) The effective reactance of eqn. (14) is zero (i.e. the power factor is unity)
when
CR2 = L(1 - wILC)
i.e. when w 2L2C = L - GR2
-I--R-2-
i.e. whe~ w = J LG - L2 (17)
which can be written in the form
when w = 1
.yLC
.J l-_-
L
2
C-'R- = w
t)
J
1 _ GR 2
L
(18)
If LCw 2 = 1, which is the condition for resonance-if the resistance is zero, the
impedance is given very closely, when R is small, by
Z ~ L/CR (19)
The remaining possible definitions of parallel resonance are conditions to give
maximum impedance. The condition of maximum impedance is sometimes called
anti-resonance. Maximum impedance occurs under slightly different conditions
for the variables C, L and w*.
(b) Condition of maximum total impedance when C is the variable
The maximum value of Z which can be obtained is
Rl2 + w 2L2
IZlmaz = RI = R 1Cl + Q2) (20)
where Q = wL/R I
L
which occurs when C (21)
R12 . ( we 2 - ~) (16)
Z2 = -:--(1-)2-+----=(,..c:-wC-_-_1 ) 2 - J (~) + (wc! __
II 1 ) 2
R2
2 wL 2 Rz W~2
3. Determine the combined impedance (Z) by adding the resis'Q"\I~ and reactive
components of (14) and (15)- -,'
Z = A + jB (37)
(iv) SERIES-PARALLEL L, C AND R 153
1
and B wL t
.
- ---
wC I (~)2 + (wC2_ W~)2
The magnitude of the impedance is given by
IZI = yA2 +B2 (38)
The phase angle cp is given by
cp = tan- l (B/A) (39)
where A and B have the same values as for cqn. (37).
FIG.4.2IC FIG.4.2IE
When any arm has only inductance, the conductance of the arm is zero and the
susceptance is 1/ wLu
i.e. G 1 = 0 Bl = l/wL I
When any arm has only capacitance, the conductance of the arm is zero, and
the susceptance is - wG,
i.e. G 1 = 0 BI = - wG
The following relationships hold between R, X, G and B
G B
R = G2 + B2; X = G2 + B2 (44)
The admittance (Y]) of any arm containing resistance and reactance in
series is given by
Y1 G 1 - jBI (45)
. . RI - jX1
I.e. YI = G I - JB 1 = Rl2 + X l 2 = RI + jX1 = z/ (46)
indicating that the admittance is the reciprocal of the impedance.
Thus the value of the admittance may always be derived from the impedance-
Y 1 1 R - jX R - jX
(46a)
=z= R +jX· R -jX R2 + X2
Similarly Z 1 1 G + jB G + jB (46b)
= Y = G -jB . G +jB = G2 + B2
The negative sign in front ofjB in eqn. (45) deserves special attention-
Admittance of inductive arm (R and L in series) :
. R -jwL
Y = G -JB = R2 + w 2LI (47)
Admittance of capacitive arm (R and G in series) :
. R + j/wG w 2G2R + jwG
Y = G + JB = R2 + 1/w2G2 w2G2R2 + 1 (48,.
The admittance of any arm containing resistance, capacitance and in-
ductance in series (Fig. 4.20A) is given by
Y G -jB (49)
R
where G R2 + X2
X = (wL - l/wG)
X (wL - l/wG)
and B
R2 + X2 R2 + (wL - 1/wG)2
R - j(wL - l/wC)
therefore Y (50)
R2 + (wL - 1/ wG)2
Values of admittance for various series combinations are included in the table in
Sect 6(iii).
6 4 0-3
u: Q~
!_ 0>7
~-
0·9
60- I·' --
qI
o
f:o I
o
'P
o -
'l'_
o
4
6- ~
6
0-
I
~CD-01I) . ,
1 1
....
1
~
1
1 1 I
~!
I 1
f! ~.:.. 2
1
.~
, 1
~;68
1 1 I I
g
1
8
I I
:g
1
o 0-, 0'2 0'3 0'4 0-5 0-6 0>7 o>a 0'9 JoO .. , 1'2 1'3 1·4 I·S 1.6 1-7 I·a 1'9 200
G AG.4.2IF
Fig. 4.21F. Chart for conversion between resistance and reactance, and conductance
and ·susceptance ..
Z == (R ± jX) lon, Y = (G =r= jB) 10-n.
156 (v) CONDUCTANCE, SUSCEPTANCE, ADMITTANCE 4.6
finity, so the point Y moves from 0 (at zero frequency) through C to A (at resonance)
and thence through E to 0 again (at an infinite frequency). The angle 1> is the angle
by which the current i leads the applied voltage e; when 1> is negative the current
lags behind the voltage. Thus wh~n OY lies in the upper portion of the circle the
circuit is capacitive, and when it lies in the lower porti(ln of the circle the circuit is
inductive.
FIG.4.22A
¥ FIG.4.228
When Y is at the point C, the admittance will be represented by OC and 1> will
0
be 45 ; the reactive and resistive components of the impedance will therefore be
equal. At zero frequency 1> will be +90° and the admittance will be zero: at in-
finite frequency 1> will be _90° and the admittance will also be zero.
~~2
N "I'
N N ('II
CD
N ~ I ; ~~ 0
o('II
100 90 :0 70 ~ ~6 ~4 "' 40
.PARA
X... 38
36
34
~ 32
30
In
x~
28
UJ
U
z-
(II ."'"
~
t
-v
~=
UJ
0:
2 -~
('II
In Itl
~o- f-
I I
UJ 6" .1
In
CD
~)'. £
,..0
0
CD
-
't-J V/J ;I.
~.
~ /
'I
-~
Ur H
o 11.
'C'nt'
t-m:J It 'H+
it~
1,
o 234 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 I,. 18 19 20
SERIES RESISTANCE RS
Fig. 4.22C. Chart for conversion between series resistance and reactance and
equivalent parallel resistance and reactance.
158 (vi) CONVERSION: SERIES TO PARALLEL IMPEDANCE 4.6
SECTION 7: NETWORKS
(i) Introduction to networks (it') Kirchhoff's Laws (iii) Potential Dividers (iv)
Thevenin's Thereom (v) Norton's Theorem (vi) Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
(vii) Reciprocity Theorem (viii) Superposition Theorem (ix) Compensation Theorem
(x) Four-terminal networks (xi) Multi-mesh networks (xii) Non-linear components
in networks (xiii) Phase-sht]t networks (xiv) Transients in networks (xv) Refer-
ences to networks.
Examples
An amplifier is a four-terminal active network.
An attenuator is a four-terminal passive network.
A conventional tone control is a two-terminal passive network.
16.0. t- 6n. LI
;;;;t" ~
...,
+ 3
z
6V~ ~tcl Ion iii
d~------~~------~.
w
.f
<II
FIG.4·2'!o FlG.4·24
This law is illustrated for a.c. in Fig. 4.24 which follows the same general rules as
for d.c. The instantaneous generator voltage e is shown in an arbitrary direction and
the directions of the currents are then determined.
At point b,
iab - i bf - ib c = 0
following the general procedure as in the d.c. case.
4.7 (ii) KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS 161
(2) The total rise or fall of potential at any instant in going around any closed
circuit is zero.
This is illustrated for d.c. in Fig. 4.23, taking each closed circuit in turn and pro-
ceeding clockwise in each case. Any voltage source is here 1."egarded as positive if it
assists in sending current clockwise around the closed circuit (i.e. voltage rise). The
voltage across any impedance is regarded as negative if the current arrow is in the same
direction as the direction of travel around the closed circuit (i.e. voltage drop).
Circuit dab c d: + 6 - 16ia" - IOi"c = 0 (1)
Circuit dab f g cd: + 6 - 16 iab + 8 itb - 4 = 0 (2)
Circuit f beg f: + 4 - 8 itb - 10 i" c = 0 (3)
Applying Kirchhoff's first law to point b,
i a" + it" = i"c (4)
To find the values of the three unknown currents, it.is necessary to apply three
suitable equations.
[Similarly for all other cases-the total number of equations must be equal to the
number of unknowns. The number of equations based on Kirchhoff's first law should
be one less than the number of junction points; those based on his second law should
equal the number of independent closed paths.]
Equations (1), (3) and (4) would be sufficient, since (2) merely duplicates parts of
(1) &nd (3).
From (4) : iab = i" e - if"
Applying in (1): + 6 - 16(i" c -- i{b) - 10 i,," = 0
Therefore + 6 - 16 i" c + 16 if" - 10 ib C = 0
Therefore + 6 - 26 i" c + 16 ti" = 0 (5)
Addingtwice(3): + 8 - 20 i"c - 16 if" = 0
Therefore + 14 - 46 i" c =0
Therefore i" C = 14/46 ampere.
The other currents may be found by applying this value in (5) and then in (4).
Kirchhoff's Second Law is illustrated for a.c. in Fig. 4.24. Here again, as in all
cases, it is assumed that we move around each loop of the network in a clockwise
direction.
The voltage across-
a resistance is - Ri . } wher.e i is in the clockwise direction around
an inductance is -jwLi the loop.
a capacitance is +j(I/ wG)i
Circuit dab cd: e - RIia" + j (1/ wGI)i" c = 0
Therefore RIia" - j(I/ wGJi" c = e (6)
Circuit b f g c b: --jwLIi bf - R 2i"f -j(I/wGI)i"c = 0
Therefore (j wL 1 + R 2)i"f + j(I/ wCI)i" c = 0 (7)
Applying Kirchhoff's first law to junction b:
ia" - i"f - iii 0 = 0
Therefore ia Ii :::, i"l + i" c (8)
Adding (6) and (7)
Rliab + (jwL I + R 2)i"f = e
Applying (8), RIi"f + RIi" c + (j wL I + R 2 )i"t = e
Therefore R1i bc + (RI + R2 + jwL1)i"f = e (9)
Multip1ying (7) by (-jRI wG1), remembering that j2 = - 1,
RIi" c + (R 1w 2L 1 G I - jRIR2WCt)ibf = 0 (10)
Subtracting (10) from (9),
[(RI + R2 - R 1 (J)2L 1C I ) + j(WLI + R IR 2wGI)] i b! = e (11)
which gives the va1ue of i"f when e is known.
The value of i" c may be found by substituting this value of i bt in eqn. (7); ia"
may then be determined by eqn. (8).
E2 (R
1
~2 R)E' (1)
and 11 12 = Ej(RI +R 2) (2)
A
On load
When a current Isis drawn from B, the simplest analysis is to consider the effective
load resistance Rs which will draw a current Ia at a voltage E 2', i.e. Ra = E./ jIs.
We now have resistances R2 and Rs in parallel, and their total effective resistance is
therefore
R' = R zR s/(R 2 + Ra).
In this case the voltage divider is composed of Rl and R' in series, and the voltage at
the point B is given by
R
E 2' = (R 1 : R,) E
(R 1R 2 + ~ia + R2R a) E
E 2' = (R ~2 1
R2)E - (R~~~2)Is (3)
n
The first term on the right hand side is the no-load voltage E 2 ; the second term is the
further reduction in voltage due to I a--this being a linear equation.
VOLTS
~"
it'
A
RI
+\
e
100
R2 R:,
11
E2 0
~o
R~
IMAX.
Ie
nG.4·26
00 10 I~
CURRENT (I:,)
20 25 :'0 11\ A
flG.4·27
e
Fig. 4.26. Graphical method for determining the output voltage from a potential
divider.
Fig. 4.27. A potential divider with a load in the form of another potential divider.
Eqn. (3) may be plotted* as in Fig. 4.26 where, as a typical example, E = 250 V,
RI = 10000 and R2 = 15000 ohms, so that (Rl + R 2 ) = 25000 ohms. E~, for
*Cundy, P. F. "Potential Divider Design," W.W. 50.5 (May 1944) 154.
4.7 (iii) POTENTIAL DIVIDERS 163
no load, is obviously 150 volts (point B) while point C is for the condition of maximum
current (l ma x) and zero voltage. The latter may be determined by putting E2' = 0
in eqn. (3) which gives
(4)
In this condition we have, effectively, a resistance Rl only, in series with a load of
zero resistance.
If points B and C in Fig. 4.26 are joined by a straight line, we may then determine
the voltage for any value of load current (la) between zero and maximum. For
example, with a load current of 10 rnA, the voltage will be 90 V (point D).
It is sometimes useful to calculate on the basis of a drop in voltage (based on the
no-load voltage E 2 ) of so many volts per milliamp of load current; in this case the
drop is 150 volts for 25 rnA, or 6 volts per milliamp. This rate of voltage drop is
actually the negative slope of the line BC.
The equivalent series source resistance (Rs) is given by
E2 150
Rs = Imax = 25 x 10 a = 6000 ohms.
This may be put into the alternative form
RIR2
Rs = Rl + R z• (5)
or la = Ima.z - E2
,(Rt + Rz)
RIR2
(7)
Special Case 1
If it is known that the voltage drops from E2 at no load to E 2' for a load current 13 ,
then the voltage E x corresponding to a load current I x is given by
Ex = E z - (E2 - E z')(I;r/ I 3) (8)
Special case 2
If the voltages across the load (E x, E ,,) for two different values of load current
(l x, I,) are known, the voltage at zero load current is given by
EJ,,-EJ~ (9)
E2 = I 11 - I x
This is often useful for determining the no load voltage when the voltmeter draws
appreciable current. A method of applying this with a two range voltmeter has been
described·, 31ld the true voltage is given by
*Lafferty, R. E. " A correction formula for voltmeter loading" (letter) Proc. I.R.E. 34.6 (June 1946)
358.
164 (iv) THEVENIN'S THEOREM 4.7
(S-I)E",
E2 = S _ (E",/E ) (10)
1I
where S = ratio of the two voltmeter scales used for the two readings E", and E 11'
E", =, voltmeter reading on the higher voltage scale,
and E 11 = voltmeter reading on the lower voltage scale.
If S = 2, then
E",
and E( s
(R
: R,)E2
= (13)
11--1
L..-_NE_T_W_OR_K_2_:t---J-J ZL
o~
'" E ZL
Fig. 4.28. (A) An im-
pedance connected to two
terminals of a network
(B) Thevenin's equivalent
2 circuit.
F"lG.4·28
e I
NETWORK
.1
breaks down under other conditions. It is therefore only applicable to valves when
these are being operated to give negligible distortion.
Zc = Zl Z2 + Z2Z a + Z l Z3
Zl
The bridged T section of Fig. 4.33E may be reduced to the equivalent T section
of Fig. 4.33F, or vice versa, by using the same equivalent values as for equivalent T
and II sections (above).
4.7 (x) FOUR-TERMINAL NETWORKS 167
(15)
J
It would also be possible to @
@
derive expressions for the equi-
valent sections, using Z s2 in '~~
Z2 ~ 'o-----..'IIZ\l\8"""''f----o~
place of Z 8U where Z s2 = im-
pedance at the output end with
the input terminalsshort-cir-
cuited.
I _Z~ z,.. Zc
suffixes indicating the meshes to which they are common. The applied alternating
voltages are also numbered El) E 2 , etc. where the suffix indicates the mesh number.
If there is more than one voltage source in any mesh, El etc. will indicate the vector
sum of these voltages.
There must be the same number of mesh equations as there are meshes in the net-
work. The mesh equations are written in the general form for n meshes as
Zll11 + Z1212 + Z13 13 + .. Zln1n El }
Z21 11 + Z22 12 + Z23 13 + .. Z2n 1 n = E2 (16)
z~
Er;:, z~
%12 Z,..
8
Z20 Z"O
C FIG.4.33G
These linear simultaneous equations may be solved by elinlination, but any more
compJicated network would have to be solved by the use of Determinants, for which
see any suitab1e mathematical textbook.
The total current in any common branch may be determined by the difference
between the two mesh currents.
The method of handling mutual inducta,nce is illustrated by the 2-mesh network
of Fig. 4.331. Here
Zll = (RIO + R 12) + j(WLlO + wL 12 - II wC10) (22)
Z22 = (R 12 + R 2o ) + j( wL 12 + wL 20 - II wC20 ) (23)
Z12 = Z21 = R12 + j( wL 12 ± wM12) (24)
and the two mesh equations will be as eqn. (21).
The polarity of M12 in eqn. (24) must be determined in accordance with the accepted
convention, as described in connection with eqn. (16).
A solution of eqn. (16) by means of Determinants shows that in the general case
the Determinant D is given by
Z llZ 12 • • Zln
D = Z21Z22 • • • Z2n
I (25)
ZnlZ :2 . :. Zn ..
I
and the current I k in the kth mesh that flows as the r~sult of the voltage E; acting in
the jth mesh is
(26)
where Bijc is the pri~cipal
minor of D multiplied by (- l)l+Tc. This rr'....lncr 18
formed by cancelling the jth row and the kth column
and then moving the remainder together to form a new
determinant with one less row and column than D,
where D is the determinant defined by eqn. (25).
The row cancelled corresponds to the mesh containing
the input voltage, the column cancelled to the mesh
containing the required current.
The input impedance of a passive network with
a single applied voltage (Fig. 4.33J) is given by
FIG. 4.331 Input impedance = Edll = DIBll (27)
where El = voltage applied to input terminals
Fig. 4.:33 1. Two-mesh net- 11 = input current
7,Pork incorporating mutual
inductance. D = determinant defined by eqn. (25)
and Bll is the minor of D obtained by cancelling the
first row and column.
The transfer impedance of a 4-terminal network (Fig. 4.33K) is defined as the
ratio of the voltage applied to the input terminals to the resulting current through
the load impedance connected to the output terminals (i.e., the nth mesh) .
~~1 ~
•
PASSIVE
NETWORk
E. ~
2
FOUR
TERMINAL
PASSIVE
NETWORK
--In ZL
2 4
and Bin is the minor of D obtained by cancelling the first row and nth column,
and applying the factor (- l)n+l.
References to multi-mesh networks: Refs. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7. Sect. 7(xv).
A 8
Fig. 4.34 (A) A phase-shift network providing full range phase shifting from 0 to 1800
with 6 db attentuation for all degrees of phase shift (B) vector diagram of voltage
relationships.
*It is assumed here that the impedance is not a function of time; this occurs in the case of barretters
and lamp filaments.
tLafIerty, R. E. "Phase-shifter nomograph," Elect. 19.5 (May 1946) 158.
I
4.7 (xiv) TRANSIENTS IN NETWORKS 171
SECTION 8 : Fll..TERS
(i) Introduction to filters (ii) Resistance-capacitance filters, high-pass and low-pass
(iii) Special types of resistance-capacitance filters (iv) Iterative impedances of four-
terminal networks (v) Image impedances and image transfer constant of four-terminal
networks (vi) Symmetrical networks (vii)" Constant k" filters (viii) M Derived
filters (ix) Practical filters (x) Frequency dividing networks (xi) References to
filters.
en
oJ
w-?
-1_
cD
U
~-4
~
~-!>
~
~-6
...:> -7
Q.
~
_-8
...
1 ",,~c
~--
iZ
;; -9
o
-10 I Eo
-L
E.._H'\IT VCUAGE
-11 Eo-OUTPUT VOLTAGE
One of these attenuation characteristics is shown in Fig. 4.36A together with the
straight line AB which is the tangent to the curve and has a constant slope of 6 db /
octave (or 20 db/decade). The point of intersection between AB and the zero db
line is point A which corresponds to the theoretical cut-off frequency fl' For ease
in calculation, the "straight-line" approximate characteristic CAB is sometimes
used in calculations in place of the actual attenuation characteristic, the maximum
error being 3 db.
In Fig. 4.35(B) there are two such filters in cascade and further sections may also
be added. A two-section filter in which Rl = R2 and C I = C2 will have somewhat
more than twice the attenuation in decibels of a single section filter, and the ultimate
slope of the attenuation characteristic will approach 12 db/octave.
A
o
-3
I I
6db/Octoye
..........
l/V /k11 c 0
i~
V~V ........ ACTUAL
ATTENUATION
-6 / V CHARACTE~ISTIC I
..
V
j
~ -9
/f A
~~
.,. II =
c
I i I °
Z
~ -12 12
~
~Go
3 -15 h~ I
II
I i
15
::
<
/ I I
I
I
-18
I I 18
/ I
,. FIG.4.36A
10f.
~
Fig. 4.36A. Actual and approximate attenuation characteristics, using the theo-
retical cut-off frequency fl as the reference frequency.
Fig. 4.38. Shows the attenuation characteristics for the low-pass filter of Fig. 4.37
for the values of Rand C shown below:
R (ohms) C(,.",."F)
Curve A B C D E
400,000 10 20 40 80 160
200,000 20 40 80 160 320
100,000 40 80 160 320 640
50,000 80 160 320 640 1280
20,000 200 400 800 1600 3200
10,000 400 800 1600 3200 6400
I~I
Xc 1
Therefore = (4)
yR2 +Xc 2 VI + (R/X c)2
If the generator has a resistance R 1" then R in the eqn. (4) should include Rg.
Attenuation characteristics derived from this equation are given in Fig. 4.38 in a
form capable of adaptation to most problems involving limited attenuation.
The rate of attenuation approaches 6 db/octave, and the shape of the curve is a
mirror-image of that for the high-pass filter (Figs. 4.35A and 4.36).
If the filter is used as a smoothing filter, the ratio BalBi is frequently 0.1 or less
and under these conditions (with a maximum error of 1 %)--
Bol 1 (5)
IEi R:j 21TfRC
F"IG.4·40
ZitI =
J Z I2 -
4 + ZIZa + 2"
21
(8a)
Zk2 =
J Zl2
-
4
ZI
+ ZtZa--
2
If we now define a quantity P, called the iterative transfer constant, such that
(8b)
Zu = Zu cP
Zl + 2Za
Zl
where cosh P = 1 + 2Za = 2Z '
a
(See Chapter 38 Sect. 21 Table 73 for hyperbolic sines, cosines and tangents.)
·Scott, H. H., "A new type of selective circuit and some applications." Proc.I.R.E. 26.2 (Feb.
1938) 226.
tWolf, A. "Note on a parallel-T resistance-capacitance network," Proc. I.R.E. 34.9 (Sept. 1946) 659.
See also Hastings, A. E. "Analysis of a resistance-capacitance parallel-T network and applications,"
Proc. I.R.E. 34.3 (March 1946) 126P; McGaughan, H. S ... Variation of an RC parallel-T null net-
work," Te1e-Tech. 6.8 (Aug. 1947) 48.
tCowles, L. C ... The parallel-T resistance-capacitance network" Proc. I.R.E. 40.12 (Dec. 1952) 1712.
4.8 (iv) ITERATIVE IMPEDANCES OF FOUR-TERMINAL NETWORKS 177
NETWORK
Fig. 4.41 shows a four terminal network ZS'
with generator and load. f"~~ER ZKZ
4
f"lG.4·41
f"lG.4·43
Z", Ze
2 4
f"lG.4·44
to Z II' and at the same time to give an output impedance (looking from te~ls
3, 4 with generator connected) equal to Z /2' Under these conditions the impedance
on each side of terminals 1,2 is an "image" of the other (since they are both identical)
178 (v) IMAGE IMPEDANCE 4.8
and similarly with the impedances on each side of terminals 3, 4. The two image
impedances are given by
Z /1 "- I(ZA + ZC)(ZAZB + ZAZC + ZBZe,.)
- V (12a)
(ZB + Z(.)
Zj2 = ,/(ZB + ZC)(ZAZB + ZAZC + ZBZC) (12b)
(ZA + Zc)
Similarly a n network as shown in Fig. 4.44A may have the values of the elements
adjusted so that the network is terminated in its image impedances. The two image
impedances are then given b--'y'--_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Z/I = ZI,/ (Z2 + Zs)Zs (13a)
(Zl + Za)(Zl + Z2 + Za)
Z /2 -- Z 2VI (Zl + Za)Za
(13b)
(Z2 + Za)(Zl + Z2 + Za)
The two image impedances may also be expressed in terms of the open-circuit
and short-circuit impedance"s (Sect.7(ix))
Z/l = V ZOIZ.l (14)
Z/2 = VZUZZ.2 (15)
z
c
4 4
FIG.4.44A FIG. 4.448
Fig. 4.44A is a single n section network terminated in its image impedances.
Fig. 4.44B is a single L section network terminated in its image impedances.
The transfer of power is indicated by the image transfer constant (J whose value
is given by
_ ElIl _ !.!. IZ[l
8 - i log£ E I - log£ I V - = log£v - . -;
III 12 '
(16)
2 Z 2 ZJ2 12 I)
provided that the network is terminated in its image impedances,
where EI and 11 are voltage and current at terminals 1, 2
E2 and 12 are voltage and current at terminals 3, 4
II' and 12 ' are currents at terminals 1, 2 and 3, 4
respectively with transmission in the reversed direction.
FIC."·4!>
When every section of a filter is working between its image impedances, there are
no reflection effects. Fig. 4.45 shows a three section group connected on an image
impedance basis. This is equivalent to a single network having image impedances
ZI1 and ZI4. respectively,
and 8 = (IXI + 1X2 + C(3) + j(fJl + fJ2 + fJa) = IX + jfJ (16a)
where 81 = 1X1 + ifJu etc.
The real part (IXI + 1X2 + 1X3 = IX) of the image transfer constant (J is called the
image attenuation constant, and the imaginary part (fJl + fJl + fJ3 = fJ) is called
the image phase constant.
4.8 (v) IMAGE IMPEDANCE 179
Where the values of the elements of the T and II networks are known, the value
of the image transfer constant is given by
T Network (Fig. 4.44) :
tanh 8 = ~(ZAZB + ZAZC + ZBZC)
(l6b)
(ZA + ZC)(ZB + Zc)
II Network (Fig. 4.44A) :
with zero resistance or vice versa. Some popular combinations are given beiow :
Original (Zl) Reciprocal (Z2)
L C L/R2
L + r in series C = L/R2 in shunt with R2/r
C + r in series L = R2C in shunt with R2/r
L + C in series C' = L/R2 in shunt with L' = R2C
r + L + C in series R2/r in shunt with C'= L/R2
and with L' = R2C
'!> ~
zZ' t z, z,
Zr
1.1- Zz -z.t Z.r Z'I- 2Z2 2Z2 -Z'r ir
E
'"
2 4 2 4
riG. 4'46 FlG.4·47
iZI
ZI-'" 2Z2 ~ Z'l Fig. 4.48 is a half section terminated
in its image impedances.
E~~-o________+~________o-~
Fig. 4.48 is a half-section terminated in its image impedances, which in this case
are unequal. Two such half-sections, with the second one reversed left-to-right, are
equivalent to a single T section. _ _ _ _ __
Z/ = V Z l Z2 + (Z12/4) (25f)
Z'
/ -
-J 1 + Z(Zt/4Z
Z2
l
2
) (25g)
An ideal filter in which the reactances have zero loss has zero attenuation for all
frequencies that make (Zd4Z 2 ) between 0 and -1 ; this range of frequencies is called
4.8 (vii) "CONSTANT K" FILTERS 181
the pass band. All other frequencies are attenuated and are said to lie in the stop
band (or attenuation band) of the filter.
Low pass filter-constant k type
Fig. 4.49 shows three forms of simple low-pass filters of the constant k type. In
each case
Zl =jwL
and Z2 = 1/j wC.
Now Z l Z2 = R2, therefore LIC = R2, where R may have any convenient value.
The mid-series image impedance is
Zl = Rv'l - (wLI2R)2 = Ry1 - Cflfo)2 (26)
where fo = 1j7TyLC), fo = cut-off frequency.
Whenf = fo, Z I = 0 and there is infinite attenuation if L and C have no resistance.
The mid-shunt image impedance is
R
Z'- R (27)
I - y(1 -(wL/2R)2 VI - Cf/fo)2
When f = fo, Z / becomes infinite.
@ ©
I~~
L
I~l
·,1 zL 1..1 A
.:1'" 1~.
Zl
~ c,2 - + - Z'I
20 I
- 04
Fig. 4.49. Three varieties of low-pass constant k filters: (A) T section (B) Half
section (C) II section.
With both T and II arrangements, the ideal filter has zero attenuation for frequencies
less than fo, a sharp cut-off at fo, and a very rapid attenuation immediately above fo.
However the rate of attenuation gradually falls as the frequency is increased, and
approaches 12 db/octave for the single section at frequencies much greater than fo.
Both image impedance characteristics are purely resistive below fo and purely re-
active at higher frequencies.
The phase shift varies from zero at zero frequency to 180 0 at fo, but is constant
at 180 0 for all frequencies higher than fo.
0 ® ©
Ill~
I~ E--ol 10 I
2C 2C 2C C
z· z'
~ L ~ ~ 2L A .s. L 2L .=.l
2o-----~----~4 2o----------~4 2 4
fiG. 4·~O
Fig. 4.50. Three varieties of high-pass constant k filters (A) T section (B) Half
section (C) II section.
High-pass filter-constant k type
Fig. 4.50 shows three forms of simple high-pass filters of the constant k type
In each case
Zl = 1jjwC
Zz=jwL.
Now Z l Z2 = R2, therefore LIC = R2, where R may have any convenient value.
The mid-series image impedance is
Zl = Ry1 - (1/2RwC)2 = Ry1 - (fo/f)! (28)
where fo = 1/(4-rn/LC),fo = cut-off frequency.
182 (vii) " CONSTANT K " FILTERS 4.8
Z2 2 Z2 2Z2
"""iT\
Fig. 4.51. (A) T section
-m --=jj\
~ A .B.m (B) II section, series m-
2
~-:jzl
zt:
m 2m I ~ZI
•
derived filters.
~t.~
---..
ZI --
(,;:::J)l
ZI
_ L
ZI
iii.-
I(~~)C
ZI
0
-zr
2Z J
m
('~mJ)~
~1m
0
LOW PASS HIGH PASS
Fig. 4.51. (C) Low pass (D) High pass T section m-derived filters (E) m-derived
half-section for matching purposes.
Values of Zl and Z2 are as for the prototype (constant k) filter. A low-pass T section
series m-derived filter is shown in Fig. 4.51C, and an equivalent high-pass section
in Fig. 4.51D. In both cases the shunt arm becomes resonant at a frequency f~
given by
1
Low pass f~ (30)
1TV(1 - m 2 )LC
V~
High pass f~ = 4 V (31)
1T LC
In the theoretical case when the reactances have zero loss, the shunt arm will have
zero impedance and therefore infinite attenuation at frequency f~ .
The cut-off frequency fo is given by
fo = 1/(1TV LC) (32)
and the following relationships hold.
4.8 (viii) M-DERIVED FILTERS 183
-Zl1l\
section (B) n sec-
tion shunt m-derived
filters.
A~G~.4~'5~2------~--------~ 2:o-~--------~-o4
Two forms of shunt m-derived filters are shown in Fig. 4.52. The n section (B)
may be joined at either end to a constant k section orhalf-section of mid-shunt image
impedance Z /. The T section requires the medium of a half-section to match the
impedances before being so connected.
Zj
(A) Zjm = 1 + (1 _ m2)(Zd4Z2) (36)
(B) Z / is as for Fig. 4.47 (Eqn. 22)
Therefore ZjmZjm' = ZjZ/ = R2 (37)
The total attenuation or phase shift of the combined multi-section filter would be
given by the sum of the attenuations or phase shifts respectively of the individual
sections or half-sections.
When the design has been completed for all the sections in the filter, the practical
form will be obtained by neglecting the junction points between sections and by
adding together the values of the inductors in series in each arm, and those of the
capacitors in parallel in each arm. If capacitors are in series, or inductors in parallel,
the total effective value should be calculated and used in the practical form of the filter.
:IIII----------TIT:
I I
half section : • Intermediate "T" Sections , I half section
I : FIG.4.S2C
I I
I • • I
half section I .. Intermediate 1T Sections ~ I half section
:JIDI[---------ntL~
I I
~ : FIG.4.S2D
The filter type has identical circuit connections but the condensers and inductors
are unequal (see Chapter 21 Sect. 3).
18db : available with filter type. This is the maximum. rate of attenuation normally
used with loudspeaker dividing networks (Fig. 4.53C).
L, = Ro/(2TTj c) L3 (1 + m)Ro/(2TTf c)
L6 = 2Ro 1(2 TTf c) L, = Ro/(2TTf c)
L, = Ro/(l + m)(2TTf c) L5 = Ro/(4TTf c)
C 5 = 1/(2TTj cRo) C 3 = I/CTTf cRo)
C 6 = 1/(4TTj cRo) C, = 11(1 + m)(2TTf cRo)
C 7 = (1 + m)/(2TTj cRo) C 5 = 1/(2TTj cRfJ)
(L in henrys; C in farads)
See also Chapter 21 Sect. 4.
SERIES PARALLEL
,
~~.
~
leo .Ro L. r.
Fig. 4.53. Frequency di'l,wing networks (A) 6db (B) ledb (C) 18db jor the octafJe
beyond the cross-ooer frequency. L.F. indicates low frequency, H.F. indicates high
frequency speakers.
(a) Tolerances
Every resistor has tolerances in resistance., and the price increases as the percentage
tolerance is made smaller. Composition resistors are usually obtainable with the
following tolerances:
± 5% For critical positions only
± 10% Desirable for semi-critical use in radio receivers and amplifiers (e.g.,
plate, screen and bias resistors)
± 20% For non-critical positions only (e.g. grid resistors).
"High stability" carbon resistors are available with resistance tolerances of ± 5%,
± 2% and ± 1 % (Ref. A26).
Wire-wound resistors are available with almost any desired tolerances in resistance
(± 5%, 10% are usual values in radio receivers).
(b) Stability
The resistance of carbon resistors tends to drift with time. Ordinary composition
resistors may drift as much as ± 2% during storage for 3 months at 70°C and normal
humidity (Ref. A27). See also Ref. A35.
Some high stability carbon resistors are limited to a maximum change in resistance
of ± 0.5% after 3 months' storage at 70°C (Ref. A26).
(c) Dissipation
Composition resistors are usually available with nominal dissip~tion ratings of
i, i, 1, 2, 4 and 5 watts (JAN-R-ll). The English RIC/113 standard (Ref. A27)
includes ratings of 1/10, 1, !, 1, 1 and 2.5 watts. Other manufacturers produce !,
!, Ii and 3 watt ratings.
English high stability resistors are available with 1/10, 1, 1, i, 1, 1, Ii and 2
watt ratings (Ref. A26).
4.9 (i) PRACTICAL RESISTORS 187
to humidity tests (e.g., I.R.C. type BTA). See Chapter 38 Sect. 3(i) for humidity
tests and limits.
(m) High stability cracked carbon resistors (Refs. AI0, A26, A28)
These not only have high short and long period stability and close tolerances (up
to ± 1 %) but also have low noise, low voltage coefficient and low temperature co-
efficient. They have practically no non-linearity of resistance and the inductance
is very low except for the higher resistance values. They are manufactured in Eng-
land with resistances from 10 ohms to 10 megohms and dissipations from t to 2 watts.
The extremely high resistance values are only obtainable in the higher wattage ratings.
See also (b), (e), (f) and (g) above, and Chapter 38 Sect. 3(i) for standards.
The historical development, constructions and special features of cracked carbon
resistors, with a very extensive bibliography, are given in Ref. A28.
These resistors are particularly suited for use in low-level high-gain a-f amplifiers,
and in r-f applications up to 100 Mc/s. The inductance varies from 0.001 p.H for
a small 100 ohm resistor to 2p.H for a large (spiral element) 1 megohm resistor.
The I.R.C deposited carbon resistors have tolerances of ± 1 %, ± 2% and ± 5%.
The voltage coefficient is approx. 10 parts per million per volt. The temperature
coefficient varies linearly from - 0.025 to - 0.05 (10 MQ type DCH) or - 0.065
(10 MQ type DCF). Maximum dissipations for high stability are i and ! watt;
when high stability is not essential the values are ! and 1 watt.
in capacitances from 100 to 10000 p.p.F in tubular form and from 0.02 to 4 p.F in
rectangular metal boxes (Ref. Bll).
Mineral oil is used as an impregnant for working voltages from 1000 to 25000
volts and operating temperatures from - 30° to + 71 °C (T.C.C. "Cathodray ").
The insulation resistance of a mineral oil impregnated capacitor is greater than that
with petroleum jelly impregnation, in the ratio of 2.5 to 1 at O°C, rising to 12.5 to 1
at 70°C (Ref. BI3).
Paper dielectric condensers are made in two forms-inductive, and non-inductive.
The former is limited to a-f applications, while the latter may be used at radio fre-
quencies.
Ordinary paper dielectric capacitors should not be subjected to high a.c. potentials.
Special types are produced by some manufacturers for use under these conditions,
for example with vibrator power packs and line filters.
For Standard Specifications see Chapter 38 Sec:t. 3(iii) and (iv).
Section Page
1. Ideal transformers ... 199
2. Practical transformers 204
3. Audio-frequency transformers 206
4. Magnetic circuit theory 229
5. Power transformers 233
6. Inductors, iron-cored 242
7. References 252
(i) Definitions
An ideal transformer is a transformer in which the winding reac~~nces' are
infinite, and in which winding resistances, core loss, leakage inductances aiid winding
capacitances are all zero. In such a transformer the voltage ratio between any two
windings is equal to the turns ratio of the windings, under all conditions of loading,
as illustrated in Fig. 5.1. Also, in such a transformer the currents in any two windings
are inversely proportional to the ratio of turns in the windings under all load conditions.
~
L:l
FIG.5·~
For an ideal transformer with a centre-tapped primary as' shown in Fig. 5.4,
the transformed load measured across the whole primary (between terminals, P, P)
is equal to the transformed value R 1 • If however only one half of the primary is used
(between either of terminals P and terminal C.T.) the transformed load presented
is 1- R 1 •
EI NI
E2 Nz
RI = (NdN,.)· .R!
= (EtfEz)".R.
Fig. 5.4. Ideal transformer with primary centre-tap and loaded secondary.
As a practical example of the primary centre tap, consider the use of the trans-
former of Fig. 5.4 to feed a 500 ohm line (R2 = 500 ohms). If the transformer has
an impedance ratio (NdN2)'1. equal to 10: 1, the transformed load across the whole
of the primary, e.g., when the primary is fed by a push-pull amplifier, is 10 x 500 =
5000 ohms. If, however, only one half of the primary were used for connection to a
single-ended amplifier, the load presented to the amplifier would be 1250 ohms.
For an ideal transformer with a winding tapped for load matching, as
shown in Fig. 5.5, the calculation of the tap to be selected for any particular load
follows from the application of eqn. (1).
POJdl ~o: Rl
or R2
= (NdN AB )2.R AB
= (NdNBD)2.RRD
--+- EI NI C
RI S B and so on.
P A
FIG.5·!)
Fig. 5.5. Ideal tr~former with secondary tapped for load matching.
\,
\ In these equations a load connected across terminals A and B is denoted by R A B and
,I the number of turns in the secondary between these two terminals is given by NAB'
and corresponding designations apply for any pair of terminals across which the load
is connected.
If, for example, the terminals A, B provide a match with a 10 ohm secondary load
with a total of NAB secondary turns, the number of turns N AD required between
terminals A and D to provide a similar match to a 500 ohm line is given simply by
(N AD /N AB)2 = 500/10 = 50, so that
NAD/NAB = y50 = 7.07.
The number of turns in the 10 ohm winding is approximately one-seventh of the
number of turns for matching to 500 ohms. It is, of course, permissible to use any
pair of secondary terminals such as B, C or C, D and so on, so that a wide range of
transformation ratios is available from a transformer arrangement such as that shown
in Fig. 5.5.
and Rs (such as two loudspeakers) which are required to operate with power inputs
of WI! and W3 respectively, so that WI = W 2 + Wa. The required transformer
turns ratios are then given by
RIWI = E12; R 2W 2 = E22; RsWa = E3 2 (6a)
so that R 2 W2 /R I W 1 = Ea2/E12 = N22/N12 (6b)
and RSW3/RIWI = Es2/E12 = N32/N12 (6c)
For example if Wa = 3 watts R2 = 500 ohms
W 3 = 4 watts R3 = 600 ohms
and WI = 7 watts RI = 7,000 ohms
we have
N22 500 x 3 1 N2 1
N12 7000 x 7 = 32.7' Therefore NI = 5.7
and similarly Ns/Nl = 1/4.5.
Expressions such as (6) may be written in the more general form
N n/NI = vi (Rn/Rl)(W,,/WI) (7)
where- N" = number of turns on secondary n,
NI = number of turns on primary,
R" = load applied to secondary n,
Rl = transformed total primary load,
W n = watts in load R",
and WI = total watts input to primary,
but it must be noted that these relations hold only when all loads are connected so
that the specified input conditions to the primary do exist. Eqn. (7) is also applicable
to determine the turns ratios of two or more separate transformers feeding two or
more loads from a common amplifier which delivers WI watts into a total load of RI
ohms.
Fig. 5.S. Ideal transformer with multiple loads and tapped secondary, which is
effectively identical with Fig_ 5.6.
In this equivalent circuit we have an ideal transformer with a turns ratio N2/Nl
(equal to the turns ratio of the actUal transformer), with the incidental characteristics
of the actual transformer represented by separate reactances and resistances.
Tl the resistance of the primary winding
Ll the equivalent primary leakage inductance
Tz the resistance of the secondary winding
Lz the equivalent secondary leakage inductance
Ro the equivalent core-loss resistance (including both hysteresis and eddy
current losses)
Lo the inductance of the primary winding
C u G." the primary and secondary equivalent lumped capacitances
Cft) the equivalent lumped capacitance between windings
Rl input resistance of transformer on load
and R! = the load resistance across the secondary.
Such an equivalent circuit is capable of representing a practical design with con-
siderable accuracy, but actual calculations would be tedious and in some cases very
difficult.
The reactances and resistancc=:s shown therein have varying effects on the input-
output voltage ratio according to the frequency of the signal which the transformer
is handling (Ref. 1). In general, the equivalent circuit can be presented in three
distinct simplified forms for use when considering the transformer operating at low,
medium and high frequencies respectively (Figs. 5.10B,C,D).
Audio transformers can be conveniently dealt with in this manner, whereas power
transformers operating over a very limited frequency range can be more simply de-
signed on the basis of Fig. 5.10A.
The whole of the equivalent circuit of Fig. 5.10A can be referred to the primary,
as in Fig. 5.11 where the ideal transformer has been omitted and T2 and R2 multiplied
5.2 (i) GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 205
by the square of the turns ratio. This is often a convenient way of making calcu-
lations.
FIG.~·IOA
Fig. 5.10A. Simplified equivalent circuit for calculating the effect of losses.
r ~ r· 5 ,OC
• t
Fig. 5.10D. High frequency
equivalent circuit.
R tI7 = Total winding resist-
ance referred to prim-
ary
L. = Total leakage induct-
ance referred to prim-
C=:cf l~·'OOt
ary .
C = Total winding capac-
itance referred to
primary
RL = Secondary load re-
sistance . referred to
primary
FIG. 5·11
Fig. 5.11. Simplified equivalent circuit referred to the primary.
For audio transformer work the first four are frequently used. RHOMETAL
has a special field of application, namely for transformers handling ultrasonic and
radio frequencies up to several megacycles.
_Flux densities of the order of 22 000 lines per square inch can be used with
MUMETAL and approxiinately double this value with RADIOMETAL, the upper
limit being set by the permissible distortion. For further information on this point
see Sect. 3(iii).
For higher power output transformers, high silicon content (up to 4!%) sheet
steel is in general use. To retain high permeability at low flux densities, the strips
or laminations should be annealed after shearing and punching. Spiral cores of grain-
oriented silicon steel are of considerable use in this application.
As a general rule, the output transformer should have the largest core which is
practicable or permissible having regard to cost 9r other factors. A large core of
ordinary silicon steel laminations is usually better than a small core of special low-loss
steel.
The weight of steel in the core is a function of the minimum frequency, the per-
missible distortion, the core material, and the maximum power output. As a rough
guide, subject to considerable variation in practice, the core may be taken as having
Weight in lbs. = 0.17 x watts output '
Volume in cu. ins. = 0.7 x watts output.
These are for normal typical conditions, and may be decreased for less extended low
frequency response or for a higher permissible distortion. For good fidelity, an in-
crease in core size to double these values is desirable.
Several new core materials are now available including CASLAM and FERROX-
CUBE.
CASLAM is a soft magnetic core material with finely laminated structure for use
at frequencies from 50 c/s up to at least 10 Kc/s. It is composed of flake iron par-
ticles pressed into a compact mass of the desired shape in such a way as to produce
innumerable thin magnetic layers aligned in the plane of the flux. By virtue of its
dense compacted structure many of the assembly and fixing problems associated
with the older stacking method are eliminated. Grade I is a low density material
with a maximum permeability of 860. Grade 2 is a denser material with a higher
maximum permeability of 1000. Grade 3 is similar to grade I in magnetic characteris-
tics but has better strength and machining qualities.
For choke cores a pair of E's can be butted together but where minimum gap is
required the block can be broken and then rejoined after the coil is positioned. Be-
cause of the fibrous laminated structure exposed by breaking, microscopic inter-
leaving occurs when the join is remade in the correct manner.
·Properties depend upon different heat treatment deliberately given.
5.3 (ii) CORE MATERIALS 209
Rigid clamping is less important since there are no free laminations to vibrate under
load. For this reason also, combined with the somewhat discontinuous nature of the
material, the acoustic noise emitted by the block is considerably reduced, especially
at higher frequencies.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CASLAM
Property Caslam 1 Caslam 2 Caslam 3
Maximum permeability 860 at 4 Kg 1000 at 4 Kg
Effec. permeability 500 at 10 Kg 830 at 10 Kg Similar
Hys. loss for Bmu = 10 Kg. at 50"" 7000 7000 ergs/cc/cycle to
Coercive force Bma:r: = 10 Kg. at 50.-, 2.4 2.4 oersteds grade 1
Sat. flux density 18 Kg 18 Kg
Total a.c.loss, B ma:r: = 10 Kg. at 50.-, 2.5 2.75 watts/lb.
Density 7.0 7.4 gms/cc
Max. oper. temperature HO°C HO°C
Resistivity (ohm-centimetre)
(a) Normal to plane of laminae 0.04 0.03
(b) In plane of laminae 0.003 0.002
The a.c. loss is almost entirely hysteresis, the eddy current loss being less than
10% of the total. For this reason, the a.c. permeability at 50.-, is approximately
equal to the d.c. figure and at higher acoustic frequencies, blocks of CASLAM
compare favourably in magnetic properties with stacks built up from normal silicon
iron sheet.
Dust cores generally suffer from low permeability and, to reduce eddy currents,
particle size has to be reduced; this causes further reduction in permeability.
Other new ferromagnetic materials such as the ferromagnetic spinels and FERROX-
CUBE are described in Chapter 11 Sect. 3(v)E, and find their applications principally
at frequencies above the audio range.
(iii) Frequency response and distortion
(Reference 31)
(a) Interstage transformers-Class A and B
At the mid-frequency· the amplification is very nearly equal to the amplification
factor of the valve multiplied by the turns ratio of the transformer, where the secondary
is unloaded.
At low frequencies the gain falls off due to the decrease in primary reactance. The
ratio of the amplification ata low frequency All compared with that at the mid-fre-
quency A mf can be expressed thus-
AI! _ _-;==I====-
AmI - JI + (~)2 wLo
(1)
III
"'-'--
Fig. 5.13A.
I~I
- -
0
~
'---
0
~
~
sheet steel or thick cast iron outer cases are used. More often a special alloy, such
as Telcon 2129, is used. This material has magnetic properties similar to RADIO-
METAL, but is suitable for deep drawmg. Inner shields are often of copper to give
shielding from electric fields (Refs. Cll, CI2). Some improvement is possible if a
core type structure is used in place of a shell type, owing to the cancellation of stray
voltages induced in the winding by external fields.
As an example of the use of high permeability alloys, the following design problem
is presented. Calculate the primary turns for a 50 ohm to 50 000 ohm transformer
working at zero level (1 dbm). The frequency response must not fall more than Idb
below mid-frequency response, at 50 cis Distortion must not exceed 1 % at zero
level at 50 cis. The source impedance is 50 ohms resistive and the secondary is
unloaded. Core material to be used is MUMETAL.
1st Step. Calculate primary inductance.
For 1 db attenuation, wLo = 2R (Eqn. 2).
Lo = 2RI w = 2 x 50/2 x 1T x 50 = 0.32 henry.
2nd Step. Calculate primary turns.
Assume square stack of Magnetic and Elec. Alloys No. 35 lamination. Length
of magnetic path, I = 4.5 inches
Cross sectional area = 0.56 square inches.
_ 3.2A I-'N2 2 _ Lo x 10 8 X I
Lo - 108 X I ThereforeN - 3.2 x A x I-'
0.32 X 10 8 x 4.5
N2 = 3.2 x 0.56 x 104 Therefore N = 90 turns.
3rd Step. Calculate working flux density.
Primary voltage E = Vi W.R
where W = input pO\_'f{_er_ _ _ _ __
Therefore E = VI X 10- 3 x 50 = 0.224 V
0.224 x 10 8
and B = 4.44 x 50 x 90 x 0.56
= 2000 lines per square inch
= 310 Gauss.
4th Step. Determine percentage distortion.
Referring to Fig. 5.13B and using curve FIG. 5.13 B
for wL 0 = 2R, it will be noted that the 10
percentage distortion is approximately a
0.75%. This assumes that the perme- uZ 6 I MUMETAI
ability value, 1-', is still 10 000 at the opera- II:~ 43 I I II /:1
ting flux density. In practice I-' may ex- :x:<II: 2 III V
ceed this figure and thus the distortion as
calculated above may be larger than would
be measured in a finished transformer. In
t~ ~wLo"2R
t--
mn-
II
V
/ ~~
this problem, for simplification, no account ~ I--
t - - I-- w L o=46R _~
has been taken of the stacking factor, which ~ r- wL o• R L
would modify the result slightly. ,..
When the secondary of the transformer I
is loaded, R in eqn. 1 then becomes RA
I I
as in eqn. 3 and R in Fig. 5.13B is read as
R A' The calCulation for distortion then
0·1
0
2 8 ....
'" 88 .0 ~§. ~~
0 o ) ,
8.. .0o. aroo.
follows in a similar manner to the unloaded 8 mol -gouu
'" ,., '"
-
secondary example wor ked earlier.
Fig. 5.13B. Total harmonic
(iii) (c) Output transformers distortion plotted against flux
The factors affecting the frequency res- density for different ratios of
ponse of output transformers (Ref. C13) primary reactance to R where
are similar to those affecting interstage R = plate resistance + primary
transformers. Refer to Figs. 5.10B, C resistance (Ref. C9).
andD.
212 (iii) (c) OUTPUT TRANSFORMERS 5.3
The response fails off from the mid-frequency gain by 3 db at a low frequency
such that
wLo = R.,4 (3)
Attenuation is 1 db when
wLo = 2R.,4 (4)
(r" + Rw)RL
where R.,4
r" + Rw + RL
r" = plate resistance of valve
R L = load resistance referred to the primary
and Rw = total winding resistance referred to the primary.
The response falls off from the mid-frequency gain by 3 db at a high frequency
such that
wLs = RB (5)
Attenuation is 1 db when
wLs = 0.5 RB (6)
where R B = r" + Rw + R L
and L s = total leakage inductance referred to primary.
The gam . at the m1'd- fr equency = E,
Eo P-RL
= RB (7)
where E, = voltage input to grid of output valve
Eo = voltage output across R L
and p. = amplification factor of output valve.
It is thus possible to specify the primary and leakage inductances permissible when
the frequency response requirements are known. An example will illustrate this.
Determine the minimum primary inductance and maximum leakage inductance
permitted in an output transformer designed to match a pair of Class A 2A3 triode
valves with a 5000 ohm load. The response is to be within 1 db from 50 to 10000
cis. The plate resistance of each valve is 800 ohms. Neglect Rw'
Make all calculations from plate to plate.
For a fall of I db at 50 cycles per second,
wLo = 2R.,4'
5000 X 1600
Now R.,4 5000 + 1600 = 1200 ohms approx.
wLo 1200 x 2 = 2400
Lo = 2400/2 x ." x 50
= 7.6 henrys approx.
This is the value that would be measured on a bridge at low induction.
For a fall of 1 db at 10 000 cycles per second,
wLs = 0.5 RB
Now RB = 5000 + 1600 = 6600 ohms.
wL s = 0.5 x 6600 = 3300
Ls = 3300/2 x ." X 10000
= .052 henry approx. = 52 millihenrys.
Note particularly that distortion requirements may necessitate an increase in L.
and a decrease in L s'
The following table indicates the relationship between the low frequency attenuation
and the ratio of wLo/R.,4 :
TABLE 1
Loss Relative amplification wLo/RA
0.5 db 0.94 3.63
1.0 db 0.89 1.94
2.0 db 0.79 1.30
3.0 db 0.71 1.00
6.0 db 0.50 0.58
5.3 (iii) (c) OUTPUT TRANSFORMERS 213
The inductances required for various values of R A' for a bass response loss of 1
decibel are as follows, correct to two significant figures :
TABLE 2
Value of R A Bass response down 1 db at
ohms 150 cis 100 cis 50 cis 30 cis
800 1.7 II 2.6 II 5.1 II 8.5 II
1200 2.6 II 3.8 II 7.6 II 13 II
1500 3.2 II 4.8 II 9.5 II 16 II
2000 4.3 II 6.4 II 13 II 21 II
3000 6.4 II 9.5 II 19 II 32 II
4000 8.5 II 13 II 26 II 42 II
5000 11 II 16 II 32 II 53 II
7500 16 II 24 II 48 II 80 II
10000 21 II 32 II 64 II 110 II
15 000 32 II 48 II 95 II 160 II
20000 43 II 64 II 130 II 210 II
50 000 11 0 II 160 II 320 II 530 II
where R A is approximately equal to the load resistance R L in parallel with the effective
plate resistance of the valve; however see comments below. When the plate re-
sistance is very high, as for a pentode without feedback, R A may be taken as being
approximately equal to R L'
For loss in bass response to be reduced to 0.5 decibel these inductance values should
be increased by a factor of !.9 tim es. For a reduction of2 db the facter becomes 0.67.
Since the permeability of the core material varies with induction, the frequency
response will vary with signal level-the limiting low frequency will usually extend
lower as the signal level is increased. It is therefore desirable that the inductance
values tabulated above be calculated or measured at low signal levels. In the case
of feedback from the secondary, this effect should be taken into account.
Table 2 gives the value of inductance to provide a nearly constant output voltage,
but this is only one of several requirements to be satisfied. The core distortion
is a function of the ratio wLolR A (this may be derived from equations 9 and 10) and
for low distortion a high ratio of inductive reactance to RA is required, and this is
equivalent to having a low value of bass attenuation (see Table 1). The bass attenua-
tion in Table 2 (1 db at specified minimum frequencies) is based on wLolR A = 1.94,
resulting in fairly low core distortion. Still lower core distortion would be achieved
by increasing the inductance and hence, incidentally, decreasing the bass attenuation.
The other important secondary effect resulting from a finite value of inductance
is the phase angle of the load presented to the output valve(s). If the value of
inductance from Table 2 is used for bass response down 1 db at a specified frequency,
the phase angle of the load presented to the output valves will be between 45° and 90°
for a triode either without feedback or with negative voltage feedback. This will
cause a pronounced elliptical load-line, normaUy:resulting in severe valve distortion
at this frequency, at full power output.
If R A in Table 2 is taken as being equal to R L' the maximum phase angle of the load
will be less than 28° for bass response 1 db down at the specified frequencies. If
the factor 0.67, for bass response down 2 db, is 'applied to Table 2, the maximum
phase angle of the load will be less than 38°. If the factor 2.0, for bass reSponse
down about 0.5 db, is applied to Table 2, the maximum phase angle of the load will
be about 15°. This ~ppears to be a reasonable value for good fidelity.
Table 2 may therefore be used as a general guide to the choice of inductance values
where more exact calculations are not required-see below.
Summary of general application of Table 2
To give low core distortion, nearly constant output voltage and a total load im-
pedance effective on the valve which is not too reactive ; -
1. Take RA = R L •
2. Apply Table 2 as printed for ordinary use.
3. Multiply inductance values by a factor of 2 for good fidelity.
4. The specified frequencies in Table 2 are to be interpreted as the minimum
frequencies of operation for the transformer.
214 (iii) (c) OUTPUT TRANSFORMERS 5.3
Where the source impedance is high, the high frequency fall off is determined
largely by L s and the winding capacitances as in the case of interstage transformers.
Similar devices to that employed in the construction of interstage transformers can
be used to extend the range of output transformers. The use of RADIOMETAL,
specially annealed high silicon content steel (such as SUPERSILeOR), and grain
orient~d steels, are all common in better quality output transformers (Refs. C14, 15).
It is feasible to " build-out" a transformer into a half section filter and thus main-
tain the impedance, viewed either by the source or the load, constant over a wide
frequency range. In addition the phase angle variation is reduced towards the ex-
tremes of the range. This reduces distortion and maintains full power output to a
greater degree than otherwise possible.
This idea can be applied to interstage transformers and output transformers quite
successfully (Refs. C19, C20). Even large modulation transformers and class B
driver transformers for broadcast equipment have provided improved performance
when treated in this way (Refs. C16, 17, 18).
In radio receivers and record players advantage can be taken of this "building-
out" procedure, to limit the high frequency response to any given point, say 6000 cis,
with rapid attenuation thereafter. This usually involves only one extra component;
a condenser across the secondary winding of the output transformer. This is quite
an effective " top" limit, more so than the normal tone control. The output trans-
former is designed to have the necessary amount of leakage inductance for the net-
work to function as intended.
The winding resistances are not of major importance in interstage transformers,
but assume greater significance in output transformers. An appreciable amount of
power may be lost unless the resistances of both primary and secondary are kept to
reasonable proportions. In the normal good quality transformer the total resistance
reflected into the primary side is approximately double the measured d.c. resistance
of ilie primary. The total winding resistance (referred to the primary) will vary be-
tween 10 and 20 per cent of the load resistance, which means an insertion copper loss
of 0.5 to 1 db. This extra resistance must be considered when choosing the turns
ratio to reflect the correct load (see Eqn. 2, Sect. 2), otherwise an impedance error
of 10 to 20 percent will occur. Core losses will not materially affect the calculation
as these losses do not reach their maximum except at full power at the lowest audio
frequency of interest.
Distortion in output transformers
When a transformer has its primary connected to an audio frequency source of
zero impedance, the waveform of the voltage on the secondary will be the same as
that of the source-in other words there is no distortion.
When a transformer is connected in the plate circuit of a valve, the latter is equiva-
lent to a resistance r 11 in series with the source and the transformer primary. If the
secondary of the transformer is also loaded by a resistance R 2 , this is equivalent (as
regards its effect on distortion) to a total primary series resistance R,
1 1 1
where R = ---;:; + R 2(Nt/N2 ) 2
Nl = primary turns
and N2 = secondary turns.
In the following treatment the symbol R is used to indicate the total effective primary
series resistance, whether it is caused by r 11 alone or by a combination of this and
secondary loading.
The resistance R in series with the primary causes a voltage drop proportional to
the current flowing through it, which is the magnetizing current. Now the form of
the magnetizing current is far from being sine-wave, since it is distorted by the non-
linear B-H characteristic of the core material.
This distorted current waveform has no bad effect when R is zero, but results ill
distortion of the voltage waveform which becomes progressively greater as R is in-
creased, for anyone fixed value of B rna x.
5.3 (iii) (c) OUTPUT TRANSFORMERS 215
The resulting harmonic distortion with silicon steel has been calculated by Dr. N.
Partridge, and his results are embodied in the formula which follows (Refs. C24, C25,
C26, C27).
9
Vh · 10 I RA( RA)
v;= SH' 81T2 . N2A' 7 1 - 4Z
t
(8)
This formula can be modified to include the core stacking factor, 90%, and to use
inch units instead of centimetres. It then becomes
V h = 5.54SH IR A( _ RA)
VI N2Af 1 4Zt (9)
where V h = the harmonic voltage appearing across the primary,
V t = the fundamental voltage across the primary,
SH = the distortion coefficient of the magnetic material,
I = the length of the magnetic path,
N = number of primary turns,
R A = resistance (or equivalent resistance) in series with the primary, (refer
under eqn. 4, Sect. 3),
A = cross-sectional area of core,
f = frequency of fundamental in cycles per second,
Zt = impedance of primary at fundamental frequency ~ 217 fL
and L = inductance of primary in henrys at chosen flux density.
In most cases the final term (1- R A/4Z,) can be omitted with a further simpli-
fication.
The right hand side of this equation gives the vaiue of the fractional harmonic dis-
tortion; the percentage harmonic distortion may be obtained by multiplying this
value by 100. The formula holds only for values of R/ZI between 0 and 1; this
li.T...its its application to output circuits having a maximum attenuation of 3 db.
20
II
V
j
00
1/
I
.
c
'u
80
~
\J
SH
60 1/
V
./
1/
40 ~
8
0
o 10 20 30 xv:! 40 50 60 70
Peal! Flux Density (lincs per Iq. l.y FIG. S.13e
Fig. 5.13C. The distortion coefficient of Silcor 2 as a Junction of B (Ref. C25).
Values of SH for Sileor 2 can be obtained from Fig. 5.13C. Similarly Fig. 5.130
can be used to determine the permeability of Sileor 2 and hence the inductance of the
primary from the formula
2.88N2A/L
L = 10 8 1 henrys (10)
where /L = permeability at operating flux density
and core stacking factor is 90%.
216 (iii) (c) OUTPUT TRANSFORMERS 5.3
s
I-'" ,....
~ l""-
I'
f-p. ./ t'-..
I'-.,.
......
3
...
1E
)(10'
J
I
1/
"
2
II
.r
j
,I
~
00 10 20 30 I 40 SO 60 70
FIG. 5.130 Peak Flux o!!~ (liMS per sq. in.)
Both of these figures have been adapted from those published by Partridge (Ref.
C25).
An example is quoted to demonstrate the use of these formulae.
Determine the transformer distortion produced when a pair of KT66 valves (very
similar to type 6L6-G) connected as triodes are operated in conjunction with a trans-
former having the following characteristics.
Lowest frequency of operation 50 cis.
Maximum flux density 40 000 lines/sq. in.
Core stack of M.E.A. 78 Pattern lams. 2 ins.
(Refer to Sect. 5 and also Fig. 5.18C for lamination data).
Operating conditions of KT66 valves
Plate voltage 400 volts
Plate resistance (per valve) 1450 ohms
Load resistance (total) 10 000 ohms
Power output 14 watts
1st step. Calculate primary voltage
E = y'WR = V14 x 10000 = 374 V.
2nd step. Calculate primary turns
E x 10 8 •
N = 4 x fRA (allowmg 90% core stacking factor)
374 X 10 8
- 4 x 50 x 4 X 10" x 1.25 x 2 = 1870 turns.
3rd step. Determine J.l. from Fig. 5.13D
J.l. = 4300.
4th step. Calculate Z, (~ 27T fL)
27Tf 2.88 N2A J.l.
Z, = 10 81
2 x 7T X 50 x 2.88 x 1.87 x 1.87 x 106 x 1.25 x 2 x 4300
10 8 x 7.5
45300 ohms.
5th step. Calculate R A (parallel resistance of plate and load resistance).
(Tv + Rw) RL
RA =
Tv + R W + R L- (see eqn. 4, Sect. 3)
assuming R w = 400 ohms
5.3 (iii) (c) OUTPUT TRANSFORMERS 217
From eqn. (11) it will be seen that the insulation between the sections is the limiting
factor. Fig. 5.13E shows that the largest value of N2 for a given number of sections
is achieved when there is a half section at the end of each winding structure. Al-
though series connections are shown, similar results can be obtained by paralleling
the sections. In' this case all the turns in each paralleled section must be equal. An
example of the use of Fig. 5.13H to
•·1--~· I I~~~
~-1. :a- -
WIlDING ARIWIGEMEIIT HI WIllING ARRAHGEMENr
-m;
HI
determine leakage inductance follows :
r:2@ ~ ~~~ ~ / / ~~ I
________...;;;.1-'-.
]- ..,
/' /'
[,(,
1"- '
""
0;- ~ a~
V~2::.
/'//'
b~
~t:>-
C§ ::-..." ~ ~ I" r--
-
:J a B
-"" l--"-~ -'" ~
C ,,~
~ .:-- ~
"
.c~
"- J"
~ CROSS SECTION
FIG. S. 13F
- _llllla Nt
FIG. S.13G
Fig. 5.13F. Dimensions used in Fig. 5.13G. Shofoing use of chart
chart (Fig. 5.13H). (Fig. 5.13H).
5.3 (iv) DESIGNING FOR LOW LEAKAGE INDUCTANCE 219
LEAKAGE INDUCTANCE
100 L
'1. ") ..
MICROHENRlES
~ b cp,j:)
4 ~. '1.~ ~~ f) ~ ~~ U'1.
MILLIHENRIES
~ ~ (G ~i
'l '/ -"
V. I'")
I~
200 rL::
v.
v.: ~ f/ ~
~
~
300
1"-
400 -"
-~
V
E"" V ;..-: ,l/ Z IR_
'l I
-'l' 11:
_.
,u,.
/V
'/
1/
V
V L
1/
IL
Itt'
I.,L')
-~
~
,,,n
~
Y/V.,oC ....
'0:
~ V /. .."
1/ 1/ /-'"/ ./
~ /.Vv V
~
~
~ i1t, ,
In.I
",,,,, -1-' ,b ,'1. P q " .... ~
N2 'FIG.5.13H
Fig. 5.13H. Leakage inductance chart (Ref. C28).
Intercepts with the mean length of turn, 9.5 inches and winding width, b, of 1.875
inches gives a vertical of 0.012.
Assuming 270 turns, leakage inductance = 0.14 millihenry, or 14 millihenrys for
2700 turns.
ev) Winding capacitance*
This information assists in computing the various winding capacitances of multi-
layer windings used in the construction of audio-frequency transformers, chokes and
other equipment. They apply to windings in which turns are wound on layer by
layer, either interleaved or random wound, so that the P.D. between adjacent turns
belonging to consecutive layers will be much greater than that between adjacent turns
*Reprint of an article by Crowhurst, N. H., in Electronic Eng. (Ref. C29).
220 (v) WINDING CAPACITANCE 5.3
in the same layer. The capacitance effect between adjacent turns in the same layer
is neglected, only that between layers being considered. Capacitance between wind-
ing and core, and electrostatic screens, if used, must also receive attention.
Fig. 5.13J illustrates a cross section of a piece of winding in which layer inter-
leaving is used. It is seen that the dielectric between adjacent conductors in consecu-
tive layers is complex both in shape and material. The turns on the top layer shown
fall so that each turn drops in the space between two turns on the second layer, corru-
gating the interleaving material with a slight resulting increase in capacitance com-
pared with that between the middle and bottom layers shown. Due to the spiral
form of each layer, the position of turns in consecutive layers to one another will
change at different points round the direction of winding, thus the capacitance be-
tween any pair of layers will automatically take up the average value. The composite
dielectric is made up of conductor insulation, most commonly enamel, interleaving
material and the triangular shaped spaces left between adjacent turns and the inter-
leaving material. These spaces will' be filled with dry air if the windings are dried
out and hermetically sealed, or with impregnating compound if the windings are
vacuum impregnated. The latter procedure will give rise to a somewhat higher
capacitance.
Copper Conductors [nomel
In practice the major controlling factor determining the total capacitance between
two adjacent layers of winding is the thickness of the interleaving material, thus dis-
tributed capacitance may conveniently be estimated in terms of the thickness of inter-
leaving material, giving this material a value of dielectric constant empirically ob-
tained, allowing for the average effect of the other dielectrics in the composite arrange-
ment.
fo
l 1
(x/I)2C.dx = - I.C.
3
Thus the effective capacitance of such a two-layer winding is one-third of the capacit-
ance between two layers measured when their far ends are unconnected.
Take now a winding consisting of n whole layers: there will be (n - 1) adjacent
pairs of layers throughout the winding and the effective capacitance of each pair of
layers, referred to the whole winding, will be a capacitance of (2/ n)2 times their capacit-
5.3 (v) WINDING CAPACITANCE 221
ance referred to the high potential ena and considered as a pair. Thus. the capacit-
ance of n whole layers referred to the whole winding becomes
~ . (n - I) ~ GI
3 n2
For large values of n the capacitance becomes inversely proportional to the number
oflayers. Fig. 5.13Q illustrates a typical winding shape together with the dimensions
as used in the related diagrams. The capacitance per layer, given in the foregoing
formula.as GI, is proportional to the product of the length per mean turn Lmo and the
length of layer LtD.
Vertical sectionalizing
It is sometimes of advantage to sectionalize the winding as shown at Fig. 5.13L,
each vertical space being filled completely before proceeding to fill the next one.
FIG~ 5,!3L
Although physically the winding will have the same overall cross-sectional dimensions
its self-capacitance will be equivalent to that of a winding having 1IN x layer length
and N X n layers, vlhere J."A.l is the number of vertical sections. The distributed
capacitance of the winding due to such sectionalizing thus is reduced by the factor ";
IINI. Note that this rule applies only to referred interlayer capacitance and does not
apply to capacitance between the top and bottom of the winding and adjacent wind-
ings or screens. The various reduction factors for vertical sectionalizing are given
in Table 4.
TABLE 4
1 1 1 0.5 0
2 0~25 0.75 0.25 0.125
3 0.111 0.704 0.185 0.185
4 0.0625 0.6875 0.1875 0.219
5 0.04 0.68 0.168 0.24
6 0.0278 0.676 0.176. 0.255
00 0* 0.667 0.167 0.333
*The method of WInding is here changed so that for the purposes of this column,
the dimensions LtD and Till will change places.
Effect of mixing windings
In the design of a transformer it is often necessary to mix the primary and secondary
windings in order to reduce leakage inductance. This arrangement will generally
be a disadvantage as regards minjmizing winding capacitance, since it exposes greater
surface area of winding in proximity to dther the other winding or an earthed screen.
If the ratio of the transformer is fairly high, then from the high impedance winding
the whole of the low impedance winding appears at common audio potential, usually
earthy. But if the ratio of the transformer is not very high, capacitance between
222 (v) WINDING CAPACITANCE 5.3
points at differing audio potentials in the two windings may have serious effects, and
it is generally best to arrange the windings so as to avoid such capacitance.
Fig. 5.13~ shows a cross-section suitable for an inter-valve transformer designed
to operate two valves in push-pull from a single valve on the primary side. .The H. T.
end of the primary is earthy and is therefore diagrammatically earthed. The high
potential end of the primary is adjacent to the earthy end of one of the half secondaries
so that the capacitance between windings at this point is effectively from anode to
earth. The two high potential ends of the secondary are remote from the primary
and so minimize the possibility of unbalanced capacitance transfer from primary to
one half secondary.
Anod~
Half Secondary
Primary
Half Secondary
FIG.S.13N
FIG. S.13M
Fig. 5.13M. Arrangements using vertical sectionalizing. See Table 1 (Ref. C29).
Fig. 5.13N. Push-pull secondary intervalve transformer secondary arrangements
(Ref. C29).
Another problem which often arises is in the design of push-pull output trans-
formers, particularly for Class AB or Class B circuits, where it is essential that each
half of the primary be well coupled to the whole secondary. From the viewpoint
of leakage inductance and winding resistance, it is unimportant whether the secondary
sections are connected in series or parallel. Fig. 5.13P illustrates three arrangements
for a transformer of this type, each of which may be best suited under differeJ;lt cir-
cumstances. At (a) is an ah-angement which gives minimum primary capacitance,
but suffers from the defect that leakage inductance and winding resistance are unequal
for the two primary halves. For Class A operation using valves requiring an optimum
load of high impedance this arrangement is sometimes the best. At (b) is an arrange-
ment intended to equalize winding resistance and leakage inductance from each half-
primary to the whole secondary as well as primary self-capacitance. This arrange-
ment is particularly suited to circuits employing 19W loading Class AB or Class B
operation. The alternative arrangement shown at (c) results in a slightly lower re-
ferred capacitance across one half only of the primary. In general this unbalance is
not desirable, but if leakage inductance is adequately low, the coupling between all
the windings may be so good that the reduction in capacitance may be apparent across
the whole primary.
Anodc-...r----,
e+
.,..";;:;;===~ Anodc-"r;-..................4
Anodc _ _ _ _ _.....
TABLE 5.
!cAPACITANCE
WINDING
CAPiJ.ClTANCE
WINDING
FACtoR FACTOR
& SCREEN & SCREEN
One Cenm One Centre
ARRANGEMENT ARRANGEMENT
side point side point
&~ECTION & CONNECTION
_thy CQrthy CQrthy earthy
nQ +qll\. 1110
- '25 1·25 '25
..
'5 1'5
-""""
~ V i/ I/,; VI j') /.
V Q.
~ 1I i/ I/.~I' V/ /; lb u
/ V
V '/ ....
1,/
3
"/ VI':
.J
v: I I % I/,; vi i/ I/,; /.
"""I
v ....... 0
CI V z
z I I' ,/1 ~ Vi/I ..-::,.: /,'/1 ....... i
az
~
015 V &0.
V V ....... 11:
II
/
-'
ft,
~ 'l ~ /.
V
1/,;'/
V r/I': VV
0-1 1I I/. 1/.'/ V/ 1I
Fig. 5.13R and 5.13S. For distributed capacitance due to layer winding (Ref. C29).
Refer length of winding L.,., on their respective scales, to intercept at A then along the
horizontal reference lines to intercept with the thickness of dielectric material T th
at B. From this point refer along the slanting reference lines to intercept with the
empirically determined value of dielectric constant k, at C, then along the horizontal
reference l£nes to the unity r~ference vertical at D. From this point refer down the
slanting reference lines to intercept wr.'th the number of layers n, at E, whence the
referred capacitance is read off on the scale at the nght.
For interwinding, or winding to screen capacitance: As above, for the winding
dimensions and dielectric thickness to a point corresponding to D, whence, for winding
to screen capacitance, or inter-
winding capadtance when the
other winding is all at low poten-
tial, refer down the slanting re-
ference lines to intercept with the
section capacitance factor ob-
tained from Table 4. For inter-
winding capacitance where there
is appreciable potential in the
adjacent portions of both wind-
ings, individual attention will
be necessary for each interwinding
space, and the turns factor Jcale
will assist here.
5.3 (v) WINDING CAPACITANCE 225
random winding the layers should be built up so' that at all times during winding the
top surface is level. Failure to do this will not greatly affect the self-capacita.llce,
but will result in increased danger of breakdown due to electrical or mechanical
stresses. As the number of layers is always large, it is convenient to reduce the cal-
culation to simple terms of the winding dimensions.
The. essential variables are: length of winding LtD, length of mean turn Lmu
winding thickness T (see Fig. 5.13Q), and number of turns, T. Consideringvariation
tJ)
of each of these quantities in turn, the others being taken as constant: variation
of L., will vary the referred capacitance per layer as before, and additionally the
effective number of layers will vary inversely as L,}l ; variation of L mt simply varies the
U
lENGT H OF MEAN TURN lmt INCHES TURNS
I 2 3 ~ 6 8 10 2010' 2 3 ~ 6 a 10· 2 3 ~ 6.81O
S
O()()I
800
.-
v-- -- 600
4 00
v 300
1/ /-
I/V II / .; ~ ;.. 200
~ .. '
[.,0'
/
I00 ...
eo U
60
, ____ ~
/
30
/, / r..- ,,.;:
V ~ i-'" 20
v-
10 "oz
Z
8
2 i
v 6
%
Iiz ----
~
...
III
1/
.?
V
V
3
V. :;...-
r/ 2
""
VL-'
I
001 ·01
WINDING THICKNESS T. INCHES
FIG. S.I3T
Turns
Fig. 5.13T and 5.13U (Ref. C29).
/' t/
For. distributed capacitance due to
v.:; / .-/ V random winding. Refer length of wind-
ing LfJ)' and length of mean turn L " , j )
~ ~~ M~~
.
(,9
/ yV
on their respective scales, to intercept at
A then along the horizontal reference
/ 1'/ /' J..I'
lines to intercept with the vertical line
bLbL A f'i'/ A ~ ~~ for thickness of winding T to' at B.
From here refer up the slanting reference
/ V/ ~ :vV' mttf1l lines to the right-hand edge of the data
sheet, and then back along the horizontal
(11/ /' ~c:/'
lines to intercept with the vertical
~/ .-/ /' lines for the number of turns at C
~/ V M~ ~V'/ I
from which referred capacitance is read
off along the slanting lines at C'P'
FIG.5.13U
R.D.H.-8
226 (v) WINDING CAPACITANCE 5.3
layer size, as before; variation of both T to and Tvaries the number of layers in direct
proportion to T tot or T. Thus the whole expression for variation of capacitance can
be written,
L mtL to 3/2
C p oc T toJ·T*
2
-
Figures 5.13T and 5.13U are based on this relation and empirical values obtained
from average results with random windings.
Example 1
A push-pull output transformer is arranged as at Fig. 5.13N: primary winding
has a total of 12 layers, T d = 3, k = 2: insulation between primary and screen,
T d = 15, k = 5; main dimensions, L to = 2 in., L mt = 8 in.
Distributed capacitance, using Figs. 5.13R and 5.13S, Lw = 2 in., L mt = 8 in.,
T d = 3, k=2 and n = 12, is C p = 240 JLJLF.
Capacitance from each primary to screen, substituting T d = 15, k = 5, is C" =
1200 JLJLF. The capacitance factors for the arrangement of Fig. 5.13N are: (a) 0.25 ;
(b) 0.5; (c) 0.375. Thus the total capacitance referred to the whole primary for each
method of connexion is,
(a) 300 JLJLF + 240 JLJLF = 540 JLJLF.
(b) 600 JL JLF + 240 JL JLF = 840 JLJLF.
(c) 450 JLJLF + 240 JLJLF = 690 JLJLF.
Example 2
An intervalve transformer, to operate from push-pull to push-pull, uses a simple
arrangement having both windings all in one section: L to = 0.6 in, Lmt = 2.5 in,
T to (each winding) = 0.1 in.; insulation between windings, T ,f) k = 3; Turns,
4000 c.t./12 000 C.t.
Distributed capacitance, using Figs. 5.13T and 13U Lw = 0.6 in., Lml = 2.5 in.,
T WJ = 0.1 in., T (primary) = 4000, is C l' = 58 JLJLF. For secondary, T = 12000,
C p = 34 JLJLF. •
Capacitance coupling between one-half primary and one-half secondary, using
Figs. 5.13R and 13S, actual capacitance, L to = 0.6 in., Lm/ = 2.5 in., T d = 10,
k = 3, is C p ~ 100 JLJLF. Both windings wound in same direction, turns factor
across this capacitance referred to whole primary is 1 + Ii = 2, so referred capacit-
ance is 400 JLJLF. Windings wound opposite directions, turns factor referred to
primary is Ii - 1 = 1, so referred capacitance is reduced to 100 JLJLF. Referring
these two values to secondary, turns factors are 1/2 + 1/6 = 2/3 or 1/2 - 1/6 =
1/3, giving capacitance values referred to whole secondary of 45 JLJLF or 11 JLJLF
respectively.
A complete analysis would need to consider leakage inductance between each prim-
ary and each half secondary, and separate source and load impedances applied to each
half. For this purpose, the primary and secondary shunt capacitances across each
halfwould be 116JLJLF and 68 JLJLF respectively, while the capacitance coupling would
be 1,600 JLJLF or 400 JLJLF referred to half primary. The secondary shunt capacit-
ances referred to the half primaries would be 610 JLJLF.
Example 3
A direct coupled inter-valve transformer is arranged as at Fig. 5.13M: L to = 1.5
in., L mt = 6 in., T d = 20, k = 1 (air spaced); T w (each whole winding) = 0.2 in. ;
Turns 4000/12000 C.t.
Distributed capacitance, using Figures 5.13T and 5.13U, LtD = 1.5 in., L mt = 6 in.,
T w = 0.2 in., T (primary) = 4000, gives C" = 400 JLJLF. Secondary, T = 12000
gives C p = 225 JLJLF (or 450 JLJLF per half secondary).
Interwiriding capacitance, using Figs. 5.13R and 5.13S, actual capacitance, L to =
1.5 in., L mt = 6 in., T d = 20, k = 1, give RC p just over 90 JLJLF say 100 JLJLF.
Vertical sectionalizing will reduce the distributed component in each case, but
will also vary the interwinding capacitance. Using the information in Table 4 the
results may be presented as in Table 6.
In practice three sections for the primary and four or five sections for each half-
secondary will be best, remembering capacitance reduction is more important in the
5.3 (v) WINDING CAPACITANCE 227
secondary. By making the earthy end of primary and secondary at opposite ends of
the vertical groups, interwinding capacitance coupling effects are minimized.
TABLE 6
The loss of a speaker matching transformer is the inverse ratio of the power
delivered by the secondary of the transformer to a pure resistance equivalent to the
rated load impedance, to the power delivered by the same source if the transformer is
replaced by an ideal transformer of the same impedance ratio, expressed in db. For
measurement, the transformer shall be connected as for distortion measurement (see
above).
The impedance presented by the ideal transformer to the source'shall be taken as
RTI = VTR2IWTR·
The power delivered to the secondary load is (V T S 2 I R T I) where V T S is the voltage
across the load resistance R T L.
The power delivered to the ideal transformer is (V Tl 2 I R T1 ) where V TI is the voltage
across the load resistance R TI.
The loss is given then by
VT121RTI
Loss = 10 10gloV 21R .
TS TL
The loss shall be measured at 400 cis and at a value of source voltage at which rated
power is delivered to the ideal transformer. The loss shall not exceed 2 db (equival-
ent to 63% minimum efficiency).
AIR GAP
IRON
rLUX=4>
FIG.5·14
A typical magnetic circuit is shown in Fig. 5.14 where we have the greater part of
the magnetic circuit through iron, and a short length (the air gap) through air. In
this case the total reluctance is the sum of the reluctances of the iron-circuit and the
air gap. The flux cf> is caused by N turns of wire carrying a current I amperes and
producing a magnetomotive force given by
F = (41T/I0) NI ~ 1.257 NI (2)
where F = magnetomotive force in gilberts,
N = number of turns,
and I = current in amperes.
Thus 1 ampere turn ~ 1.257 gilberts. (3)
Instead of considering the total flux, it is often more convenient to speak of the
flux density, that is the number of lines (maxwells), per square inch or per square
centimetre (c.g.s. electromagnetic unit = 1 gauss = 1 maxwell per square centimetre).
The symbol for flux density is B. Thus
cf> M W
where cf> total flux,
B flux density, either in lines per square inch or in gauss (maxwells per
square centimetre),
and A cross sectional area of magnetic path (practically equal to the cross
sectional area of the core in the iron section), in square inches or square
centimetres respectively.
The magnetizing force (also known as the magnetic potential gradient or the
magnetic field intensity) is defined as the magnetomotivt' force per unit length of
path :
230 (i) FUNDAMENTAL MAGNETiC RELATIONSHIPS 5.4
H=~ ~
where H = magnetizing force in oersteds (or gilberts/centimetre),
F = magnetomotive force in gilberts,
and I = length of path in centimetres.
Alternatively, if F is expressed in ampere-turns, H may be expressed in ampere-
turns per inch or per centimetre.
The permeability (fI-) is defined by the relationship;
where B
fI- Bm
flux density in gauss (maxwells per square centimetre),
w
fI- permeability*,
and H magnetizing force in oersteds.
In air, H is numerically equal to the flux density (B).
Permeability is the equivalent of conductivity in
electrical circuits. Permeability in iron cores is not B-H
Point D is that at which the applied negative magnetizing force brings 'the value of the
residual magnetism to zero.
The length OC is called the coercive force (strictly this applies only for symmetrical
cyclically magnetized conditions).
The average permeability is the slope of the straight line EOA (shown dashed
in Fig. 5.16).
The locus of the extremities (A or E) of the normal hysteresis loops of a material
is called its normal magnetization curve; this is the same as the B-H curve of
Fig. 5.15.
When alternating current is passed through the winding, the iron will pass through
the hysteresis curve ACDEFGA (Fig. 5.16) each cycle. The maximum value of H
is called H rna:l:) and the corresponding value of B is called B rna x, the curve being norm-
ally symmetrical in the positive and negative directions in the absence of a direct
current component.
When dealing with alternating currents, it is usual to quote ampere-turns per inch
in r .m.s. values; the corresponding values of flux density may be quoted either in
terms of B or Bmax. It is obvious that Hmax = V2H, but Bmu is normally greater
than y2B.
The reluctance of the iron path is not constant, so that the best approach is graphical.
The magnetic potential difference (U) is the equivalent of potential difference
in electrical circuits. The sum of the potential differences around any magnetic
ciccuit is equal to the applied magnetomotive force.
Applying this to Fig. 5.14,
F = U iron + U air (8)
232 (ii) THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT 5.4
....... . . - - - - f
MAGNETIC POTENTIAL DIFfERENCE
t.tAGNETOMOTIVE fORCE
fiG. ~'17
important and, to maintain balance, the primary is wound between the halves of the
secondary or the latter are wound side by side over the primary.
TRANSFORMER STEELS
Silicon
Content* M. and E.A. Baldwin Sankey Allegheny Armco
4% Silcor 1 Quality 5 Super Stalloy Transf. C Trancor 2
31% Silcor 2 Quality 4 Stalloy Transf. D Trancor 1
2t% Silcor 3 QUality 3B 42 QUality Electrical Spec. Elec.
1% Silcor 4 QUality 1 Lohys Armature Armature
*This applies exactly to Silcor (Magnetic and Elec. Alloys Ltd.).
The core losses for the various Silcor grades measured at 50 cis. with 0.014 inch
sheet, at two different values of flux density are shown below.
Watts lost per pound
Bmaz Silcor 1 Silcor 2 Silcor 3 Silcor 4
10 Kilogaus" 0.59 0.63 0.89 1.32
13 Kilogauss 1.04 1.07 1.51 2.24
It will be observed that for small changes in flux density the core loss varies as the
square of the flux density. For radio power transformer work, core materials similar
to Silcor 2 are commonly used. Measurements of losses can be made with a low
power factor wattmeter, or by the three ammeter method. A system suitable for mass
production testing has been described recently (Ref. D9).
Cold rolled, grain oriented 2.7 per cent silicon steels are becoming of increasing
importance. Typical trade names for this material are " Hipersil " and " Crystalloy ..
(Ref. 10). Flux densities in excess of 110000 lines per square inch (17 kilogauss),
can be employed without high core loss. Owing to low core losses at such high flux
densities, the application of this material to small transformers for electronic equip-
ment is increasing. It can be used in strip form, being wound around the winding
in one method of assembly. In another method, the strip core is sawn in half and the
two halves clamped together around the winding. Either method results in a con-
siderable saving in material and labour over the present method of punching lamina-
tions and hand stacking the winding with them.
The, most popular laminations in current use are the E and I " scrapless " variety
(Refs. D11, 12, 13, 14). These are so dimensioned that the I is punched from the
window of the E thus avoiding wastage. The usual ratio of dimensions of these
laminations are as follows: Window height 1, tongue 2, window width 3, I-length 6,
magnetic pa~ 12. .
Similar laminations are stamped by several different firms :
Standard Lamination Sizes
Pattern Number
Tongue M.E.A. Baldwins Sankey Allegheny Chicago
9/16 in. 18 EI-56
i 145 392 EI-625 FOOO
! 35 217 70 EI-75 DOOO
t 147 EI-11 BOOO
1 29 430 111 EI-12 1000
1l 158 EI-112 13000
It 78 420 133 EI"125 14000
Ii 152 362 EI-138
Ii 120 149 EI-13
5.5 (ii) CORE MATERIAL AND SIZE 235
Laminations for small power transformers are generally 0.014 inch thick; thicker
laminations up to 0.025 inch are occasionally used, but result in increased losses and
shortened lamination die life.
To determine the core size, it is first necessary to estimate the power requirements.
Then we may apply the empirical relation
A = YV.A (1)
5.58"
where A = cross-sectional area in square inches
and V A = voltamps output.
For ease of production an approximately "square stack is desirable. Thus having
determined A, the tons,ue size can be estimated from VA. Where high· voltage
windings, or windings operating above ground, or at a high potential between other
windings, are used, it becomes necessary to employ a lamination which has a different
ratio of dimensions from those quoted earlier, the window height being increased
to allow room for extra insulation.. The input current taken by a transformer on
no-load is commonly called the magnetizing current. In fact, it consists of two
components in phase quadratur~. The in-phase component, usually small, is the
iron loss plus a very small copper loss. The quadrature portion is the true magnetizing
current. Their vector sum does not normally exceed about a third of the full load
current.
As a first approximation it may be assumed that 'T} = 0.85 and V:;] = 0.92.
The values thus obtained for the secondary turns may be checked by more detailed
calculations once wire gauges have been chosen and winding resistances calculated.
For this purpose the equivalent circuit of Figure 5.11 may be used.
If a secondary is to feed a rectifier and the d.c. output of the valve is specified,
reference should be made to Chapter 30 or a valve data book to determine the required
236 (iii) PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TURNS 5.5
secondary voltage. Allowance must be made for any voltage drops due to the d.c.
resistance of the rectifier filter.
silk, varnish and wire enamel (Refs. D16, 17). The temperature rise in the Winding,
as measured by the change of resistance method, will be about lOoC lower than the
maximum (hot spot) temperature. Thus with an ambient temperature of 40°C
(104°F) plus a margin of lOoC for the difference between measured and hot spot
temperature, it will be seep. that the maximum permissible rise is 55°C, as measured
by the change of resistance.
It is common practice to allow lOoC margin for change in line voltage, frequency,
or operation in situations with restricted ventilation. Thus 45°C is generally accepted
as the maximum. permitted rise above ambient when measured by resistance change.
The temperature difference between winding and core varies between 10 0 and 20°C
according to the distribution of losses. This means that even with an ambient tem-
perature of 25°C (77°F), the core temperature may be 60° (140°F). This will feel
quite hot to the touch, although the internal temperature may be well under the per-
mitted maximum.. Measurement of the core temperature may be made with a spirit
thermometer if good thermal contact is maintained between the core and the thermo-
meter bulb.
The winding temperature rise can be calculated by measuring the cold resistance,
Ro at an observed temperature T 1• After a heat run at full load the hot resistance R
is measured and the ambient temperature T2 is again measured.
Taking the temperature coefficient of resistivity (a) of copper as 0.003 93, the tem-
perature rise T is found from the formula
R- Ro
T=--·
Roa
To correct for any changes in ambient temperature during the heat run it is neces-
sary to subtract the difference T2 - Tl from T to find the actual rise. An example
will illustrate this.
The primary resistance of a transformer measured when cold was 30 ohms at an
ambient temperature of 20°C. After an 8 hour full load run, the resistance was 36
ohms, while the ambient temperature was then 18°C. It is required to find the
winding temperature rise.
36-- 30 6
T = 30- x 0.00393 = 30 x 0.00393 = 51 DC.
Now T2 - Tl = (18 - 20)OC = -2°C.
Winding temperature rise = [51 ° - (-2)]OC = 53°C.
Standard methods of testing small radio receiver power transformers have been
published (Refs. D18, D22). The cooling area of a transformer for the " scrap1ess "
type laminations with standard ratio of dimensions is
A = T(7.71 T + lIS)
where A =-= cooling area
T = width of _tongue
and S = height of stack.
For a square stack S = T and A = 18.71 T2 (Ref. 11).
Having calculated the iron and copper losses and the total cooling area, it is possible
to estimate the temperature rise before a sample transformer is- wound. The watts
lost per square inch of cooling area is first calculated. Reference to Fig~ 5.18B will
then show the temperature rise to be expected with an accuracy of approximately
± 10%.
(vi) Typical design
(Refs. D19, D20, D21, D23).
Specifications : -
Primary 240 V 50 cis
Secondary (i) 6.3 V 2.6 A
Secondary (ii) 300 V + 300 V r.m.s. for full wave 6X4 rectifier with condenser
input filter to deliver 60 mA d.c.
Secondary loading
Secondary (i) 6.3 V 2.6 A or 16.5 watts
D.C. output 343 V 0.06 A or 20.5 watts
238 (vi) TYPICAL DESIGN 5.5
= 1130.
Secondary (ii) turns :
Nl = ElN 1)/E1)v'-;j' = 300 x 1130/24Ov'0.85
= 1530 + 1530.
Turns per volt = NdEl = 1530/300 = 5.1.
Secondary (i) turns (6.3 x 5.1) = 32.
Wire gauges :
Assume a current density of 600-700 circular mils per ampere. Referring to
wire tables, a suitable primary gauge is 29 A.W.G. enam.
Turns per layer = 95. Refer Figs. 5.18C and wire tables in Chapter 38 Sect. 19.
No. of layers = 1130/95 = 12.
R.M.S. current in secondary (ii) is (0.06 xLI) = 0.066 A.
100 100
I I Ii'
90 ! I
J I 90
80 i Ii ' , ~
80
70 1 " 70
60 60
u
0.
w
o
Efficiency :
Efficiency Power output/(power output plus losses)
=
+ 6.5) x 100 = 86%.
= 39/(39
Regulation, calculated from British definition :
Primary voltage drop = 0.19 x 42 = 8 V
Regulation due to resistance of primary = 8 x 100/240 = 3.3%.
FIG.S.ISC
LAMINATION AND COIL DATA
EXAMPLE:
·24E WIRE ON SQUARE 1.2S-CORE
LAMINATION
SIZE------1.2S-
OVERALL- ---3.7S-X 3.12-
4 HOLE MTG.--3.12'X 2.05'
CORE
WEIGHT---- 2.9SLBS.
AREA-----I.S6SQ:
MAGNETIC PATH--7.S:
COIL-to24E
W\BE---O.S7SAMPS MAX
WIRE - - - 61 TURNS,/LAYEA
WIRE - - -.0213- DIAMETER
INSULATION-.004- KRAFT
TUBE- --.0050- PAPER
BUILD---•.53S-MAX.
Llmirntie8 Width
Size Center leg, In. A 0.500 0.625 0.750 0.875 1.000 1.125 1.250 1.375 1.500
Area, Sq. In. BsD 0.250 0.292 0.422 0.573 0.750 0.950 1.17 1.42 1.69
WiDdOW
leDgth, ID. 0 0.812 0.937 1.125 1.31 1.50 1.69 1.87 2.06 2.~5
Dimension.
'Width, In. B 0.312 0.312 0.375 0.437 0.500 0.56i 0.625 0.687 0.750
Build, Max. In. S 0.256 0.256 0.315 0.367 0.430 0.483 0.538 0.590 0.646
Coil Length
Overall, In. p 0.750 0.875 1.06 1.25 1.44- 1.56 1.75 I.~ 2.12
DimeDllioe.
Length
Winding, In. R 0.500 0.625 0.750 1.00 1.12 1.25 1.37 1.56 1.75
Core Tube Thickness, In. T 0.Q35 0.035 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.060
"E"" "I" Piece Len~h, In. F 1.62 1.87 225 2.62 3.00 3.37 3.75 4.12 4.50
Overall
Dimen,ion. Width. In. M 1.31 1.62 1.87 2.19 2.50 281 3.12 3.44- 3.75
Len~h, In. H ... .... . ... .... 2.50 2.81 3.12 3.44- 3.75
4 Hole
Mounting Width, In. J .... I .... .... "" 2.00 225 2.50 2.75 3.00
Dimen,iOB' Diameter
Hole. In. .. . ... . ... .... . ... 0.21Q 0.219 0.21Q 0.219 0.281
2 Slot Widtb. In. G .... .... 1.62 1.95 2.16 2.44- 2.78 2.94 3.12
Mountinlt
Dimen.ion. From End. In. K .... .... Ll2 1.31 LSO 1.69 1.87 2.06 2.25
Width.
UE" Piece Oven II. In. E 1.06 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 225 2.50 2.75 3.00
Dimen,io. Width. Outer
Lee. In. C 0.250 0:312 0.375 0.437 0.500 0.562 0.625 0.687 0.750
"I" Pi~ Widtb. In. L 0.250 0.312 0..175 0.437 0.500 0.562 0.625 0.687 0.750
Volume •.
Cu. Inc:he. Ar.. s~ 0.810 1.46 2..5-J 4.03 6.00 R.55 11.70 15.60 2020
For Vol.
Square Stut Weight. x
Center Lee Pound. O.n.ity 021 0.37 0.64 1.0; 1.50 2.14- 2.95 3.QO 5.06
Are ••
Sq. Inch., A·A 0.250 0.390 0.562 0.766 1.000 121 1..56 I,QO 2.25
MIl1:Delic
Patb ltnClh. In. I 3.25 3.75 .fI50 5.26 6.00 6.75 7.50 8.24- 9.00
I
I
I
LEi A- TUBE THICKNESS. FIG. S.ia 0
S- PRI BULD.
C-S. BULD.
0- S.BUl..O.
S- ONE SDE OF CORE.
45- PERIMETER OF CORE.
THE 4 CORNERS MAKE A COMPLETE CIRCLE WITH RADII AS SHOWN.
:: ~~~~~~+·l.!~ ti(:~~
S,IooIEAN. TURN-4S+(ZA+ZS+C)1T.
45+(ZA+S)Tr'
(i) General ,
Iron cored inductors fall into several different categories depending upon the cir-
cuit requirements. In some applications these inductors may have to carry a.c.
only, in others, both a.c. and d.c. They may have to work over a wide range of
frequencies, or at any single frequency up to the ultrasonic range. Iron-cored
inductors are employed as smoothing and swinging chokes in power supplies, as
equalizer elements in audio frequency equipment, as modulation chokes and as filter
elements in carrier equipment, to mention a few varied applications.
To design such an inductor it is therefore necessary to know some or all of the
following specifications-
(a) inductance, or range of inductance if variable,
(b) alternating voltage across the coil,
(c) direct current through the coil,
(d) frequency of operation,
(e) maximum shunt capacitance,
(f) minimum frequency of self-resonance,
(g) minimum Q over frequency range and/or
(h) frequency of maximum Q,
(i) d.c. resistance,
(j) shielding,
(k) temperature rise,
(1) size and weight limitations,
(m) insulation requirements.
(ii) Calculations-general
The inductance L of an iron-cored coil may be calculated using the relation
3.2 x N2 x I-' X a
L = 10 8 X I henrys (1)
where N = number of turns
a effective cross sectional area of coil in square inches
I = length of magnetic circuit in inches
and p. = effective permeability. *
The effective permeability depends on the type of steel used, on the a.c. and d.c.
r::--~ ,----.
I I
rr----:I
I I
I I I I I :
I I I I I I
I I I I I I
I I I I I I
L.: __ L: _:J ~----J
FIG.5.19 OF MAGNETIC /CIRCUIT
Fig. 5.19. Magnetic cores, showing method for calculation of length of magnetic path.
*A more precise term is "inductance ratio."
5.6 (ii) CALCULATIONS-IRON-CORED INDUCTORS 243
flux densities in the core, and on whether the core laminations are interleaved or
whether there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit.
The length of the magnetic circuit is the length measured around the core at the
centre of cross section of each magnetic path. Referring to Fig. 5.19, the path taken
will be along the centre of each leg except where there are two windows, when each
path through the centre leg will be along a line one-quarter of the way across the leg.
In this latter case only a single path round the window is considered in calculating
the magnetic ciicuit length.
Eqn. (1) is prop~rly applicable only when the cross-sectional area of the core is
uniform throughout the magnetic circuit. Where the cross section is non-uniform~
a conservative value of L will usually be obtained by using for a the minimum value
of the cross-sectional area. For more accurate calculations in such cases reference
should be made to a suitable text-book (e.g. Ref. El).
(rf) AllllaV3V"U:13d
Fi'g. 5.20. Effecti've permeaMlity (p.) of silicon steel versus a.c. maxi'mum flux
densi'ty, for various values of d.c. magnetising force Ho (by courtesy of Allegheny
Ludlum Steel Corporation).
5.6 (iv) DESIGN WITH NO D.C. FLUX 245
(4) If the flux density is excessive (i.e. above about 50000 lines per square inch)
increase the number of turns until the flux density is satisfactory.
In case step 4 is necessary, the magnetic circuit must be broken by an air gap and
the gap adjusted until the required value of inductance is obtained; but if the larger
value of inductance is satisfactory or useful the air gap may be omitted.
(5) CalcUlate the wire gauge required, and the copper and iron losses as in the
design of a power ttarisformer. Check also that the d.c. resistance of the
winding is not excessive for the purpose for which the coil is to be used.
If an air gap of length ex inches is used in the core, the value of inductance becomes
3.2N 1a 1
L = 1()8T x (1/ fL + ex/I) (3)
and this expression may be used for calculations. Alternatively, it will be clear that
if the air-gap is large, so that 1/ fL -< ex/I, eqn. (3) approximates to
. L = 3.2N2 • a/l0 8ex (4)
FIG. 5.21
Fig. 5.21. Experimentally determined curve showing values of " a" as a junction
of frequency for several magnetic materials (Ref. E2).
(v) Design of high Q inductors
This sub-section follows S. L. Javna (Ref. E2) and is set out in a step-by-step form
for ease of working. The following table defines the symbols used by Javna in the
formulae presented here.
A = Effective cross-sectional area of magnetic-flux path, in sq. in.
A g = Gross cross-sectional area of magnetic-flux path, in sq. in.
a = Empirical constant, see Fig. 5.21.
B Maximum flux density in the core, in lines per sq. in.
F = Fraction of core-window area occupied by copper wire of coil
f Frequency, in cycles per second.
g ActUal gap length, in inches.
k Empirical constant, see Fig. 5.22.
L Inductance of iron-cored coil, in henrys.
I Mean length of magnetic path, in inches.
m Mean length of a turn of the coil, in inch~s.
246 (v) DESIGN OF HIGH Q INDUCTORS 5.6
w
1 6.0 ins-
1.5 lbs.
1-
All 1.0 sq. in. _.. from Fig. 5.18C
A 0.9 sq. in. _
s 0.75 sq. in. J
m 5.5 ins. from Fig. 5.180
F ~ 0.3, a typical value for this lamination
k = 1.3 X 10- 8 from Fig. 5.22.
a = 1.987 from Fig. 5.21.
Ill::. is found from Fig. 5.20.
Calculation :
1.74mV' 107 ) I/(a + 2)
B ( akwf'L 2A 2sF = 4~.6 lines/sq. in.
Ra. c. 39.5kBawf2LI/V2 430 ohms
3.44mV 2 10 8
440 ohms
Q 36
Rd. C. + Rd. c.
V 10 8
N 5150 turns.
4.44fBA
n 49.8 + 9.96 log (1.2R d. c./mN) 33 A.W.G.
1. 59N l!A g _ ~)
g ( 0.08 in.
L10 8 21'/::.A
Coil build check :
Turns/layer using 33 A.W.G. enam. = 133 from winding data chart,
thus number of layers = 5150/133 = 39.
Interlayer insulation from winding data chart = 0.0015 in.,
thus winding build = 39 (0.0078 + 0.0015) = 0.363 in.
Former thickness = 0.05 in.
Insulation under and over winding = 0.02 in.,
thus total coil build = (0.363 + 0.05 + 0.02) = 0.433 in.
Max. build from Fig. 5.18C = 0.43 in.,
thus the winding should fit the window satisfactorily.
It should be noted that Ra. c. and Rd. c. are usually very nearly equal and where a
square stack of scrapless laminations is used, m will approximate I. Due to the large
air gap the inductance will remain practically independent of voltage and frequency.
The basic design equations may be used and applied to almost any magnetic material.
The constants a and k for other magnetic materials can be obtained from graphs
drawn from measurements made in accordance· with the method mentioned in the
S.6 (v) DESIGN OF HIGH Q INDUCTORS 247
FIG. 5.22
~~
I.
~ !/ II
f ~ I I ,
Mtcr1al kB )Ound
/" ,
/
·0' 40 14 Xi
v 200 4C)() 700 1,000 2poo 4pOO 7,000 lqooo
Frequency - Cycles per Second
Fig. 5.22. Experimentally determined curve showing values of " k " as a function
of frequency for several magnetic materials (Ref. E2).
Such data may be obtained using the methods given in " Magnetic Circuits and
Transformers" (Ref. A3) Ch. 7, which sets out the general methods suitable for
calculation of inductance with d.c. flux in the core.
The method developed by Crowhurst (Ref. E18) makes a considerable saving in
time by the use of charts, particularly when a number of inductors are to be designed.
However, when the a.c. flux density is very small, as for example in many filter
chokes, the method developed by Hanna may be used.
500
j J
4~'"
I I
l'
~ t--
I I :J
i f"o-oos
150
I V I
I ! ! i
I / I
a
!:.l . )0-004-
v VI
2SO
/I_
I I t
200 /0003
'I ,
110
~ _2
'r
I-
I
)0-00.
-., 10
0
t--
l.,.;-' ~rrsl
I
Then, assuming in a typical case that L is 12 henrys and I is 80 rnA proceed thus-
(a) choose lamination size and stack e.g. EI-ll t in.
(b) find V from Fig. 5.18C 4.03 cub. in.
(c) calculate LI2/V 190 X 10-4-
(d) find NI/1 from Fig. 5.23 58
(e) find 1 from Fig. 5.18C 5.26 in.
(I) calculate N 3800 turns
(g) assume suitable wire gauge 33 A.W.G.
(h) find turns per layer from winding data chart 118
(i) calculate number of layers 33
(j) calculate coil build using 0.0015 in. insulation 0.31 in.
(k) calculate winding build using 0.05 in. former 0.36 in.
(1) find maximum build from Fig. 5.18C so that winding
will fit window satisfactorily 0.367 in.
(m) calculate mean length of turn from Fig. 5.18D 4.8 ins ..
en) calculate coil resistance 315 ohms
(0) calcuIate power lost in coil 2 watts
(p) calculate cooling area (see Sect. 5) 14.3 sq. ins
(q) calculate dissipation in watts/sq. in. 0.14 watts/sq. in.
(r) find temperature rise from Fig. 5.18B 20°C.
(s) find gap ratio rJ./1 from Fig. 5.23 0.0029
(t) calculate air gap (rJ./l) xl 0.0075 in.
With any pa..'1:icular core, the highest induct-..ance is obtained with the largest possible
number of turns, as limited by the window space available, the permissible value of
d.c. resistance, and heating of the winding with the specified current.
per inch of core path length. The peak a.c. voltage, of double mains frequency,
across the choke, may be taken to be about two thirds of the d.c. voltage at the input
to the filter.
(3) Using Fig. 5.20 note the change in permeability p. when maximum d.c. load
current flows through the choke and check that the value of inductance under these
conditions is sufficient. If it is not sufficient an increase in turns may be satisfactory
and this can be checked by repeating the procedure above. If this is not satisfactory
a small air gap may be necessary, but calculations then become complex.
A choke so designed is commonly referred to as a swinging choke because its
inductance varies with the direct current through it.
(ix) Measurements
Measurements of inductances of iron-cored coils must be made under conditions
similar to those under which the coils are to be used, because the value of inductance
depends to a marked degree on the a.c. flux density in the core and also on any d.c.
flux set up in the core by direct currents in the windings.
Bridge methods are desirable for accurate measurements of inductance but must
be.·arranged·to simulate the operating conditions of the coil being measured. Owen
and Hay bridges are widely used when there is a large flux due to direct current
(Refs. E15, EI6).
For many purposes it is satisfactory to determine the effective inductance (or more
accurately, the impedance) of a coil by measuring the current through the coil when
the rated a.c. voltage is applied to it; but this method is not usually feasible when a
d.c. component is also present.
]
FIG. S.24
Wh~ a d.c. flux must be produced in the core to simulate operating conditions,
the circuit arrangement of Fig. 5.24 may be used to determine the a.c. impedance
of the coil. A valve voltmeter is used to adjust the a.c. voltage drop across the known
variable resistance R to equality with the a.c. voltage drop across the inductance L.
The required value of direct current through the coil is obtained by adjusting the
tapping on battery B and the rheostat Rl (or by adjusting any other variable direct
current source), the current being measured by a d.c. ammeter or milliammeter.
The required alternating voltage across the choke coil is then adjusted by varying
the tapping on transformer T, the voltage across the coil being read on the valve volt-
meter; this adjustment is not usually critical. The resistance R is then varied until
the same reading is obtained on the valve voltmeter when it is connected across R
5.6 (ix). MEASUREMENTS 251
SECTION 7: REFERENCES
(A) GENERAL
AI. Still, A. (book) "Principles of Transformer Design" (John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1926).
A2. Still, A. (book) "Elements of Electrical Design" (2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1932).
A3. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (book) "Magnetic Circuits and Transformers" (John
Wiley and Sons, New York; Chapman and Hall, London, 1943).
A4. Blume, L. F. and others (book) "Transformer Engineering" (John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1938).
A5. Terman, F. E. (book) "Radio Engineers' Handbook" (McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1943).
A6. Lee, R. (book) "Electronic Transformers and Circuits" (John Wiley and Sons 1947).
A7. Beatty, R. T ... Radio Data Charts" (Iliffe and Sons Ltd.).
A8. Roters, H. C. (book) "Electromagnetic Devices" (John Wiley and Sons 1941).
A9. Miner, D. F. (book) " Insulation of Electrical Apparatus" (McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1941).
AI0. Coonelly, F. C. (book) "Transformers" (Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd. London, 1950).
All. Crowhurst, N. H. "Winding space determination" Electronic Eng. 23.282 (Aug. 1951) 302.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
(D) REFERENCES TO PRACTICAL TRANSFORMERS
Bl. Honnell, P. M. "Note on the measurement of transformer turns ratio" Proc. I.R.E. 33.11 (Nov.
1945) 808. See also Refs. Al to AI0 inclusive.
(C) REFERENCES TO AUDIO FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS
C1. Harrison, E. B ... Notes on transformer design" Elect. 17.2 (Feb. 1944) 106.
C2. Koehler, G. " Audio-frequency amplifiers" included in Henney's" Radio Engineering Handbook"
Chapter 8, p. 355, 4th ed., 1950 (McGraw-Hill Book Company).
C3. Webb, E. K. "Response of a.f. transformers at high frequencies" Proc. I.R.E. Aust. 5.3 (Jan.
1944) 3. "
C4. Klipsch, P. W. "Design of a.f. amplifier circuits using transformers" Proc. I.R.E. 24.2 (Feb.
1936) 219.
C5. Rohner, A. J. (Chapter) "Ferrous-cored inductors I t ( " Elec. Eng. Handbook" Edit. by Pender
and McIlwain 4th ed. 1950) Communication and Electronics, Sect. 3-42.
C6. Wrathall, E. T ... Audio-frequency" transformers I t W.E. 14.6,7,8 (June, July, August 1937).
C7. Sowter, G. A. V ... The properties of nickel iron alloys and their application to electronic devices"
J. Brit. I.R.E. 2.4 (Dec. 1941'-Feb. 1942) 100.
ca. Peterson, E. "Harmonic production in ferromagnetic materials It low frequencies and low flux
densities." B.S.T.,. 7.4 (Oct. 1928) 762.
C9. Story, J. G. "Design of audio-frequency input and inter-valve transformers" W.E. 15.173 (Feb.
1938) 69.
ClO. Roddam, T. "Distortion in audio-frequency transformers" W.W. 51.7 (July 1945) 202.
Cll. Terman, F. E. "Radio Engineers' Handbook" 1st edit. (1943) p. 131.
C12. "Telcon Metals I t Booklet Pub. by Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Co. Ltd., Green-
wich, London 1948.
C13. Terman, F. E. (book) "Radio Engineering" (3rd edit. 1947) p. 291.
C14. Baxandall, P. J. "High quality amplifier design" W.W. 54.1 (Jan. 1948) 2.
C15. Lee, R ... Recent transformer developments" Proc. I.R.E. 33.4 (April 1945) 240.
C16.' Strong, C. E ... Final stage class B modulation" Elect. Comm. 16.4 (April 1938) 321.
C17. McLean, T ... An analysis of distortion in class B amplifiers" Proc. I.R.E. 24.3 (March 1936) 487.
C18. Lee, R. (book) "Electronic transformers and circuits" 1st edit. (1947) p. 1"63.
C19. Terman, F. E. "Radio Engineers' Handbook" (1st edit. 1943) p. 392.
C20. Mortley, W. S. " The design of low frequency transformer coupled amplifiers" Marconi Review
No. 45 (Nov. Dec. 1933) 25.
C21. Preisman, A. (book) .. Graphical Constructions for Vacuum Tube Circuits" (1st edit. 1943
McGraw-Hili) p. 195.
C22. McLean, T. co An analysis of distortion in class B audio amplifiers" Proc. I.R.E. 24.3 (March
1936) 487.
C23. Sab, A. P-T... Quasi-transients in Class B audio frequency push-pull amplifiers" Proc. I.R.E.
24.11 (Nov. 1936) 1522.
C24. Partridge, N. G. R. "Distortion in transformer cores" W.W. 44.25 (June 22, 1939) 572; 44.26
(June 29, 1939) 597 ; 45.1 (July 6, 1939) 8; 45.2 (July 13, 1939) 30.
C25. Partridge, N. G. R. "An introduction to the study of harmonic distortion in audio frequency
transformers" J. Brit. I.R.E. 3.1 (June-July, 1942) 6.
C26. Partridge, N. G. R. "Harmonic distortion in audio frequency transformers" W.E. 19.228 (Sept.
1942) 394; 19.229 (Oct. 1942) 451; 19.230 (Nov. 1942) 503.
C27. Partridge, N. G. R ... Transformer distortion" W.W. 48.8 (Aug. 1942) 178.
C28. Crowhurst, N. H ... Leakage inductance" Electronic Eng. 21.254 (April 1949) 129.
C29. Crowhurst, N. H. "Winding capacitance" Electronic Eng. 21.261 (Nov. 1949) 417.
C30. Harrison, E. B... Test methods for high quality audio transformers" Tele.-Tech. 9.3 (March
1950) 40.
C31. "Reference Data for Radio Engineers" Chap. 11 (Federal Telephone and Radio Corp. N.Y.
3rd edit. 1949).
C32. Lord, H. W. "Design of broad-band transformers for linear electronic circuits" E.E. 69.11
(Nov. 1950) 1020.
C33. Williams, T., and R. H. Eastop "Harmonic distortion in iron-core transformers" Audio Eng.
35.4 (April 1951) 18.
C34. Crowhurst, N. H. "Transformer iron losses" Electronic Eng. 23.284 (Oct. 1951) 396.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
(D) REFERENCES TO POWER TRANSFORMER DESIGN
01. Blume, L. F. (book) "Transformer Engineering" (John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, 1938).
02. Stigant, S. A. and H. M. Lacey" The J. and P. Transformer Book" (Johnson and Phillips Ltd.,
London).
03. M.I.T. Staff (book) "Magnetic Circuits a.'ld Transformers" (John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New
York, 1943).
5.7 REFERENCES 253
D4. Reed. E. G. (book) ,,' Essentials of Transformer Practice" (McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. New
York 2nd edit. 1927).
D5. Ledward, T. A. "Transformer screening" W.W. 50.1. (Jan. 1944) 15.
D6. "British. Standard Specification for Steel Sheets for Transformers for Power and lighting"
B.S. 601-1935 (British Standards Institution, London).
D7. "Standard Methods of Test for Magnetic Properties of Iron and Steel" A-34 (1940). American
Society of Testing Materials, N.Y.
D8. Partridge. N. G. R. "Harmonic distortion in audio frequency transformers" W.E. 19.8 (Aug •.
1942) 180.
D9. Medina, L. " A device for the measurement of no-load losses in small power transformers" Proc.
I.R.E. Aust. 7.9 (Sept. 1946) 13.
DI0. Horstman, C. C. "Rolled steel cores for radio transformers" Elect. 16.6 (June 1943) 110.
Dll. Partridge, N. G. R. " Lamination design-influence of shape on the cost and weight of trans-
formers and chokes" W.W. 48.12 (Dec. 1942) 286.
D12. Mawson, R. "The design of stampings for L.F. transformers" Electronic Eng. 16.195 (May
1944) 514.
DB. "Dry Type Power Transformers for Radio Transmitters" R.M.A. Standard TR-I02 Nov. 1947.
D14. "Power Transformers for Radio Broadcast Receivers-Core Laminations, Vertical and Hori-
zontal Channel Frames." R.M.A. Standard REC-120 Oct. 1948.
D15. Prince, D. C., and P. B. Vogdes (book) " Mercury Arc Rectifiers" (McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.,
New York, 1927).
D16. "British Standard Specification for Electrical Performance of Transformers for Power and
Lighting" B.S. 171-1936; Amendment No.3, Jan. 1948 (British Standards Institution, London).
D17. American Standards
C57.10-:-1948 Terminology for transformers, regulators and reactors.
C57.11-1948 General requirements for transformers, regulators and reactors.
C57.12-1949 Distribution, power and regulating transformers other than current limiting.
D18. "Power and Audio Transformers and Reactors-Home Receiver Replacement Type" C.16.9
(1943) (American Standards Association, New York).
D19. "Reference Data for Radio Engineers" Chapter 11. (Federal Telepbone and Radio Corp. N.Y.
3rd edit. 1949).
D20. "Engineering a transformer." Booklet (Standard Transformer Corp. Chicago).
D21. Roesche, C. "Practical transformer design and construction" Radio News 37.6 (June 1947) 60 ;
38.1 (July 1947) 58; 38.2 (Aug. 1947) 60.
D22. Radio Industry Council, London, Specification "Transformers, Power, up to 2 KVA Rating"
No. RIC/214 (Issue No. I-Feb. 1951).
D23. "Components Handbook" Vol. 17 of M.I.T. Radiation Lab. Series. Chapter 4 "Iron-Core
Inductors" (McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. New York, 1949).
D24. Hamaker, H. C., and Th. Hehen~p .. Minimum cost transformers and chokes ,. Phiiips ReP.
Rep. 5.5 (Oct. 1950) 357; 6.2 (April 1951) 105.
D24. R.C.S.C. Standard RC.L/191 Cores, magnetic.
D25. R.C.S.C. Standard RC.L/193 Cores, magnetic, strip wound.
D26. R.C.S.C. Standard RC.S/214 Specification for transformers, power.
also A10.
Mathematics, to the radio engineer, is merely a tool to be used in his design work.
For this reason it is often used in a slovenly manner or with insufficient precision or
understanding.
There are normally three stages in the solution of a problem-
1. Transferring the mechanical or electrical conditions into a mathematical form.
2. Solving the mathematics.
3. Interpreting and applying the mathematical solution.
The first stage is dealt with in Chapter 4; the second stage is the subject of this
chapter, while the third stage requires careful consideration of all the relevant con-
ditions. A solution only applies under the conditions assumed in stage one, which
may involve some approximations and limits. In all cases the solution should be
checked either experimentally or theoretically to prove that it is a true solution.
This chapter is not a textbook on mathematics, although it is in such an easy form
that anyone with the minimum of mathematical knowledge should be able to follow it.
I t has been written primarily for those who require assistance in "brushing up"
their knowledge, and for the clarification of points which may. be imperfectly under-
stood. It is " basic" rather than elementary in its introduction, and could therefore
be read with advantage by all.
Sufficient ground is covered for all normal usage in radio receiver design, except
for that required by specialists in network and filter design.
Reference data have been included for use by all grades
254
6.1 (i) FIGURES 255
(iii) Logarithms
We may write 100 = 102
or we may express this in different language as
2 = loglo 100
which is spoken of as " log 100 to the base 10." . Here 2 is the logarithm of 100 to
the base 10.
-Tables of logarithms to the base 10 are given in Chapter 38 Sect. 20, Table 71.
They are useful in. multiplying and dividing numbers which are too large to handle
conveniently by the ordinary procedure.
256 (iii) LOGARITHMS 8.1
A typicallogaritbm is 2.4785. Here the figure 2 to the left of the decimal point
is called the index, and the figures 4785 to the right of the decimal point are called
the mantissa.
(1) The index of the logarithm of a number greater than unity is the number which
is less by one than the number of digits (figures) in the integral'" part of the given
number; for example the index of the logarithm of
57640 is 4
5764 is 3
576.4 is 2
57.64 is 1
5.764 is 0
If the number is less than unity, the index is negative, and is a higher number by
one than the number of zeros that follow the decimal point of the given number; for
example the index of the logarithm of
.5764 is-l
.005764 is -3.
To denote that the index only is negative, the minus sign is usually written above it ;
e.g. 1, 3.
(2) The mantissa of the logarithm is found from the tables. Proceed to find the
first two figures in the left hand column of the table, then pass along the horizontal
line to the vertical column headed by the third figure. To this number add the
number in the difference column under the fourth figure of the given number. The
mantissa is the result obtained by this process with a decimal point before it.
For example, to find 10g10 5764.
The index is 3
The mantissa is .7604 + .0003 = .7607
Therefore 10g10 5764 = 3.7607.
Similarly, 10ilo 0.5764 = 1.7607 (note that the index is negative, but the mantissa
positive).
To find the number whose logarithm is given, it is possible to use either
antilog. tables (if these are available) or to use the log. tables in the reverse manner.
In either case, only the mantissa (to the right of the decimal point) should be applied
to the tables.
The procedure with log. tables is firstly to find the logarithm, on the principal
part of the table, which is next lower than the given logarithm, then to calculate the
difference, then to refer to the difference columns to find the number--exactly the
reverse of the previous procedure.
For example, to find the number whose logarithm is 2.5712. The mantissa is
.5712 and the nearest lower logarithm on the tables is 5705, the difference being 7
(in the fourth figure). The number whose log = 5705 is 3720, and to this must be
added the figure 6 which corresponds to the difference of 7 in the fourth column ;
the number is therefore 3720 + 6 = 3726. The decimal point must be placed so
as to give 2 + 1 = 3 digits to the left of the point, i.e. 372.6.
sum = 4.3353
The number whose log = .3353 is 2164.
The decimal point should be placed so as to give 4 + 1 = 5 digits to the left of
the point; i.e. 21 640.
*To the left of the decimal point.
6.1 (iii) LOGARITHMS 257
In a complicated calculation, especially with very large and very small numbers,
it is highly desirable to arrange the numerator and denominator in powers of 10.
For example
75 000 x 0.0036 x 5900 7.5 X 10 4 x 3.6 X 10- 3 x 5.9 X 10 3
160000 x 0.000001 7 1.6 X 10 5 x 1.7 X 10- 6
7.5 x 3.6 x 5.9 x 10 5
1.6 x 1.7
The slide rule does not indicate the position of the decimal point, and it is necessary
to determine the latter by some method such as inspection; this is much easier when the
individual numbers are all between 1 and 10 as in the example above. It is also possible
to keep track of the decimal point by noting ho'Y" often the manipulation passes from
end to end of the rule.
To find the logarithm of a given number, move the 1 on C scale to the number on
the D scale, then turn the rule over and read the logarithm on the L scale against
the mark (this will be a number between 0 and 1).
To find the decibels corresponding to a ratio, proceed as for the logarithm, but
multiply by 10 for a power ratio or 20 for a voltage ratio.
To find the sine or tangent of an angle, first set the angle on the S or T scale to the
mark, then read the value on the B scale, below 1 on the A scale, and divide by 100.
There are countless special types of slide rules, and in all such cases the detailed
instructions provided by the manufacturers should be studied.
Hints on special calculations on the slide rule
(I) Z = '\/R2 + X2 = Ryl + (X2/R2)
Procedure: For example if X = 3 and R = 2 set cursor to 3 on D scale, move
slide to give 2 on C scale. The value of (X/R)2 is given by the value on A scale op-
posite 1 on B scale-in this case 2.25. Move the slide up to 3.25 (= 2.25 + 1) and
then move the cursor to 2 on C scale, reading 3.61 on D scale as the answer.
(2) If a large number of figures is to be divided by one figure, divide unity or 10
(D scale) by the divisor (C scale) and then, with fixed slide, move the cursor to each
dividend in turn on the C scale~ reading the answer on the D scale.
ev) Short cuts in arithmetic
(a) Approximations involving 7T
7T 2 may betaken as 10 with an error less than 1.4%
7T may be taken as 25/8 with an error less than 0.6%
1/7T may be taken as 8/25 with an error les.s than 0.6%
27T may be taken as ~5/4 with an error less than 0.6%
1/27T may be taken as. 4/25 with an error less than 0.6%
(27T)2 = 39.5 with an error less than 0.06%
(b) Approximations with powers and roots
General relation: (x ± o)n ~ xn ± nx n- l 0
where 0 is small compared with x. Examples are given below.
Squares (n = 2)
10.12 = (10 + 0.1)2 ~ 102 + 2 x 10 x 0.1 ~ 102 (error = 0.01 %)
10.22 = (10 + 0.2)2 ~ 102 + 2 x 10 x 0.2 ~ 104 (error = 0.04%)
9.9 2 = (10 - 0.1)2 ~ 102 - 2 x 10 x 0.1 ~ 98 (error = 0.01 %)
Square roots [n = 0.5; (n - 1) = -0.5]
__ _ 0.50
YX±o~yx±y~ .
viOl = yl00 + 1 ~ y100 + 0.5 x 1 ~ 10.05 (error = 0.001 %)
,/100
y110 = V100 + 10 ~ VIOO + 0.5 ~_10 ~ 10.5 (error = 0.12%)
yl00
6.1 (iv) THE SLIDE RULE 259
(e) To multiply by 11
To multiply a number by 11, write down the last figure, add the last and last but
one and write down the result, carrying over any tens to the next operation, add the
last but one and the last but two and so on, finishing by writing down the first
e.g. 11 X 42 736 = 470096 (no error)
(f) For approximations based on the Binomial Theorem see Sect. 2(xviii).
(g) For general approximations see Sect. 2(xx).
SECTION 2: ALGEBRA
(i) Additt"on (ii) Subtrac#on (iiz) MultipHcation (iv)· Division (v) Powers
(vi) Roots (vii) Brackets and simple manipulations (viii) Factoring (ix) Proportion
(x) Variation (xi) Inequalities (xii) Functt"ons (xit"£) Equations . (x':v) Formulae
or laws (xv) Contt"nuity and limits (xvi) Progressions, sequences and series (xvii)
Logarithmic and exponentt"al junctions (xvizi") Infinite series (xix) Hyperbol£c
functions (xx) General approximations.
See Section 6 for Complex Algebra.
Algebra is really only arithmetic, except that we use alphabetical symbols to stand
for figures. It is frequendy more convenient to put an expression into an algebraic
form for general use,and then to apply it to a particular case by writing figures in place
of the letters. All algebraic expressions are capable of being converted into arith-
metical ones, and the fundamental mathematical processes of algebra may be used
in arithmetic.
260 ALGEBRA 6.2
(i) Addition
If a, b, and c are all values of the one unit (e.g. all resistances in ohms) we can add
them together to find the sum d, where d will also be in the same unit,
d=a+b+c
For example, if a = 5, b = 10, c = 15 ohms,
then d = 5 + 10 + 15 = 30 ohms.
eii) Subtraction
Subtraction is the opposite of addition, or negative addition, and can only be applied
when the quantity to be subtracted is in the same unit as the quantity from which it
is to be taken. For example let
a=b-c
where a, b and c are all voltages.
If b = 6 volts and c = 2 volts, then
a = 6 - 2 = 4 volts.
As another example, let a, b and c be readings of a thermometer in degrees-say
b = 10°C and c = 20°C, then a = 10° - 20° = - 10°C. This is -commonly de-
scribed as" 10 degrees below zero" or " a temperature of minus 10 degrees." Thus
a negative temperature has a definite value and is readily understood. Its magnitude
is given by the figure, while its direction above or below zero is given by the positive
or negative sign.
Similarly a negative current is one with a magnitude as indicated by the figure but
with a direction opposite to that of a positive current. In most cases the direction
of a positive current is arbitrarily fixed, and if the answer comes out negative it merely
indicates the actual direction of current flow is the opposite of the direction assumed.
The same principle holds in all cases.
(iii) Multiplication
Multiplication is continued addition-
4xa=a+a+a+a
and is commonly written as 4a. In the general sense we can write ba where b is any
number; this has the same value as ab,
i.e. ab = ba or a.b = b.a.
It should be noted that
4 x (- a) = - 4a
and (- 1) X ( - 1) = + 1.
(iv) Division
Division is the breaking up of a number of things into a given number of groups, e.g.
6a -7- 3 = (2a + 2a + 2a) -7- 3 = 2a.
We may write this in the alternative forms
6a
3 = 2a, or 6a/3 = 2a.
(v) Powers
Powers are continued multiplication,
e.g. a 3 = aaa = a X a X a
am = a X a X a X a .•. (m factors)
an = a X a X a X a ... (n factors)
Therefore am X an = a( m + n) (1)
We can write, as a convenience,
1
- an in the form a- fI
where the - n is not a true index (or exponential) but merely a way of writing 1/an.
am
Therefore - = am X a- n = am - n (2)
an
which indicates that the - n can be treated as though it were a true index.
6.2 (v) POWERS 261
(vi) Roots
v'~ = aorva 2 = a (10)
~a xa xa=aor~~=a (11)
We may adopt as a convenience the form
Va=a~ (12)
{I~ = a l / 3 (13)
nv'~ = a1/n (14)
This may be extended to include
n,V am = (a m )1/n = am1n (15)
so that am, n is the nth root of am.
Note that 1/{Y~ = ~1/a; lrV~= ny'1/a (16)
a -a -a a
+ i)= -b = - b= -b
(29)
a
a X 0 = 0; 0= infinity* = (X) (30)
(note that it is not possible to divide by 0 in algebraic computations).
*Infinity may be described as a quantity large without limit.
262 (vii) BRACKETS AND SIMPLE MANIPULATIONS 6.2
a b ad ± be a b a ± b a a a(d ± e)
;-±d=~; c±c=-e-; ~ ± d= ~-e-::d--'- (31)
The sign ± means either plus or minus. When ± and/or =t= signs are used on
both sides of an equation, the upper signs in both cases are to be taken in conjunction
as one case, while the lower signs are to be taken as the other case.
a e ae a ac
bXd=bd; (32)
b be
a e a d ad
- -=- -- = - x - = - (33)
b'd be be
~ _ a+ b=~ (e + d) _~(a + b) (34a)
y e +d y (e + d) y e +d
x(e + d) - yea + b) (34b)
y(e + d)
(viii) Factoring-Examples
6ab + 3ae = 3a(2b + e) (35)
x 2 - txy + 12yZ = (x - 4y)(x - 3y) (36)
2X2 + 7x + 6 = (2x + 3)(x + 2) (37)
x2y - 4y 3 = Y(X2 - 4y2) = y(x + 2y)(x - 2y) (38)
(ix) Proportion
a e a b
(1) If then (39)
b d e d
ad - be
also therefore ~ =0 (40)
(x) Variation
If y = kx, then y 0::: x
i.e. y is directly proportional to x.
k 1
If y = -;;' then y 0::: ~
i.e. y is inversely proportional to x.
If y = kxz, then y varies jointly as x and z.
If y = k:', then y varies directly as x and inversely as z
z
(xi) Inequalities
The letter symbols below are positive and finite.
If a > b then a + e > b + e, b < a (43a)
a - e > b - e, e - a < e - b C43b)
ae > be, be < ac C43c)
abe e
(43d)
-;; > ; ' ~ <[;
6.2 (xi) INEQUALITIES Z63
(xii) Functions
We may describe 3x + 4 as " a function of x " because its value depends upon the
value of x. This is usually written as
F(x) = 3x + 4.
Other typical functions of x are
2x 2 + 3x + 5; x(x 2 + 3x) ;
cos x; log x ;ljx.
In such functions, x is called the" independent variable." It is usual to write
pea) as meaning " F(x) where x = a."
(xiii) Equations
An equation is a statement of conditional equality between two expressions con-
taining one or more symbols representing unknown quantities. The process of
determining values of the unknowns which will satisfy the equation is called solving
the equation. .
An Identical Equation is one which holds for all values of its letter symbols.
A Linear Equation is one in which, after getting rid of fractions, the independent
variable only occurs l..'l the first degree (e.g. x).
Example: y = 5x + 3.
A Quadratic Equation is one in which,' after getting rid of fractions, the inde-
pendent variable occurs in the second degree (e.g. x 2 ) but not in higher degree.
Example: y = 4x 2 + 5x + 3.
A quadratic equation in one unknown has two roots, although both may be complex
(i.e. with an imaginary term). .
A Cubic Equation is one in which, after getting rid of fractions, the independent
variable occurs in the third degree (e.g. x 3 ) but not in higher degree.
Example: y = 3x 3 + 4x 2 + 2x + 5.
Note: x and yare usually taken as unknowns; a, b, c and d as known constants.
Warning
If both sides of an equation are squared, or if both sides are multiplied by a term
containing the unknown, a new root may he introduced.
Solution of equations
(I) Linear equations with one unknown
Example: ax + b = o.
Solution: x = - bla. (46)
(2) Linear equations with two unknowns
Any linear relation between two variables, x and y, can be written in the general form
ax + by + c = 0 (47)
or (provided that b is not zero) in the alternative form
y = mx + n (48a)
This type,of equation is not limited to one or two solutions, but has a corresponding
value of y for every possible value of x. It is very helpful to plot the value of y against
the value of x on squared paper-see Sect. 5(i). With any equation of this type, the
graph will be a straight line, and it is only necessary to determine
(1) one point on the line
(2) the slope of the line at any point.
The most convenient point is usually x = 0, and in eqn. (48a)
this will give y = n
or in eqn. (47) this will give y = - clb
The slope of the line is given by the difference of the y values of two points, divided
by the difference of their x values.
In eqn. (47) the slope is - alb
while in eqn. (48a) the slope is m.
A particular ·form of eqn. (47) is
~ + ~b = 1 (48b)
a
and in this case the line cuts the x axis at x = a and cuts the y axis at y = b. The
slope is equal to - bI a.
An equation of the form
a b
-+
x y
-= c (49)
may be solved by regarding 1I x and 1I y as the unknowns, then following a similar
procedure as for an equation in x and y, and solving for l/x and lly.
(3) Simultaneous linear equations (two unknowns)
alx + blY = Cl } b
X = Cl 2 -
b
C2 l
(50a)
a 1b 2 - a 2 b 1
a2 x + b2Y = C2 alc 2 - a 2c 1
(50b)
y = a 1b 2 - a~bl
provided that (a 1b 2 - a2bt) is not zero.
Alternatively the solution may be derived by determining x in terms of y from the
first equation, and then substituting in the second.
Checking solutions :
After any solution has been found, particularly with more than one solution, it is
highly desirable to check these in the original equation.
(4) Three simultaneous equations (three unknowns)
Given {ax + by + cz + d = O.
a1x + b 1y + c1z + d t = 0
a2x + b 2 y + C2Z + d 2 = 0
6.2 (xiii) EQUATIONS 265
Then
d(b 2c 1 - b1C2) + dl(bc2 - b 2c) + d 2(b 1c - bCI)
x=
b2c t ) + a 1 (b 2c - bC2) + a2(bcI - blc)
}
a(b 1c2 -
d(alC 2 - a2Cl) + d 1(a2 C - ac2) + d 2(aC 1 - alC) (51)
Y = a(b1cz - b 2Cl) + al(b 2c - bC2) + a2(bc I - blc)
d(azb 1 - a 1b 2) + d l(ab 2 - a 2b) + d 2(a l b - ab 1)
Z=
a(b 1c2 - b 2c 1) + al(b 2c - bC2) + a2(bcl - blc)
It will be noticed that the three denominators are identical.
(5) Quadratic equations
(x - a)(x + b) = 0; x = a or x = - b (52)
- b ±Vb-=-2-_-4ac-
ax2 + bx + C = 0; x = 2a (53)
Note that in eqn. (53)
when b2 = 4ac, the two roots are equal
when b2 - 4ac is positive, the two roots are real
when bl - 4ac is negative, the roots are imaginary.
(6) Quadratic equations with two variables
Example: y = ax2 + bx + c.
This type of equation is not limited to one or two solutions, but has a corresponding
value of y for every possible value of x. It is helpful to plot part of the curve on
squared paper-see Sect. SCi). The curve may cut the x axis at two points, or it may
touch at one point, or it may not touch it at all. Let y = 0, then
ax 2 + bx + C = 0
and the points at which the curve cuts the x axis will be
- b ±Vb2 - 4ac
x= 2a
(54)
2
If b > 4ac, the curve will cut at two points.
If b2 = 4ac, the curve will touch at one point.
If b2 < 4ac, the curve will not cut the x axis.
A = P.---r- (55)
+ ;L
and as R L is made very much greater than r 1" the value of r piR L becomes very small
although it never actually reaches zero. We may express this in the form
Lt (rp) - 0 (5:»
R L-+ 00 RL
which may be stated" the limit of (r pi R L)' as R L approaches infinity, is zero." The
limiting value of A, as R L approaches infinity, is therefore
Lt A = p. (57)
R L-+ 00
(xvi) Progressions, sequences and series
A Sequence is a succession of terms so related that each may be derived from one or
more of the preceding terms in accordance with some fixed law.
A Series is the sum of terms of a sequence.
Arithmetical Progression is a sequence, each term of which (except the first) is
derived from the preceding term by the addition of a constant number.
General form: a, (a + d), (a + 2d), (a + 3d)
Example: 2, 5, 8, 11, etc.
(here a = 2 and d = 3).
The nth term = a + (n - l)d (58)
The sum of n terms is S = In[2a + (n - l)d] (59)
When three numbers are in Arithmetical Progression, the middle number is called
the "arithmetical mean." The arithmetical mean between a and b is l(a + b).
Geometrical Progression is a sequence, each term of which (except the first) is
derived from the preceding term by multiplying it by a constant ratio (r).
General form: a, ar, ar 2 ar 3,
Examples: 3, 6, 12, 24, (r = 2)
4, -2, +1, -l (r = - !)
With the general form above,
the nth term arn- 1 (60)
and the sum of the first n terms is
n
S = a(r 1) - (61)
r 1 -
When three numbers are in Geometrical Progression, the middle number is called
the Geometrical Mean. The Geometrical Mean of two numbers a and b is v' abo
If the ratio r is less than unity, the terms become progressively smaller, and the
sum of a very large number of terms approaches
S =_a_ (62)
n-+oo l-r
Harmonic Progression: The terms a, b, c, etc. form a harmonic sequence if their
reciprocals
1 1 1
- , -, - , etc.
abc
form an arithmetical sequence.
Example: 1, l, 1/3, 1, 1/5 is a Harmonic Progression
because 1, 2, 3 ,4, 5 is an Arithmetical Progression
. . 2ab
The Harmoruc Mean between a and b IS --b'
a+
6.2 (xvi) PROGRESSIONS~ SEQUENCES AND SERIES 267
Note that the Arithmetical Mean between two numbers is greater than the Geo-
metrical Mean~ which in tum is greater than the Harmonic Mean.
With any form of progression or sequence~ we are often concerned with the sum of
a number of terms of which the general term is given. It is possible to write this
sum in a shortened form, for example
k=n
1+2+3+4+ ... +k+ ... +n= ~k
k = 1
where the Greek letter capital sigma is used to indicate the sum of a number of terms;
k is merely the general term; and the values of k are to be taken from k = 1 (beneath
sigma) to k = n (written above sigma).
(xvii) Logarithmic and exponential functions
If aX = N
then x is the logarithm to the base a of the number N. This may be put in the form-
x = logaN
where the base a may be any positive number except 1 or O.
The two principal systems of logarithms are
(1) The Naperian (or natural) system~ using the base e = 2.71828 . . . (pre-
ferably written with the Greek E)~ and
(2) The Briggs (or common) system~ using the base 10.
Only one set of tables is required~ for it is possible to convert a logarithm to one
base (b) into a logarithm to any other base (a) :
loga Y = 10gb Y x loga b
If it is required to find the logarithm to the base €~ given the logarithm to the base 10,
log eY = 10glO Y X loge 10 (63a)
= loglo Y X 2.3026 (63b)
10glOY = loge Y X 0.4343 (63c)
Sonne properties of E
The value of E is given by the right hand side of eqn. (86).
Values shown below in brackets are to four decimal places.
E = 2.71828 (= 2.7183)
1/ E = 0.367879 (= 0.3679)
loglo E = 0.43429 (= 0.4343)
log e 10 = 2.30259 (= 2.3026)
log e 10 = 1flog 1 0 E
ipglO En = n X 0.43429 (= n X 0.4343)
Sonne nnanipulations with logarithmic functions
log alb = log a - log b (64)
log I/a -c: - log a (65)
log Y" '-'- n X log Y (66)
log y- 1 = - log Y (67)
log y m1n = (m/n) X log y (68)
log VY = log yl /2 = (1/2) log y (69)
log {Iy = log y1'3 = (1/3) log y 70)
To find the cube root of 125-
{I125 = (125)1/3
Therefore log (125)1'3 = (1/3) log t25 = (1/3) (2.0969) = 0.699.
Then antilog 0.699 = 5.00 (from tables).
log {lya = llog y (71)
log abc = log a + log b + log c (72)
log (ab/cd) = log a + log b - log c - log d (73)
log (ambnc P) = m. log a + n. log b + p. log c (74)
log (abm/c n) = log a + m.log b - n.log c (75)
log (a 2 - b 2 ) = log [(a + b)(a - b)] = log (a + b) + log (a - b) (76)
268 (xvii) LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 6.2
(1 + x)m ~ 1 + mx + 1- m(m - 1) x 2
(1 - x)m ~ 1 - mx + 1- m(m - 1) x 2
(1 + x)-m ~ 1 - mx + 1- m(m + 1) x 2
(1 - x)-m:~ 1 + mx + 1- m(m + 1) x 2
Numerical example: To find the cube root of 220.
} (82)
6.2 (xviii) INFINITE SERIES 269
x2 x3 x'" x n- 1
EX _ E- X
EX +. -;
~- is called the hyperbolic tangent of x, designated by tanh x
'nh
81 X + SI'nh Y =
2'nh
SI
x2
- + -Y cosh x 2- Y (100)
X-Y x+Y
sinh x - sinh y = 2 sinh --2- cosh -2- (101)
x+y x-y
cosh x + cosh y = 2 cosh - -2-- cosh - 2 - (102)
x+y x-y
cosh x - cosh y = 2 sinh - 2 - sinh -2- --- (103)
sinh (x ± y)
tanh x ± tanh y ------ = (104)
cosh x cosh y
(sinh x + cosh x)n = cosh nx + sinh nx (105)
sinh-Ix = logE (x + V~-+I) = cosh-Iyx 2 +i (106)
cosh-Ix = logE (x + V x 2 - 1) = sinh-Iy~2 - 1 (107)
1 + X
tanh-Ix = ! logE i-~ (108)
1 x
= c08h- I -==-- = sinh- I - - - - (109)
VI - x 2 \/1 - x 2
e'± 1/ - E-( X± 1/)
sinh (x ± y) 2 = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y (110a)
EX ± 1/ + e-(:r± 1/)
cosh (x ± y) 2 = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y (110b)
_ x± 1/) __ tanh x ± tanh y
EX ± 1/ - E-(
tanh (x ± y) - e± 1/ + E-( x± 1/) - - 1 ± tanh x tanh y (111)
2 tanh x
sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x = 1 _ tanh2 x (112)
1 + tanh x 2
x2 x'" x;6
cosh x = 1 + 2! + 4i + 6! + ... (U5d)
(these are convergent for all real values of x).
Also in complex form (see Section 6)
sinhjx = j sin x; coshjx = cos x; tanhjx = j tan x (116)
sinjx = j sinh x; cosjx = cosh x (117)
sinh (x ± jy) = sinh x cos y ± j cosh x sin y (118)
, Note that x and y in sin x, cos x, tan x etc. in eqns. 116 to 119 must be expressed
in radians.
cosh (x ± jy) = cosh x cos y ±j sinh x sin Y (119)
sinh, (:) = /cosh x - 1
2'\ 2 cosh
(:) =
2
J cosh x + 1
2 (120)
Trigonometrica1 relationships
When 8 is an extremely small quantity, so that an angle of 8 radians is a very small
angle, and x is an angle very large compared with 3,
272 (xx) GENERAL APPROXIMATIONS 6.2
1T radians = 180°
~ 57.29578
0
1 radian
1 ° ~ 0.0174533 radian.
When an angle is measured in radians, and incorporates the sign 1T, it is usual to
omit the word" radians" as being understood-e.g. 1T, 21T.
Right Angle Triangles (Fig. 6.1)
Sine: * ~ = sin A a=esinA (1)
e
Tangent : ~ = tan A a=btanA (2)
~+~=~ m
a = v'cCTb5(e - b) = Vme (8)
a = e sin A = b tan A (9)
b
b
= v' (e +·~)(e - a) =
= e cos A = a cot A = a/tan A
vnc (10)
(11)
c = ~= m +n (12)
e = a cosec A = a/sin A = b sec A = b/cos A (13)
Area = ! ab = ! all cot A = ! b2 tan A (14)
= t e2 sin 2A = ! be sin A = ! ac sin B (15)
The perpendicular (p) to the hypotenuse is the mean proportional (or mean geo-
metrical progression) between the segments of the hypotenuse,
·See Sect. 3(ili) for trigonometrical relationships.
6.3 (i) PLANE FIGURES 273
m p
p Ii' p =
= vmn (16)
man b
also -;; =c'
b = ;-. (17)
Any triangle inscribed in a semicircle, with the diameter forming one side, is a right
angle triangle.
Equilateral Triangle (Fig. 6.2a)
Each side = a
Each angle = 60°
m = t a
h = V3 m = (V3/2)a ~ 0.866a (18)
rtC.G·2A area = t ah = (V3;4)a 2 ~ O.433a 2 (19)
Any triangle (Fig. 6.2b)
Area = t bh = vs(s - a)(s - b)(s - c) (20)
where b = base, h = height, s = t (a + b + c).
abc
sin A = sinB = sin C (21)
a 2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A
b2 = c 2 + a 2 - 2ca cos B } (22)
rIC.6·~ nC.6-4
= length of arc = r A
s (A in radians) (38)
= 7T rA/I80 (A in degrees) (39)
h = r - a = T (1 - cos A/2) (40)
Area of sector = ! rs = ! r2A (A in radians) (41)
= 7T rZ A/360 (A in degrees) (42)
Area of segment (bounded by chord c, curve s)
= ! r2.(A - sin A) (A in radians) (43)
= ! r (s - r sin sir) (s/r in radians) (44)
= ! [r (s - c) + ch] for segments less than half a circle. (45)
Ellipse (Fig. 6.7)
The ellipse has two foci, F and F', and for any point P on the perimeter,
FP + PF' is constant = FB + BF' = FA + AF' (46)
Major axis = AB = 2a ; . minor axis = CD = 2b (47)
Area of ellipse = 7Tab ~ 0.7854 major axis x minor axis (48)
Perimeter ~ a (4 + I.Im + I.2m 2 ), where m = b/a (49)
An ellipse may be drawn by putting a pin into the paper at each focus (F, F'), tying
the ends of a short length of cotton thread around the pins leaving a slack portion in'
the middle, and ·running a pencil point around in the loop of the thread.
To find the foci, draw an arc with centre at C and radius a to intersect the X axis
(AB) at F and F'.
Parabola (Fig. 6.8)
The parabola has a focus (F) and a directrix (MN) and for any point P on the para·
bola,
FP = PM where PM is the perpendicular to the directrix (50)
Area of segment cut off by chord PP' = (2/3) ch. (51)
nc.. , .•
Trape~oi4 rule I
Area = d(!Yl + Y2 + Y3 + .......... + Yn-l + !Yn) (53)
where d = width of each strip
and Y D Y 2, Y 3 •••• Y n are measured lengths of each ·of the equidistant parallel chords.
Note that the first (Yl) and the last (Yn) do not cut the area, and maybe zero if the
surface is sharply curved.
Simpson's Rule
d
Area = 3" (Yl + 4Y2 + 2Y3 + 4Y4 + 2ys ... + 2Yn-2 +4Yn-l + Yn) (54)
where n must be odd
d = width of each strip
and Y 1 • • • Y n are measured lengths of equidistant parallel chords.
F"IG.6·1I
Examples of angles in all four sectors are shown in Fig. 6.12. It will be seen that,
for any angle A, the position of OP is the same for a movement of angle A in a positive
direction, or for a negative movement of (360° - A); for example,
+ 330° = - (360° - 330°) =:= - 30°.
In the case of angles greater than 360° we are generally only concerned with the final
position of OP, so that for these cases we may subtract 360°, or any multiple of 360°,
from the angle so as to give a value less than 360°. For example 390° = 360° + 30° ;
800° = 720° + 80°; 1125° = 1080° + 45°.
In trigonometry it is also necessary
to define the polarity of the three
sides of the triangles from which
we derive the sine, cosine and
tangent. The hypotenuse (OP I)
~--H---~~~~X
is always positive (see Fig. 6.13) . .i~
The base (OXI) is positive when X <t,
is to the right hand side of 0, and ~~
negative when X is to the left of 0 " P3
FIG.I·13
(e.g. OX2). The perpendicular is rtG.6·12
positive when P is above X (e.g. PI Xl) and negative when P is below X (e.g. = p.).
1st Quadrant: All sides positive (OXlP I).
Sine, cosine, tangent all positive.
2nd Quadrant: OX 2 negative, other sides positive.
Sine = X~ 2/0P 2 which is positive.
Cosine = OX 2 /0P 2 which is negative.
Tangent = X 2P 2/0X 2 which is negative.
3rd Quadrant: OX 2, X 2P a negative; OP 3 positive.
Sine =. X 2P a/OP a which is negative.
Cosine = OX 2 /0P 3 which is negative.
Tangent = X 2P 3/0X 2 which is positive.
4th Quadrant: OXu OP. positive, XIP, negative.
Sine = X lP ,lOP, which is negative.
Cosine = OXt/OP, which is positive.
Tangent = XlP ,/0X l which is negative.
A convenient method for determining graphically the value of the sine, cosine and
tangent of an angle is shown in Fig. 6.14, where the circle is drawn with radius 1
(to any convenient scale, say 1 inch). To the same scale, PX gives the value of the
sine, OX the cosine and AT the tangent.
" Inverse" functions
If sin 8 = n, we may describe 8 as the angle whose sine is n. This is convention-
ally written in the form
8 = sin- 1 n,
where the " sin- 1 " is to be regarded purely as an abbreviation for" the angle whose
sine is."
6.3 (iii) TRIGONOMETRICAL RELATIONSHIPS 277
(360°) it will 'pass through 21T radians, and if it makes f revolutions per second, then
the angular velocity will be
w = 21Tf radians per second
where f = frequency in cycles per second.
In most mathematical work it is more convenient to write w than to write 21Tf.
" cause" and " effect/' the " cause '? (known as the independent variable) is plotted
horizontally on the x axis, and the " effect" (known as the dependent variable) vertic-
ally on the y axis. In other cases the choice of axes is optional.
Any convenient scales may be used, and the x and y scales may differ.
The procedure to be adopted to plot a typical equation
y = 2X2 + 4x - 5 _
is as follows. Select suitable values of x (which will be regarded as the independent
variable) and calculate the value of y for each :
x = 3 y = IS -+ 12 - 5 = + 25
x=2 y= 8+ S-5=+1l
x=1 y= 2+ 4-5=+ 1
x:;=O y= 0+ 0-5= 5
x=~1 y= 2- 4-5= 7
x=-2 y= 8 - S-5= 5
X' = - 3 y = IS - 12 - 5 = + 1
Then plot these points, as in Fig. 6.19A and draw a smooth curve through them.
280 (i) GRAPHS 6.5
The tangent at any point (e.g. P in Fig. 6.19A) is a straight line which is drawn so
as to touch the curve at the point. The slope of the tangent, which is the same as
that of the curve at the point, is defined as the tangent of the angle 8 which it makes
with the X axis. .Between points B and C on the curve, 8 is positive, therefore tan 8
is positive and the slope is called positive. Between points B and A the angle 8 is
negative, and the slope negative. At point B, 8 = 0 and the slope is zero. It is
important to remember that the curve normally extends in both directions indefinitely
unless it has limits, or turns back on itself. It is therefore advisable, when plotting
an unknown function, to take very large positive and negative values of x and cal-
culate the corresponding values of y, even though the points cannot be plotted on
the graph paper. This will indicate the general trend of the curve beyond the limits
of the graph paper.
-X--~~--~-----_71----~--~~~L-~----~--_+X
8
-10
FIG. 6. 19A
of the " cycles " has the same linear length. Additional" cycles " may be added as
desired (for examples see a.v.c. characteristics in Chapter 27).
FIG. 6.19 B
These points have been plotted and a smooth curve drawn through them. Similar
curves could be drawn for any other plate voltage, thus forming a " family" of curves.
This is actually a three-dimensional graphical diagram reduced to a form suitable
for a fiat surface. •
(iv) Vectors and j notation
Any physical quantity which possesses both magnitude and direction is called a
vector. Vectors may be represented on paper by means of straight lines with arrow-
heads. The length of the line indicates (to some arbitrary scale) the magnitude of
the quantity, and the direction of the line and arrow-head indicates the direction in
which the vector is operating. The position of the line on the paper is of no con-
!ZJ
sequence.
Addition of vectors
Vectors may be added by drawing them in tandem, and taking the resultant from the
A B beginning of the first one to the end of the
IG.6. 21c. last one. Fig. 6.21A shows two vectors,
:;d
a and b, which are added together to give
the resultant c. Exactly the same result
is obtained by placing a and b together, as
in Fig. 6.21B, completing the parallelo-
gram, and taking c as the diagonal. Vec-
a a tors are generally printed in bold face type,
to distinguish them from scalar values,
which have no direction, although they
~
,,,
FIG.6.22 have magnitude and sign (Le. positive or
negative).
,
'.b
,,
I
Vector negative sign
A vector (- a) has the same magnitude
\1
.'\j .
as a vector (a) but its direction is reversed.
Subtraction of vectors
The vector to be subtracted is reversed in
direction, and then the vectors are added.
In Fig. 6.22, to find a - b, the direction of b is reversed to give (- b) and then a
and (- b') are added to give the resultant (a - b).
Multiplication of a vector by a number (n)
The resultant vector has the same direction, but its length is increased n times
e.g. a x n = na
I
I FIG.6.23
I
I
I
e Ip
o~~~--------~--------~
I---bcose~
Components of a vector
Any vector can be resolved into two component vectors in any two desired directions.
For example, in Fig. 6.21 the vector c can be resolved into the component vectors
a and b. If the component vectors are at right angles to one another they are called
rectangular components; in such a case they are usually taken horizontally (along
the X axis) and vertically (along the Yaxis). The vector OA in Fig. 6.24 can be
resolved into two rectangular components OB and OC where
lOBI = 10AI cos (J, lOCI = 10AI sin (J.
Polar coordinates
An alternative form of defining a vector OP is
OP = r L8
where r is the magnitude of OP, and L 8 indicates that there is an angle 8 between it
and OX (Fig. 6.25).
A graphical device has been described* for the con- ~
version from complex to polar .forms.
F"IG.6.25
Rotating vectors** (j notation)
If a vector X (OAin Fig. 6.26) is rotated 90° in a
positive direction to a position OB, the new vector is
called jX, and j is described as an " operator"
which rotates a vector by goo without changing
its magnitude.
If the vector jX (OB in Fig. 6.26) is operated upon
by j, it will be rotated 90° to the position OC, ~----L.---:::'---~A~-
where it is called pX, the j2 indicating that it has
been rotated 2 x 90° == 180° from its original position OA.
If the vector PX (OC in Fig. 6.26) is operated upon by j, it will be rotated 90° to the
position aD, where it is called pX, the p indicating that it has been rotated 3 x 90 0
= 270° from its original position OA.
If the vector PX (aD in Fig. 6.26) is operated upon by j, it will be rotated 90° to
the position OA where it would be calledj4X, thej4 indicating that it has been rotated
4 x 90° = 360° from its original position OA.
There is an important deduction which is immediately obvious. j2 indicates a
B reversal of direction which is the same as
a change of sign. The operator j2 is
therefore equivalent to multiplication
FIG 6.26 'by - 1.
jX If the operator j2 is applied twice in succes-
sion, the result should be equivalent to multi-
plication by - 1 twice in succession, i.e.
e ~---:-=::--....:...-t;.------.:~_.J ( - 1) x (- 1) = + 1. This is so, because
;2X A the operator j4 brings the vector back to its
original direction.
Since the operator j2 is equivalent to multi-
plication by - 1, we may deduce that the
operator j is equivalent to multiplication by
v-=--i, even though this in itself does not
o mean anything.
Operator Equivalent to multiplication by
j V=!
j2 -1
P -V=!
j4 +1
-j -V=---! (same as operator P)
*Snowdon, C. "A vector calculating device," Electronic.Eng. 17.199 (Sept. 1944) 146.
**Also called" radius vectors." In pure mathematics" i" is used in place of "j."
284 (iv) VECTORS AND j NOTATION 6.5
FIG.6.27 ~ FIG.6.28 ~
RI
b + jc
where" b = a cos 8
and c = a sin 8.
The expression b + jc is called a complex quantity, the
word " complex" indicating that the addition is not to be
made algebraic:ally, but by vector addition.
This use of a complex quantity such as b + jc is not
limited to true vectors, but is found useful in many applica- o'--"'--~--.......~
tions in electrical engineering. Its application to alter-
nating currents is covered in Chapter 4, and the following treatment is a general
introduction to the methods of handling complex quantities.
Modulus
The modulus is the magnitude of the original vector (a in Fig. 6.31) and is numeric-
ally equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the magnitudes of the two
components,
lal = Vb 2 + c2 (1)
Addition and subtraction of complex quantities
The primary rule is to place all " real" numbers together in one group and all
" imaginary" numbers in another. These two groups must be kept entirely separate
and distinct throughout. The final form should be
(. ..) + j( . ..).
·Or i in pure mathematics.
286 (i) COMPLEX ALGEBRA WITH RECTANGULAR COORDINATES 6.6
Thus, in the general case, the trigonometrical operator (cos 0 + j sin 0)" gives a
rotation of an angle nO which, as explained above, is equivalent to a trigonometrical
operator
(cos nO + j sin nO).
We have, in this way, proved De Moivre's Theorem for the case when n is a positive
integer, and indicated the significance of the Theorem.
Application of De Moivre's Theorem:
1. To express cos nO and sin nO in terms of cos 0 and sin 0, where n is a positive
integer.
Cos nO + j sin nO = (cos 0 + j sin 0)'"
- I) . .
= cos'" 0 + n;. COS"'-l .
O. sm 0 + -n(n- 2 - J2. COSn-2 0. sm2 0 + ...
(as in Sect. 2, eqn. 83).
Then equate the real and imaginary parts of the equation, giving
n(n - 1) n(n - l)(n - 2)(n - 3) .
cos nO = cos"'O - - - 2 - cosn- 2 0. sin2 0 +. 4! cosn-,O.
sin' 0 + . . . (15)
n(n - 1)(n - 2)
sin nO = ncos-10. sin 0 - --~--- cos- 3 0. sin 3 0 +
n(n - 1)(n - 2)(n - 3)(n - 4) _ .
5! - - - - - - - cos" 50. sm 50 + ... (16)
2. To express cos 0 and sin 0 in terms of 0, write 0 in the form n( O/n) and expand
the sine and cosine as in eqns. (15) and (16). When n becomes large, cos (O/n)
may be taken as unity and sin (O/n) as (O/n) itself. In the limit as n tends to
infinity it can then be shown that
02 0' O·
cos 0 = 1 - 2! + 4! - 6i + . . . (17)
Os 05 07
sin 0 = 0 - 3! + 5! - 7! + . . . (18)
where 0 is expressed in radians.
3. To express sin 0 and cos 0 in terms of €iO.
By substitutingj 0 in place of x in the Exponential Series (Sect. 2, eqn. 87), and by
using the relationship
€,O = cos 0 + j sin 0
and equations (17) and (18) we may obtain
E'O - t iO
sin 0 = ----v-~ (19)
EiO + E-iO
and cos 0 = --2---- (20)
6.7 (i) SLOPE AND RATE OF CHANGE 289
p\()'
I
I F
I
I
I
E
FIG.6.32A
Definition
The rate of change is the amount of change in the function, per unit change in the
value of the independent variable. The rate of change of the function is therefore
the ratio of change in the function to the change in the variable which produces it.
Consider the equation for a straight line
y = ax + b
where a and b are constants. Let us take two values of x, one equal to Xl and the other
(Xl + Llx), where Llx is a small increment of x.
Point 1: X = Xl :. YI = aX I + b (1)
Point 2: X = (Xl + Llx) :. Y2 = a(xi + Llx) + b (2)
Subtracting (1) from (2), (Y2 - YI) = a.Llx
Putting (Y2 - YI) = Lly, Lly = a.Llx
Lly
Dividing both sides by Ll x, Ll X = a (3)
Here Lly is the amount of change in the function for a change Llx in the independent
variable. The" rate of change" is defined as the amount of change in the function
per unit change in the independent variable, that is
rate of change = Lly/ Llx (4)
Referring to Fig. 6.34, we have a graph of y = ax + b which is, of course, a straight
line cutting the Y axis at a height b above the origin. The first point (xu YI) is at P,
and the second point (Xl + Llx, YI + Lly) is at Q. In the preceding argument we
found that Lly/ Llx = a. In Fig. 6.34 Llx = PR and Lly = RQ, so that Lly/ Llx =
RQ/PR, which is the slope of the line y = ax + b. Thus
RQ Lly
slope = PR = Llx = a (5)
Equations (4) and (5) prove that the rate of change is the same as the slope
for a straight line.
We now proceed to consider the general case when the function is not linear. In
Fig. 6.35 there is plotted a function which may be of the form
y = ax 2 + bx + c
where a, b and c are constants. As before, the independent variable ex) is plotted
horizontally, while the dependent variable (y) is plotted vertically. The vertical
coordinate of any point P (i.e. AP in Fig. 6.35) represents, to its proper scale, the value
ofax 2 + bx + c which is a function of x, while the horizontal coordinate (OA) re-
presents, to its own scale, the value of x.
FIG. 6.341
__ 1 _____ ~
--r--4.1
O~----------~X~I---~·+-6X----
As with the simpler case of the straight line, take a second point (Q) with its X
coordinate increased by Ll x. Also, as before, call the increment in the y coordinate
Lly. It will therefore be seen that, commencing at point P, an increment (Llx = PC)
in the value of X results in an increment (Lly = CQ) in the value of y.
The average rate of change over this increment is, as before, Lly/ Llx which is
the slope of the chord PQ and the tangent of the angle O2 which PQ makes with the
horizontal. If now, leaving point P unchanged, we gradually move Q along the curve
6.7 (ii) DIFFERENTIATION 291
eii) Differentiation
We may express the foregoing argument in the mathematical form of limits-
Lt (Jy/ Jx) = tan 81 (6)
Jx --; 0
which says that the limit (as Jx is made smaller and approaches zero) of Jy/ Jx
is tan 8 1 or the slope of the tangent PT, which is the instantaneous rate of increase
at point P.
This is given the symbol dy/dx which is "the differential coefficient (or de-
rivative) of y with regard to x," and is spoken of as " dee y by dee x."
It should be noted that dy / dx is a single symbol, not a fraction, and is merely a
short way of writing
Lt (Jy/ Jx).
Jx --; 0
Differentiation is the process of finding the differential coefficient (or derivative).
Some examples are given below and in each case the result may be obtained by con-
sidering the increase in the function which results from an increase J x in the inde-
pendent variable.
Note: u and v are functions of x; a, b and e are constants.
1. Derivative of a constant [y = e] dy / dx = 0 (7)
2. Derivative of a variable with respect to itself
[y = x] : dy/dx = dx/dx = 1 (8)
3. Derivative of a variable multiplied by a constant
[y = ex] : dy/dx = e (9)
4. Derivative of powers of a variable
[y = X2] : dy/ dx = 2x (10)
[y = X3]: dy/dx = 3x 2 (11)
[y = X4] : dy/dx = 4x 3 (12)
[y = xn] : dy / dx = nx n- 1 (13)
This applies for n negative as well as positive.
S. Derivative of a constant times a function of a variable
[y = ex2 ] : dy/dx = 2ex (14)
[y = e.u] : . d~/dx == ".du/dx (15)
6. Derivative of fractional powers of a variable
[y = xl] : ' dy/dx =- lx-1 (16)
[y = x1/n]: dy/dx = (l/n)x(1jnl-l (17)
7. Derivative of a sum or difference
[y = u ± v]:· dy/dx = du/dx ± dv/dx (18)
[y = ax 3 + bx2 - ex] : dy/dx = 3ax 2 + 2bx - e (19)
8. Derivative of a product of two functions
dv du
[y = u.v] : dy/dx = u~rx+ v dx (20)
[y = (x + 1) X2] : dy/dx = (x + 1).2x + x .1 2
= 3x + 2x 2
(21)
9. Derivative of a quotient ot two functions
(22)
[y = u/v] :
lI. [y =
e]: dy/dx = €3: (25)
[y =
a.€m3:] : dy / dx = a.m.€"':11 (26)
[y=€"]: dy/dx = €". du/dx (21)
12. [y = log EX] : dy/dx = l/x (28)
[y = logE u] : dy/dx = (l/u)(du/dx) (29)
[y = 10gio u] : dy/dx = (l/u)(du/dx) loglo€ (30)
= (O.4343)(I/u)(du/dx) (31)
13. [y = sin x] : dy/dx = cos X (32)
[y = cos x] : dy/dx = - sin X (33)
[y = tan x] : dy /dx = secll X (34)
[y = cot x] : dy/dx = - cosecll X (35)
fy = sec x] : dy/dx = sec x. tan X (36)
[y = cosec x] : dy/dx = - cosec x. cot X (37)
14. [y = sin- l x] : dy/dx = I/Vl - X2*t (38)
[y = cos- l x] : dy/dx = - I/Vl - xlltt (39)
[y = tan-l x] : dy/dx = 1/(1 + X2)t (40)
15. [y = sinh x] : dy/dx = cosh X (41)
[y = cosh x] : dy/dx = sinh X (42)
[y = tanh x] : dy/dx x. = sechll (43)
Successive differentiation
If y is a function of x, then dy / dx will also be a function of x and can therefore be
differentiated with respect to x, giving
d (dY ) . .. dlly
dx dx which IS wntten as dx ll
and spoken of as " dee two y by dee x squared." Here again this is only a symbol
which must be handled in accordance with its true meaning. The same procedure
may be applied again and again.
Example: y = x" • .• • ••.•... function F(x)
ix = nx,,-l • • •• • ••...• derivative F'(x)
2
d
dxy2 = n( n - 1)x ,,-II .•..•• second d ' . F"()
envattve x
t
Part of curve: P to M M MtoN N NtoQ
Slope (dy/dx): + ve 0 -ve o + ve
d 2y/dx2 : - ve + ve
A maximum is indicated by: dy / dx = 0
d 2y / dx2 negative
A minimum is indicated by : dy / dx = 0
d 2y / dx 2 positive
t x measured in radians.
·Positive sign if sin-l x lies in first or fourth quadrant, negative sign if sin -1 x lies in second or third
quadrant.
tNegative sign if cos- 1 x lies in first or second quadrant, positive sign if cos -1 x lies in thP"d or fourth
quadrant.
6.7 (ii) DIFFERENTIATION 293
(iii) Integration
Integration is merely the inverse of differentiation. For example-
d
Differentiation- dx (4x 3 + 2) = 12x 2
The sign f (called" integral ") before a quantity indicates that the operation of
integration is to be performed on the expression which follows.
The dx which follows the expression is merely a short way of writing" with respect
to x." Just as the constant 2, in the function above, disappeared during the process
of differentiation, so it is necessary to replace it in the inverse procedure of integration.
But when we are given the integral alone, we do not know what was the value of the
constant, so we add an unknown constant C, the value of which may be determined
in some cases from other information available.
Useful rules for integrals
a, b, c = constants; C = constant of integration j u and v are functions of x.
1. f a.F(x) dx = I
a F(x) dx; I
a dx = ax + C (52)
4. J dx =
aZ (az/log E a) + C (55)
5. J = E
Z
dx E
Z
+ C; f ~dx = (l/a)E"z +C (56)
10.
dx
Jax + b =
J+
ax
1
b dx = (1Ia) logE (ax + b) + C (62)
12.
x dx
J(ax2 -+ iil =
f (ax
x
+ 1 [ b
b)2 dx = a2 ax +b + logE (ax + b)] + C (64)
13. f x dx
ax + b
=f
ax
X2
+ b
dx = ~3 [(ax + b)2
a 2 - 2b(ax + b) +
b2log E (ax + b)] + C (65)
14. f ~~ = J__
x 2 +a2
1-
x 2 +a2
dx =
a
! tan-I ~a + C = - ~a cocl ~_a + C (66)
dx {I 1 x - a 1 a - x
15.
f =
---
X2 - a2
-2- - d
" x -
x
a2 -
= --log
2a
--
x +a
+ C = -2a log
E
--
a + x
+c (67)
16.
f./
V a2
f dx
- x2
•/
V
2 -
a- - x
1
_2 dx = sin- 1 (xlq) + C = - cos- 1 (xla) +C (6S)
17.
f vx ±a =.f /
./ 2
dx
- 2
Vx
2
1
±a
2 dx = log E (x + V. /x- - --
± a +C
2 2
) (69)
20. f = -
tan ax dx (lla) logE cos ax +C = (1Ia) log" sec ax +C (72)
21. f =
cosec ax dx (1Ia) logE (cosec ax - cot ax) +C (73)
= (l/a) logE tan (axI2) +C (74)
= (lla) log" (sec ax + tan ax) + C
22. f sec ax dx (75)
= (1/a) log" tan [(axI2) + 1T 14] + C (76)
f
23. cot ax dx = ella) logE sin ax + (; = - Ola) lo~" cosec ax + C (77)
Areas by integration
If the area under a given portion of a curve is A (Fig. 6.37), then a small increase
A x on the horizontal axis causes an increase AA in area, where
JA = Ax(y + lAy).
As Jx and Jy are made smaller, in the limiting case as Ax approaches zero, the value
of (y + lAy) approaches y,
Thus A
dx
Therefore dA
=
= y =
=
f y dx
y.dx
=
= F(x) dx
fF(x) dx (83)
A I I
I ,
I I The area is therefore given by the in-
I I
B
tegral of the function, over any desired
range of values of x.
Example
To find the are] under the curve y = 3x2 from x = 1 to x = 4.
A = f 3x dx = x + C 2 3
f xx == S3x2 dx or fS
I I
3x2 dx.
These limits are called the limits of integration, and the integral is called the de-
finite integral. For distinction, the unlimited integral is called the indefinite
integral.
The definite integral is the difference between the values of the integral for x = b
and x = a -
Owing to the subtraction, the constant of integration does not appear in definite
integrals.
Special properties of definite integrals
(86)
Examples:
7T/z
h
r
7T
J o sin (J de
~.
-- cos
J
(J
0
-= [ - cos 7T /2 + cos 0] = 0 + 1 = 1 (87)
6.7 (iii) INTEGRATION 297
f: 1z
cos 0 dO [sin 0 J: 12
~ [sin ~j2 - sin 0] ~1- 0~1 (88)
f: 7T
sin 0 dO [ - cos 0J:7T = [- cos 21T + cos 0] = - 1 +1= 0 (91)
f: 7T
cos 0 dO [Sin 0 J:7T =-= [sin 27T - sin 0] = 0 - 0 = 0 (92)
f: f:
7T 7T
sin2 nO dO = 7T cos 2 nOd 0 = 7T (9'6)
f: f:
7T 7T
sin mO cos nO dO = 0 sin m 0 r!n nOd 0 = 0 (97)
f: f:
7T 7T
cos mOcos nO dO = 0 dO = 21T (98)
f:
7T
sin nO cos nO dO = 0 (99)
Ya11 = _1_f4
4-1 1
3x2 dx = ~rlx~l4
3...1
= ! [64 - IJ
3 1
63
= 3- = 21.
E a11
1 f7T
= Em - sin 0 dO = Em
1 r
-l- cos
2
-Em-
7T 0 7T 7T
This is the average value of a sine wave voltage. It was taken from 0 to ." since
this is the range over which it is positive. The other half cycle i!i similar but negative;
so that the average over the whole cycle is zero.
3.
The sum of the first few terms of Taylor's Series gives a good approximation to f(x)
for values of x near x = a.
Examples of the use of Taylor's Series :
(1) To expand sin (a + h) in powers of h.
f(a) = sin a andf(h) = sin h
Differentiating in successive steps we get
f'(a) = cos a
f"(a) = - sin a
f"'(a) = - cos a
f""(a) = sin a
Applying the alternative form of Taylor's Series,
h2 h3 h'
sin (a + h) = sin a + h cos a - 2i sin a -31 cos a + 4! sin a + . . . (102)
(2) Similarly
h2 h3 h'
cos (a + h) = cos h - h sin a - 2! cos a + 3-' sin a + 4-' cos a + . " (103)
6.7 (v) MACLAURIN'S SERIES 299
cos x
. .
+ J sm x =\1 -
I
iT +
x2 x' x6
4! - 61
).1 x3 x5
+ . .. + J ~ x - 3! + 51 -- 7! + .. .J
x7 '\
. j2 x 2 j3 x 3 j'x4
= 1 + JX + iT + 3T + 41 + . . . (107)
Also it may be proved that
x2 x3 x'
log€ (1 + x) = x - 2 + "3 - 4- + ... (108)
" j2x2 j3 x 3 j'x'
and E;z = 1 + JX + 2 (- + 3T + 4! + ...
= cos x +j sin x (see eqn. 107) (109)
Bn =-
1 f211 F( 8) cos n 8 d 8 where n = 0,1,2,3, etc.
11 0
F
21T
Special cases
(1) F( 8) is an even function
If the waveform is symmetrical about the y axis (e.g. Fig. 6.39), F( 8) is called an
even function and An = 0, giving the simplified form
F(8) = Bo/2 + B1 cos 8 + B2 cos 28 + B3 cos 38 + . . . (2)
This is the equation which applies to all types of distortion introduced by valves.
(2) F( 8) is an odd function
If the waveform is such that the value of y is equal in magnitude but opposite in
sign for plus and minus values of x (e.g. Fig. 6.40), F( 8) is called an odd function and
Btl = 0, giving the simplified form:
F( 8) = A 1 sin 8 + A z sin 28 + A 3 sin 38 + . . . (3)
This is the equation for the condition when the fundamental and all the harmonics
commence together at zero.
(3) F( 8) = - F( 8 ± 11)
If the waveform (Fig. 6.41) is such that the value of y is equal in magnitude but
opposite in sign for x = Xl and x = (Xl ± 11), the expansion contains only odd
harmonics :
F( 8) = A 1 sin 8 + A 3 sin 38 + A 5 sin 5 8 + ...
+ B 1 cos 8 + B 3 cos 38 + B 5 cos 58 + . . . (4)
(4) F( 8) is an even function, with the positive and negative portions identical
and symmetrical (Fig. 6.42) :
F( 8) = B 1 cos 8 + B 3 cos 3 8 + B 5 cos 5 8 + . . . (5)
or if the origin is taken at A,
F( 8) = B 1 sin 8 - B 3 sin 38 + B 5 sin 58 - . . . (6)
This is the equation for a balanced push-pull amplifier.
The general equation (1) can also be expressed in either of the alternative
forms:
F(8) = Bo/2 + C 1 sin (8 + CP1) + C 2 sin (28 + CP2) + .. , (7)
6.8 (i) PERIODIC WAVES AND THE FOURIER SERIES 301
o o·
Y=;;:2
8E( cos 3 8
cos8+--9-+~+
cos 5 8
...
)
(10)
Y
2E(sm. 8 -
=;;-
sin 2 8
-2-- + -sin33-8 - sin 48
-4-' + ... ) (] 1)
FIG. 6.43
302 (i) PERIODIC WAVES AND THE FOURIER SERIES 6.S
o
n
Fig. 6.43
methods for carrying out the calculations have been described. Some are based on
equal divisions of time (or angle) while others are on equal divisions of voltage.
In the harmonic analysis of the distortion introduced by valves on resistive
loads, it is possible to make use of certain properties which simplify the calculations :
FIG. 6.44
if~ r-..I""
,01)
,I
~I
, /
I i I
(1) All such distortion gives a waveform which is symmetrical on either side of the
vertical lines (ordinates) at the positive and negative peaks.
(2) It is therefore only necessary to analyse over half the cycle, from one positive
peak to the following negative peak, or vice versa.
(3) Even harmonic distortion results in positive and negative half cycles of di...4fcrent
shape and area, thus causing a steady (" rectified ") component.
(4) Odd harmonic distortion results in distorted waveform, but with the positive
and negative half cycles similar in shape,
(5) Even harmonics are in phase with the positive fundamental peak, and out of
phase with the negative peak, or vice versa; they are always maxima when the funda-
mental is zero.
(6) Odd harmonics are always exactly in phase or 180° out of phase with both
positive and negative fundamental peaks, and are zero when the fundamental is zero.
The relative phases of the fUIidamental (HI) and the harmonics (up to H 5) are shown
in Fig. 6.45. The fundamental and third, fifth and higher order odd harmonics
have zero amplitude at 0°, 180° and 360° on the fundamental scale. The second,
fourth, and higher order even harmonics reach their maximum values (either positive
or negative) at 0°, 90°, 180°, 270° and 360° on the fundamental scale.
304 (iii) GRAPHICAL HARMONIC ANALYSIS 6.8
The amplitudes of the harmonics as drawn in Fig. 6.45 have been exaggerated for
convenience in drawing, while their relative magnitudes are quite arbitrary. Their
relative phases are, however, quite definite.
In proceeding with Graphical Harmonic Analysis it may be shown that it is possible
to select thirteen points on the X axis which will enable the exact values of the first,
second, third and fourth harmonics to be calculated (Ref. C9) on the assumption that
there are no harmonics of higher order than the fifth, or that these are negligibly small.
These points are limited to the range from 90 0 to 270 0 on the fundamental scale, as in
Fig. 6.45. They may be expressed in terms of the grid voltage E c, the static operating
point being - E c and the operating point swinging from E" = 0 on the one side
to 2E t on the other side.
It is only necessary to determine the plate currents at the specified grid voltages,
to insert these into the formulae given in the article and to calculate the. values of the
harmonics.
The preceding exact method has been approximated by R.C.A. (Ref. CI0) to give
greater ease in handling. In the approximation there are eleven specified points
in place of 13 in the exact form, the values of the grid voltages being (see Fig. 6.45) :
0; -0.191Ec; -0.293Er,; -O.5Ec; -0.691Ec; -Ee; -1.309Ec; -1.5Ec;
-1.707Ec; -1.809Ee; -2.0Ec.
These have been approximated by R.C.A. to the nearest decimal point, and the
approximate values have been used in the "eleven selected ordinate method" of
Chapter 13 Sect. 3(iv)D and Fig. 13.24.
The equation giving the second harmonic distortion-eqn. (28) in Chapter 13 Sect.
3(iv)--on1y requires the values of plate current at three points. This is an exact
form and is used for triodes in Chapter 13 Sect. 2(i) eqns. (6) to (7b) inclusive and
Fig. 13.2.
The "five selected ordinate method," described in. Chapter 13 Sect. 3(iv)A
and used for calculating second and third harmonic distortion in pentodes, is exact
provided that there is no harmonic higher than the third. It is, however, a very close
approximation under all normal conditions. The same remarks also apply to the
simple method for calculating third harmonic distortion in balanced push-
pull amplifiers, described in Chapter 13 Sect. 5(iii) eqn. (23) and Fig. 13.37.
An alternative method, based on equal grid voltage divisions, has been devised
by Espley (Ref C6). This gives harmonics up to one less than the number of voltage
points. Two applications are described in Chapter 13 Sect. 3(iv)-five ordinates
giving second, third and fourth harmonic distortion, and seven ordinates giving
up to sixth harmonic distortion.
When the loadline is a closed loop, as occurs with a partially reactive load, these
conditions and equations do not apply, or are only approximated.
SECTION 9: REFERENCES
(A) HELPFUL TEXTBOOKS ON MATHEMATICS FOR RADIO
Elementary :
Sawyer, W. W ... Mathematician's Delight" (a Pelican Book, A121, published by Penguin Books,
England and U.S.A. 1943). Possibly the best introduction to mathematics.
Cooke, N. M. and J. B. Orleans, .. Mathematics essential to electricity and radio" (McGraw-Hill,
New York and London, 1943), Highly recommended for general use. 418 pages.
Everitt, W. L.(Editor) " FundamentaIsofradio" (Prentice-Hall Inc. New Yotk,1943). Chapter 1 only.
" Radio Handbook Supplement" (The Incorporated Radio Society of Great Britain, London, 2nd ed.,
1942). Chapters 2, 9.
" Radio Handbook" (10th edit., Editors and Engineers, Los Angeles, California). Chapter 28. (Not
11 th edition.)
Basic:
Colebrook, F. M ... Basic Mathematics for Radio Students" (I1Ufe and Sons Ltd., London, 1946)
Complete textbooks. commencing from elementary level: .
Dull, R. W." Mathematics for Engineers" (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York and London, 2nd edit.
1941). Covers whole ground. 780 pages.
Cooke, N. M ... Mathematics for Electricians and Radiomen" (McGraw-Hill Book Coy., New York
and London, 1942). Generally at lower level than R. W. Dull and less comprehensive Useful
for those with limited mathematical background. 604 pages. .
6.9 REFERENCES 305
Smith, Carl E. " Applied Mathematics for Radio and Communication Engineers" (McGraw-Hill Book
Coy., New York and London, 1945). Excellent treatment in limited space. 336 pages.
Wang, T. J. "Mathematics of Radio Communications" (D. van Nostrand Coy., New York, 1943).
371 pages.
Rose, W. N. "Mathematics for Engineers" Parts 1 and 2 (Chapman and Hall Ltd., London, 2nd
edition 1920).
Textbooks commencing at higher level:
Warren, A. G. "Mathematics Applied to Electrical Engineering" (Chapman and HaIl, London, 1939).
384 pages.
Sokolnikoff, 1. S. and E. S. " Higher Mathematics for Engineers and Physicists" (McGraw-Hill Book
Coy., New York and London, 2nd edit., 1941). 587 pages.
Toft, L., and A. D. D. McKay" Practical Mathematics" (Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd., London.
2nd edit., 1942). 612 pages.
Jaeger, J. C. "An Introduction to Applied Mathematics" (Oxford University Press).
Limited application!
Sturley, K. R. "Radio Receiver Design" Part 1 (Chapman and Hall, London, 1943). Appendix lA-
; notation; 2A-Fourier Series.
Golding, E. W., " Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments" (Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons
Ltd., London, 3rd edit., 1944). Chapter IS-Wave forms and their determination.
Lawrence, R. W. "Principles of Alternating Currents" (McGraw-Hill Book Coy., New York and
London,2nd ed., 1935). Chapter 4--Non-sinusoidal waves.
Eshbach, O. W." Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals" (John Wiley and Sons, New York; Chap-
man and HaIl, London, 1944). Section I-Mathematical and Physical Tables: Section 2-
Mathematics.
Also other handbooks.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
FIC.7·,
an amplifying valve into an oscillator (see Chapter 24). Negative feedback is used
mainly in amplifiers, both at radio and audio frequencies, although this Handbook
covers only low frequency :l.pplications.
The voltage {3E 0 may be proportional to Eo, in which case it is described as voltage
feedback; or it may be proportional to the current through the load, when it is
called current feedback. These two are, of course, identical if the load is a constant
resistance, since the v.oltage and current are then proportional.
Bridge feedback is a combination of voltage and current feedback.
A network may be inserted in the feedback circuit to change the phase of the fed-
back voltage, or to change its magnitude and/or phase so as to discriminate between
different frequencies.
Usc of symbols
Black (Ref. AI) and others use the symbols p,{3 to indicate the same quaLtity
which is here indicated by {3A. Some authorities use the symbols A{3, but in celtain
equations (e.g those involving effective plate resistance) it is necessary to introduce
{3 p, or p,{3 where p, is the amplification factor of the final valve. The latter form might
be confused with Black's p,{3 which has an entirely different significance. Hence the
use of {3A in this chapter. A further,· but minor, advantage from the use of {3A is
that the beginner, in considering operation at-the mid-frequency, is able to regard the
magnitude for p as being simply a fraction.
AMPUFICATION-+A
r'p
+'1/1£01
-+
FIG.7.2B
FIG.7.2C
I
Eo Eo
A' = - - = -=-----::-:::::--- (2a)
Ei' Ei - {JEo
Combining (I) and (2a),
A I A
(2b)
A' = I - {JA (IIA) - {J I + [ARl/(R! + R 2 )]
(for chart showing relationship between A' and A see Ref. A21),
and if I{JAI >1 .
\1
then A' ~ I/( - {J) (2c)
The value of {J is given by
{J = - Rd(R 1 + R.,) (3a)
The effect of feedback on gain is therefore
A Eo/Ei = 1 _ {JE 0 = I _ {JA (3b)
A' Eo/(Ei - {JEo) Ei
The quantity {JA is negative for negative feedback; AlA' = 1 - {JA is always
greater than unity.
The quantity (1 - {JA) is called the feedback factor *. The degree of feedback
is indicated by the reduction in gain. For example, an amplifier with " 20 db feed-
back" is one in which gain has been reduced 20 db by feedback.
In the general case, when the phase angle displacement is not restricted,
A
A' == y'-;=I=+==:=I{J=A~12=-=2:::;=1{J=A=:=I=co=s=:-~ (3c)
[which becomes A' = AI(I - {JA) when tP = 180°]
where tP = phase angle displacement of amplifier and feedback circuit loop.
(C) Effect of feedback on harmonic distortiont
Let the input voltage E/ be expressed in the form Eim' cos wt.
Then the output voltage (Eo) will be given by
Eom cos wt + E 2m cos 2wt + Eam cos 3wt (4)
*Some authorities call {3A the feedback factor, and care should therefore be taken in the use of this
tl:rDl.
tTreaunent adapted from K. R. Studey.
7.1 (ii) (C) EFFECT OF FEEDBACK ON HARMONIC DISTORTION 309
I
E 2m H2
Therefore Eo m- = 1 - f3A (7)
Similarly for the third or any higher harmonic,
E 3m Hs
Eo m = 1 - f3A (8)
That is, the magnitudes of all the harmonics (and of course the intermodulation
products) introduced by the amplifier are reduced by negative voltage feedback in the I
same proportion that the gain is reduced.
This result is based on the assumptions :
(1) that Eo is exactly 180 0 out of phase, or exactly in phase, with Ei
(2) that the amplification A is the same for the harmonics as for the fundamental
(3) that the intermodulation voltages are negligibly small. The presence of
intermodulation* has no effect on the second harmonic, but in certain cases
the higher order harmonics can increase owing to a small amount of negative
feedback; when the feedback is raised sufficiently these harmonics will
decrease again. When H2 = 0, Hs with feedback will be as indicated by
eqn. (8). In any case, the effect is small if the amplifier distortion is initially
fairly small.
The following treatment is based on a single stage, but may be applied to any ampli-
fier provided that the values of p- and r are as defined below.
2)
Fig. 7.3A shows the equivalent circuit of the amplifier without feedback :
Eo = p-Ei (r2) :~L) (13)
A = Eo = P-RL
r'P + RL
Ei (14a)
where p- = amplification factor (i.e. amplification with an infinite load resistance)
and r = plate resistance of final stage.
2) _
If the amplifier has more than one stage p- must be defined by
p- = AtP-! (14b)
where At = amplification between input and grid of final stage (with due regard to
phase reversal)
and P-2 = amplification factor of final stage.
Fig. 7.3B shows the equivalent circuit of the amplifier with voltage feedback :**
Eo = p-'E/( ,R L ). (15)
r'P + RL
**Based on B. D. H. Tellegen " Inverse feed-back" Philips Tee. Rev. 2.10 (Oct. 1937) 289.
7.1 (ii) (E) EFFECT OF FEEDBACK ON OUTPUT RESISTANCE 311
E·'
But Eo = A'E/ = (l/A) '_ fJ from eqn. (2b).
Applying the value of A from (14a),
p,RLE/
E ---~~~~~~ (16)
o - r ~ + R L (1 - fJp,)
This may be arranged in the form
p,.E/ ) ( RL ) (17)
. Eo = ( 1 - fJp, r~/(1 - fJp,) + RL
which is the same as eqn. (15) except that
-p,
p,' = 1---=-fj; (18)
' r~ (19)
and r ~ = 1 - fJp, •
Equations (18) and (19) give the effective amplification faCIor and plate resistance
respectively with feedback. It will be seen _that these are each equal to the corres-
ponding value without feedback divided by (1 - fJp,), whereas the gain, internally
produced hum or noise, and distortion are divided by (1 - fJA). If the amplifier
has more than one stage, the value of p, must be as defined by eqn. (14b), while the
plate resistance r'[J will be that of the final stage.
However, it is important to remember that the actual valve characteristics are not
changed by feedback, since feedback is external to the valve; while the optimum
value of load resistance is also unchanged by feedback except undei Cer+..ain Very
special conditions.
It may be shown that negative voltage feedback as a method for reducing the
effective plate resistance, when compared with a transformer giving Lhe same reduction
of gain, is more effective than the transformer with low feedback factors, is equally
effective with a particular feedback factor, and is less effective than the transformer
with feedback factors greater than this value.
Example: 6V6-GT with p, = 218, and A = 17.
r
I
I
I Transformer
I Gain IfJAI I IfJp, I I r~/r~' impedance
1/2
I 1 12.8
I
I
1/13.8
I
ratio
1/4
1/10 9 115 1/116 1/100
1/100 99 1270 1/1271 1/10000
With feedback, the same current will flow, but the input voltage will be
E/ = E i (l - fJA)
Therefore r/ = E//II = (EdI I )(l - fJA)
Therefore r/ = riC1 - fJA). (21)
Thus in this case the input resistance is increased by feedback in the same proportion
that the gain is decreased. This applies to all cases in which the feedback voltage
is applied in series with the input voltage, including the current feedback case of
Fig. 7.4, as will be shown later.
On the other hand, if the feedback voltage is applied in shunt with the input voltage
the input resistance will be decreased as proved below for Fig. 7.2G-
The input resistance of the amplifier without feedback is
ri = EdII •
With feedback, the current 11 will be unchanged, but there will be an additional
current 12 through R 4 and of direction such as to increase the current from the source,
which will therefore become (II + 12)' The input voltage applied to the input
terminals of the amplifier will be the same as without feedback
11
Therefore ri = r{ 11 + 1 -
I
2
which is less than rio
Other special cases are covered in Sect. 2.
FIC.7·4 FIC.7·S
Fig. 7.4. Block diagram of an amplifier with negative current feedback. The
resistance Ra is very much smaller than the load impedance.
Fig. 7.5. Block diagram of an amplifier with bridge feedback.
Without feedback but with Ra in position (Fig. 7.4)
A = Eo = J-LR L (22)
Ei rv + Rs + RL
With current feedback,
A' = ~o = ____E~_ = ___ ~_.. = =-:-=-_1_ _,--_
E/ Ei + RaIo Ei + (Rs/RL)Eo (EdEo) + Rs/RL
J-LRL
+
I
(A) the amplification factor with current feedback is the same (ft) as without
feedback
(B) the effective plate resistance with current. feedback is
r'P' = r'P + ftR 3 (25a)
and r 'P' /r 'P = 1 + p.R3/r'P (25b)
The increase in plate resistance (eqn. 25b) is proportionally greater than the decrease
in gain (eqn. 24a).
When the voltage is fed back over more than one stage, the effective plate resistance
with feedback is given by
r 'P' = r'P + A1ft2Ra, (25c)
where Al = amplification between input and grid of final stage (with due regard to
phase reversal)
and ft2 = amplification factor of final stage.
The "looking-backwards" output terminal impedance of the amplifier is
equal to r 'P' in parallel with R D
, r'P'R L (r'P + ftRs)RL
R0 = for single stage
r 'P' + R L r'P + ftR 3 + R L
, (r'P + A ft2R 3)R
or R0 =
r'll
+ A-lft21R 3-+-, RL L for more than one stage.
(C) The ratio of amplification with and without feedback is given by
A (ft + 1)R3 + T'P + RL (26)
A' Rs + r'P + RL
which may be put into the form
A/A' = 1 + A(R 3/R L ) = 1 - yA. (27)
(D) Approximations when IL is very large
If ft is very large,
A' ~ RdRs ~ 1/(- y) (28)
which is independent of the amplifier characteristics.
Also, if ft is very large,
10 ~ EolRL ~ E/ IRs (29)
which gives an output current which is constant, irrespective ("~ R L.
(E) Input resistance with negative current feedback
In the circuit of Fig. 7.4-
Without feedback
ri = EdII
With feedback
r.' = E/ = Ei (R 3IR L )Eo = ~i
+ (R 3IR L)AEi +
• II II II
Therefore r/ = ri(1 +
AR3/RL) = ri(1 - yA) (30)
which indicates that with this circuit the input resistance is increased with negative
current feedback in the same proportion that the gain is decreased (eqn. 27) and the
effect is therefore the same as with Fig. 7.3.
(F) Harmonic distortion with negative current feedback
It may readily be shown that, as with negative voltage feedback, the harmonic
distortion is reduced in the same proportion that the gain is reduced, subject to the
conditions enumerated above (following eqn. 8) :
&m ~ ~
e.g., Eom = 1+ ARaiR~=t=YA (31)
, AEi AEi
Therefore A = E/ = Ei + AEiRd(RI-+-R-2-)-+-.-R-3A-E-d"---R-L
Therefore A' = 1 + ARd(RI +AR2 ) + AR3/RL (32)
Comparing this with (2b) and (24a), it will be seen that the denominator in (32)
includes the second terms of the denominators of both (2b) and (24a). Equation (32)
may be put into the alternative forms
A' = ---- ILR L (33)
rp + (IL + I)R3 + R L(1 + ILR1)/(R I + R 2)
and A' = IL RL
(34)
1 + ILRd(RI +R 2) rp+ (IL + I)R3 +R
1 + ILRd(Rl + R L 2)
This arrangement is shown in the simplified block diagram of Fig. 7.6. The effect
of positive feedback on Al is to increase its gain from Al without feedback to A' with
positive feedback. The effect on the whole amplifier, so far as effective plate resist-
ance, distortion in the final stage and gain are concerned, is the same as though Al
with positive feedback were replaced by another amplifier without feedback but with
gain A'. The positive feedback in Al will increase the distortion of this stage, but
l--EFFECTlVE--:
lNPUT'
FIG. 7.6
t
r=::3
I
I
" J
GAIN K I
I
f!z------'
F£g. 7.6. Simplified
will decrease the distortion of the whole amplifier provided that the initial distortion
in Al is small in comparison with that in A 2 • A general purpose triode may be used
in the first stage, and yet have an effective stage gain greater than that of a pentode
with a plate load resistor of 0.25 megohm.
Practical amplifiers using this principle are described in Sect. 2(xi).
*The effect on the input resistance depends on the method of applying the input voltage.
316 (vi) COMPARISON BETWEEN TYPES OF FEEDBACK 7.1
FIC.7·7
Since a cathode follower does not amplify the input voltage it might, at first sight,
be thought that the arrangement fulfilled no useful purpose. Its principal usefulness,
however, lies in its impedance characteristics. The input impedance is high while
the output impedance (Ro') is low, and the whole device may therefore be regarded
as a kind of Impedance Transformer-see (Fl) below.
The low output impedance of the cathode follower makes it particularly useful as a
driver stage for Class AB2 or Class B amplifiers, or for pulse techniques where a low
impedance source is required ..
With the cathode follower, the grid and cathode are in phase with one another, so
that there is no reversal of polarity as with plate-loaded amplifiers-this characteristic
is sometimes useful in amplifiers, and particularly with pulse techniques.
A cathode follower will work into practiCally any value of load resistance, although
there is a broad optimum value for any particular application.
The effect of interelectrode and wiring capacitances on the gain is generally negli-
gible up to a frequency of 1 Mc/s.
It is important to remember that all electrode voltages must be stated with respect
to the cathode; these will normally have the same values as for plate loading.
The graphical treatment is given on pages 390-394.
20000
A' = (21/20)(20000) + 525 = 0.93.
The maximum power output with the same load resistance as for plate loading will
be approximately the same. The distortion and the output resistance will, however,
be very much lower than for plate loading, and the damping on the loudspeaker will
be greater.
A special case of some importance is when VIis the driver valve of a Class B power
amplifier (see Chapter .13 Sect. 7).
The optimum load resistance may best be calculated graphically (see Sect. 5).
The resistance of the transformer primary will provide at least part of the voltage
for grid bias; the balance may be supplied by a suitable resistance (shunted by the
322 (i) THE CATHODE FOLLOWER 7.2
usual by-pass capacitance) between the cathode and the upper transformer primary
terminal.
Alternatively, the primary of the transformer may be connected in place of Rg
in Fig. 7.8, and C c may be adjusted to tune the primary to a suitable low frequency
to extend the frequency band to lower frequencies or to give bass boost (Ref. CI4).
(H) Grid circuit arrangements and their effect on input resistance and Ro'
If the voltage drop in R k is greater than the desired grid bias, then a convenient
arrangement is to return the grid resistor (Rg) to a tapping point (X) on the cathode
load resistor, the position of X being adjusted for optimum operating conditions
(Fig. 7.10); the bias will be
Eel = R21 b (7)
w~ere Eel is the bias in volts, R2 is expressed in ohms and I b the plate current in
amperes. The total load resistance is (Rl + R 2) which corresponds to R k in Fig.
7.7. The correct value of C should always be selected on the basis of the input re":
sistance (R/) and not on the basis of Rg.
Ao-J
C C
Rca R~
~
l-
I-
::J~
R ::J
Q.
Q. 0 ~ B RZ}RI< I-
~~ CI RI ::J
0 RI 0
FIC· 7'10
FIG. 7·11 FlC.7·12
Fig. 7.10. Cathode follower with grid bias supplied by a tapping point (X) on the
load resistance.
Fig. 7.11. Cathode follower with separate resistances for bias (Rs by-passed by
C 2 ) and load (R l ).
Fig. 7.12. Cathode follower with alternative form of grid bias circuit.
The circuit of Fig. 7.10 does not apply the full degree of feedback (as in Fig. 7.8)
unless the output resistance of the preceding stage is very much smaller than R II •
In other cases the feedback is reduced by a factor Ro/(Rg + Ro) where Ro =
r "R dCr p + R I) for the preceding stage.
The input resistance (R;') due to the grid resistor (R g in Fig. 7.10) is greater than
Rg because the voltage across Rg is less than E i •
Thus R/ = Edi
where Ei = the input voltage
and i = the current through Rg (Fig. 7.10).
Now i = (Ei - Ez)jR g
and Err. = A'EjR1!(R l + R2)'
Ei EiRg EiRg
Therefore R/ = -r = E i ' - Err. Ei[1 - A'Rt!CR l +R 2
)]
RO' ~--~--------------~~----------------
g
m
[1----·
Rs
Rs + Rg Rl + R2
Rl J + Rl +1 R2 +- 1
rP
(10)
F£g. 7.13. CatJwde follower with positive grid bias from . voltage divider across
B +, in order to counteract the too-great negative bias from R k.
Fig. 7.14. Direct coupling to the grid of a cathode follower.
Fig. 7.15. Triode cathOde follower showing capacitances.
(I) Input capacitance (purely resistive load)
The capacitance from grid to plate (Cgp) is effectively across the input (Fig. 7.15).
The effect of the capacitance from grid to cathode is reduced by the ratio of the voltage
from grid to cathode to the voltage from grid to earth. Thus
C/ = Cgp + (1 - A')Cgk (11)
or C/ = CliP + C akl(1 + A) (12)
where A has the same meaning as with plate loading, being the stage gain without
feedback, and A' is the actual stage gain, being always less than 1 (eqns. 1a and 1b).
Note the reversed Miller Effect whereby the C g k is reduced by the factor 1/(1 + A).
In a typical case, using type 6J7-GT (triode connection) : -
A' = 0.93; CliP = 1.8 p.p.F; and C llle = 2.6 p.p.F.
C/ = 1.8+ 0.07 x 2.6 = 1.8 + 0.18 = 1.98 p.p.F
This may be compared with an input capacitance of 22.4 p.p.F under equivalent plate
loaded conditions. '
(J) Output capacitance
The capacitance from plate to cathode (C P k) and also the capacitance from heater
324 (i) THE CATHODE FOLLOWER 7.2
to cathode (G 11 le) are across the output (Fig. 7.15). The voltage across the capacitance
from grid to cathode (Gille) is (1 - A')ei and the current through Gille is, therefore,
(1 - A')e •• jwC llle . The current which would flow through Gill: if connected directly
across Rle is A'ei.jwCgk . Therefore, the effect of Gille connected between grid and
cathode is the same as that of a capacitance of [(1 - A')/A'] Gille = Gllk/A con-
nected across R le' It is assumed that the source of input voltage has a resistance and
a reactance each negligibly small in comparison with the reactance of Gil k. With
this assumption the effect of the capacitance from grid to plate (G IIP ) is zero, since
it merely shunts the input voltage.
Thus, the output capacitance (G 0') under the assumed conditions is given by
Co' = C JJle + G u + Cllk/A (13)
This capacitance is effectively shunted across Ro' (see eqn. 5).
In the case of type 6J7-GT (triode connection), G JJ le = 17.0 p.p.F, Gil k = 10.5 p.p.F
(appro x.), Gill: = 2.6 p.p.F, and A' = 0.93 (see Example 1).
Therefore Co' = 17.0 + 10.5 + 2.6 (0.07/0.93) = 27.7 p.p.F.
This is effectively in shunt with the output resistance (R 0') of 4/,7 ohms. In the
plate-loaded case there would be a capacitance of 17.0 p.p.F shunted across 6900 ohms.
In all practical cases, both for input and output capacitances, it is necessary to make
allowances for stray capacitances in addition to the valve capacitances.
plate-current cut-off and severe distortion, which can only be avoided by a reduced
output voltage. In the case of pentode operation, with the screen by-pass condenser
returned to the cathode (Fig. 7.16) this type of overloading cannot occur.
When valves having high mutual conductance are connected as triodes, it may be
_ found that parasitic oscillation occurs at a very high frequency. This may be pre-
vented by connecting a 100 to 500 ohm non-inductive resistor in the link between
plate and screen, using short leads.
(L) Voltage gain with pentodes
Owing to the very high values of p. with most pentodes, eqn. (2) may be taken as
being almost exact :
A' = g mR_k_ (2)
1 + gmRk
where g m = pentode mutUal conductance under operating conditions in mhos.
In Example 1, the pentode g m may be taken as being (Ibl I k) X triode g m; i.e.
0.8 x 1900 = 1520 micromhos.
With R k = 20 000 ohms,
1520 x 20000 X 10-&
A' = 1 + 1520 x 20000 X 10-6 = 0.97.
Values of A' up to about 0.99 are practicable with pentodes, using higher values of
load resistance.
(M) Input capacitance with pentodese screen by-passed to cathode (Fig. 7.16)
The input capacitance with pentode op~--ation is different from that with triode
operation of the same valve. The capacitance from grid to plate may be neglected,
and the total input capacitance is approximately given by
C/ = (1 -' A') x pentode input capacitance (14)
In the case of type 6J7-GT the pentode input capacitance is 4.6 p.p.F and with a stage
gain (A') of 0.97 the input capacitance will be 0.03 x 4.6 = 0.14 p.p.F. This is
less than one fourteenth the input capacitance of the same valve with triode con-
nection under similar conditions (previously shown to be 1.98 p.p.F). .
If the screen is by-passed to earth the input capacitance will be the same as
for triode operation.
(N) Output capacitance with pentodes (screen by-passed to cathode)
With pentode operation the screen and suppressor are effectively at cathode potential
at signal frequency (Fig. 7.16). The" pentode output capacitance" is the capacit-
ance from the plate to all other electrodes except the signal grid and will therefore
take the place of the plate-to-cathode capacitance in a triode (eqn. 13). The output
capacitance is therefore given by
Co' = pentode output capacitance + C h k
+ (1/A) x pentode input capacitance (15)
In the case of type 6J7-GT with a stage gain of 0.97, the pentode output capacitance
is 12 p.p.F, and the pentode input capacitance 4.6 p.p.F, so that Co'is 12 + 10.5 + 0.14
=22.6 p.p.F. This may be compared with 27.7 p.p.F for triode operation under
similar conditions. - o-f
(0) Circuit to avoid screen current through the
load resistance
With the normal pentode cathode follower, the screen
current passes through the load resistance with resulting
complications (see also Sect. 5). One way of avoiding
these is shown in Fig. 7.18 which produces results
identical with those of the cathode follower. The input FIe:;. 7'.
is applied between grid and plate, the load resistance is
Fig. 7.18. Alternative to
in the plate circuit, and the cathode bias resistor has the the cathode follower, giving
same value as for normal operation. It has the disad- similar results, with input
vantage that neither input terminal is earthed, and applied between grzd and
transformer input is necessary. plate.
326 (i) THE CATHODE FOLLOWER 7.2
~ 1
gmRk J
ance C k' the gain is given approximately by (Ref. C6),
A'
+ gmRk 1 +
1
(fifo )2 I!L (16)
1 + gmRk
where p- > 20
f = frequency at which the gain is calculated,
fo = 1/21TR k C k
and () = tan-l ~(~~).
1 + gmRk
The expression within the square root sign in eqn. (16) is known as the relative
gain, and has been plotted graphically (Ref. C6b, Data Sheet 39). The phase angle
() has also been plotted (Data Sheet 41).
References C6, C9; Reich (Ref. A30) pp. 166-168 equations 6-34 to 6-34F.
The transient performance under pulse conditions is given in Refs. Jl, J5, J6.
References C6, C9, C20, J7; Sturley (Ref. C34) Vol. 2, pp. 119~120.
7.2 (i) (V) PLATE RESISTANCE WITH CAPACITIVE LOAD 327
rp
,
= rp I
[ R + IJ
+ I g+mjU/lo) . I'-p.-
1&
(19)
' gmRL
A ~--=---~~~~~ (20b)
gmR" + (r" + RL)lr"
Ratio of gain with and without feedback
From equation (24a) Section 1~
A' 1
-=~~--~----~- (21)
A 1 + I-'Rk/(r" + Ric + R L)
or as a rough approximation for triodes
A'iA = Rd(R L + I-'R k) (22)
An alternative exact form is
A'iA = 1 (23a)
1 + gmRkr,,/(rv + Rk + R L)
or as a rough approximation for pentodes
A' /A ~ 1/(1 + gmRk) (23b)
From equations (24a) and (24b) of Section 1 :
A' 1 1
- = -----=
A 1 - yA 1 _ l-'yR L _ (24)
r" + R L (1 - y)
where - y = Rlc/Rr-
Example (1): 6}5 with I-' = 20~ r", = 20000 ohms (under resistance-coupled
conditions)~ RL = 100 000 ohms, Rk = 2700 ohms.
A'iA = 1/[1 + 20 x 2700/(20000 + 2700 + 100000)] = 0.695.
Using the rough approximation, A' /A ~ 0.65.
Example (2): Pentode with g m = 2000 micromhos and
R" = 2000 ohms, A' /A ~ 1/(1 + 4) ~ 1/5.
With a pentode, the gain is approximately halved when Rk = l/g m (see eqn. 23b).
Thus when g m = 2000 micromhos, a value of R" = 500 ohms will halve the gain and
halve the distortion.
8+ &+
t-
t- :)
t- :) o.
:) t-
0. t-
o. :) :)
~ 0.
~ !; 0
RK
8
FIC.7·19 FIG. 7'20 FIC.7·21
Input resistance: As the grid resistor Rg (Fig. 7.20) is returned to earth, the input
resistance is R(I' If it had been returned to cathode, eqn. (30) Sect. 1 could then be
applied, putting R (I in place of r i :
Input resistance with R (I returned to cathode--
r/ = Ruel + ARk/R L ) = R I1 [l + I-'Rlc/(R L + Ric + r~)] (25)
Effective plate resistance (equation 25a, Sect. 1)
r,,' = r1J + I-'Rlc (26)
and r,,' /r" = 1 + I-'Rk/r" (27)
With the arrangement of Fig. 7 .20~ the total load on the valve is R L + R" and this
is the value which should be used in drawing the loadlines on the characteristics.
The value of R k is, however, regarded as fixed, while R L is regarded as capable of
being varied--otherwise the" output resistance" would be meaningless. In practice,
7.2 (ii) (A) UNBYPASSED CATHODE RESISTOR 329
r- I-
:;)
:;)
Q. Q.
r- r-
:;) :;)
o o
Fig. 7.22. Cathode degenerative amplifier with a small degree of current feedback.
Fig. 7.230 Cathode degenerative ampli.fier with a large degree of current feedback.
Fig. 7.24. Cathode degenerative amplifier with an alternative method of obtaining
grid bias.
If a higher degree of feedback is desired there are seve!'2! alternatives. In Fig. 7.23
(RI + R 2) = R k for signal frequencies, but only R2 is effective in producing grid
bias. C1 should have a reactance much lower than (Ra + R 1 ). As a slight modi-
fication, C 1 may be returned to any tapping point along RI and R 2 , to give any desired
degree of feedback between zero and maximum. An alternative modification is to
by-pass R 2, and to return C1 to any tapping point along R 1 • Finally, the arrangement
of Fig. 7.24 provides a positive voltage from the voltage divider R 4 , R5 which may be
adjusted to give the correct bias voltage from grid to cathode.
When R L and R k are not purely resistive, they may be replaced by Z L and Z k in
the expressions for gain which then become vectors.
Current feedback is undesirable in transformer loaded amplifiers for it tends to
stabilize the output transformer's magnetizing current (i.e. make it sinusoidal) and
thus produce a distorted output voltage.
B+
CB) Phase splitter
If Rk is made equal to R v we have the well known
"phase splitter" (Fig. 7.25), in which the output
from P to earth is equal and opposite in phase to that
from K to earth. Obviously CRt + R 2) = R" = R L'
and the same signal current (11') passes through Rv
T1" R2 and R I • The grid resistor RII is returned to a
point on Rk to give the desired grid bias CE c =
R21 b)'
FIC.7·2$
The gain to either output channel is then
Fig. 7.25. Conventional
phase splitter. ILRL
A' (28)
(IL + 2)RL + r1'
which is always less than 1. In a typical example where 1.£ = 20 and R L = 4r 1"
A' = 0.9.
The input resistance is
, RII (29)
ri = 1 - A'Rt/(R 1 + R 2)
330 (ii) (B) PHASE SPLITTER 7.2
in that the voltage across the voice coil may not be great enough to provide sufficient
degeneration. It is important to avoid accidental reversal of the secondary terminals.
This, and all its modifications, may be treated as pure voltage feedback following the .
formulae of Sect. 1, at least in the middle frequency range where f3 is equal to T2/ Tu
the transformer turns or voltage ratio. It has the properties of maintaining constant
the voltage across the secondary, thereby avoiding the effects of transformer leakage
inductance at high frequencies, and of reducing the transformer distortion. Un-
fortunately, at very low and very high audio frequencies, the phase angle introduced
by the output transformer tends to cause instability, the tendency being more pro-
nounced as the feedback is applied over 2 or 3 stages. This subject is treated in detail
in Section 3. ,..----,....-----,.--s·
The push-pull form is merely a mirror image of the single-ended variety, and
involves two separate secondary windings on the input transformer, and a centre-tap
on the secondary of the output transformer, which is earthed.
In either case, if the feedback voltage is greater than desired, the connection may be
taken from a voltage divider across the voice coil (or each half of the transformer
secondary).
f3 =(RI~IRJ(~) (35)
and r / = R4 at mid frequencies (36)
Portion of the plate current of V I will flow through the secondary winding. I t is
sometimes found that a very small condenser C connected from the plate of V 2 to the
cathode circuit of VI reduces the tendency to instability.
A modified form providing feedback to the grid circuit of VIis shown in Fig. 7.28
(note the reversed connections to the secondary of the output transformer). This
·In practice, this may be desirable.
332 (iii) FEEDBACK FROM OUTPUT TRANSFORMER SECONDARY 7.2
avoids d.c. through the secondary winding, but the impedance of the preceding stage
(R 0) affects the value of {3, A being unchanged,
t--~--6+
Fig. 7.29. Voltage feedback from the
plate to the grid a'remt, using trans-
former-coupled input.
.r---~--6-
This arrangement reduces the amplitude distortion resulting from saturation of the
output transformer core at low frequencies, and improves the low-frequency response.
It does not, however, counteract the effect of leakage reactance at high frequencies.
A = voltage gain of valve from grid to plate
{3 = Rd(Rl + R 2 )
and r/ is extremely high, being unchanged by the feedback (valve input impedance
alone).
The same method may be applied to a push-pull stage, but a transformer is required
having two separate secondaries, and each valve must have its own feedback network.
This circuit is not suitable for use with resistance coupling.
(v) Voltage feedback from plate-r.c.c. input
If it is desired to employ negative feedback from the plate to a resistance-capacitance
input coupling, it is impossible to apply the feedback voltage in series opposition to
the signal voltage. The only manner of applying it is, so to speak, in shunt with the
input signal.
The simplest circuit is Fig. 7.30 in which VIis r .c. coupled to V 2' and a feedback
path Rl C 1 is provided from plate to grid of V2' For normal applications C 1 is merely
~ blocking condenser to isolate grid and plate for d.c. The resistance Rl acts as a
shunt path for signal frequencies in much the same way as the Miller Effect; the
cir~t behaves as though an additional shunt resistance equal to Rd(A2 + I) were
connected from grid to earth, A2 being the numerical voltage gain of V2' This de-
creased input resistance causes a reduction in overall amplification. The amolifica-
tion of V2 is not affected, but VI now has a heavy a.c. shunt load, leading to in~reased
distortion and possible overloading. As an example, for the gain to be reduced to
7.2 (v) VOLTAGE FEEDBACK FROM PLATE 333
half, the additional a.c. shunt resistance across Rg will be equal to the total resistance
of rill) R L and Rg in parallel. A larger than normal value of coupling condenser (C)
will obviously be required.
As a modification of Fig. 7.30, Rl may be made zero and C l may have a capacitance
of about 10 to 100 p.p.F to provide degeneration principally at high audio frequencies.
This has been used very successfully in small receivers with very little margin of gain,
but is only fully effective when no plate by-pass capacitor is used.
An improved circuit is Fig. 7.31 (Refs. El, E3) in which Rl and R2 form a voltage
divider across the primary of the output transformer, R L being connected to the
junction (X). If (R l + R z) is at least 10 times the load resistance of V z, the divider
will have little effect on V 2. It is obvious that the degree of feedback can be adjusted
from zero to maximum by moving the tapping point X on the voltage divider from
the B+ end to the plate end. If Rs + RL ~Ru where Rs = rplRa/(r'Pl + Rg),
~ ~ .
then fJ ~ - Rs + R L· Rl + R2 (38)
An electrically equivalent circuit is Fig. 7.32 (Ref. E2) in which the two resistances
Ra and R, take the place of the three resistances R L , Rl and R2 of Fig. 7.31., For
identical operating conditions :
(Rl + Rz)R L dR - RaRL .(39)
Ra = R2 an , - Ra - R L .
The value of fJ in Fig. 7.32 is given by
R 1 1 1 1
fJ = where - = - + - + - . (40)
R4 + R R r 'Pl Rg Ra
FIC,7'31
FIe. 7·32
Fig. 7.31. Voltage feedback applied in series with the load resistor. The reduction
in effective resistance occurs in the load resistor itself.
Fig. 7.32. Electrically equivalent circuit to Fig. 7.31, using one less resistor.
Both these circuits (Fig. 7.31 and 7.32) have the effect of reducing the effective
load into which Vl works. This _has the merit of extending the. response to higher
audio frequencies. In Fig. 7.31 the effective value of R L becomes
R L' = Rd(lfJlA 2 + 1) where IfJl = Rd(R l + R 2 )
and A2 is the numerical voltage gain ofV2• For example if IfJl = 0.1 and Az = 17,
the effective load resistance changes from R L without feedback to 0.37 R L with feed-
back. The load R L' into which V 1 works is, however, not constant because A z varies
due to distortion. This circuit is usually limited to values of IfJl not greater than say
0.05 to 0.1 for typical applications.
A similar effect occurs with the equivalent circuit Fig. 7.32 in which the feedback
causes the effective value of R, to change to R,/(A 2 + 1). In both circuits Vl is
preferably a pentode, although a high-mu triode may be used with less effectiveness.
334 (vi) VOLTAGE FEEDBACK OVER TWO STAGES 7.2
Mezger (Ref. E4) has shown that it is equally valid to regard the plate resistance of
VI (and consequently its amplification factor) as being reduced by feedback, leaving
the external resistors unchanged.
FIG. 7.34
Fig. 7.33. Amplifier with voltage feedback from the plate of V 2 to the cathode of
V l ' also incidentally incorporating negative current feedback due to the unbypassed
resistor R k'
Fig. 7.34. Simplified a.c. equivalent of Fig. 7.33 for calculations.
Also
*See Fig. 35.3 for one possible arrangement.
tThe Editor is indebted to Mr. E. Watkinson for this method.
7.2 (vi) VOLTAGE FEEDBACK OVER TWO STAGES 335
Therefore Eo
(4li)
Output impedance
The effect of the unbypassed cathode resistor depends on the resistance of the
source (Rs).
Let S = Rg/(R s + Rg) (42a)
Let voltage Eo be applied across R L2 from an infinite impedance source with no
input voltage applied to the amplifier.
Eo Eo Eo Eof3 8A l/L2
Then I 0=-+-+ + T 1>2 + R L2 (42b)
R L2 T 1'2 R, + R k
The final term in eqn. (42b) is the effect of the voltage Eo, a fraction of which is
fed back across R~ and amplified by VI and applied to the grid of V 2 The effect
0
in the plate circuit of V 2 is the same as though a voltage E of3 SAI/Lz :were applied to a
series connection of T,,2 and. R L2.
Thus the " looking backwards" output terminal impedance is given by
R I _Eo _ 1
o - 10 - 1 1 1 f3 8A I /L2 (42c)
---1--+
RL2 'T:r2 R, + Rk +---=--
r'll2 + Ru
i.e. the effect of the feedback is to add another impedance,
T'o2 + RL2
f3 8AI/L2 )
in parallel with the output, as shown in. Fig. 7.41.
Input impedance
(42d)
(42e)
336 (vi) VOLTAGE FEEDBACK OVER TWO STAGES 7.2
R/ p-lRk
Therefore R- = 1 + R + R + . + f3 A lA2 (42f)
i Ie r pl
where Ri is defined as the input resistance when R k = O.
Conclusions
Eqn. (41m) shows that the effect of feedback in reducing gain in this circuit (Figs.
7.33 and 7.34) is not given simply by the product of the current feedback gain re-
duction and the voltage feedback gain reduction, each considered separately.
Eqn. (41h) indicates that the two feedback voltages are effectively added so far as
their effect on gain is concerned. This is in line with Duerdoth's multiple feedback
theory in Sect. 3(v)E.
Eqn. (42c) shows that the effective plate resistance of V 2 differs from that of an
equivalent amplifier without current feedback only on account of (5. When the
source impedance is zero, (5 has the value unity, and the effective plate resistance of
V 2 is identical with that of an equivalent amplifier with voltage feedback only.
It is obvious that current feedback in Vl cannot directly affect the plate resistance
of V 2 • The only indirect effect (through (5) is the result of partial application of the
feedback voltage to the grid of Vu which must also affect the gain. In other words,
the impedance of the input voltage source affects the gain, the effective plate resistance
and the output resistance R 0"
If the source is reactive, some non-linear frequency characteristic will occur-
for example, if the source is a crystal pickup there will be some measure of bass
boosting.
The circuit of Fig. 7.33 tends to produce peaks at low and high frequencies in the
response characteristic unless the feedback factor is low. An analysis of the peaks
has been made by Everest and Johnston (Ref. H5) based on the ideal condition of
zero-impedance screen circuits and unbypassed cathode resistors; it also omits any
complications arising from an output transformer. Methods for reducing or elimina-
ting these peaks are described in Sect. 3(vi) and (vii).
The condenser C l in the feedback network of Fig. 7.33 is normally only a blocking
condenser; it may, however, be designed to produce a fixed degree of bass boost.
Alternatively, C 1 may remain as a blocking condenser and a second condenser inserted
at point X to provide bass boosting ; the latter may be shunted by a variable resistance
to form a continuously variable tone control (see Chapter 15 Sect. 2 and Fig. 15.11).
It will be demonstrated in Sect. 3 that feedback over two stages of r.c. coupling is
normally stable ; this does not necessarily hold if cathode or screen by-pass condensers
are used or if an iron-cored transformer forms any part of the feedback loop.*
Similarly the reactance of the output transformer primary at 50 c/s is equal to the
plate resistance of the 6AQ5 in parallel with the reflected load and winding resistances
(coupling 3). '
Movement of the input volume control is assumed to have no effect on the fre-
quency (12! cis) at which the reactance of the input condenser is equal to the resistance
in series with it, say 2.55. megohms (coupling 1).
The amplification factor, p., of the 6AV6 is 100 andits plate resistance, T p , 80 000
ohms, so the mid-frequency 6AV6 gain,A t [see Chapter 12 Sect. 2(vii)] is
100 x 73000
At = 80 000 + 73 000 = 48
where 73000 ohms is the value of Rs and R7 in parallel.
The 6AQ5 p. is 210 and its T" 52 000 ohms so that the 6AQ5 gain
210 x 5000
A2 = 52 000 + 5000 = 18.4.
The output transformer impedance ratio is 5000/1.7 so that its gain
Aa = '\11.7/5000 = 1/54.
Total gain from 6AV6 grid to voice coil :
A = At X A2 X Aa = 48 x 18.4/54 = 16 times = 24.1 dbvg.*
When the volume control is turned to its minimum setting, one half of the output
voltage is applied to the amplifier input, i.e. # = - ! and the factor
1 1 1
1 - #A = 1 + 16 x ! = 9·
As the volume control is turned up, a smaller amount of the negative feedback
voltage is applied to the 6AV6 control grid, and when the control is 50000 ohms
from its maximum setting only one quarter of the previously used feedback voltage is
effective (ignoring the shunting effect of R5). In this case
1 1
1 - #A =3".
The low frequency response curves will be calculated for each of .these volume
control settings, but it is first necessarv to obtain the response of the amplifier without
feedback. This is done in Table 1. Lines 1 and 2 of Table 1 are obtained from Figs.
12.9A and B with 12! c/s taken as the frequency for 70.7 per cent. voltage gain (when
the reactance is numerically equal to the resistance) in line 1, and 50 cis in line 2.
Thus for the 25 c/s response in line 1
Actual frequency
----------------------~------------- =2
Frequency for 70.7 per cent. frequency response
so that attenuation = 1 db and phase shift = 27°, and so on for each of the other
frequencies in the two lines.
Line 3 is obtained by adding twice the attenuation and phase shift of line 2 (because.
there are two 50 cis couplings) to line 1.
Line 4 is the result of adding the mid-frequency gain of the amplifier (24.1 db)
to the attenuation and phase shift at each of the tabulated frequencies. This gives
the frequency response as plotted at A in Fig. 7.36.
In line 5 the gain A is expressed numerically, giving the actual gain at each fre-
quency.
*Gain expressed in decibels of voltage gain-see Chapter 19 Sect. 1(vi)A.
338 (vi) (B) FEEDBACK FROM OUTPUT TRANSFORMER SECONDARY 7.2
Table 2 sets out the calculations necessary to obtain the modification of the fre-
quency response by the application of feedback when {3 = - t. Line 1 results
from converting the attenuation expressed in db in line 3 of Table 1 to fractions, and
line 2 is obtained by multiplying the mid-frequency gain, the attenuation and phase
(for the frequency concerned) by {3. The result is {3A which is plotted in Fig. 7.37 .
.,
10
'-I
~ ~ ~
FREQUENCY (Cis) FIG. 7.)6
Fig. 7.36. Frequency response of amplifier of Fig. 7.35 with zero feedback and
two selected values of feedback.
For the method of plotting this curve and for its significance see Sect. 3 of this Chapter.
It should be noted that once the {3A curve has been obtained the effects of feedback
on the gain and phase shift of the amplifier can readily be obtained graphically as
discussed below. Lines 3 to 9 of Table 2 are the mathematical equivalents of the
measurements mentioned below (1 and 5) which give the degree of degeneration or
regeneration arid the phase shift with feedback between output and input voltages
at a given frequency.
AJ 11 ~~lO
2
5Oc/s-1c=
-2
2OOc/s SOc/S
FIG. 7.37
-6~~J....I...U
-
~ (f"\ \0
N (f"\
N
.... I r-:
N
Chapter 38 Table 72 for magni-
I I I tude; Chapter 6, Secr. 3(iii)
for sign]. Line 5 expresses
0
ex>
I
N N I 1 - fJA in the form a + jb.
til
.......... (f"\ I:'-- ~
I
- -
U
~ ~ ~ Multiplying the magnitude of
\0
N
(f"\
~
I:'--
N I fJA in line 2 by the sine of the
associated angle gives the j term
N I and multiplying by the cosine
~I
0
til
..........
U
~
(f"\
Il'\
0\
\0
-
I:'--
~
and adding 1 (because of the 1 in
1 - fJA) gives the real term. For
- - -
~ ~
"*"'
ex> Il1 I:'-- example, at 100 cis, 1 + 6.3 x
0\ ~ Q.4848 = 4.05 and 6.3 x 0.8746
= 5.5 so that· 1 - fJA = 4.05 +
1------7---:_~-.~II;---~-.-TII----n§-.T--n~--. -§-.--
I
j 5.5.
Lines 6 and 7 convert 1 - fJA
1 :1 I I - I ~ I •• - 1
to polar co-ordinates again (the
c~ge to rectanguUar co-ordin-
ates was necessary to add 1 'to
------7---~-·~--~-·_T--~~~·_T--n~--· ~
Il'\
N sum of -the squares of the two
I; I terms in line 5 at the angle whose
tangent is the imaginary term
iI.i
..........
~
U
-
00
~
(f"\
Il'\
~
~
~
~
~ I~
~
~
I divided by the real term, e.g. at
100 cis the angle is tan- 1 5.5/
I:'-- Il'\ Il'\ Il'\ \0 4.05 = tan-I 1.36 = 54 0 to the
«1 0 ~ 0\ ~ nearest degree. Where negative
- -~ I
I ~ ~ terms occur the appropriate
I 0
til
.......... ~ Il'\
~
0 0
~ quadrant is determined from the
0
u ~
(f"\
~
0
I ~
(f"\
~
ex>
~
I:'--
knowledge of the sign of the sine,
cosine and tangent, all of which
0 ~ -0 ~ ~
Il'\
I are known at this stage.
til
:--......
u
0
I:'--
~
0
I:'--
N
0
~
I
--
0
\0
o
\0
Line 8 is the reciprocal of line
7, so that magnitudes are divided
- - - - -
0 ~ ~ ~ ~ into unity, and angles are re-
0 0
0 ~ \0
versed in sign. In line 9 the
0 N N N
I N magnitudes are expressed in db,
and in line 10 the original gain A
- i
0
til
..........
~
~ N
(f"\
N
(f"\ at each frequency is multiplied by
U
~ ~ '-J I ~ 1/(1 - fJA) to give the response
0 0 (f"\ \0 In
0
N 0 0 ~ of the amplifier with feedback.
I N Since lines 9 and 4 are both ex-
>. pressed in db, the multiplication
I =
u
0 0 0
0
0 is carried out by adding the
...."do
~O'
=
0
<l:: I
~
0
~
0
~
0
- II
~
~
N
values in decibels. Line lOis
plotted in curve C of Fig. 7.36.
Table 3 gives similar calcula-
N =
0
X tions when fJ = - 1/8 and the
(f"\ +'ptil result is plotted in curve B of
!:S:o
-;§ N
0.0'-'
3
0.0
-a
~~
~
11:0
Fig. 7.36, while the smaller fJA
polar diagram is also plotted in
= = =
;'::0 = .s< ~~
;'::0
Fig. 7.37.
0.'+=1
=
0.'+=1
=
"S. = '"
'Cii~
Several interesting aspects
o = o = = which are common tQ all feed-
til til 0
U5 U5 U~r-- C!Jx back amplifiers are brought out
,.-,.t: r-t: R+;§
e-< ~< '-''-' ~~ I by these calculations and curves.
~
TABLE 2 :;
-----
§
Mid-
I ~
tJ:j
(1) Couplings
frequency 200 cis 100 cis 50 cis 25 cis 20 cis 181 cis 16 cis
1'2! <I. ~txl
1+2+3. Gain 1.0 0.93 0.79 0.48 0.18 0.12 0.104 0.073 0.042 ~
(')
(2) fJA(fJ = -}) -8LO° -7.45L32° -6.3L61° -3.8LI04° -1.44[153° -0.96LI68° -0.83LI73° -0.58LI82° -0.34L 197°
?::
~
(3) Sine 0 0.5299 0.8746 0.9703 0.4540 0.2079 0.1219 -0.0349' -0.2924 o
~
(4) Cosine 1.0 0.8480 0.4848 -0.2419 -0.8910 -0.9781 -0.9925 -0.9994 -0.9563 o
(5) 1 - fJA
(6) 1 - fJA
9+jO 7.3+j3.9
V 16.4+30.3L54°
0.08+j3.7 - 0.28 +jO.65 0.06+j0.20
(7) 1 - fJA
(8)--
1
9LO°
0.11[0°
8.3L28°
0.12L -28°
6.8L54°
0.147L ·-54°
3.7L87°
0.27L -87°
0.71L113°
1.4L -113°
0.21L73°
4.76L -73°
0.21L29°
4.76L -29°
0.42L _3°
2.4L3°
0.67L _8°
1.5L8°
~
en
~
I
1 - fJA
1
(9) - - ( d b ) -19.2LOo -18.4L -28° -I6.6L -54° -11.4L -87° +3.0L -113° 13.6L -73° 13.6L -29° 7.6L3° 3.6L8°
1 - fJA en
tJ:j
(')
A
I
(IO)---(db) 4.9LO° 5.IL 4° 5.4L 7" 6.4LI7° 12.1L 40° 19.3L95° 18L144° 9.0LI85° 0.IL205"
1 - {JA
I -
00.1
N
-.I
N
;-..
TABLE 3 ~
;-..
-!:9
Mid-
f,-~quency 12}- cIs
~
tr:I
200 cIs 100 cIs
I 50 cIs 371 cIs 25 cIs 20 cIs 16 cIs
tj
ttj
(1) 1+2+3 Gain 110° 0.93L32° 0.79L61 ° 10..SLIM" 0.33Lll24° 0.18Ll 53° 0.12LI68° 0.073L182° 0.042L197° :>
(j
(2) fJA ; fJ=-l i-ZLO° -1.86L32° -1.58L61 ° -0.96LI04° -0.66l.124° -0.36L 153° -0.24LI68° -0.I46LI82° -0.082L197° :r::
I'lj
(3) Sine io 0.5299 0.8746 0.8290 0.4540 0.2079 -0.0349 -0.2924
0
~
[ 1°·9703 --- ~
(4) Cosine 1 0.8480 0.4848 -0.2419 -0.5592 -0.891 o -0.9781 -0.9994 -0.9563
- 0
(5) I-fJA J+jO 2.58+jO.98 1.77+j1.4 0.77+jO.93 0.63+jO.55 0.68+jO0.16 0.755 +jO.05 0.855 -jO.005 , 0.92 -jO.024
c:
...,
'"tl
(6) I-fJA V3 B +02LO° '\1'6.65 +O.96L21 ° V3.13 +1.96L38° \·'0.59 +0.86L50° Vo:4O+0.30L 41 ° \/0.46-+-0.02L13° c:
...,
...,
(7) I-fJA 3LOo 2.76L21 ° 2.26L38° 1.21L50° 0.84L4P 0.69Ll 3° 0.76L4° 10.86LO° 10.92L _2°
g;
1 Z
I'J)
(8) - - 0.33LO° 0.36L -21° O.44L -38° 0.82L -50° 1.19L ·-41° 1.45L __ 13° 1.3L _4° 11.l6LOo Il.09L2° I'lj
I-fJA 0
1
(9) - - (db)
I-fJA
-9.6LO° -8.9L -21° -7.1L -38° -1.7L -50° 1.6L -41 ° 3.2L- 13°
--
2.3L _4° 11.3LO° 10.7L2° iI'J)
tr:I
(j
A
(10) - - (db) 14.5LO° 14.6Lll ° 14.9L23° 16.1L54° 16.2L85° 12.3Ll 40° 8.0L164° 12.7LI82° 1-2.8LI99° 0
I-fJA
Z
tj
~
to<:
\.Il
~
342 (vi) (B) FEEDBACK FROM OUTPUT TRANSFORMER SECONDARY 7.2
(1) The degree of degeneration (or regeneration) at any frequency marked on the
polar diagram Fig. 7.37 can be obtained by measuring the distance at the appropriate
frequency from the curve to the point 1,0. The same scale is used for the measure-
ment as for plotting {3A and the distance gives the amount of degeneration, e.g. the
50 cis point on the {3A = - 8 curve is 3.66fJA units from 1,0, so gain reduction
= 3.66 times = 11.3 db (compare 11.4 db Table 2 line 9). Again at 20 cis, distance
= 0.2 units so gain reduction = 0.2 times, i.e. gain increase = 5 times = 14 db (com-
pare 14.1 db Table 2 line 9).
It follows that at whatever frequency the {3A curve crosses the circle with centre
1,0 and radius 1, the gain of the amplifier is unchanged by feedback. For example,
with {3A = - 8, the locus cuts the circle with radius 1 unit at a frequency of 28 cis,
which is therefore the frequency at which the gain of the amplifier is unchanged by
feedback.
The same result may be obtained from Fig. 7.36 where the intersection of curves
{3A = ° and {3A = - 8 is at 28 cis. At lower frequencies the feedback is positive.
(2) When {3A = - 8 the low frequency peak is relatively much larger than when
{3A = - 2 (14 db when {3A = - 8 and 2t db when {3A = - 2) and it occurs at
a lower frequency. The reason can be seen from the polar diagram. When {3A is
large the curve is increased in size so that lower frequencies on the curve come closer
to the 1,0 point.
(3) When {3A == - 8, the angle of {3A varies from 0° to 197° but the angle of
1 - {3A varies from 0° to 113° to - 8° (Table 2). The reason can be seen from the
polar diagram. Note the rapid 1 - {3A phase shift near the regenerative peak and
the reason from the polar diagram.
(4) From the calculations it will be seen that, close to the mid-frequency, phase
shift correction is approximately equal to 1/(1 - {3A) e.g. when {3A = - 8 at 200
cis in Table 2, a phase shift of 32° is reduced to 4°.
(5) Although the feedback is regenerative as soon as the fJA curve cuts the circle
with centre 1,0 and radius 1, there is phase correction until the {3A curve cuts the
horizontal axis (between 18i and 16 cis when {3A = - P).
EO E~
E~
.I~~~
fJAo·e
~\, ... /tEo '"
~A~·16
~ Eo
I
2
SOc/s
."
FIG. 7.38
I
1
of VI. In the case of a 3 stage amplifier, the unbypassed cathode resistor could be
in the first or second stage. It is highly desirable, in general, for some such form of
subsidiary feedback to be used. It is normally desirable that the degeneration due
to the subsidiary feedback should not exceed say 10 per cent. of that due to the prin-
cipal feedback loop, since the subsidiary feedback increases the distortion in the
final stage. For further details and more complicated circuits see Sect. 3(v)E.
344 (vi) (D) MULTIPLE FEEDBACK 7.2
There are two general cases of interconnected feedback loops, the first in which
one loop is completely contained within the other (Fig. 7.39) and the second in which
the loops overlap as in Fig. 7.40. In each of the circuits the gain of the valves Vu V2
and V 3 is Au A2 and As respectively, and the size of the resistors R is such as to intro-
duce negligible current feedback.
For the circuit of 7.39 the gain reduction factor is
1
1 - CLAIA2AS - {lA2AS
(with CL subject to the same convention as {l) and the effective plate resistance of Va
becomes
, rJ>S
1
1 - etA1Az
(vii) Voltage feedback over three stages
When the feedback is taken over three stages, there is a strong likelihood of experi-
encing instability at extremely low and high audio (or ultrasonic) frequencies (see
Sect. 3). Ther~ are several popular circuits:
FIG. 7."2
Fig. 7.42. 30 watt push-pull amplifier with voltage feedback from one output
plate to the screen of the first stage. Stability is ensured by adjustment of condenser Ct.
(A) Feedback from plate of V3 to screen of VI (Fig. 7.42)
This circuit is very satisfactory for push-pull amplifiers. As the feedback is taken
from one plate only, the output transformer should have very tight coupling between
the two halves of the primary (i.e. very low leakage reactance). The amplifier and
feedback network have been designed to give a flat response over a wide band of fre-
quencies, with the intention of mtroducing additional attenuation at one point only.
No instability has been experienced, and practically no rise in response, at low audio
frequencies. On a resistive load, the high frequency response has a slight peak at
about 40 000 cis, while on a loudspeaker load the peak is much larger and occurs at
a lower frequency. Attenuation is provided by the condenser C I from the plate of
7.2 (vii) VOLTAGE FEEDBACK OVER THREE STAGES 345
the first valve to earth, with the results on frequency response shown in Fig. 7.43,
fot resistive loading.
FIG. 7.43
ot----==~===_--===:__--~ .,.-
----Co-...".. Fig. 7.43. Frequency res-
-
...
c,._
ponse curoes for amplifier of
Fig. 7.42 on resistive load with
several values of Ct.
Fig. 7.44 is the circuit of such an amplifier using push-pull triodes, with extra-
ordinarily low distortion. It is based on the design of Williamson (Refs. F4, F6).
The first triode (VI) is direct-coupled to the grid of a phase splitter (V2) which in
turn is r.c. coupled to push-pull triodes (V3 and V J and thence to the output stage.
No by-pass condensers are used and the only reactances to cause phase shift at low
frequencies are the two grid coupling condensers. The circuit has a number of
refinements which are described in the references.
Fig. 7.44. Amplifier employing voltage feedback from the secondary of the output
transformer, with push-pull triodes. The amplifier is 'Virtually distortion/ess up
to an output of 11 watts, and has a smooth overload up to 16 watts.
The original version .used type L63 valves in place of each half of the 6SN7-GT,
and type KT66 as triodes in the output stage. The circuit shown (A515) gives almost
identical results, but type 807 valves are used in place of type KT66.
The specifications laid down by Williamson for the output transformer are as
follows:
Primary load impedance 10000 ohms, centre-tapped
Primary inductance 100 henrys, min.
Leakage inductance, series
(whole prim. to whole sec.) 30 millihenrys, max.
Primary resistance 250 ohms, approx.
Commercial transformers wound to the original winding data supplied by Williamson
perform quite satisfactorily, although some difficulty may be experienced where the
winding structure differs from that recommended. . This is brought about by the
increase in interwinding capacitances which may result.
Several manufacturers have recently marketed some wide range outpqt transformers
which are a considerable improvement on that specified above.
In one particular transformer, the Partridge CFB, the series leakage inductance,
the winding resistances and weight have been reduced by a third, but the power
handling capabilities have been increased four times. The core distortion at a level
7.2 (vii) (B) FEEDBACK FROM OUTPUT TRANSFORMER SECONDARY 347
of 16 watts has been reduced ten tintes and the important leakage inductance existing
between the halves of the primary has been decreased thirty times.
These improvements mean that this transformer, when used in the original William-
son circuit, will give a greater stability margin or alternatively will permit the use of
a greater amount of feedback.
Distortion will be appreciably reduced in any amplifier by the use of a well designed
transformer of such a type.
Distortion with amplifier A515
Power Output H2 H3 H4 H5 Total r.m.S.
11 watts 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.015 0.045%
14 watts 0.075 0.35 0.01 0.26 0.44%
16 watts 0.04 0.92 0.11 0.45 (overload)
The smooth overload is a particularly valuable feature.
Intermodulation distortion
Conditions of test-input frequencies 60 cis and 2000 cis; higher frequency
12 db lower than 60 cis level.
Power output (r.m.s.)* 4 6 8 10 12 watts
Equivalent power** 5.9 8.8 11.8 14.7 17.6 watts
Intermodulation 0.17 0.27 0.72 3.7 8.8%
*r.m.s. sum of two output frequencies
**r.m.s. sum x 25/17 to give the single frequency power having the same peak
voltage Swl-D.g (see Chapter 14 Sect. 3).
Note:
In the circuit of Fig. 7.44, a capacitance may be inserted in series with the 5000
ohm resistor in the feedback circuit to provide bass boostinjt for equalizinjt purposes
in record reproduction; see Chapter- 15 Sect. 9(ii)B. - - - - -
A modification of this circuit, which provides for bass boosting, is given in Fig.
15.58A.
A new version of the Williamson amplifier, together with pre-amplifier and tone
control (Ref. F9) is given in Figs. 17.35B,C,D,E,F,G. See also Chapter 13 Refs.
F4, F5, H15.
Modified forms of the WilEam.son amplifier are given in Refs. F6, F8 and Chapter
13 Refs. H5, H6, H8, HI0, H12.
(C) Bridge circuits
Amplifiers can be designed with bridge circuits in both input and output circuits,
which prevent any modification of the input and output impedances and which also
eliminate any phase shift round the feedback loop caused by reactances introduced
through the input or output circuits (Refs. AI, A2, All).
an
dE -
B - -
t(Rp.EsRL
L +
Til
)(1 _R + RL+ +2(1'T+fI)R) )
L T 11 k
(45)
348 (viii) (A) CATHODE COUPLED PHASE INVERTERS
The two voltages thus differ by a small amount, which can be reduced by using a
large value of R 11: and/or by using high mu valves. If the remaining out-of-balance
is still serious, it may be eliminated entirely by making R LI slightly smaller than R L2
so as to give exact balance.
... ~------~-----8+
B !I
B
I
,
I
..J...
~-------4-------+--T
~------~------~--8-
A~~~ AG.~~
Fig. 7.45. Fundamental circuit of a cathode couple{i phase inverter.
Fig. 7.46. Fundamental circuit of a cathode-coupled amplifier.
If the screen is perfectly filtered, the second term in eqn. (54) becomes zero.
[Example: E lIo ' = 0.8lE lI for type 6V6-GT.] The effect of feedback on the hum is
then given by eqn. (52) with the substitution of the correct values of p- and A [Example:
ElIo'lElIo = 9.2 for type 6V6-GT].
Case (3) Parallel feed with voltage feedback (Fig. 7.47).
When VI is a triode, this is an excellent circuit for low hum, both with and without
feedback, provided that LI has a reactance, at the hum frequency (i.e. twice supply
frequency for full wave rectification) at least several times the impedance of r and R L
f)'
in parallel.
When V t is a pentode, the hum due to the plate circuit is low but that due to the
screen is high. Screen filtering (L 2 C 2) is required for low total hum; this is improved
by feedback so that the screen filtering may be omitted in some applications.
Without feedback, when Vt is a triode, the hum voltage is applied to a voltage
divider with wL t in one arm and R in the other, where R = r f)R LI(r + R L)' For
f)
~ __~-M~----~----~~8-
FIG. 7."7 FIG. 7."8
Fig. 7.47. Circ.uit of an amplifier with parallel-fed transformer output and negative
feedback supplied from the plate.
Fig. 7.48. Cathode follower with parallel feed.
With this type of amplifier, hum balancing arrangements inside the amplifier are
unaffected by the feedback. An adjustment of the hum bucking coil (if used) in the
loudspeaker will be necessary. Any type of feedback circuit may be used, either
from the plate, or from the primary or secondary of the output transformer.
Case (4) Cathode follower with parallel feed (Fig. 7.48)
In this case the plate resistance is reduced by the factor l/(p- + 1), and the hum
output voltage is decreased by the factor l/(p- + 1). If a pentode is used, the screen
7.2 (ix) (C) HUM ORIGINATING IN THE PLATE SUPPLY VOLTAGE 351
--~~----~-----8- ------~----+------~B-
Fig. 7.51. Two stage amplifier using combination of positive and negative feedback
(Ref. FlO).
and C 2 since the plate resistance of VIis relatively small, and the input resistance of
the grid of V2 is high. The increase in gain due to positive feedback is about 26 db
at 400 cis. About one tenth of the voltage on the grid of V 4 is fed back to the grid of
V2' The resistance of RI is therefore made about nine thlles that of R 2 , and C2 has
about nine times the capacitance of C 1 • Because of the highly degenerative nature
of the phase inverter, the balance is not appreciably affected by the additional load
of the positive feedback network.
Some phase shift in the positive feedback is obtained at extreme frequencies in
the stages V 2 and V 3 due to electrode and stray capacitances, and due to the blocking
capacitors. The input capacitance of the grid of V2 causes a further phase shift, so
that the polarity of the product ~l Al reverses from positive to negative at extremely
high frequencies, where ~l and Al apply to stage V 2' The input capacitance of V2
is primarily Miller Effect due to feedback through its grid-plate capacitance at very
high frequencies where the overall feedback is positive or small.
In some designs it may be necessary to connect a small capacitor from the grid of
Vs to earth, or to use a more elaborate phase shift network to obtain a sufficiently
rapid phase turnover in the local feedback.
At extremely low frequencies most of the local feedback current flows through Ra
instead of through C u so that a phase shift is obtained, which together with the phase-
shifting action of the 0.03/LF blocking capacitors in stages V 2 and Va, is sufficient to
cause the desired phase reversal. In practice, the phase reversal frequencies are
placed as far outside the desired pass band as good stability permits_.
The output transformer is quite small, the core area being only! in. by! in.
The maximum third barmonic distortion at 400 cis is 0.24%, higher harmonics
being relatively small, at 8 watts output, measured at the secondary. At 100 cis
the highest harmonic is the second, with 0.12% for 8 watts output. At 50 cis, with
5 watts output, third harmonic distortion is 0.88%, while at 2000 cis with 4 watts
output the third harmonic is 0.23%. The intermodulation distortion is 40% with
'no feedback, 8% with negative feedback alone and 1.9% with combined positive and
negative feedback under the following conditions-output 8 watts, 4:1 ratio with
frequencies 60 and 7000 cis. With frequencies of 100 and 7000 cis the intermodula-
tion distortion is only 0.84%. The output circuit regulation is quoted as 0.1 db at
400 cis as compared with 2.7 db for positive feedback disconnected, or 19 db with
no feedback (Ref. FlO).
354 (xi) COMBINED POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK 7.2
o---~--------~-----o8-
FIG.7.SIA
It is possible to omit the by-pass condensers from the cathode bias resistors in the
final and penultimate stages of an amplifier or receiver (or any other two successive
stages) and to bring the gain back to normal by means of positive feedback, using only
one resistor coupling the two cathodes as in Fig. 7.51B.
This circuit (Fig. 7.5IB) may also be used with any desired degree of feedback.
The effective plate resistance of V2 may be increased or decreased by the positive feed-
back as shown by the following analysis and Fig.. 7.5IC. Here R. replaces R7 and Rs
in para1Iel, no input signal is applied but a signal generator E is inserted in the plate
circuit. It is assumed that Rio is very much greater than Ra. We thus obtain
1 = ~ - 1Ra/Lt + 1Ral.8IA1ILa (61)
R.4 RA RB
where R A = Rr. + r ,,2 + Ra .
RB = Rr. + r + R s(1L2 + I)
p2
A _ 1L1R1
1 - R1 + r ,,1 + Rs
Rs
and 1.81 = Rz + Rio
From (61) we may derive
1= E
RB - Ral.8IA1ILzRA/RB
E
Rr. + r,,:.1 + Ra[IL:a + 1 - (1.8IA1ILzRA)/RB]
and hence r"2' = T"a + R a[IL2 - (1.8IA1ILzRA)/RB] (62)
where 1.81 and A have the values defined below eqn. (61). The second term on the
right hand side of eqn. (62) is the increase in effective plate resistance due to the un-
bypassed cathode resistor of VII' while the third term is the decrease in effective
plate resistance due to positive feedback. It is obvious that, by a suitable choice of
1.2 (xi) COMBINED POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK 355
f3A u it is possible to obtain any desired value of effective plate resistance from very
high values to very low, even zero or negative values. If the resistor R, is made
variable, the effective plate resistance may be varied over a wide range. The addition
of overall negative feedback will make the gain nearly constant for all settings of R"
and will also decrease the distortion- and reduce the effective plate resistance to any
values desired (Ref. FI7). See also Ref. JI9.
The addition of positive feedback will increase the phase shift and may increase
the tendency towards instability at very low and very high frequencies; care should
be taken to reduce to a minimum the phase shift within the, positive feedback loop.
The general principles of designing for stability are the same as for negative feedback
-see Sect. 3.
It is normally inadvisable to return the positive and negative feedback loops to the
same point in the input circuit. If both are taken to the same electrode, a bridge
network may be used for isolating their effects. Each 6 db increase in gain due to
positive feedback will double the distortion in this stage; for example 24 db increase
in gain will increase t..1te distortion in this stage by 16 times. This will then be reduced
by the negative overall feedback in accordance with the usual relationship. Refer-
ences to positive and negative feedback-Refs. FlO, FII, FI2, FI3, FI5, FI6, FI7 ;
Sect. 3(v)E.
Rs
soo
!
;.2
2
~
100
SO
fJ
180
t
~
L09
90
:c
..
OIl
t 0
«
X
0
igo
I!.cod
t 180
" fo
FIG. 7.52
Fig. 7.52. Voltage gain and phase angle shift of an imaginary amplifier. The
mid-frequency is f 0 and the maximum voltage gain A o.
The distance from any point on the locus to point K is equal to (1 - fJA) where fJ
is negative for negative feedback (see Fig. 7.53B).
If it is desired to find the magnitude and phase angle of fJA at any frequency, it is
only necessary to measure the gain without and with feedback, to calculate the ratio
AoIA' between them, to draw a circle with centre K and radius AoIA' units, then to
draw a second circle with centre o and radius equal to the measured fed-back voltage
1fJA I. The line from the origin to the point of intersection between the two circles
is the complex number fJA.
For any amplifier to be stable, the fJA locus must not include the point K
(1,0). It is also desirable for the locus not to cut the X axis beyond the point K,
® @~
-4 -4
FIG. 7.53
Fig. 7.53. (A) Locus of fJA vectors (" Nyquist diagram") for a single stage
resistance capacitance coupled tn·ode amplifier with fixed bias (B) S~·milar locus for a
2 stage amplifier.
358 (li) CONDITIONS FOR STABILITY 7.3
otherwise oscillation may occur during the warming-up period; such an amplifier
is said to be conditionally stable. In the case of more complicated circuits, particu-
larly those with peculiarly shaped fJA loci, it is advisable to plot loci for successively
increasing values of fJ up to and somewhat beyond the desired value of fJ. The
criterion of stability should be applied to each-that the locus should not enclose
the point K (1,0).
The following rule is also helpful as it covers most cases and avoids having to draw
a fJA locus. If fJA is less than unity at cP = + 180° and at cP = - 180° the
amplifier is stable.
Another useful rule is that the maximum permissible value of fJA is equal to
the maximum value of A (i.e. Ao) divided by the value of A at cP = ± 180°
(whichever is the larger).
Also, if the phase shift is not more than 180° at zero and-at infinite fre-
quencies, the. amplifier is always stable with any value of fJ.
The " attenuation " is the attenuation with respect to the maximum value of A
(i.e. A 0)' Both the attenuation and the loop amplification fJA may be expressed in
decibels.
o
'!JO
/
6 db gain r~duction
-3
-9-5db
FIG. 7. 54
Fig. 7.54. Additional information furnished by a "Nyquist diagram" (see also
Fig. 7.41 A and B.)
Certain aspects of the polar diagram for amplifiers with feedback are shown in
Fig. 7.54. Circles are shown with centres at point K (1,0) with radii of 0.25, 0.5,
1.0, 2 and 3 units. The circumference of the circle with a radius of 1 unit indicates
the locus of points at which the gain is unchanged by feedback. At all points outside
this circle, the feedback is negative and degenerative. For example, the circum-
ference of the circle with a radius of 2 units is the locus of points having a gain reduc-
tion of 6 db. At all points inside the circumference of the circle with a radius of
1 unit, the feedback is positive and regenerative although not necessarily unstable.
For example, the circumference of the circle with a radius of 0.5 unit is the locus of
points having a gain increase of 6 db.
Instability occurs when the point K is included by the /lA locus. Straight lines
are drawn radiating from the origin with stability margins of 15°, 30°, 60°, and 90,°.
The 30° line is tangential to the circle with a radius of 0.5 unit, so that the point of
7.3 (li) CONDITIONS FOR STABILITY 359
tangency has 30° stability margin and 6 db gain increase. At other points along this
line the gain increase will be less than 6 db.
An example of the use of the polar diagram in connection with the design of nega-
tive feedback amplifiers is given in Sect. 2(vi)B and Figs. 7.37 and 7.38.
It would be permissible for an amplifier to have a f3A locus such as the line
OABCDEFG in Fig. 7.54 (see Ref. A29). Here the maximum increase of gain d~e
to positive feedback is 6 db, which occurs between C and D. The feedback is nega-
tive over the path EFG. The distance OA should not exceed say 0.3 unit, so as to
allow for a possible increase in amplifier gain of about 3 db without further increasing
the peak of 6 db.
Feedback amplifiers which are designed with a small stability margin should have
narrow tolerances on components that have a direct effect on gain or frequency charac-
teristics. It is desirable for f3A to be measured and its locus plotted for the pilot model
of each design for three conditions, with normal (bogie) valves and with valves at the
upper and lower limits for mutual conductance. This is only required in the region
of the low and high frequency peaks of response, which are normally beyond the
working frequency range. Alternatively and more simply, the height of the low and
high frequency peaks may be measured in relation to the response without feedback;
in accordance with good practice, the rise with feedback should not exceed 6 db, and
lower values are desirable.
A special stability problem occurs when an amplifier may not always be connected
to its correct load. One way of overcoming this problem is to design a high-and-Iow
pass filter pair for connection between the amplifier and the load, t..~e high-pass· filter
being terminated by a resistance (Ref. A29).
If an amplifier is stable with the output terminals open-circuited, short-circuited,
or operated into its rated resistive load, then it is stable under all load conditions.
The measurements of stability on open-circuit and under rated load resistance can
be made with an oscilloscope across the output terminals to check for the presence
of ultrasonic oscillations. A check on the short-circuit conditions can best be made
using a high-frequency ammeter across the output terminals. An oscilloscope of
very high input impedance might also be used by connecting it across the input of
one of the stages in the feedback loop (Ref. A28).
(iii) Relationship between phase angle displacement and attenuation
The phase angle displacement of an amplifier is normally a function of the attenua-
tion characteristic. Because of this fact,it is possible to design a feedback amplifier
on the basis of either the phase angle displacement or the attenuation characteristic.
If the attenuation characteristic* is a straight line with a slope of 6 decibels per octave,
then the ultimate phase angle is 90° and so on in proportion; 12 db/octave gives
180° phase angle and 18 db/octave gives 270°. The condition which must be satis-
fied is that the amplifier is a "minimum phase shift network." This condition is
satisfied by most amplifiers, the exceptions being (1) when it contains a transmission
line or equivalent circuit with distributed constants, and (2) when it includes an
allpass section, either as an individual structure or in a combination which can be
replaced by an all-pass filter section plus some other physical structure (Refs. H6,
HI0, Hll).
Fig. 7.54A shows ultimate slopes of 6 and 12 db/octave and higher slopes. The
12 db/octave attenuation characteristic is the limiting value for stability, being on the
verge of instability. A practical amplifier requires a safety margin between the slope
of its design characteristic and the limiting value of 12 db/octave. A typical design
slope is 10 db/octave, giving an angular safety margin of 30°.
Any single reactive element such as a grid coupling condenser, a shunt capacitance
or a shunt inductance in conjunction with a resistance provides an attenuation charac-
teristic with an ultimate slope of 6 db/octave. Such a combination is known as a
single time coristant circuit. Attenuation characteristics are given in Fig. 4.36 (grid
coupling condenser or shunt inductance) and Fig. 4.38 (shunt capacitance), for a
singfe time constant in each case.
·Plotted with logarithmic frequency scale.
360 (iii) PHASE ANGLE AND ATTENUATION 7.3
8'. 16(.
FIG. 7.SofA
Fig. 7.54A. Attenuation characteristics for 6, 12, 18 and 24 decibels per octave
as given by the" asymptotic" or ultimate characteristics of the amplifiers in their
simplest farm. The region beyond 12 db/octave is unstable; that below 10 db octave
is stable, and the region between 10 and 12 db/octave is a safety margin to allow for
discrepancies between the calculated design and the finished amplifier.
Cathode by-passing
The maximum slope of the attenuation characteristic and maximum phase angle
displacement are given belcw
B 2 3 5 10
Max. loss 6 9.5 14 20 db
Max. slope 2.25 2.6 3.6 4.8 db/octave
Max. angle 42° 55°
where B = 1
For a pentode B ~ 1 + gmRk'
For typical r .c. triodes and pentodes, B is usually less than 3.
7.3 (iii) PHASE ANGLE AND ATTENUATION 361
Screen by-passing
This has an effect similar to that of cathode by-passing
B . 2.5 5 10 20
Max. loss S 14 20 26 db
Max. slope = 2.4 4 4.5 5.4 db/octave
Max. angle = 25 0 42 0 54.5 0 64.5 0
Rsgm
where B = I + mILt(1 + R,jr p)
Ra = series screen resistor in ohms
g m. = mutual conductance at operating point, in mhos
m = ratio of plate to screen currents
ILt = triode amplification factor
R L = plate load resistance in ohms
and r = plate resistance in ohms.
fJ
""'-
0
&.40
··
30
ao
... r;"
~I'"
~""""""
• - ,,' / ""- ' .....1"-
L
" 100(0
FIG.7.S4B
Fig. 7. 54B. Attenuation and phase characteristics of " step circuit n Fig. 7.59A
for particular case with step attenuation 20db (Ref. HIS).
~
LV . . . Fig. 7.54C. Maximum
. i
I
I
V
V
V-
I phase. shift as a function
of attenuation in the
circuit of Fig. 7.59A
L (Ref. HIS).
V
/v
o V j
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Step Attl!nuation (db)
FIG.7•. S4C
362 (iii) PHASE ANGLE AND ATTENUATION 7.3
kxBO
0
\
, V
...-,.- ~
o
'1(0
~ --
'2(0
/'"
More accurate results may be obtained in some cases by the use of phase angle
curves for attenuation characteristics having a sloping portion and a horizontal portion,
as given by Bode (Ref. Hll, Chapter 15).
db
f. f3
Frequency
FIG.7.55a FIG. 7.sse
Fig. 7.55B. Attenuation characteristic with straight line approximation (based
on Bode, Ref. HII).
Fig. 7.55C. Semi-infinite lines of constant slope corresponding to straight Nne
approximations in Fig. 7.55B (based on Bode, Ref. Hll).
More accurately again, when the slope of the attenuation characteristic is
varying, the phase angle at any frequency may be determined from a measurement
of the amplitude characteristic' over a wide frequency range. This procedure is
facilitated by the use of special graph paper, plotting the slope of the amplitude charac-
teristic in db/Octave against a function of frequency, then measuring the area under
the curve and so enabling the slope at one point to be determined (see Ref. A29).
When the slope of the attenuation characteristic reaches a maximum value over a
limited frequency range and is less than this value at lower and higher frequencies,
the phase angle at the point of maximum slope is less than that indicated by the slope,
while at frequencies below and above the region of higher slope the phase angle is
greater than that indicated by the slope.
'Simple method for determmation of phase angle (Ref. HIS)
A very simple approximate method, which gives the total phase angle, is based
on the straight-line approximate characteristics (Fig. 7.550). The phase angle dis-
placement at the cut-off frequency fa is 45°; the approximate straight-line phase
characteristic is taken as a tangent to the actual curve at the point of greatest slope,
with sharp bends at the intersections with 0° and 90°. The maximum error is about
10°. 0
·---ro·
""
.........~
~
-3
-6
-9 db
"- ~ I
-12
-15
I
'i' -18
/ ... i'
-21
j
<6t!
70°
~I"
~ ~/ i
"'
i I I
/' I
i i
50° v
f4d
30° ,
iLl i i I:
~~::; \ i : !\
20°
let
o
·"0
--- ·2fo
......-r'/'i
/i i
'5fo
i I
I
'0 2'0
I iIi: I
5(0
:
10(0
I
FIG.7.S5D
I
Fig. 7.55D " Straight Nne" approximate characteristics with an attenuation slope
of 6dbjoctave (actual characteristics shawn with broken lines) and corresponding
phase angle characteristics (Ref. HIS).
364 (iii) PHASE ANGLE AND ATTENUATION 7.3
(I) I"
\ -21
1-'
"'""'- '" -24
27
-36
33
"
, -39
, -42
-45
" 48
-51
100(0
I:IG. 7.55~
be the permissible feedback factor. One or both cathode by-pass condensers may pe
omitted, or the by-passed section of R k may be reduced in resistance. One or both
screen dropping resistors may be reduced in resistance, or replaced by a voltage divider
with other consequential adjustments. The values of the cathode and screen by-pass
capacitors may-be adjusted so that their frequencies of maximum phase' angle are
" staggered," preferably in the ratio of at least 20 to 1.
The high frequency peak may be reduced by staggering the high frequency response
of the two stages, for example by shunting a capacitor from one plate to earth and
increasing the capacitance experimentally until the peak is sufficiently reduced.
For an exact design method see Sect. 3(vii) below.
The phase angle displacement is increased by the inclusion of an iron-cored trans-
former within the feedback loop, also by any resonance effects, and such cases should
be treated by the method described for multi-stage amplifiers.
I
!
/'
i/'
... 1'" --... t--~
r-,~
/ !
f:.;:r-
. RE'SUlTING
PHASE CHARACTERISTIC /
-LI
/
I
I
/
./
/'
""
I / /(1) I rt2) ,;,/ ,3) \
/1/ v
~
i: ! .LV ,," " I
I I I ./
'"
100(0
FIG.7.SSF
Fig. 7.55F. Phase angle characteristic derived from Fig. 7.55E (Ref. HIS).
Design tests
It is highly desirable to measure and plot both the frequency response and phase
angle over a sufficiently wide frequency range; both curves may be plotted on the
same sheet of logarithmic graph paper. The required frequency range is the useful
frequency range of the amplifier plus (at each end) one octave for each 10 db of feed-
back plus at least one octave.
When it is desired to achieve the maximum degree of feedback it is essential to
plot the polar (Nyquist) diagram as in Figs. 7.53B and 7.54. For a method of measur-
ing the phase angle see Refs. H7, H19, H20.
An amplifier may be tested for transient response by applying a rectangular wave-
form to the input and observing the waveform of the output with a C.R.O. having
good frequency and phase characteristics up to the maximum test frequency. If
there is 'any oscillatory response or "overshoot" the feedback may be reduced or
some modification made to the feedback loop to provide the desired degree of damp-
ing.
Another useful design test is to overload the amplifier with input voltages of various
frequencies, and to determine the level to which the input must be reduced to return
to normal linear operation (Ref. A29 discussion).
0
A o 8
10
....
~
c
0 10
1 I~ 1
~ 30
I '"
40
c
V I I
lI
. . . .V
L--
~
o~
~ 10fo
10
FIG.7.S6A
Fig. 7.56A. Bode's method-Curve (1) attentuation characteristic and (2) phase
angle displacement characteristic for constant 150 0 phase angle displacement above
upper working frequency fo; curve (3) constant slope 10 db/octave (Ref. Hll).
Alternative methods of design
(a) One method sometines used is the "cut and try" method of constructing an
amplifier and then applying feedback with the feedback factor increasing in steps
until instability occurs, and finally decreasing the feedback to provide a safe margin.
If instability occurs with only a small degree of feedback, there are devices which
may be experimented with, such as
1. Shunting the primary of the output transformer by a condenser.
2. Connecting a very small condenser from the plate of one of the earlier stages to
earth.
7.3 (v) DESIGN OF MULTI-STAGE AMPLIFIERS 367
ob
20
I~AI 1A,"oj
10
-10
-20
'1(0 (0
FIG.7.56B
Fig, 7.56B. Bode's method-Curve (1) as in Fig. 7.56A; (2) normal attenuation
characteristic of typical amplifier. Shaded portion indicates additional attenuation
required in the feedback loop.
For convenience in feedback design, Curve 1 has been redrawn in Fig. 7.56B ~th
odb corresponding to I,sA I = 1, for 30 db offeedback at the mid-frequency. Curve 4
is the normal attenuation characteristic of a typical amplifier, so that the shaded
portion indicates the additional attenuation required in the feedback loop to produce
the desired curve 1. The shaded portion is limited at the lower end by the line EF
which provides a safety margin (here 10 db) below I,sAI = 1. The desired charac-
teristic· is therefore BEFG, where FG is portion of the normal attenuation character-
istic of the amplifier. The safety margin is therefore a constant angle of 30° from B
368 (v) DESIGN OF MULTI-STAGE AMPLIFIERS 7.3
IPAI
0
I
1/
,,/'C
,
-50 "
-60
/ ",/
5 10 20
FNqucnc, cIs FI G. 7.57
Fig. 7.57. Low frequency attenuation characteristics of multi-stage amplifier with
feedback (simplified treatment).
Low frequency attenuation characteristics
As an example for illustrating the general principle, take an amplifier with nominally
flat frequency response down to 20 cis (actually it will be - 2 or - 3 db at this fre-
quency). Let the loop amplification I,BA I be 30 db at useful frequencies.
Draw the attenuation characteristic with a slope of 10 db/octave from 20 cis down-
wards (line ABC in Fig. 7.57). Point B is where the value of the loop amplification
becomes unity. Extend the line AB to C which is at a level 10 db below I,BA I = 1.
At C, insert a horizontal" step" CD, the length of which will be given later. Be-
yond D the attenuation will fall at a rate of 12, 18, 24, 30 db or more depending on
the circuit; each single time constant or non-resonant transformer contributes 6 db,
while each resonant circuit contributes 12 db. The frequency ratio between points
370 (v) DESIGN OF MULTI-STAGE AMPLIFIERS 7.3
C and D is made equal to the ratio of the slopes of DE and A C, which is equal to
the slope of DE divided by 10. The line ABCDE, thus determined, is to be used
as a guide to the low frequency attenuation characteristic of the amplifier. In reality,
of course, the sharp comers will be rounded-the important features are that the
slope of the AC region should not exceed 10 db/octave, and that the step should be
sufficiently long.
+ 300V -
Lw Impcdonec
Fig.7.58. Three stage amplijierwith negative feedback illustrating design method (Ref. H9).
0r-------t---~~i-----~~~~---,
~ 15r--.~---+--------+-----+-~--------~
1
i
o 20~r---~~--------+----r--~--------~
!25~-------+--------+-~~---4--------~
g
c
t~r--------+--------+-+
~
3Sr----7~_r------~~------~--------~
45r--------+~------+-------_4--------4
~~'~--. .~~.~I--~~~~I--~~~~~--~~U.~DO
Frequency (cis) FIG. 7.59
Fig. 7.59. Lowfrequency attenuation characteristics of Fig. 7.42B (Ref. H9).
Example
An example of an amplifier designed in accordance with this method is Fig. 7.58
(Ref. H9). The low frequency attenuation characteristics are given in Fig. 7.59.
The 6V6 cathode, 6V6 screen and 6SJ7 screen characteristics are designed to provide
a very close approach to a total slope of 10 db/octave with a limiting attenuation of
40 db, so providing the basis of a step. The two grid condensers are designed to give
effective attenuation beyond the limit of the step. It is evident that it is possible to
design an amplifier which provides the necessary low frequency attenuation charac-
7.3 (v) (B) TREATMENT BY LEARNED 371
teristics, including the step, without using any resonant circuits. The tolerances on
the frequency-dependent components (R and C) must be small.
The feedback loop does not include the plate circuit of the third stage, so that the
slope of the high-frequency attenuation characteristic is nominally 12 db/octave.
The resonant circuit (incorporating C I ) in the feedback path is employed to stabilize
the frequencies in this region by providing a step in the high-frequency attenuation
characteristic. .
Corrective networks
The design of simple corrective networks is well summarized in Ref. H9. More
complicated designs incorporate LCR 2-terminal networks as the plate load imped-
ances and (some) cathode bias impedances (Ref. HII). See also Ref. ]16.
One of the simplest and most effective methods of providing the required step in the
high frequency attenuation characteristic is the RC network shunting the plate load
resistor of the pentode VI in Fig. 7.59A (based on Ref. H9). The ultimate attenuation
of the step in decibels is given approximately by
attenuation ~ 20 log (R 1 + R)/R.
The cut-off frequency is given by
fl = 1/21TR 1 C
and the "flattening-out" frequency by
f2 ~ 1/21TRC
where R I = RLRg/(R L + Rg)
and the " flattening-out" frequency is d~fined as the frequency at which the attenua-
tion is 3 db less than the ultimate attenuation of the step.
fw ~~--O
r--....
c
8+
,..-----<08+
~1e
Fig. 7.59A.
":' FIG.7.S9A
q, indicates the lower slope characteristic, the value of q, in degrees being given by
15 x slope in db/octave. Vector OB, having magnitude xa and phase angle 180°,
indicates the higher slope characteristic with a slope of 12 db/octave. For example,
when the slopes are 4 and 12 db/octave, a = 3 and q, = 60°.
The magnitude of the resultant is given by
Resultant =V(x sin q,)2 + (x" - x cos q,)2.
The phase angle 8 of the resultant is given by
x sin q,
8 = tan-I •
xcosq,-xa
For ease in calculations the following table hal! been derived for use in all normal
cases when the phase angle between the two voltages is a multiple of 30° and less than
180° and when the higher slope is 12 db/octave.
Difference in phase angle* Resultant Phase Angle 8 of
Resultant
1
30° xVI + 1.73x • + X •
O 2 O 4
'~
,~ o;s ! i
+5
I
13fi' ~~ ~~
',Q., -,Q~
I ..,..
£1'8
,lot ~ :D
db
122~O Zero Slope < Volts
o "
,
, -- ~603~
-5 "
" D' '75° .~ 29°
13° I
0056
-10
I"
".~ &-- I~
0'32
-IS
-20
002510 O-Slo 21o
'" "~
FIG. 7.63
4fo
0'18
()ol
Fig. 7.63. Summation of two attenuation characteristics having slopes of zero and
10 db/octa'l.'e.
at higher frequencies, particularly beyond point D. The fact that the slope of the
resultant in Fig. 7.63 exceeds 12 db/octave to the left of point D, has no effect what-
ever on the stability as indicated by the angles. It is therefore obvious that the re-
lationship between phase angle and slope of the attenuation characteristic which
applies to minimum phase shift networks, does not apply here.
A similar calculation has been made for a slope of 11 db/octave, Fig. 7.64.
The position of point D on the resultant characteristic is a function of the slope of
the attenuation characteristic.
slope in db/octave 2 4 6 8 10 11
height of point D + 5.7 + 4.7 + 3 0 - 5.6 - 11.6 db.
(E) Duerdoth's method empleying multiple feedback paths (Ref. A29)
In accordance with this method, one or' more additional subsidiary feedback volt-
ages are introduced into the feedback loop so as to decrease the phase angle over the
7.3 (v) (E) DUERDOTH'S METHOD OF MULTIPLE FEEDBACK 375
+20 10
4il~163U
,,~
+15
16:#""
+10
r-," ~ ~16~0
lsa~ ~I':f
\
1\'.
~~
'\~..
...
Volts
o
\
1"\ 0
,...Cl,\
\
~
...... ~o
:0,..-r-- eo L
-5
-10
\
~ "
'{
I',0 1''' 0I
. r~
i\.
~ 165 0
0·56
0-32
14
-IS "t\.
"\
'\
-20
0-25fo
FIG. 7.64
bility of os.cillation due to the disconnection and the· definition of stability margin
remains applicable (Ref. A29).
When employing multiple feedback paths with summation of attenuation charac-
teristics and subsidiary voltages, the crossing point of the characteristics should be
controlled with considerable accuracy. The crossing point will be modified when the
gains of the various stages change owing to changes in the valve characteristics with
age, or to overloading caused by an excessive input voltage. The latter may be avoided
or reduced in more elaborate amplifiers by the addition of a cathode follower stage,
operating as a limiter, as part of the first stage. Precautions to be taken in design
are described in Ref. A29.
Some applications employing multiple feedback paths are described below. See
also Sect. 2(vi)A.
FIG~7'6S
__ VI
(1) One simple application is the circuit of Fig. 7.65 where the signal voltage across
the unbypassed cathode resistor R k is added to the loop feedback voltage. This is
an application of the principle of summation of attenuation characteristics as shown
in Figs. 7.63 and 7.64. The voltage across R k. is practically constant over the critical
region of the high frequency attenuation characteristic, so that its characteristic has
zero slope. This method may only be used when the phase angle of the fJA locus is
always less than 180°, i.e. the slope of the fJA attenuation characteristic is less than
12 db/octave. This method does not reduce the distortion in the final stage to the
.same level as without subsidiary feedback, or to that using one of the alternative
methods below. For this reason the subsidiary voltage should be considerably smaller
than the loop feedback voltage. However, this method will improve the stability
margin of an amplifier and reduce the amplitude of the high frequency peak.
~-------~E-
(2) One modification of this method, which has only small degeneration in the
working range, is shown in Fig. 7.66. This appears to have been first described by
Farren (Ref. A7) and applied to one of the stages inside the feedback loop. The
phase shift reaches maxima at low and high frequencies outside the working range,
beyond which it approaches zero in both directions. The degeneration increases
gradually in both directions to the limiting design values provided by R\ and R z•
This arrangement does not modify the fundamental phase shift between the input
and output voltages of the stage due to the phase angle of the plate load impedance.
7.3 (v) (E) DUERDOTH'S METHOD OF MULTIPLE FEEDBACK 377
(3) A further modification by Farren (Ref. A7) is shown in Fig. 7.67 which has the
advantage at very high and very low frequencies that it reduces the phase shift between
the input and output voltages of the stage due to the phase angle of the plate load
impedance which would be characteristic of the stage if there were no subsidiary
feedback.
+30
LOOP FEEDBACK";
+20
RiTAHT~
1\
~
+10
db L07f\I'~~ ~
o
v,
SUBSIDIARY "i' I\~ 1\
I FEEDBACK ~~
~~
-10
I ~
~
----
K
-20
0-1(0 (0 !O(=
"
FIG. 7.69
Fig. 7.69. Summation of loop and subsidiary feedback voltages to provide improved
stability (Ref. A29).
(4) Two terminal networks of the form of Fig. 7.68 are described by Duerdoth as
cathode impedances for improving the stability of feedback amplifiers with an ulti-
mate attenuation of 12 db/octave. A value of L = lOCR2 may be used as a first
trial and maximum feedback and zero phase angle will then occur at a frequency of
approximately
f = O.048/CR
where C and R are in farads and ohms respectively. An example of the application
of subsidiary feedback on an amplifier with an ultimate attenuation slope of 12 db/
octave is given in Fig. 7.69. In this example the peak of subsidiary feedback occurs
at twice the maximum frequency of the working band. The stability margin in the
critical region has been increased from 10° to 36° with subsidiary feedback, as shown
by the Nyquist diagrain (Ref. A29).
It often happens that the addition of the subsidiary voltage results in an increase
in phase angle just above the working frequency band where the magnitude of the
FIG. 7.70
Fig. 7.70. Three stage amplifier incorporating subsidiary feedfJack in the form of a
4 terminal network. m = 0.87. W = " Wheeler" network (based on Ref. A29).
378 (v) DESIGN OF MULTI-STAGE AMPLIFIERS 7.3
•
LO.~ Attc~
~
Hr~h Frcqucncy A~
I/-,} I
~h 1
\ \
I III I
u-=~ ~~IO 1
,tt~
---
II ...
J ~ ~ io' \
I
#~
-+-
'5 - - -
"
005 '1
---'
~
·2
~\'tC6~i---- --
·5 10() 2 5
-~- ---1----
101 ·1
I
·2
~~-- --
-S 1·0 2 5 10 20
FIFo Frequency
FIG. 7.73
Fig. 7.72. Relative voltage gain of a single stage r.c.c. amplifier without feedback
and with three selected values of feedback (Ref. .[14).
Fig. 7.73. Relative voltage gain of two identical r.c.c. amplifier stages, without
feedback and with four selected values of feedback (Rel H4).
where x = g(~
n 000
_ 000)
00
(6)
N.B. n must be greater than 2.
2 stages !(Ao/A) I = VI + X4 (7)
4> = - tan- 1V2x/(I - x 2) (8)
where x = Q2,J~~(~ _ (0
0
) (9)
nQ2 000 00
FIG. 7.74
These equations have been plotted in Fig. 7.75 from which it will be seen that the
feedback factor has no effect on the shape of the curves for I or 2 stages, and only a
very slight effect for 3 or 4 stages (curves for limiting values of n are given). Although
the curves are shown only for the high frequency limit of the flat top, they may be
applied to the low frequency side by changing the sigh of the abscissae and, in the
case of phase angle, also changing the sign of the ordinates.
This method of design provides the maximum flat frequency response, but the
maximum degree of feedback only occurs at the mid-frequency and it falls off rapidly
outside the frequency band of the "selective" stage. The feedback becomes zero
near the knees of the flat top, and positive at still higher and lower frequencies.
This design ensures stability at all frequencies from zero to infinity.
This method also makes it possible to design for any desired response curve, within
the limits of the amplifier. The procedure is to commence with the desired response
curve and to determine the response (either modulus or phase angle) correspoD(~ing
7.3 (vii) (A) METHOD OF H. MAYR 381
f--
tTW
-I
-I
- ... Ift
THREE
STAGES
0 f-- 1I •• ~l'iIl.~
- hi"
-I
~~
'().I 1 10 0'1 10 100
x x
FIG. 7,75
Fig. 7.75. Frequency response and phase angle of frequency response for. 1,2,3,
and 4 r.c.c. stages designed for maximum flat response by Mayr's method (Ref. HI3).
to two arbitrary frequencies (wd21T) and (W2/21T), one near the lower and the other
near the upper frequency limit, Then we read from the curves the values of Xl
and X2 corresponding to the two chosen response values ; the value of Xl corresponding
to the lower frequency is, of course, negative.
The mid-frequency may be computed from
W0 2 = W1 W2 X2 W1 - X1 W2 (19)
X2 W2 - X1 W1
and the ratio QdQ2 from equation (10), or (17) for 2 or 3 stages or
(QdQ~ = 3(n - 1) +V3(3n - 4) for 4 stages.
The Q's of the various stages are then given by :
1 stage: Q = _n_X_1,--_
._---
WI Wo (20)
(21)
3 stages: Q 2 _- Q 3 _- :;nQ2. Xl
Q1 WI _ Wo (22)
Wo WI
382 (vii) FLAT FREQUENCY RESPONSE AMPLIFIERS 7.3
(23)
WI) WI
These amplifiers are made up of one rather selective stage, corresponding to Ql'
and ~l number of eql ll3l brol3dly-tuued ~tlOlge8! corre8ponding to Q2' Q" . .. With
increasing feedback the selectivity of Ql must be increased, while the selectivity of
Q2 etc. approaches a limiting value which is of the order of the Q of a single stage
amplifier without feedback, having the same bandwidth as the complete amplifier
with feedback.
The amplifier is first designed, neglecting all capacitances, to have a gain approxi-
mately n times the final value. The feedback is designed with a purely resistive feed-
back network to decrease the gain n times. The value of Gil is then determined at
the minimum practicable value, that is the input capacitance of the following stage
plus an allowance for strays. Then the values of the other capacitances are given by
p k
(24)
C lJ = woYRLR
II
; Gc = -;;;;;vtt;J[;
b
where p = 2Q[1 - J l + 4Qt - 4Q{1 + ~+ d2 ) ]
I-pd ./--- ./---
k = P +d ; b = V Rg/R L and d = GgWo'v R/.R II -
The amplification without feedback at the mid-frequency is
<to = kQ . g ...VR/.R" (25)
There are limits to the physically realizable values of G 11 and G c which are quoted
in the article (Ref. H13).
It is shown in (C) below that the condition of maximal flatness gives an oscillatory
transient response; for instance when the input voltage is a unit step, the two-stage
amplifier has a response which overshoots 4.3%, while the three-stage amplifier
overshoots 8% (Ref. HIS).
A maximal flatness 2 stage amplifier has a small rise in the response at some high
frequency due to positive feedback, compared with the response ""ithout feedback.
For example, as may be shown by drawing a Nyquist diagram, a 2-stage amplifier
with <t2/<t 1 = 10, Ao = 316, {3 = 0.016 has a rise of about 1.4 db due to positive
feedback at some high frequency.
lib factor by which the normal value of load resistance is multiplied for
=
the other stage,
and {3 = fraction of the output voltage fed back to the input.
Equation (26) may be expressed in the alternative form
F = 2S 2 (26a)
where F = 1 - {3A 0 = feedback factor
and S = f(b + lib) = " staggering coefficient."
In a two stage amplifier with a high frequency peak, the required staggering to
produce a peak of known value is given by
S2 = (FI2Xl - VI - (l2) (27)
where (l = ratio of voltage gain at middle frequencies to that at. the peak «(l is less
than 1).
The results are ·summarized in the following table :
b = 1 1.5 2 3 4 5
S = 1 1.08 1.25 1.7 2.1 2.6
Feedback factor (F) for maximal flatness (Eqn. 26a) :
F = 2 2.3 3.1 5.8 8.8 13.5
For 1 db rise (Eqn. 27) : -
F = 3.7 4.3 5.7 10.6 16 25
For 3 db rise (Eqn. 27) :--
F = 6.8 8.0 10.7 19.7 30 46
Fig. 7.76 shows the frequency characteristics obtained with 2 stage amplifiers with
maximal flatness and for several other conditions. Here
x = wCR
and F = 1 - f3Ao = feedback factor.
+10
_....,
v yc
~-I-oo V
1\ co o -- -=
-~~ ~t--
-0
- ....
-~
~
r\
db
~ ~~\
,~
-10
-10 db '\.\
1~ ,,~~
-20
~
'~ ~
"
-20
-30
~
'' \
I 01 2
x
IF FIG. 7.76 FIG. 7.77
Fig. 7.76. Frequency characteristics of two-stage amplifier. Curve A is without
feedback and curves B, C and D respectively for maximal flatness, a 1 db peak and a
3 db peak ex
= wCR; C = normal shunt capacitance of each stage; R = total
normal a.c. .load resistance for each stage; pentode valves (Ref, HI2).
Fig. 7.77: Frequency characteristics of three-stage amplflier. Curve A is without
feedback and curves B, C, D are respectively for maximal flatness and with feedback
equal to two and foul' times. the m.j. value (Ref. HI2).
If the condition of maximal flatness is to hold at the low as well as at the high fre-
quency end of the band, the centre-frequencies of both stages should be identical
(Ref. HI3).
Three-stage amplifiers and maximal flatness
It has been shown (Ref. H12) that if a substantially flat response over the maximum
possible frequency band is required, the optimum arrangement for a three-stage
amplifier is to have two stages with wide frequency response and one with narrow.
384 (vii) FLAT FREQUENCY RESPONSE AMPLIFIERS 7.3
This finding is based on the assumption that the amplifier has maximal flatness; it
is not necessarily the most desirable arrangement under all conditions. *
The condition for maximal flatness is that
(B3 + 2)2
F = ! . 2B3 + 1 (28)
where F = feedback factor
B = staggering factor = I/b
and b = factor by which the normal value of load resistance is multiplied for the
one (narrow) stage.
[B is always equal to or greater than unity.]
Equation (28) may be approximated within 1.4% when B ~ 2 by
F ~ 1 + (B3/4) (29)
For example when F = 10 (Le. 20 db feedback), B ~. 3.3 and the ratio of band-
widths is approximately 11.
As with the two-stage amplifier, an increased amount of feedback beyond that to
give maximal flatness gives high frequency peaks (Fig. 7.77).
The critical amount of feedback to provide self-oscillation is
Fe = 5 + 2B3 + 2/B3 = 8Ft -3 (30)
where Fe = feedback factor to give critical feedback
and F t = feedback factor to give maximal flatness.
The stability margin of a three-stage maximal-flatness amplifier is (Fe - Ft ) and
in a typical example
F t = 3.16 (i.e. 10 db reduction in gain) for maximal flatness
then Fe = 8 X 3.16 - 3 = 22.2 (i.e. 27 db approx.) to give self-oscillation.
The stability margin is therefore 27 - 10 = 17 db approximately.
If the feedback is made very large, and the staggering is adjusted so as always to
give maximal flatness, Fc ~ 8Ft which for this example becomes 8 x 3.16 = 25.2
(i.e. 28 db approx.) giving a stability margin of 18 db approximately.
10
v
8 / Fig. 7.78. Relation between the
I' staggering factor B and the gain
reduction factor F for maximal
6 flatness in a three-stage amplifier.
B ...... ~ ! Values of B less than unity apply
4
. . .V ! I to the "two narrow, one wide"
,/'i condition; values of B greater
I than unity apply to the "two
...... io-'~ wide, one narrow" condition
/'" (Ref. HI2).
o \ 7 10
1 2 20 40 70 100 200
F FIG. 7.78
..L.
c'l
FIG. 7.80
, L
~I'
V
o
, VII' I'
""CIl. / ~o~
,'/~
I
-: 10 /
/
" / /
/ /
)~ ./
....
1/ V
V v~
l/ ~
Vvv
I
lbv 10 100 1,000
K• .!.,/.!., FIG. 7.11
Fig. 7.81. Conditions for critical damping of two-stage uncompensated amplifier
(Ref. HIS).
feedback amplifier is made identical with that of an amplifier without feedback having
two stages, each having an inverse time constant equal to the geometrical mean of
the inverse time constants of the two stages multiplied by the square root of the feed-
back factor (eqn. 38).
A particularly simple special case is obtained when
!X2 = IXI(I - fJAo) ;
then IX = IXs = 1X2 = IXI(I - fJAo).
Values of IXs for critical damping may be derived from the curves of Fig. 7.82 and
values of IX from Fig. 7.83.
11lree-stagea~p1Uier
Critical damping cannot be obtained in a three-stage amplifier with constant fJ.
I - fJAo =
(IXI + (%2 + lXa)2
(39)
27IXIIX2 1X 3
\I
/ ~
J ~
/ ..) 7
I ~~
II YI V"
~
~ ....
1" ..... ~~
10
r - - - ",t:F
L '1 L .....
, LlL
~~~ t"': IL
'./ ."" ~ 'I'
~"o L ~ . . . .v
~ V YV
~~ ~ V
~~
i
I
V 10 100
FIG. 7.82
Fig. 7.82. Curves for determining lXafor critical damping of two-stage compensated
amplifier (Ref. HI5).
388 (vii) FLAT FREQUENCY RESPONSE AMPLIFIERS 7.3
100
~/
~ 177
I-' 7
. . . .V "" V
......1-' ...... i.'" "'" IJ'
~ V l.--"~iII'
I 1.--"10-' "'" V V VV
J......- j.o V
10
.I../ol.,
l?
,
--
......
1...0'
~ V~
~
'10~
V' 1.--"10-'
......
....... 10-'
~~I-'
c:::~
~./
:.iI
~
I" """
"'" I;' /
....,../ ,Q.......
~ ....... ", i/"'" 1.1
V . . . . ~ .......~~
~ lY ~ "/
I
VV 100
FIG. 7.83
Fig. 7.83. GUTf)es for determining (X for critical damping of two-stage compensated
amplifier (Ref. HIS).
When I - f3A 0 is less than the right hand side of eqn. (43) the transient response is
over damped and less rapid.
A particularly simple case is obtained when
(Xz = (Xa = (Xl(1 - f3A 0)
then (X = (Xli = (X, = (Xa = (XI = (X1(1 - f3Ao) (46)
!i...
Ill:
Ill:
::J
U
power output and distortion-there is the same advantage (as with plate loading) in
keeping the loadline out· of the region of bottom curvature. It would· be possible,
with the higher resistance load, to increase the input voltage so as to extend the load-
line from OC to meet the E c = 0 curve.
If the load resistance R k is decreased, the loadline will rotate about 0 to the position
(say) EF. If the input voltage is unaltered, the plate current will cut off at F and the
valve will run into grid current at E, both resulting in distortion. In this, the cathode
follower differs from a plate loaded triode, and it is important to ensure that the load
resistance does not fall appreciably below the designed value. Fortunately, a loud-
speaker has an impedance characteristic which, although it rises considerably above
its nominal (400 cis) value, does not drop appreciably below it. A cathode follower
with a loudspeaker load is therefore a good combination from the loading point of
~ew. .
Fp 8
100 200 300 400 SOO
PLATE TO CATHODE VOLTAGE
FIG. 7.86
Fig. 7.86. Cathode follower characteristics of power triode (type 2A3) with
transformer-coupled load. Loadline AB is normal; CD is high resistance kJad line ;
EF is low resistance loadline illustrating grid current and plate current cut-off.
If a low impedance driver is used, it is possible to drive a cathode follower into the
grid current region with considerably greater power output and efficiency. In the
ideal limiting case, the conditions are :
Plate voltage E b volts
Plate current I b amperes
Load resistance E blI b ohms
Power output tE bI b watts
Plate efficiency 50%
If the cathode follower is to be used as a high-input-impedance voltage amplifier,
the conditions vary with the output level. At low output voltages, the operating
conditions are of no consequence (within reasonable limits) so far as voltage gain is
concerned, and R k may be:; equal to r". For very high output voltages, the load re-
sistance should be as high as practicable (assuming a purely resistive load), say R Ie =
5r '" and the operating current should be as low as practicable without causing plate-
7.5 (ii) PENTODE CATHODE FOLLOWER 393
current cut-off. A somewhat lower load resistan~e may be used for fairly high output
voltages.
The transformer primary inductance should have the same value as for plate loading
under similar conditions, if full power output is desired at low frequencies. A trans-
former with low primary inductance will give uniform gain at low level output, but
at high output it will cause' plate-current cut-off and grid current as for loadline EF
in Fig. 7.S6.
References C14, C16, C17, C29, Dl, D2, D3, DS, D9, DIO, DU.
eii) Pentode cathode follower
A pentode (or tetrode) may be connected in several ways arising from the screen
supply and by-pass-
FIG. 7.87
..--...--B+ (A)The Triode connection (screen tied to plate)
published "triode" characteristics may generally
be used. If no triode characteristics are available, ascer-
tain the characteristics for the screen voltage corresponding
to the desired conditions (the plate voltage may be equal
INPUT or higher).
(4)
'--"""'--1- gm ~ (pentode gm) x (Ikll b) (5)
Fig. 7.S7. Pentode and IL ~ EC21E cl (cut-off). (6)
cathode follower, trans-
former-coupled, screen (B) Screen by-passed to earth
by-passed to cathode. There is no exact method using published characteristics.
An approximate method has been described by Shapiro (Ref. D2).
ee) Screen by-passed to camode-Transformer-coupied (Fig. 7.87)
The cathode follower characteristics may be drawn by the same method as for a
triode (Fig. 7.SS). The procedure for calculating the power output and distortion is :
~UI(I(~1\I1
;>
~."
~ ~ ~ ;e ~~:~r't
,t :l
~
'Ill
A
~.,
'''c~iov
: Ec·_ ;,sv
I~
;,'
::w]
.E~V
1. To determine the maximum plate voltage and current for the operating point.
Here E b = 285 V and happens to coincide with the E c b = 300 V curve. If desired,
mark the value of E/ corresponding to point O.
2. Try several values of load resistance (i.e. slope of loadline) until an optimum
position for point A is determined, so as to make OA as long as possible, and at the
same time give OB = OA with B slightly above plate-current cut-off.
3. Determine E b for point A (in this case 50 V)-A is then automatically on the
Eeb = 50 V curve.
4. Draw the other limiting E c b curve (in this case E c b = 550 V, giving a peak
amplitude of 250 Veach way).
5. Calculate power output and distortion as for a power triode, using the loadline
AOB and the E c b curves.
When a higher resistance load is used with the same input voltage, the loadline
rotates about 0 to (say) COD, where the power output is lower, the distortion slightly
less, and point C is well negative with respect to E c = O. When a lower resistance load
is used with the same input voltage, the new loadline may be (say) EOF where E is well
into the grid-current region and F is beyond plate-current cut-off. In this respect the
pentode is similar to the triode, but the pentode is rather more critical regarding low
load resistances; it is, however, quite satisfactory with a speaker load.
If cathode bias is used, the procedure is as for a plate-loaded power pentode.
CD) Screen by-passed to cathode-Resistance-Ioaded (Fig. 7.89)
The curves are generally the same as for transformer coupling, and the treatment is
similar to that for resistance-loaded triodes, except that it is necessary to allow for the
d.c. screen current flowing through R k. The screen current may be taken from the
published data for typical operating conditions, or estimated from the ratio of plate
to screen currents. The voltage drop through R k additional to that due to the plate
current will be R /r,I c2' The procedure is to take as the effective plate supply voltage
the value (E b II - R /r,I c2) and then to proceed normally, as for a triode.
(E) Screen voltage from separate supply (Fig. 7.90)
If the screen voltage is obtained from a separate supply, such as a battery, returned
to the cathode, then the voltage from cathode to screen may be maintained constant
without smoothing out the screen current variations. In this case the screen current
does not flow through the cathode resistor R k. The pentode characteristics for a
constant screen voltage may be used without any adjustment for the effects of screen
current.
References Dl, D2, D3, Dll.
FIG. 7.89 FIG. 7.90
.------IH
-+-
SCREEN
SUPPLY
INPUT
--------8-
Fig. 7.89. Pentode cathode Fig. 7.90. Pentode cathode
follower, resistance-loaded, screen follower, resistance-loaded screen
by-passed to cathode. from separate supply.
(iii) Triode with voltage feedback
The basic circuit is Fig. 7.91 in which we can consider the conditions with direct
applied voltages (E/ and E b)' A fraction of the plate voltage is applied degeneratively
to the grid so that
1,8 I = Rd(R l + R 2) (7)
where 1,8 I is the numerical value of ,8 without regard to its sign.
Consider first the condition for E c to be zero. It is evident that the condition is that
E/ = 1,8 IE bo (8)
where E bO = value of E b when Ee = O.
7.5 (ill) TRIODE WITH VOLTAGE FEEDBACK 395
Now consider the general condition when the grid is negative with respect to the
cathode. If .the input voltage E/ is kept constant, then the grid-to-cathode voltage
E c will change when E II is changed. The relationship is
.dEc = 1,81( iJE,,) when E/ is constant.
Therefore .dEb =:= .dEcll,81
Therefore E" = E llo - .dEli = E llo - .dEc/!,81 (9)
Eqn. (9) may be used for the calculation of points on the constant E/ characteristics,
as for example :
E 110 100 100 100 100 100 volts
!,8 i 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
E/ 20 20 20 20 20 volts
- .dEc 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 volts
- JEcl1f3 I 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 volts
Ell 100 95 90 85 80 volts
These have been plotted in Fig. 7.92. It should be noted that E 110 is the plate
voltage corresponding to zero grid voltage.
(iv) Pentode with voltage feedback-Transformer coupled
Pentodes with a substantial degree of negative voltage feedback (say 1,81 ~ 0.2)
FIG. 7.91 behave more or less like a cathode follower. Pentodes with a
limited degree of feedback, or none, exhibit some special
peculiarities. Fig. 7.93: shows input voltage curves for three
different values of ,8; the curvature on the ,8 = - 0.1 curve
, continues along its whole length while its slope is gradual and
bottom curvature extensive.·
The full effect of a low degree of feedback is illustrated in
Fig. 7.94 where f3 = - 0.1. - The curves are drawn as in the
triode case except for the change in,8. A suitable loadline
Fig. 7.91. Basic AOB has been selected to give about the same power output
circuit of triode with as without feedback. Provided that the load resistance re-
negative voltage mains constant, the performance is· satisfactory, but the
feedback. value is critical. With constant input voltage (40 volts peak)
gJ
~~
.GRID
a:
~ ,(;U::~ 'l
~
3
j
...z
w .. .~~
H
~~
AHt
&
::I
:
~!J
u
I~
[~j ~':4
w
,.,.,.
~- tit 'Attt
i~,
~ .
,~
~
~~
0
0 so· 100 ISO 200 250
PLATE VOLTAGE FIG. 7.92
Fig. 7.92. Feedback characteristics of small general purpose triode with 20%
negative. voltage feedback (,8 = - 0.2).
396 (iv) PENTODE WITH VOLTAGE FEEDBACK 7.5
o
~ATE VOLTS
FIG. 7.93
Fig. 7.93. Single input voltage curve for each of three values of voltage feedback
for beam power tetrade (6V6-GT with Bcz = 250 V), to illustrate effect of feedback.
Ecf"O.'"
~
.
...
$?
I
~
" ~ ~
At;...•
~
R 3== P
200
I
:,.! :E 'f.j! Ecl·-·5"
I
f.>
:,.! Ecl·-IOV
, ~ S'
,"1 I
~
~ ~ ~/'J ~ I- '"": Ec,·-ISV
III
ex
~I
v ,. I
r,,'"
1).0
-+Ec.--20V
,~~~
~~~ ~~~ Ec,·-25'1
Ec ,·-3OV
Ec,·-35V
•
•1 Ec,·-4OV
0
o 100 200 300 400 soc 600 700
~ATE VOLTS
FIG. 7.94
Fig. 7.94. Feedback characteristics of beam power tetrode (6L6 or 807 'lIJith
Boa = 300 V) and 10% voltage feedback ({3= -0.1).
7.S (iv) PENTODE WITH VOLTAGE FEEDBACK 397
the valve will run into grid ~ent as soon as the load resistance
either increases or decreases. It is therefore not suitable for
use on a loudspeaker load unless the input voltage is reduced. FIG. 7.95
A 10% reduction in input voltage (19% in power output) would
be some improvement, but greater reduction is desirable, say
20% to 30% of the input voltage, depending on the operating
conditions. Even with an input reduction giving a power out-
put of only 50% maximum, the pentode is still less flexible
with regard to load resistance than an ordinary triode. This
position improves as the amount of feedback is increased.
See References D4, D12. Fig. 7.95. Basic
circuit of cathode
degenerative triode.
(v) Cathode degenerative triode
The circuit diagram. of a cathode degenerative triode is shown in Fig. 7.95 from which
it is evident that
Ee = E/ - Ek (10)
The curves of a cathode degenerative triode may be drawn by the procedure out-
lined below, although a special set of characteristics is required for each value of R j:.
Fig. 7.96 shows the curves for a typical general purpose triode with R k = 1000 ohms.
The input voltage curves are straighter than those without feedback, and the two
curves coincide only at I II = O. The E/ curves have a lower slope, indicating· a
higher plate resistance, than the E e curves.
Take the E/ = - 4 V curve as an example of the calculations. We know that
Rk = 1000 ohms and E/ = - 4 V. If I II = 2 rnA, then Ek = 2 V and Be =
Eo' - EJ& = - 4 - 2 = - 6 V.
Refer to the plate characteristics to find the plate vol~ge which will give a plate
current of 2 rnA at a bias of - 6 V -the value is E pk = 144 volts.
o
o 100 200 300 .oosco
PUoTE WLTS FIG. 7.96
Fig. 7.96. Current feedback characteristics of general purpose triode (6SN7-GT
single unit) with R t ~-= 1000 ohms.
398 (v) CATHODE DEGENERATIVE TRIODE 7.5
Diff. = 6.6
Also the difference between the desired value (- 34.7) and - 30.6 is 4.1. The ratio
is therefore 4.1/6.6.
Similarly with E k: 14.7 - 10.1 = 4.6.
The value of E" for point B is therefore 14.7 - 4.6 (4.1/6.6) = 14.7 - 2.8 = 11.9.
The voltage gain and power output may be calculated from E 1/ = 5E,., using the
values of Ek at E/ = 34.7 (point A), E/ = 0 (point 0) and E/ = - 34.7 (point B).
The second harmonic distortion may be found from the ratio AO JOB measured in
volts (E,,); i.e. (64 - 37.3)/(37.3 - 11.9) = 26.7/25.4 = 1.05. Therefore
HlI ~ 1 %-see Chapter 13 Sect. 2(i).
References 01, 03, 05, 08, 09, 010, 011.
7.5 (vi) CATHODE DEGENERATIVE PENTODE 399
300
PlATE \lOLTS (EI»
10 60 40 '20 FIG. 7.97
Fig. 7.97. Method of calculating performance of cathode degenerative triode
without drawing special characteristt'cs.
(Vi) Cathode degenerative pentode
The general procedure is the same as for triodes, except that allowance must be
made for the d.c. screen current flowing through R ". This is done by taking
(E"" - R "I cJ as the effective plate supply voltage, and then by carrying on as for
the triode case.
For valves with a high plate resistance this method is not very satisfactory, and a
more practical method has been described by Pratt.
References Dl, Dll.
A6. Tellegen, B. D. H. " Inverse feedback" Philips Tec. Rev. 2.10 (Oct. 1937) 289 (General treatment
and stability).
A7. Farren, L. I. "Some properties of negative feedback amplifiers" W.E. 15.172 Oan. 1938) 23.
AS. Frommer, J., and M. Marinesco (letters)" Distortion in negative feedback amplifiers" W.E. 15.172
Oan. 1938) 20.
A9. Mayer, H. F. " Control of the effective internal impedance of amplifiers by means of negative feed-
back" Proc. I.R.E. 27.3 (March 1939) 213.
AI0. Bartels, H. " Input resistance offeedback amplifiers" (abstract) E1ee. 13.1 Oan. 1940) 74 (Eleck-
trische Nachrichten Technik, June, 1939).
All. Sandeman, E. K. " Feedback" W.E. 17.203 (Aug. 1940) 342.
A12. Fairweather, A. "Equivalent circuits of feedback amplifier" W.E. 18.211 (April 1941) 151.
A13. Schulz, E. H. "Comparison of voltage and current feedback amplifiers" Proc. I.R.E. 31.1 aan.
1943) 25.
A14. Erhorn, P. C. "Notes on inverse feedback" Q.S.T. 27.6 Oune 1943) 13; Correction 28.2 (Feb.
1944) 106.
A15. Mezger, G. R. "Feedback amplifier for C-R oscilloscopes" Elect. 17.4 (April 1944) 126.
A16. Crane, R. W. "Influence offeedback on source impedance" Elect. 17.8 (Sept. 1944) 122; Corres.
18.1 Oan. 1945) 382.
A17. Builder, G. "Negative voltage feedback" Proc. I.R.E. Aust. 6.2 (Aug. 1945) 3.
A18. Winternitz, T. W. " A variation on the gain formulae for feedback amplifiers for a certain driving-
impedance configuration" Pree. I.R.E. 34.9 (Sept. 1946) 639. .
A19. Bode, H. W. (book) "Network analysis and feedback amplifier design" (D. Van Nostrand Co.
New York 1945).
A20. Ginzton, E. L. "Balanced feed-back amplifiers" Proc. I.R.E. 26.11 (Nov. 1938) 1367.
A23. James, E. J. "Negative feedback calculations" W.W. 54.9 (Sep. 1948) 326.
A24. Madler, M., and V. Toma (letter) "Degenerative feedback" Proc. I.R.E. 37.1 Oan. 1949) 60.
A25. Sturley, K. R. " Combined current and voltage feedback" E1ectronic Eng. 21.255 (May 1949) 159.
A27. Winternitz, T. W. "Equivalent circuit method for feedback amplifier analysis" Comm. 29.11
(Nov. 1949) 14.
A32. Burwen, R. S ... Equivalent circuits to simplify feedback design" Audio Eng. 35.10 (Oct. 1951) 11.
A33. Jones, G. E. "An analysis of the split load phase inverter" Audio Eng. 35.12 (Dec. 1951) 16.
Charts
A21. "Graphic aid for the design of degenerative amplifiers" Elect. 12.11 (Nov. 1939) 64. Gives
A' for values of f1 from -0.01 to -0.95.
A22. Korn, T. E. "Stabilizing gain" E1ect. 22.2 (Feb. 1949) 121.
A26. Felker, J. H. " Calculator and chart for feedback problems" Proc. I.R.E. 37.10 (Oct. 1949) 1204.
A28. Keroes. H. I. "Considerations in the design offeedback amplifiers" Audio Eng. 34.5 (May 1950)
15; 34.6 Oune 1950) 17.
A29. Duerdoth, W. T. "Some considerations in the design of negative-feedback amplifiers." Proc.
I.E.E. Part III. 97.47 (May 1950) 138.
Books
This subject is covered more or less adequately by most radio text books. The following are
particularly helpful :
A30. Reich, H. J. "Theory and Application of E1ectron Tubes" (McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1939).
A31. Valley, G. E., and H. Wallman (Editors) " Vacuum Tube Amplifiers" (McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1948).
See also A19, HI0, H11.
(B) REFERENCES SPECIALIZING ON HUM AND NOISE
Bl. Bell, D. A. (letter) " Signal/noise ratio of cathode follower" W.E. 19.227 (Aug. 1942) 360.
B2. Burgess, R. E. (letter) "Signal/noise ratio of the cathode-follower" W.E. 19.229 (Oct. 1942) 450.
B3. Macklen, F. S. " Feedback" (short note only on "improvement" in signal noise ratio using feed-
back) Elee. 16.4 (April 1943) 211 ; also letters J. T. Pratt and W. Palmer Elect. 16.6 Oune 1943) 336.
M. "Cathode Ray," "Negative feedback and hum" W.W. 52.5 (May 1946) 142.
B5. Builder, G. "The effect of negative voltage feedback on power-supply hum in audio-frequency
amplifiers" Pree. I.R.E. 34.3 (Mar. 1946) 14OW.
B6. Burgess, R. E. "Aerial-to-line couplings-cathode-follower and constant-resistance network"
W.E. 23.275 (Aug. 1946) 217.·
B7. "The effect of negative feedback on hum in the output of a-f amplifiers," A.R.T.S. and P. Bulletin
No. 111 (4 August 1941) 1.
(C) REFERENCES TO CATHODE FOLLOWERS.
Cl. Preisman, A. "Some notes on video-amplifier design" R.C.A. Rev. 2.4 (April 1938) 421.
C2. Barco, A. A. « An iconoscope preamplifier" R.C.A. Review 4.1 auly 1939) 89 (especially appendix).
C3. Williams, E. "The cathode follower s~e" W.W. 47.7 Ouly 1941) 176.
C4. Hanney, E. A. "Cathode follower again • W.W. Ouly 1942) 164.
CS. Nordica, C. F. "Cathode-coupled amplifiers" Radio, No. 271 (Aug. 1942) 28.
C6 (a). Lockhart. C. E. "The cathode follower" EleCtronic Eng. 15.178 (Dec. 1942) 287; 15.180
(Feb. 1943) 375; 16.184 (June 1943) 21.
C6 (b). Data Sheets 39, 40 and 41 " The performance of the cathode follower circuit .. Electronic Eng.
15.178 (Dec. 1942) 290.
Data Sheets 42, 43 and 44 " The cathode follower-Part 2 " Electronic Eng. 15.180 (Feb. 1943) 380.
c::T. Richter, W. "Cathode follower circuits" Elect. 16.11 (Nov. 1943) 112.
ca. Mitchell, C. J. "Cathode follower output stage" W.W. 50.4 (April 1944) 108; also letters 50.6
Oune 1944) 188.
C9. Jeffery, C. N. "An analysis of the high-frequency·operation of the cathode follower" A.W.A. Tech.
Rev. 6.6 (1945) 311.
C10. Moskowitz, S. •• Cathode followers and low-impedance plate-loaded amplifiers" Comm. 25.3
(March 1945) 51.
C11. Greenwood, H. M. "Cathode follower circuits" Q.S.T. (June 1945) 11.
C12. Cathode Ray" The cathode follower-what it is and what it does" W.W. 51.11 (Nov. 1945) 322.
Cl3. Goldberg, H. .. Some considerations concerning the internal impedance of the cathode follower ..
Proc. I.R.E. 33.11 (Nov. 1945) 778; Discussion Proc. I.R.E. 35.2 (Feb. 1947) 168.
7.6 REFERENCES 401
C14. Schlesinger, K. cc Cathode-follower circuits" Proc. I.R.E. 33.12 (Dec. 1945) 843.
C15. Cocking, W. T.- cc Cathode follower dangers-output circuit capacitance" W.W. 52.3 (March
1946) 79.
C16. McIlroy, M. S ... The cathode follower driven by a rectangular voltage wave" Proc. I.R.E. 34.11
(Nov. 1946) 848. Letter H. L. Krauss, Proc. I.R.E. 35.7 (July 1947) 694.
C17. Rifkin, M. S ... A graphical analysis of the cathode-coupled amplifier" Comm. 26.12 (Dec. 1946)
16.
C18. Smith, F. W., and -M. C. Thienpont cc Electronic attenuators " Comm. 27.5 (May 1947) 20
C19. Kline, M. B. cc Cathode follower nomograph" Elect. 20.5 (May 1947) 136. •
C20. Reich, H. J. cC Input admittance of cathode-follower amplifiers" Proc. I.R.E. 35.6 (June 1947) 573
C21. Kline, M. B. cc Cathode follower nomograph for pentodes" Elect. 20.6 (June 1947) 136. Lette~
P. M. Hackett 20.8 (Aug. 1947) 250.
C22. Audio design notes, cc The cathode follower" (output impedance graph and power output) Audio
Eng. 31.5 (June 1947) 39.
C23. Kline, M. B. cc ~athode follower impedance nomograph" Elect. 20.7 (July 1947) 130.
C24. Houck, G ... Gam chart for cathode followen" Te1e-tech. 6.8 (Aug. 1947) 54.
C25. E.M.I. Laboratories .. Cathode-follower circuit using screen-grid valves," Electronic Eng. 19.229
(March 1947) 97.
C26. Yu, Y. P. cc Cathode-follower couplings in d-c amplifiers" Elect. 19.8 (Aug. 1946) 99.
C27. Diamond, J. M. cc Circle diagrams for cathode followers" Proc. I.R.E. 36.3 (March 1948) 416.
C28. Sowerby, J. MeG. cc Notes on the cathode follower" W.W. 54.9 (Sept. 1948) 321.
C29. Parker, E. cc The cathode-follower" Electronic Eng. (1) 20.239 (Jan. 1948) 12; (2) 20.240 (Feb.
1948) 55 ; -(3) 20.241 (Mar. 1948) 92; (4) 20.242 (April 1948) 126.
C30. Diamond, J. M ... Circle diagrams for cathode followers" Proc. I.R.E. 36.3 (March 1948) 416.
C31. Amos, S. W. cc Valves with resistive loads" W.E. 26.307 (April 1949) 119.
C32. Scroggie, M. G. cc RC coupled power stage" W.E. 27.318 (March 1950) 81.
:Books
C33. Reich, H. J ... Theory and Application of Electron Tubes" pp. 164-174.
C34. Sturley, K. R. cc Radio Receiver Design" Vol. 2 pp. 118-120.
(D) REFERENCES TO VALVE CHARACTERISTICS WITH FEEDBACK
Dl. Pratt, J. H ... The equivalent characteristics of vacuum tubes operating in feedback circuits"
R.C.A. Rev. 6.1 (July 1941) 102.
D2. Shapiro, D. L. cc The graphical design of cathode-output amplifiers" Proc. I.R.E. 32.5 (May
1944) 263. Correction 32.8 (Aug. 1944) 482.
D3. Schlesinger, K. .. Cathode-follower circuits" Proc. I.R.E. 33.12 (Dec. 1945) 843.
D4. cc Cathode Ray," cc Negative feedback-(2) its effect on optimum load and distortion," W.W. 52.3
(March 1946) _76.
D5. Middleton, R. G ... Graphical analysis of degenerative amplifiers" Radio, 30.3 (March 1946) 23.
D6. Radio Design Worksheet No. 51 .. Graphical analysis of the cathode-coupled amplifier" Radio
30.8 (Aug. 1946) 20. ,
D7. Radio Design Worksheet No. 53 .. Graphics of negative feedback in cascade," Radio, 30.10 (Oct.
1946) 17.
D8. McIlroy, M. S. cc The cathode follower driven by a rectangular voltage wave" Proc. I.R.E. 34.11
(Nov. 1946) 848. Letter H. L. Krauss,35.7 (July 1947) 694.
D9. Krauss, H. L. cc Graphical solutions for cathode foHowers" Elect. 20.1 (Jan. 1947) 116 (with
bibliography).
DlO. Huber, W. A ... Graphical analysis of cathode-biased degenerative amplifiers" Proc. I.R.E. 35.3
(March 1947) 265,1
D11. Lonsdale, E. M., and W. F. Main .. A method of graphically analyzing cathode-degenerated
amplifier stages" Proc. I.R.E. 35.9 (Sept. 1947) 981.
D12. Langford-Smith, F ... The Design of a high-fidelity amplifier, (2) Negative feedback beam power
amplifiers and the loudspeaker" Radiotronics No. 125 (May/June 1947) 53.
DB. Schade, O. H ... Beam power tubes" Proc. I.R.E. 26.2 (Feb. 1938) 1~7.
- See also C31.
Books
Sturley .. Radio Receiver Design" Vol. 2 pp. 126-128.
(E) REFERENCES TO VOLTAGE FEEDBACK FROM PLATE WITH R.C.C. INPUT
E1. Laboratory staff of Amalgamated Wireless Valve Company, .. Inverse feedback," Radio Review
of Australia, 5.3 (March 1937) 64.
E2. R.C.A. cc Application Note on an inverse feedback-circuit for resistance-coupled amplifiers" No. 93
(June 8, 1938).
E3. Laboratory staff of Amalgamated Wireless Valve Company, cc Negative feedback in RC amplifiers "
W.W. 43.20 (Nov. 17, 1938) 437.
E4. Mezger, G. R. C~ Feedback amplifier for C-R oscilloscopes" Elect. 17.4 (April 1944) 126.
E5. Winternitz, T. W. cc A variation on the gain fon;nula for feedback amplifiers for a certain driving-
impedance configuration" Proc. I.R.E. 34.9 (Sept. 1946) 639.,
(F) REFERENCES TO PRACTICAL FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
(additional to those listed in A)
F1. Terman, F. E. "Feedback amplifier design" Elect. 10.1 (Jan. 1937) 12.
F2. Day, J. R., and J. B. Russell, cc Practical feedback amplifiers" Elect. lOA (April 1937) 16.
F3. Reference Chart" Methods of applying negative feedback .. Electronic Eng. 17.213 (Nov. 1945) 770
F4. Williamson, D. T. N ... Design of a high quality amplifier" W.W. 53.4 (April 1947) 118; 53.5.
(May 1947) 161.
F5. Aston, R. H. "Radiotron 30 watt amplifier AS13" Radiotronics No. 124 (March/April 1947) 19.
F6. Langford-Smith, F., and R. H. Aston" The design of a high fidelity amplifier-(3) A design using
push-pull triodes with negative feedback," Radiotronics No. 128 (Nov./Dec. 1947) 99.
F7. Booth, H. (letter) "Amplifiers with negative feedback" W.W. 54.6 (June 1948) 233.
F8. Sarser, D., and M. C. Sprinkle " Musician's Amplifier" (Williamson circuit) Audio Eng. 33.11
(Nov. 1949) 11.
402 REFERENCES 7.6
F9. Williamson, D. T. N. "High-quality amplifier-new version" W.W. 55.8 (Aug. 1949) 282; 55.10
(Oct. 1949) 365; 55.11 (Nov. 1949) 423.
FlO. Miller, J. M. "Combining positive and negative feedback" Elect. 23.3 (March 1950) 106.
Fll. Roddam, T. " More about positive feedback-applied locally it can improve negative-feedback
amplifier performance" W.W. 46.7 Ouly 1950) 242.
F12. Llewellyn, F. B. U.S. Patent 2245598.
F13. Shepard, F. H. U.S. Patents 2313 096, 2313097, 2313 098.
F14. Seymour, R. A., and D. G. Tucker" A choke-coupled phase-invertor of high accuracy" Elec-
tronic Eng. 23.276 (Feb. 1951) 64.
F15. Banthorpe, C. H. "Positive feedback in a.f. amplifiers" Electronic Eng. 22.273 (Nov. 1950) 473 ;
correspondence 23.276 (Feb. 1951) 70.
F16. Cross, R. M. "Positive feedback in a.f. amplifiers" Electronic Eng. 23.276 (Feb. 1951) 70.
F17. Roddam, T. "Output impedance control" W.W. 56.2 (Feb. 1950) 48.
F18. Griffiths, E. "Negative feedback-its effect on input impedance and distortion" W.W. 56.3
(March 1950) 111.
F19. Mitchell, R. M. "Audio amplifier damping" Elect. 24.9 (Sept. 1951) 128.
(G) REFERENCES TO CATHODE COUPLED AMPLIFIERS
G1. Schmitt, O. H. "Cathode phase inversion" Jour. Sci. Instr. 15 (March 1938) 100.
G2. Williams, E. " The cathode coupled double-triode stage" Electronic Eng. 16.195 (May 1944) 509.
G3. Noltingk, B. E. (letter) "The cathode coupled double-triode stage" Electronic Eng. 16.196 Oune
1944) 34.
G4. Butler, F. " Cathode coupled oscillators" W.E. 21.254 (Nov. 1944) 521.
G5. Sziklai, G. E., and A. C. Schroeder, "Cathode-coupled wide-band amplifiers" Proc. I.R.E.
33.10 (Oct. 1945) 701.
G6. Amos, S. W. "Push-pull circuit analysis: Cathode coupled output stage" W.E. 23.269 (Feb.
1946) 43.
G7. Pullen, K. A. "The cathode-coupled amplifier" Proc. I.R.E. 34.6 Oune, 1946) 402. Discussion
35.12 (Dec. 1947) 1510.
G8. Le Bel, C. J. "Graphical characteristics of cathode-coupled triode amplifiers" Audio Eng. 31.3
(May 1947) 40.
G9. Wheeler, M. S. " An analysis of three self-balancing phase inverters" Proc. I.R.E. 34.2 (Feb. 1946)
~~ -
G10. Bird, E. K. M. "A note on the 'phase-splitting amplifier circuit" Electronic Eng. 17.198 (Aug.
1944) 103 (Schmitt circuit).
GIl. Schmitt, O. H. (letter) "Re-an original phase inverter" Radio Craft, 13.2 (Aug. 1941) 68.
G12. Cocking, W. T. "Phase splitting in push-pull amplifiers" W.W. 44.15 (April 13th, 1939) 340.
G13. Korman, N. I. (letter) "Cathode-coupled triode amplifiers" Proc. I.R.E. 35.1 Oan. 1947) 48.
G14. Clare, J. D. "The twin triode phase-splitting amplifier" Electronic Eng. 19.228 (Feb. 1947) 62.
G15. Campbell, N. R., V. J. Francis and E. G. James" Common-cathode amplifiers" W.E. 25.297
Oune 1948) 180.
G16. Rifkin, M. S. "A graphical analysis ofthe cathode-coupled amplifier" Comm. 26.12 (Dec. 1946)
16.
G17. Ross, S. G. F. "Design of cathode-coupled amplifiers" W.E. 27.322 Ouly 1950).
G18. Lyddiard, J. A. "Cathode coupled amplifier-analysis and design" W.E. 29.342 (March 1952) 63.
(H) STABILn;Y AND MAXIMAL FLATNESS
HI. Nyquist, H ... Regeneration theory," B.S.T.J. 11.1 Oan. 1932) 126.
H2. Peterson, E., J. G. Kreer and L. A. Ware, "Regeneration theory and experiment "Proc. I.R.E.
22.10 (Oct. 1934) 1191.
H3. Reid, D. G ... The necessary conditions for instability (or self-oscillation) of electrical circuits"
W.E. 14.170 (Nov. 1937) 588.
H4. Terman, F. E. and Wen-Yuan Pan .. Frequency response characteristic of amplifiers employing
negative feedback" Comm. 19.3 (March 1939) 5.
H5. Everest, F. A., and H. R. Johnston" The application of feedback to wide-band output amplifiers"
Proc. I.R.E. 28.2 (Feb. 1940) 71.
H6. Bode, H. W. "Relations between attenuation and phase in feedback amplifier design" B.S.T.J.
19.3 Ouly 1940) 421. Also U.S.A. Patent, 2123178.
H7. Watton, A. "Modulated beam cathode-ray phase meter" Proc. I.R.E. 32.5 (May 1944) 268.
H8. Becker, S ... The stability factor of negative feedback in amplifiers" Proc. I.R.E. 32.6 Oune 1944)
351.
H9. Learned, V. "Corrective networks for feedback circuits" Proc. I.R.E. 32.7 Ouly 1944) 403.
H10. Terman, F. E. "Radio Engineers Handbook" (McGraw-Hill, 1943) pp. 218-226; 396-402.
Hl1. Bode, H. W. (book) "Network Analysis and Feedback Amplifier Design" (D. Van Nostrand-
Co. Inc. New York, 1945).
H12. Brockelsby, C. F. "Negative feedback amplifiers-conditions for maximal flatness" W.E. 26.305
(Feb. 1949) 43.
Letters T. S. McLeod, W.E. 26.308 (May 1949) 176; 26.312 (Sept. 1949) 312; C. F. Brockelsby
26.310 (July 1949) 247; 26.314 (Nov. 1949) 380.
H13. Mayr, H. "Feedback amplifier design-conditions for flat response" W.E. 26.312 (Sept. 1949)
297.
H14. West, J. C. "The Nyquist criterion of stability" Electronic Eng. 22.267 (May 1950) 169.
H15. Flood, J. E. "Negative feedback amplifiers-conditions for critical damping" W.E. 27.322 (July
1950) 201.
H16. Bothwell, F. E. "Nyquist diagrams and the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion" Proc. I.R.E.
38.11 (Nov. 1950) 1345.
H17. Barter, L. D. " Graphical solution for feedback amplifiers" Elect. 23.11 (Nov. 1950) 204.
H18. Roddam, T. "Stabilizing feedback amplifiers" W.W. 57.3 (March 1951) 112.
H19. Ragazzini, J. R., and L. A. Zadeh" A wide band audio phase meter" Rev. Sci. Inst. 2l.2 (Feb.
1950) 145.
H20. Baldwin, T., and J. H. Littlewood" A null method measuring the gain and phase shift of com-
paratively low frequency amplifiers" Electronic Eng. 23.276 (Feb. 1951) 65.
A.lso AI, A6, A7, All.
H21. Lynch, W. A." The stability problem in feedback amplifiers" Proc. I.R.E. 39.9 (Sept. 1951) 1000.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
CHAPTER 8
403
404 (i) WAVB MOTION 8.1
f\f (A)
o N
!wi
vV (8) 0
V:v
o M
(c)
N
CHARGEO
MRTICLE
MOTION
I
t FIG. 8.2
(i) Introduction
There are several methods of conveying information using the radiated waves.
By switching on and off the transmitter in accordance with a prearranged code, audible
sounds will be heard in a suitable receiver. This is known as radio telegraphy.
Alternatively the intelligence in the form of speech or music can be superimposed
on the transmitted radio frequency by a process of" modulation." This is referred
to as radio telephony. There are four major types of this latter system of transmis-
sion, known as amplitude, frequency, phase and pulse modulation (Refs. 17, 18,33).
(iii) Radiotelephony
(A) Amplitude Modulation (A-M)
This is commonly used in local medium frequency and long. distance shortwave
broadcast transmitters. The amplitude of the r-f radiated wave (the carrier) is
varied at an audio frequency rate according to similar variations of the intelligence
which it is required to transmit. This is usually accomplished by varying the plate
voltage of a r-f amplifier by the audio signal. The r-f amplifier may be in the :final
transmitter stage, in which case a large al,ldio power is required for complete moqula-
ti.on-50% of the modulated r-f stage plate input power. This is called" high-
level" modulation. As an alternative, modulation can be employed at an early stage
in the transmitter, and linear r-f amplifiers used to raise the power level to that re-
quired. Much smaller powers are necessary for this "low-level" modulation
system, but the Class B lin:ear r-f amplifiers are less efficient than the Class C counter-
parts used in the " high-Ievd " method of modulation. Both systems are used ex-
tensively, but most high power transmitters employ" high-level" modulation. With
amplitude modulation, the power output of the transmitter varies, but the phase and
frequency of the carrier remain unaffected (Refs. 12, 13).
P-M is not yet in' general use and will therefore not be considered further (Refs.
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 33).
SECTION 3: REFERENCES
1. Dow, W. G. (Book) "Fundamentals of Engineering Electronics" Chapter 17. John Wiley and
Sons Inc. N.Y. 1937.
2. Everitt, W. L. (Editor) "Fundamentals of Radio" Chapter 9. Prentice-Hall, Inc. N.Y. 1943.
3. Skilling, H. H. (Book) "Fundamentals of Electric Waves" 2nd edit. John Wiley and Sons Inc.
N.Y. 1948.
4. Spectrum Chart" Electronics Buyers Guide" McGraw-Hill Book Co. N.Y. 19B.6B Gune 1946) 80.
5. Bennington, T. W. (Book)" Short-Wave Radio and the Ionosphere". Diffe and Sons Ltd. London
1950.
6... CRPL-D Basic Radio Propagation Predictions" Sup. of Docs. U.S. Govt. Printing Office Wash.
D.C.
7... I.R.P.L. Radio Propagation Handbook" Part I, 1943.
8 ... Radio Propagation Bulletins" I.P.S. Commonwealth Observatory, Canberra, Australia)
9. .. Handbook for use with Radio Propagation Bulletins .. Radio Research Board C.S.I.R., AUStralia,
1945.
10. Foley, W. R ... Forecasting Long Distance Transmission" Q.S.T. 30.2 (Feb. 1946) 36.
11. Nelson and Hornung (Book) "Practical Radio Communication" 2nd Edit. McGraw-Hill Book
Co. 1943.
12. Sandeman,E. K. (Book) "Radio Engineering" Vol. I, 1st edit. Chapman and Hall London 1947.
13. Ladner and Stoner (Book) "Short Wave Wireless Communication.'
14. Tibbs, C. E. (Book) "Frequency Modulation E~eering" Chapman and Hall, London, 1947.
15. Rider, J. F. (Book) "Frequency Modulation" Rider Publisher Inc. N.Y. 1940.
16. Hund, A. (Book) "Frequency Modulation" McGraw-Hill Book Co. N.Y. 1942.
17. Hund, A ... Amplitude frequency and phase modulation relations" Elect. (Sept. 1942) 48.
18. Smith, E. J. "Theoretical signal-to noise ratios "(comparison between vanous modulation systems)
Elect. 19.6 Gune 1946) 150.
19. Tibbs, C. "Phase and frequency modulation" W.W. 48.9 (Sept. 1942) 210.
20. Farren, L. I. "Phase detectors-some theoretical and practical aspects" W.E. 23.279 (Dec. 1946)
21. J~d, A. co Frequency and phase modulation" Proc. I.R.E. 32.9 (Sept. 1944) 572.
22. Stockman.] H., and G. Hok, " Frequency and phase modulation" Proc. I.RoE. 33.1 Gan. 1945) 66.
23. Jaffe, D. L., D. Pollack, A. Hund and B. E. Montgomery (letter) "Frequency and phase modula-
tion" Proc. I.R.E. 33.3 (March 1945) 200 j 33.7 auly 1945) 487. See Refs. 21, 22, 31.
24. Crosby, M. G. "Bulted-carrier amplitude and phase-modulation reception" Proc. I.R.E. 33.9
(Sept. 1945) 581.
25. Deloraine, E. M., and E. Labin, "Pulse-time modulation" Elect. 18.1 Gan. 1945) 100.
26. "Post war prospects for modulation pulse transmission" Elect. 18.7 (July 1945) 244.
27. "Pulse-width modulation-its basic principles described" W.W. 51.12 (Dec. 1945) 361.
28. "Pulse-time modulation-an explanation of the principle" W.W. 52.2 (Feb. 1946) 45.
29. Roberts, F. F., and J. C. Simmonds .. Multichannel communication systems" preliminary investi-
gation of systems based upon modulated pulSes-W.E. 22.266 (Nov. 1945) 538; 22.267 (Nov.
1945) 576. See (30) below.
30. Fitch, E., and E. R. KretzD1er, .. Pulse modulation" (Ref. 29 above) letters W.E. 23.275 (ADa.
1946) 231 j 23.277 (Oct. 1946) 288.
31. Stockman, H., and G. Hok "A note on frequency modulation terminology "letter to Proc. I.R.E.
32.3 (March 1944) 181. See Refs. 21 and 22 above.
32. Armstrong, E. H. " A method of reducing disturbances in radio signalling by a system of frequency
modulation" Proc. I.R.E. 24.5 (May 1936) 689.
33. "Reference data for radio engineers" (Federal Telephone and Radio Corporation, 3rd ed. 1949)
CHAPTER 9
TUNED CIRCUITS
based on original chapter in previous edition written by L. G. Dobbie, M.E.
Revised by G. Builder, B.Sc., Ph.D., P. Inst. P.
Section Page
1. Introduction 407
2. Damped oscillations 408
3. Series resonance ... 409
4. Parallel resonance 410
5. General case of series resonance 412
6. Selectivity and gain 412
7. Selectivity-graphica1 methods 416
8. C-oupl;ng of circuits 418
9. Response of stages in cascade 421
10. Universal selectivity curves 421
11. Summary of formulae 423
12. References 427
SECTION 1 : INTRODUCTION
When a violin is tuned, the tensions of its strings are adjusted to permit vibration
at particular frequencies. In radio, when an arrangement of L, C, and R responds
to particular frequencies, it is called a "tuned" circuit.
In principle, the tuned circuit is similar to a pendulum or violin string, tuning fork,
etc.-it has the property of storing energy in an oscillating (vibrating) state, regularly
changing from kinetic form (magnetic field when current flows through the coil)
to potential form: (electric field, when the condenser is charged) and back again at a
frequency called the natural resonant frequency.
In Fig. 9.1 let the condenser C be charged. It will discharge its
a
FIG. 9.1
energy through the inductance L, causing-the current to increase all
the while, until it reaches the maximum when there is no potential
c Lacross C. At that instant the energy is all magnetic, and the current
continues, fed by the magnetic field, to build a voltage of reversed
polarity across C. When all the energy has been transferred from L to C,
the voltage across C has its original value, but is reversed in sign,and the current is
diminished to zero. The process then reverses, and repeats itself indefinitely, cycle
after cycle.
407
408 DAMPED OSCILLATIONS 9.2
The voltages across the several parts of the circuit under this condition of
series resonance are (Fig. 9.2a):
rI = E across the resistance (9)
waLl across the inductance (10)
and - (l / w oC)I across the capacitanc~. , ...... /
(11\
The voltages across the inductance and capacitance are equal and opposite in sign,
thus cancelling each other, and usually they are large compared with the voltage
across the resistance. The voltage across the inductance may be expressed as
(waL/r)E, and therefore its ratio to the voltage applied in series with the circuit is
wuL/r. This ratio, usually denoted by Q, is the ratio of the reactance of the coil
at resonance to the resistance in series with it, and is called the magnification factor
or quality factor. Thus,
Q _ w~ =~ If = _ 1 _ (12)
- r rV C woCr
Q may also be called the energy factor and is then defined by
peak .energy storage
Q = 21T energy dissipated per cycle
peak energy storage
= w average power loss .
That this is equivalent to waL/r is shown by
iLI2 waL
Q = Wo tI2r = ~r •
rfill'
o ,.~
(a)
•• , E
r r
It is shown in Chapter 4 Sect. 5(vi) that the power factor is approximately equal
to I/Q; when Q is greater than 7 the error is less than 1%.
See also Sect. II Summary of Formulae.
The general treatment of series circuits with L, C and R is given in Chapter 4
Sect. 6(ij).
410 PARALLEL RESONANCE 9.4
o ·m
FIG 9'3 FIG. 9.4
.r
.[0 r
In the present case we have R in parallel with our equivalent parallel coil resistance
R e of Fig. 9.3b. The resultant parallel resistance at re!Ulnance, which we will call
the resonant impedance is, of course,
1
(21)
RD = I/R + Cr/L
Therefore, the resultant value of Q is
Q = Jc 1
L' RD = (I/R)yL/C + rVC/L
I
= (woL/R) + (r/waL) (22)
Note that at the r-esonant frequency the expression VL/C is equal to the reactance
of the induct8nce and also that of the condenser, i.e.
woL = VL/C = I/waC. (23)
See also Sect. 11 Summary of Formulae.
412 GENERAL CASE OF SERIES RESONANCE 9.5
-. ~± Q(f.-n (25)
the positive sign pertaining to the series case and the negative sign to the parallel case.
The equation (24) leads to a simple method for determining Q from the response
curve. We see that when Q[(fllo) - (fQII)] = ± 1 the total current will be de-
creased by the factor v2'
in the series case (i.e. decreased to 70.7<>/0 of the resonance
value), and increased by the same factor in the parallel case. It will be observed that
at either of the frequencies satisfying this condition the phase angle 4> is numerically
equal to 45°, as tan 4> = ± 1, and that the resistance r' or RD is equal to the reactance.
9.6 (i) SINGLE TUNED CIRCUIT 413
The condition
Q(fllt; - lolf) = ± 1 (26)
may be written
fllo - 1.011 = ± l/Q; (27)
and for values of Q not too low (> 50, say) we have, very closely,
2i110110~· ± l/Q (28)
where i110 = 1- 10.
·10
T hus i110 ~ ± 2Q (29)
and the current is decreased, or increased, by the factor vi at two frequencies J J
and 12, one on each side of the resonant frequency 10, determined by
lo 10
f 1 = 10 - 2Q ; II = 10 + 2Q (30)
Hence, Q ~ 10lUI - IJ (31)
The frequencies 10"/1 and II may be found experimentally, and hence Q may be
calculated. .
At frequencies very different from 10, so that A 01A is greater than about 10,
the equation giving the response is very approximately
AolA ~ QUllo - lolf). (32)
Also, the expression for the phase angle may be written in the alternative forms
tan cP = ± QU110 - lolf) . from equation (25)
= ± Q i1lo. 2 + (i1/ollo) (33)
10 1 + (i1lollo)
Under these conditions we see that in the series case .
(a) Across the coil :
Voltage at resonance Lw';o LI';o ( 10 2)
Actual voltage when well off resonance = L wi = Lft = Q 1 - F (34)
and (b) Across the condenser :
Voltage at resonance C wi ° (f2 ) (35)
Actual voltage when well off resonance C w'; = Q 102 - 1
Similarly, in the parallel case, we have
Impedance at resonance Q(L _!.!.) (36)
Impedance at frequencies well off resonance 10 I
from which it can be shown that
(a) In the coil :
Current at resonance I (37)
Current at frequency I 10
and (b) in the condenser :
Current at resonance 10 (38)
Current at frequency I I
(ii) Coupled circuits-tUned secondary
We consider briefly now two examples of coupled circuits. The first example,
shown in Fig. 9.6 illustrates a typical case of a high frequency transformer with
tuned secondary in a radio receiver.
The symbols to be used are set out below :
g", = mutual conductance of the valve in mhos,
r p = plate resistance of the valve in ohins,
Ll = primary inductance in henrys,
Ls = secondary inductance in henrys,
M = mutual inductance between Ll and L2 in henrys,
k = Mlv LILa = coupling factor,
Q'J. = L'J.wolr = llrCw o,
w = 21T x resonant frequency of secondary in cycles per second,
t)
- 414 (ii) COUPLED CIRCUITS-TUNED SECONDARY 9.6
g'","kR DVLt/L 2
(44)
1 + k (RD/rp)
2
• (Lt/L z)
When rp is very much greater than wozMz/r[= kZRD(LdLJ] we have simply
I p f::::1 g m • ei' (45)
I. f::::1 gm . ei' Mwo/r, (46)
and eolei = Ao f::::1 gmwoMQz = gm . kRDv'Lt/L z (47)
If the inductances L1 and L2 have the same ratio of diameter to length, or form
factor, and the turns are N1 and N2 respectively, then v' Lt/L z in the above formulae
may be replaced by Nt/Nz• The plate resistance r JI in parallel with the primary is
reflected as a series resistance M 2 w o2 /rp into the secondary. If the value of this
reflected resistance is greater than say 5% of r, its effect should be taken into account
when computing the selectivity of the secondary. This selectivity, then, is deter-
mined by means of the formula
z/r' = VI + Qz'2[f/fo - fo/f)2 (48)
where r' = r + Miwoz/rp,
, woLz 1
and Q2 = - - = -:---:-::--:-----::-:-:-:::---:---
r' (1/Q2) + (kZL1wO/rp)
Note that Qi' and r' must not be used when calculating the gain A o.
F'IG.9.7
:.4)~}ctCl
UL'7 ., , ~-------.1
Fig. 9~6. Amplifier stage using a highfrequency transformer with a tuned secondary.
Fig. 9.7. Amplifier stage using a double tuned high frequency transformer.
of view by Aiken (Ref. C2). For the design procedure see Chapter 26 Sect. 4. In
this case the resistance in parallel with the primary at resonance is
LIfClT" + LIfClR l = Lt/ClR', where UR' = liT" + IIRl ;
and the resistance of the secondary is L.,.I CzR'!.3 so that the resistance reflected into
the primary is OJ °2M2 CzR'lJ L 2 • The primary current 111 is, therefore,
g ...ej 1
I,,=-C 'L 11 fCR" 2kPCR IL 2 (49)
Wo 1 1 "T W 0 %!/
A value for k in the order of 1.5 times critical, i.e. kQ = 1.5, is often used for i~f
amplifiers requiring band pass characteristics. However, the exact value chosen for
kQ depends of course, on the bandwidth requirements.
Further points on the resonance curve can be obtained from the result that the fre-
quency band width between the points on either flank of the resonance curve, at which
the response is equal to the minimum in the " valley" between the two peaks, is V '2
times the peak separation. It can be shown also that, in general, the gain at any
frequency f is -=gI:---·v_en_b....;y~___--::~_-="'_ _ _ _ _ __
Ao
A =
J[ I - I + k 2Q2
J2 [
Q2Yll 2QY
+ I + k 2Q2
J2 (57)
In this table A op , is the optimum value of the gain, i.e. the gain at resonant frequency
with critical coupling (= g ",v' RtRr./2).
The gain at ft) when k> k t is given by [2bI(1 + br.)]AoJlu where b = klkc, as
in the case of equal Q's; as the gain at the peaks is less than Aopt however, the re~
sponse curve is flatter in the present case.
See also Sect. II Summary of Formulae.
SECTION
. 7: SELECTIVITY-GRAPmCAL METHODS
(i) Single tuned circuit (ii) Two identical coupled tuned circuits.
there occurs the maximum value of the response, and the gain falls away on both
sides. This curve may be computed from eqn. (24), namely
Ao/A = VI + Q2Y2,
and tan ~ = ± QY, from eqn. (25)
where Y = (f/lo - lo/f).
These formulae, however, lend themselves to a simple graphical treatment as in-
dicated in Fig. 9.9.
The ratio of the gain A 0 at resonance to the gain A at any other frequency may be
plotted as a vector quantity, OP in Fig. 9.9, having both magnitude and phase. At
resonance, when the frequency is 10' it becomes OP 0in Fig. 9.9, where OP 0is of unit
length since A 0/A is then equal to unity. At any other frequency I, the ratio A 01A
is then given by OP where the point P is fixed by the relation
length PoP = Q(f//o -.Jo/f).
The phase angle is the angle PoOP.
Near resonance, when I is nearly equal to 10' this may be approximated by
length P J> ~ 2Qt1Jllo where ,1/ = 1- la
so that ,1/ measures the amount of'detuning. Thus, near resonance, the length P ;p
is nearly proportional to the amount of detuning.
t
I
FIG.9.S
SINGLE~
~
t
o
"""
FIG. 9.9
-~- ~ ~
~ P
OPo-1
op=~
FIG. 9.11 P.o p=o[!'
(0
-~]
(
~:-
:rrn· K- .£..m..
JC;Ci
Fig. 9.12. High impe- Fig. 9.13. High impe- Fig. 9.14. Low
dance capacitive coup- dance inductive coup- impedance capa-
ling. ling. citive coupling.
A fifth type is link coupling shown in Fig. 9.16A, in which a relatively small
coupling inductance LI' is coupled to LI and similarly L 2' to L2 and L/ is connected
directly in series with L 2'. The behaviour of this circuit is the same as that to be
described for Fig. 9.15.
" The coupling between two circuits, from a general point of view, is the relation
between the possible rate of transfer of energy and the stored energy of the circuits"
(Ref. C5, Sept. 1932).
From this definition it follows that for low impedance coupling
k = Xm ~ Xm when Xl andX2 ~Xm
V(X1 + X m)(X2 + Xm) VX1X 2
and that for high impedance coupling
k -- '\
I XX
1 2 ~ _vxx
_1_2 when X andX ~ X
(Xl + X m)(X2 + Xm) Xm 12m
where X m is the coupling reactance and Xl and X 2 are the effective reactances of either
the coils or the condensers. with which the circuits are tuned.
·XI and X 2 must be of the same" kind" (i.e. either inductive or capacitive) as X m •
9.8 (ii) MISCELLANEOUS METHODS OF COUPLING 419
The effective reactances Xl and X 2 in the high impedance case are calculated by
regarding the actual tuning reactances (LlWO and L2WO or l/Cl w o and IjC2 w o) as
being in parallel with the coupling reactance X m; while in the low impedance case,
Xl and X 2 are calculated by taking X m to be in series with the actual tuning reactances.
FIG.9.IS FIG.9.16A
ffi
Fig. 9.15. Low
impedance induc- Fig. 9.16A. Link coupling.
tive coupling.
Mutual inductive coupling belongs to the low impedance coupling group; . here
Xm = Mw o, Xl = Llw O, X 2 = L 2w O; so that k = M/v/LlL2' in agreement with
our previous definition in this particular. case.
For a general analysis of the calculation of coupling coefficients see Chapter 26
Sect. 4(vii). .
Application of the formulae given above to the circuits shown in Figures 9.12, 9.13,
9.14, 9.15 and 9.16A give the following result'! for the coefficient of coupling k :
Circuit k (exact) k (approximate)
Fig. 9.12 Cm Cm
V(CI + C m)(C2 + Cm) V - ' when C m
Cl C2
< (Cu Cz)
Fig. 9.15 Lm Lm
V(L I + Lm)(L2 + Lm) ~,when L m
LlL2
< (Lu L,.)
Fig.9.16A
J(
MIM2 MIM2 , when individual coup-
Lm Ll - Lm
M,,) (L2 - M.')
Lm
LmV LIL2 lings are small.
or
klk2 klk2) when individual coup-
V (1 - k 1 2 )(1 - k22) lings are small.
(at W 0)' while the other peak moves to one side: the shift of the semi-stationary
peak depends upon the series resistances of the two circuits and decreases with them,
being zero in the ideal case T1 = Tz = 0: the second peak is lower in frequency in
Figs. 9.12 and 9.15, but higher in Figs. 9.13, 9.14 and 9.l6A. The selectivity and
bandwidth (between peaks) may be calculated from the formulae (57) and (55) re-
spectively-already quoted for transformer coupling-provided the appropriate value
of k is used. It is theoretically possible, although seldom convenient, to combine
two types of coupling in equal amounts to give symmetrical separation of the two peaks.
Normally, when this is required simple mutual inductive coupling is used.
It may be shown that for all types of coupImg the centre frequency is determined
by the effective reactances obtained by taking the coupling reactance into account.
Thus, for example, for Fig. 9.15, (La + Lm)G'l.w/' = 1, where We corresponds to
the frequency of the minimum between the peaks; while for Fig. 9.l6A,
(L2 - Mzz/Lm)C.w/' = 1.
L~
In practice, a reasonably constant band width over the tuning range can be obtained
by a suitable combination of the types of coupling already described. Two common
arrangements are shown in Figs. 9.l6B and 9.l6C.
For the circuit shown in Fig. 9.l6B the coupling reactance X til = wM + 1/ wG til ,
while for that shown in· the Fig. 9.l6C it is
1
-wC- -C-
+ wC H.
G.
L 1
The corresponding coupling factors are respectively
k M + 1/w 2 C tII
(k < 0.05),
~ v'L1L.
and k~ ~ + VC1 Ct (k < 0.05) .
.y C C
1 S CL
Aiken (Ref. C2) gives a practical design procedure for obtaining the values of the com-
ponents which give the best average results over the whole tuning range.
When k has been determined, the band width and selectivity may be calculated
from eqns. (55) and (57) given earlier. Also, for circuits with the same values of Q,
a suitable value of k is given by kQ = 0.5-as in the case of transformer coupling-
when the greatest possible selectivity without notable loss of gain is desired.
9.9 RESPONSE OF STAGES IN CASCADE 421
In Fig. 9.16D there is a combination of mutual inductive coupling and top capacitive
coupling, as commonly used in aerial and r-f coils, and, effectively, in i-f transformers.
The analysis is given in Chapter 26 Sect. 4 (vii).
See also Sect. 11 Summary of Formulae.
( ~)n = [( _ Q2 Y 2)2
Ao 1 1 + k 2Q2
(2QY
+ 1 + k 2Q2
)2J -n/2
When k 2 Q2 'is very small, the selectivity of n coupled pairs is almost the same as
that of 2n single tuned circuits. ThuS there is a limit to the improvement of selec-
tivity obtained by reduction of the coupling of coupled pairs of tuned circuits. When
it is possible to increase Q, there is a corresponding improvement in selectivity. The
tendency with several stages of single tuned circ-..uts is to pr-oduce a very sharp peak
at the centre frequency, which may seriously attenuate the higher a'Q,dio frequencies
of a modulated signal. Conditions are much better with coupled pairs, because two
peaks with small sepa.··ation appear as Q is increased:; if the coupling is not too close.
Difficulties occur when Q is increased so much that a deep" valley" .or trough occurs
between the peaks. The practical limit is usually a ratio of 1 : 1.5 overall gain be-
tween the response at the bottom of the valley and that at the two peaks. It is then
good practice to add another stage employing a single tuned circuit which substan-
tially removes the " valley" of the preceding circuits. The procedure by which the
best results may ·be obtained is described by Ho-Shou Loh (Ref. C13). In this
manner a nearly flat response may be obtained over a range of frequencies 10 Kc/s
. to 20 Kc/s wide, with very sharp discrimination against frequencies 20 Kc/s or more
away from the centre frequency, 450 to 460 Kc/s.
See also Sect. 11 Summary of Formulae.
~ ~ ~i\
'01 I I I I 0
to alter slightly the skirts of the FOR QI- Q 2. 0&2Qb.ff,
..
10
I~ ~I' ' ~--
~ r:::E;~ t'--r-- 2
k/k/! = 2 = b: we see that the
peak occurs at QiJfo ~ SOO, i.e.
- ~
14
ti
.flG. 9'17
TWO COUPLED CIRCUITS
~---+--+-+-r+++HISOO
~~ii~~~~~tl:~L-LJJUuunoo
0'04 0·1 0'20'~ 0050'71'0 D 2 34567810
FIG.9·IS UNIVERSAL PHASE SHIFT CUR.VES FOR.
TWO COUPLED CIRCUITS
9.11 SUMMARY OF FORMULAE 423
f" =
1J-l-"-'
~
- - r2-
LC - 4L2 cycles per second __ (1)
(7) SELECTIVITY
,(a) Series Resonant Circuit
io/i = Ao/A = V'-I-+-Q-:-2-:-(j-:-:-/I-:-o---/-:-o-:-:/I~)2 = VI + Q2Y2. (19)
2 + Alo/lo
tan 4> = QY = Ql1lo/lo . 1 + 1110/10 ; (20)
i lags behind i 0 when I > 10' and leads i 0 when I < 10'
When 1110/10 is small,
io/i ~ VI + 4Q2(1110/lo)2, (21)
and tan 4> ~ 2QI1I0/lo. (22)
When io/i i:::large, ioli ~ QY. (23)
(b) Parallel Resonant Circuit
Ao/A = Rn/Z = ilio = vr-I-+-Q=-:2~Y=2 (24)
t:ax14> ~ - QY ; , ~ (25)
where i and i D are the total currents ;
i leads i 0 when I >- 10 and lags behind i 0 when I < I I)'
(29)
A 0/A =
J[
Q2Y2
I - I + k2Q2
2 [2QY
+ I + k 2 Q2
J 2 J (39)
Gain at peaks,12 andlu is very closely equal to the optimum value Ao (max.).
Circuits of unequal Q
Transitional coupling factor, ku is
k t = V t(I/Q'2 + I/Q22). (40)
Band width between peaks is
(f2 - 11)/10 = v' k 2 - k,2. (41)
Selectivity
A J-=-[I-- Y-
0 Q-'Q-2 2 J-2-+----::[::---2Y-v'-=Q='Q2---l---2
(42)
A I=:::! Q'Q
- I +k I 2
+ k2Q'Q2J
When k Q2 2
>
I and .:110/10 ~ I,
Ao/A I=:::! VI - 8.:1102/10k 2 • (43)
k I=:::! --c:::-
V ~' capaCItIVe
C 1 C 2 ~or • ,
coupI'mg (F'Ig. 9 .14) (46)
SECTION 12 : REFERENCES
(A) BOOKS DEALING WITH RADIO TUNED CIRCUIT THEORY
AI. McTIwain. K .• and J. G. Brainerd, .. High Frequency Alternating Currents" (John Wiley and
Sons Inc., New York, Chapman and HaIl Ltd., London. 1931).
A2. Harnwell. G. P ... Principles of Electricity and Magnetism" (McGraw-Hill, New York and London,
1938).
A3. Terman, F. E. "Radio Engineering" (McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., New York and London,
3rd ed. 1947). '
A4. Everitt, W. L. cr Communication Engineering" (McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., New York
and London 2nd ed. 1937).
A5. Nilson, A, R., and J. L. Hornung, " Practical Radio Communication" (McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany Inc., New York and London, 2nd ed. 1943).
A6. Henney,K. "Principles of Radio" (John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, 4th edit. 1942).
A7. Glasgow, R. S ... Principles of Radio Engineering" (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York and London,
1936).
A8. Henney, K. "Radio En~ineering Handbook" (McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., New York
and London,4th ed. 1950).
A9. cr Admiralty Handbook of Wireless Telegraphy" (His Majesty's Stationery Office, London).
AI0. Sturley, K. R. "Radio Receiver Design" (Chapman and Hall Ltd., London, 1943) Part I.
All. Terman, F. E. "Radio Engineers' Handbook" (McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York and
London, 1943).
A12. Reich, H. J. "Theory and Applications of Electron Tubes" (McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York and London, 1944).
An. Sandeman, E. K. "Radio Engineering" (Chapman and HaIl Ltd., London, 1947).
A14. Welsby, V. G. "The Theory and Design of Inductance Coils" (Macdonald and Co., London,
~~ .
A15. "Reference Data for Radio Engineers" (Federal Telephone and Radio Corp. 3rd ed. 1949)
pp. 114-129.
C6. Buffery, G. H. "Resistance in band pass filters" W.E. 9.10S (Sept. 1932) 504.
C7. Beatty, R. T. "Two element band pass filters" W.E. 9.109 (Oct. 1932) 546..
ca. Oatley, C. W. "The theory of band-pass filters for radio receivers" W.E. 9.110 (Nov. 1932) 608.
C9. Wheeler, H. A., and J. K. Johnson" High fidelity receivers with expanding selectors" Proc. I.R.E.
23.6 (June 1935) 595.
CI0. Cocking, W. T. "Variable selectivity and the i.f. amplifier" W.E. 13.150 (March 1936) 119;
13.151 (April 1936) 179; 13.152 (May 1936) 237.
Cll. Reed, M ... The analysis and design of a chain of resonant circuits" W.E. 9.104 (May 1932) 259 ;
9.105 (June 1932) 320.
C12. Baranovsky, C., and A. Jenkins, "A graphical design of an intermediate frequency transformer
with variable selectivity" Proc. I.R.E. 25.3 (March 1937) 340.
C13. Loh, Ho-Shou, "On single and coupled circuits having constant response band characteristics "
Proc. I.R.E. 26.4 (April 1935) 469 and errata 12 (Dec. 1935) 1430.
C14. Christopher, A. J. "Transformer coupling circuits for high frequency amplifiers" B.S.T.J.
11 (Oct. 1932) 60S.
~15. "'tuned impedance of i.f. transformers" (nomogram) Comm. IS.2 (Feb. 1935) 12.
ICI6. Roberts, W. Van B. "Variable link coupling" Q.S.T. 21.5 (May 1937) 27.
C17. "A generalised theory of coupled circuits" A.R.T.S. and P. No. 73 (May 1939).
CIS. Landon, V. D. "The band-pass-Iow-pass analogy" Proc. I.R.E. 24.12 (Dec. 1936) 15S2.
C19. Nachod, C. P ... Nomograms for the design of band-pass r-f circuits" Radio Eng. 16.12 (Dec.
1936) 13.
C20. Erickson, C. V. " A graphical presentaton of band-pass characteristics" Radio Eng. 17.3 (March
1937) 12; 17.4 (April 1937) 13. Also see 17.6 (June 1937) 19.
C21. Dudley, H. "A simplified theory of filter selectivity" Comm. li.l0 (Oct. 1937) 12.
C22. Everitt, W. L. "Coupling networks" Comm. IS.9 (Sept. 1935) 12; IS.10 (Oct. 1945) 12.
C23. Clifford, F. G. "The design of tuned transformers" Electronic Eng. Part 1, 19.229 (March 1947)
S3; Part 2, 19.230 (April 1947) 117.
C24. Dishal, M. "Exact design and analysis of double and triple-tuned bana-pass amplifiers," Proc.
I.R.E. 35.6.(June 1947) 606.
C25. Tellegen, B. D. H. "Coupled circuits" Philips Research Reports 2.1 (Feb. 1947) 1.
C26. Rudd, J. B. "Theory and design of radio-frequency transformers" A.W.A. Tee. Rev. ().4 (1944)
193 with bibliography.
C27. "Theory and design of radio frequency transformers," A.R.T.S. and P. Bulletin (1) No. 134
(Ist May, 1944); (2) No. 135 (12th June, 1944).
C2S. Editorial .. Coupled circuits" W.E. 21.245 (Feb. 1944) 53.
C29. Sturley, K. R ... Expression for the voltages across the primary and secondary of two tuned circuits
coupled by mutual inductance," Appendix 1 to article '0 The phase discriminator" W.E. 21.245
(Feb. 1944) 72.
C30. Sandeman. E. K. "Coupling circuits as band-pass filters" W.E. Part (i) 18.216 (Sept. 1941) 361 ;
Part (ii) IS.217 (Oct. 1941) 406; Part (iii) 18.21S (Nov. 1941) 450; Part (iv) 18.219 (Dec. 1941) 492.
C31. Korman, N. I. "Coupled resonant circuits for transmitters," Proc. I.R.E. 31.1 (Jan. 1943) 28.
C32. Sturley, K. R. "Coupled circuit filters "-generalised selectivity, phase shift and trough and peak
transfer impedance curves-W.E. (1) 20.240 (Sept. 1943) 426; {2) 20.241 (Oct. 1943) 473.
C33. Beatty, R. T. "Two-element band pass filters" W.E. 9.109 (Oct. 1932) 546.
C34. Editorial" Effect of stray capacitance on coupling coefficient" W.E. 21.251 (Aug. 1944) 357.
C35. Editorial" Coupling coefficient of tuned circuits" W.E. 22.256 (Jan. 1945) 1.
C36. Espy, D. " Know your coupled circuits" Q.S.T. 29.10 (Oct. 1945) 76.
C37. Williams, H. P ... H.F. Band-Pass Filters" Electronic Eng. (1) General Properties 18.215 (Jan.
1946) 24; (2) Similar Circuits IS.216 (Feb. 1946) 51; (3) Dissimilar circuits and miscellaneous
properties IS.217 (Mar. 1946) S9; (4) Practical example in band-pass design IS.219 (May 1946) ISS.
C3S. Duerdoth, W. T. "Equivalent capacitances of transformer windings" W.E. 23.273 (June 1946)
161.
C39. Tucker, D. G. "Transient response of tuned-circuit cascades" W.E. 23.276 (Sept. 1946) 250.
C40. Richards, P. I ... Universal optimum-response curves for arbitrarily coupled resonators" Proc.
I.R.E. 34.9 (Sept. 1946) 624.
C41. Spangenberg, K. R. .. The universal characteristics of triple-resonant-circuit band-pass filters ..
Proc. I.R.E~ 34.9 (Sept. 1946) 629.
C42. Sherman, J. B ... Some aspects of coupled and resonant circuits" Proc. I.R.E. 30.11 (Nov. 1942)
505.
C43. Varrall, J. E ... Variable selectivity IF amplifiers" W.W. 4S.9 (Sept. 1942) 202.
C44. Ferris, W. R. .. Some notes on coupled circuits" R.C.A. Rev. 5.2 (Oct. 1940) 226.
C45. Adams, J. J... Undercoupling in tuned coupled circuits to realize optimum gain and selectivity"
Proc. I.R.E. 29.5 (May 1941) 277.
C46. Editorial .. Natural and resonant frequencies of coupled circuits" W.E. IS.213 Uune 1941) 221.
C47. Mather, N. W ••• An analysis of triple-tuned coupled circuits" Proc. I.R.E. 38.7 (July 1950) S13.
~)N.US~OUSREF.ERENCES
El. Editorial" The velocity of light" W.E. 27.331 (April 1951) 99.
CHAPTER 10
CALCULATION OF INDUCTANCE
based on original chapter in the previous edition by L. G. Dobbie, M.E.
Section Page
1. Single layer coils or solenoids 429
2. Multilayer solenoids 441
3. Toroidal coils 445
4. Flat spirals 445
5. Mutual inductance 446
6. List of symbols 448
7. References 448
429
430 (ii) SOLENOID WITH SPACED ROUND WIRES 10.1
~
<>
[}I]
III
.IN'v'.lSNO:> S,'v'}lO'v'~'v'N
~
<>
III
6---6
~
, i
- - $
~
;' ~ ~I f
j1 1~~~~++++~HW:4'+·~~~i~:H44111111++i~~I-4:+:~rHl~'~~++rrHH~++~HH~i~
• 0
~
0
I
o
~
:~ ___ ) ___ ~~ ___ ~)--- ~---o
~IG. 10. ,
- - - [).!] J.N'v'LSNO:> S,'v')'!O'v'~'v'N
Fig. 10.1. Nagaoka's Constant (K)for a wide range of d/l.
10.1 (ii) SOLENOID WITH SPACED ROUND WIRES 431
This formula for L 0' together with the values of A and B, have been taken from the
above quoted Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards. The value thus obtained for L 0
is given as correct to one part in a thousand.
The equation given above for L 0 can be expressed in the alternative forms :
,. «
iii I
I
..
«
~ iH+++++-I-H+~+++++++++++++++-+-+:++-+-++++++-N-++..i--I--+-I-l i.
z 9
z
.. I'!!"
J
• --
e'-
-
0: I
::> 0
r .h
-m
Fig. 10.2. Constants A and B as used in the formula for the correction of" CUTTent
sheet" formulae for application to round wire with spaced turns (eqn. 4).
432 (ill) APPROXIMATE FORMULAE 10.1
[ leA1TaNK
L 0 = L. 1 -
+ B)] = L, [P
1 - 1TaK (A + B)
] (5)
where P, the pitch of the winding in inches, is equal to I/N.
As an example of the use of these formulae and curves, let us consider the following
case: a coil of 400 turns of round wire of bare diameter D = 0.05 inch, is wound
with a pitch of 10 turns per inch, on a form of such a diameter that the mean radius
to the centre of the wire is 10 inches. Then,
a = 10, 1= NP = 4O,N = 400, P = 0.1, D/P = 0.5.
The value of K corresponding to 2a/l = 0.5 is 0.8181 from Fig. 10.1. Therefore,
L, = 0.10028 (400)2 x (100/40) x 0.8181
= 32 815 microhenrys.
From Fig. 10.2 with D/P = 0.5, N = 400,
A = - 0.136
B = 0.335
Therefore A + B = 0.199.
The correction is, therefore, 0.0319 X 10 X 400 (0.199)
= 25.4 microhenrys.
The total inductance Lo = 32815 - 25 = 32790 microhenrys, and the error which
would be introduced by calculating as a current sheet inductance is less than 0.08%.
(B) Given the diameter of the coil, the pitch and inductance, to determine
the length of the coil.
A suitable form of the equation is obtained by substituting for N its value l/P in
the formula:
L8 = 0.100 28 a 2N2 K/l from (2) ;
we find:
La = 0.20056 (a 3 /P2)(KI/2a) (13)
~ 0.200 (a 3 /P2)f (14)
wheref = K(l/2a). The quantity f, clearly a function of 2a/l, is shown by the curve
in Fig. 10.3.
For example, supposing we require a coil of 200 microhenrys to be wound on a
former of 1 inch diameter, let us determine the length of the coil for a pitch of 0.02
inch.
From the equation,
200 x (0.02)2
f = 0.200 x (0.5)3 3.2.
Then, from Fig. 10.3, the value of 2a/1 corresponding to f = 3.2 is 0.28. Hence
the length of -the coil is
1 = 2a/0.28 = 1/0.28 = 3.6 inches.
The number of turns required would be :
N = l/P = 3.6/0.02 = 180 turns.
The length of wire needed would be :
,\ = 27TaN = 7T180 = 565.5 inches.
When the calculated length is too long, the turns per inch should be increased.
Let us consider the effect of using 100 T.P.1. in the above example:
200 x (0.01)2
f = 0.200 X (0.5)3 0.8.
434 (iv) DESIGN OF SINGLE LAYER SOLENOIDS 10.1
FIG.IO.3
i
200 1
I
100
I
o
I 4 ~ 7 8
~~ T
Fig. 10.3. Variation of f and lOglOf with (2a/l). Curves derived from u.s. Dept. of
Commerce Circular C74 " Radio instruments and measurements".
From Fig. 10.3, we see that the value of 2a/l is 0.9, and hence
I = 1/0.9 = 1.1 inches.
Formula for determining the coil length when the coil diameter and winding
pitch are known for coils such that d < 3/.
As an alternative to the use of Fig. 10.3, we derive a simple resUlt for solenoids such
that 2a/l < 3. Here we have
K ~ 1/[1 + 0.45 (2a/I)] (15)
1 I 1
Hence,f = K . 2a = 2a . 1 + 0.45 (2a/i) (16)
Therefore,
P = VO.200 x 0.688/500 = 0.0167 inch,
equivalent to 60 T.P.I.
Simple procedure for computing the length and total turns when the coil
diameter and pitch of winding are known for coils such that d < 3/.
Substituting in equation (17),
0.9(2a/l) = - 1 + V'--'-1-+":":"'1-.8-//-,
where! = 5L sP2/a3 = 5L s/n 2a 3, n being T.P'!.
Putting F = 1.8/! and y = 0.9(2a/I),
we obtain
y = - 1 + V 1 + F, (20)
where F = 0.36n 2a 3/ La,
and I = 1.8a/y.
As an example, let us consider a coil of 2 inches diameter, wound with 33 T.P.I.
of required inductance 380 microhenrys.
(a) F = 0.36n 2 a 3/L s = 0.36 x 33 2 x P /380 = 1.031
(b) y = - 1 + VI + F = - 1 + V2.031 = 0.426
(c) I = 1.8alv = 1.810.426 = 4.23 inches
(d) N = nl ~ -33 x 4~23 = 139! turns.
Another method applicable to the same type of problem is due to Hayman.
From Wheeler's formula (equation 8) :
a 2N2
Ls ~ 9a + 10/'
the length 1 is eliminated by the substitution 1 = N / n, n being the turns per inch;
and then the resulting expression is solved for N, yielding :
N =5Ls [1 +Jl + 0.36a3n~ . (21)
na 2 La -J
For convenience in computation, the quantity x = 5/na 2 is introduced, so that
finally
N = xLs[1 + VI + (9/ax2Ls)] I (22)
As an example, we take the same problem as above, namely, a = i inches, n = 33,
L, = 380 microhenrys. The procedure is as follows : '
(a) x = 5/na 2 = 5/(33 x 1) = 0.151, •
(b) X2 = 0.0227,
(c) 9/ax 2L s = 9/(1 x 0.0227 x 380" = 1.042,
(d) N = 380 x 0.151 x (V2.042 + 1) = 139 turns,
(e) 1 = N/n = 139/33 = 4.2 inches.
(C) Given the diameter and length of coil, value of capacitance and fre-
quency of resonance, to determine the number of turns.
See Chapter 38 Sect. 9(v)B.
~
IJ
o
z
t!
o
::>
o
z
I-
Z
w
a:
a:
::>
,o
Fig. 10.4. Curves for the dete'lmination of Current Sheet Inductance (La) for small
solenoids, plotted against length of coil (1). For other pitches refer to Fig. 10.5.
10.1 (v) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN Lfl AND Lo 437
Minimum turns per inch, n for
Coil diameter)
( length d = 5 d = 2 d = 1 d = 1
not exceeding inches inches inch inch
0.5 13 33 66 132
1 16 40 80 160
5 32 80 160 320
10 52 130 260 520
In many practical cases the ratio of pitch to wire diameter lies between 0.8 and 0.95
in which range A = 0.4 + 0.1; and N, the number of turns, exceeds 10, so that
B = 0.3 ± 0.035. In such cases A + B = 0.7 ± 0.135. Hence, from eqn. (4) :
Lo = Ls - 0.0319aN(A + B),
we have, under such conditions,
Lo ~ Ls - 0.0223aN, (23)
with an error not exceeding 20% of 0.0223aN; and thus in many cases not exceed-
ing 0.2% of Lo.
(vi) Curves for determination of the "current sheet" inductance
(A) Method of using the curves
Figure 10.4 applies to a winding pitch of 10 turns per inch only; for any other
pitch the inductance scale must be multiplied by a factor, which is easily determined
from Fig. 10.5. The diameter of a coil is considered to be twice the distance from
coil axis to centre of the wire.
10 20 200
-
1
20 aoo
TURN$ PER INCH FIG. 10.5
Fig. 10.5. Winding pitdh correction for Fig. 10.4.
438 (vi) CURVES FOR "CURRENT SHEET" INDUCTAL"'lCE 10.1
(C) To find the " current sheet" inductance of a coil of known dimensions
Knowing the diameter and length, determine from Fig. 10.4 the inductance for a
pitch of 10 T.P.I. Then from Fig. 10.5 determine the factor for the particular pitch
used, and multiply the previously. determined value of inductance by this factor.
L,
Bogle showed also that when I, > 1 + 2g the effect on L 0' of closing the ends of
the shield is negligible. He investigated the effect of eccentricity of the coil, of ellip-
ticity of the screening tube, and of small axial displacements in a closed screen; and
found that in practice these would not need to be taken into account.
Sowerbyhas published data charts (Ref. 44) calculated from Bogle's formula.
(33)
It is true that there is fair agreement between Hayman's calculated and measured
values of La' for a number of coils; but, nevertheless, the useful range of eqn. (32)
must be somewhat restricted.
(F) Where the coil diameter and length are equal, the curves of Fig. 11.13 can be
used for a shield can with ends.
It is recommended that either the R.C.A. curves for k 2, reproduced in Fig.
10.6, or Bogle's formula be used. Comparison of the results obtained from these
curves and from the formula will be found to be in good agreement except for very
III
':It
FIG. 10.6
Fig. 10.6. Curves for determination of decrease in inductance produced by a coil shield
(reprinted by kind permission of Radio Corporation of America).
10.1 (vii) EFFECT OF CONCENTRIC SCREEN 441
small values of Ilg where Bogle's formula should not be used. In the tables below
comparisons are made in a number of typical cases :
Table 1: Comparison between estimates of the percentage reduction in inductance
caused by a cylindrical screen for various coil shapes when the ratio of coil diameter
to screen diameter = 0.7.
(Lo - Lo')ILo
lid R.C.A. Bogle gIl
20 49% 48.2% 0.0107
10 48% 47.3% 0.0215
5 46% 46.0% 0.0430
1 35% 36.8% 0.215
0.2 20% 18.3% 1.075
0.1 15% 11.3% 2.15
where I = coil length, d = colI diameter, g = distance between coil and shield.
Table 2: .Comparison between estimates of the percentage reduction in induct-
ance caused by a cylindrical. screen for various ratios of coil diameter to screen
diameter
! (Lo - Lo')IL o
lid = 10 lid = 1 lid = 0.2
alb R.CA. Bogle R.C.A. Bogle R.C.A. Bogle
0.9
0.7
80%
48%
I
80.6%
I
47.3%
I
72%
35%
I 74.5%
36.8%
54%
20%
I 56.5%
18.3%
~·~O ~38~· 2~.~~ 133·06~ 14.0% 6.7% 5.7%
.3 7. Yo I "' .0 10 .• 10 3.2% 1.4% 0.9%
where a = coil radius, b = shield radius.
The quantity B. = 0 for lie = 1; it rises to 0.279 for lie = 10, and then incrt:aSes
very slowly, being 0.322 at lie = 30.
When the dimensions I and e are small in comparison with a (see Fig. 10.7) the in-
ductance is given closely by Stephan's formula, which, for I > e, takes the form :
2 2y 2
La = 0.031 93aN2 [ 2.303 ( 1 + --
12 + - e ) loglo Sa
- - Yl + -16a
1 ] (3)
2 32a 96a 2 g' 2
while for I < e, that is for pan-cake coils, the formula becomes :
2y
La = 0.031 93aN2 [2.303(1 + ~2 + ~)IOglo ~a - Yl + 16a
e
a
] (4)
2
32a 96a g' 2
~ 9:2~210/[1
- lO:al(9a + I01)J ; (7)
a 2N2 caN'/.
or L, ~ 9a + 101 - 10'17/ (S)
where "is the wire length, P is the distance between centres of adjacent wires and G
is a function of the shape of cross section (lie) and of the shape ratio of the coil (cia).
The Iquantity G is represented by means of curves. This equation is used, in cases
where the ratios lie and cia have been decided, to determine the necessary wire-
length for a given pitch, or vice versa. The mean radius of the winding is then
obtained from
3/'-,\-c-P-2- (18)
a =tV 217 I (cla)2;
and the total number of turns is given by N = ,\1217a or lelP2.
It can be shown that, for a given resistance and coil shape, the square cross section
(lie = 1) gives a greater inductance than any other form; and, further, for a square
cross section, the inductance for a given length of wire is a maximum for cia = 0.662.
(2) Stephan's formulae may also be expressed in the form :
L, = 0.031 93aNZg, (19)
~here g is a known function of lie and cia.
This form is useful when a, c and I have been decided to give N, and thence P.
We have
Ie
P=1J
and A = 217tl.L'l.
for a put ao + (N - 1)PI2, where 2a o is the distance (Fig. 10.8) across the
centre of the innermost end of the spiral.
The correction for cross section is given in the Bureau of Standards FIG. 10.8
Circular No. 74 in the form:
Lo = L, - 0.0319aN(AI + B 1),
where Al and BI are tabulated functions. The accuracy obtained Ta
for Lo is 1 %.
.L
(b) Round wire
For spirals wound with round wire the same conventions are
adopted to obtain a and c, but a simplified form of Stephan's equation,
obtained by setting 1 = 0, is used. It is
L, = 0.3193aN 2 [2.30310glo 8a - l' + ~2(2.303Ioglo ~ + 43)J.
c 96a c 12
The inductance L 0 of a spiral is given more closely by :
Lo = L, - 0.0319aN(A + B),
where A and B are shown in Fig. 10.2.
There are few simple formulae which can be used for the more common practical
cases, such as are possible with self inductance. The following exact method may be
used for two windings on the same former with a space between them, both windings
being similar in pitch and wire diameter (Fig. 10.9).
-
-
:5aQ,
"~
+0 0 -L-S-L-
-
I
f--
.2~ "- ~
..... ~ ...........
.4 , ["'.. ...... ......
•1
.6"
....
......
'"
...... ...... .....
.......
.......
--.... -
K
.8 ............
-
.......
- ..... r--..,
....... .......
i""'-- i""'-- ~
~
- -- --
.......
.......
....... .......
I"-
Ssl
....... ~ i""'-- r- - --- --- - .......
1.2 ~ r--..
---r--... r-
I"-
--- -
r- r- ~ - --
--- -
1.4
-
.01
1.6
I50ZI"""
----
....... r-
-
~ I--
--
2.2 ~
2.4 i..o"'"
2.6 ",-:-
2.S
Ss::l ~~
.001
o 2 3
L
FIG.IO.IO
Fig. 10.10. Chart giving coefficient of coupling for a specified spacing between two
coaxial solenoids having identical dimensions. The quantities S and L are measured in
terms of coil diameters. (Ref. 56.)
448 (ii) APPROXIMATE METHODS 10.5
SECTION 7: REFERENCES
EXACT METIIODS OF CALCULATING SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
1. de Holzer, R. C. " Calculating mutual inductanCe; co-axial and co-planar mUlti-layer coils" W.E.
25.300 (Sept. 1948) 286.
2. Bureau of Standards Circular N -. C74 (1937).
3. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 169 (1912).
4. Nagaoka, H ... The inductance coefficients of solenoids" Journal of the College of Science, Tokyo,
Vol. 27, Art. 6 (August 15, 1909) p. 1.
5. Grover, F. W ... Tables for the calculation of the mutual inductance of any two coaxial single layer
coils," Proc. I.R.E. 21.7 (July 1933) 1039 (includes further bibliography).
6a. Reber, G ... Optimum Design of Toroidal InductanCes" Proc. I.R.E. 23.9 (Sept. 1935) 1056.
6b. Moullin, E. B. "The use of Bessel Functions for Calculating the self-inductance of single-layer
solenoids" Proc. I.E.E. 96. Part 3.40 (March 1949) 133. See also Ref. 55.
Also Refs. 15, 25b.
APPROXIMATE FORMULAE FOR SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
7. Simon. A. W. " Calculating the inducta.T}ce of universal=wound coils" Radio, 30.9 (Sept. 1946) 18.
8. Ricks, J. B. "A useful formula for solenoid inductor design-determining coil dimensions with
known capacitance," Q.S.T. 31.5 (May 1947) 71.
9. A. I. Forbes Simpson" The design of small single-layer coils" Electronic Eng. 19.237 (Nov. 1947)
353.
10.7 REFERENCES 449
10. Simon, A. W. "Wire length of universal coils" Elect. 19.3 (Mar. 1946) 162.
11. Dwight, H. B. " Self inductance of a toroidal coil without iron" A.I.E.E. Trans. (Nov. 1945) 805 ;
discussion supplement A.I.E.E. Trans. (Dec. 1945) 999.
12. Blow, T. C. " Solenoid inductance calculations" Elect. 15.5 (May 1942) 63.
13. Di Toro, M. J. "Computing mutual inductance" Elect. IS.6 (June 1945) 144.
14. Maddock, A. J. "Mutual inductance: simplified calculations for concentric solenoids" W.E.
22.263 (Aug. 1945) 373.
15. Grover, F. W. (book) "Inductance calculations: Working Formulae and Tables" (New York,
D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1946). Includes extensive bibliography.
16. Dwight, H. B. (book) "Electrical coils and conductors: Their Electrical Characteristics and
Theory" (McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. New York, 1945).
17. Amos, S. W. " Inductance calculations as applied to air-cored coils" W.W. 47.4 (April 1941) lOS.
IS. Turney, T. H. " Mutual inductance: a simple method of calculation for single-layer coils on the
same fonner" W.W. 48.3 (March 1942) 72.
19. Everett, F. C. " Short wave inductance chart" Electronics, 13.3 (March 1940) 33.
20. Zepler, E. E. (book) "The Technique of Radio Design" Chapman and Hall, 1943.
21. Jeffery, C. N. "Design charts for air-cored transformers--co-axial windings of common diameter
and pitch" A.W.A. Tech. Rev. S.2 (April 1949) 167.
22. Wbeeler, H. A. " Simple inductance formulas for radio coils" Proc. I.R.E. 16.10 (Oct. 1928) 1398
and discussion Proc. I.R.E. 17.3 (March 1929) 580.
23. Esnault-Pelterie, M. R. "On the coefficient of self inductance of a solenoid" Comptes Rendus,
Tome 205 No. 18 (Nov. 3, 1937) 762 and No. 20 (Nov. 15, 1937) 885.
24. Bunet, P. " On the Self Inductance of Circular Cylindrical Coils" Revue General de l'Electricite,
Tome xliii, No.4 (Jan. 22, 1938) 99.
25a. Hayman, W. G. "Approximate Formulae for the Inductance of Solenoids and A.'!tatic Coils"
E.W. and W.E. 8.95 (Aug. 1931) 422.
25b. Welsby, V. G. (book) "The Theory and Design of Inductance Coils" (Macdonald & Co. Ltd.,
London, 1950).
NOMOGRAMS A.1IID CHARTS FOR SELF INDUCTANCE
26. Sabaroff, S. (letter)" Nomogram for Rosa inductance correction" Proc. I.R.E.35.S (Aug. 1947) 793.
27. Pepperberg, L. E. "Coupling coefficient chart" Elect. 18.1 (Jan. 1945) 144.
28. Data Sheets 32 and 33 " The inductance of single layer solenoids on square and rectangular formers "
Electronic Eng. 15.173 (July 1942) 65.
29. Data Sheets 26, 27 " Skin effect" Electronic Eng. 14.170 (April 1942) 715.
30. Data Sheets 23-25, 2S "The shunt loaded tuned circuit" Electronic Eng. 14.169 (March 1942)
677, and 14.170 (April 1942) 715. _ .
31. "Inductance chart for single layer solenoids" G.R. Exp. 15.3 (Aug. 1940) 6.
32. Purington, E. S. " Simplified inductance chart" (inductance of multi-layer coils) Elect. 15.9 (Sept.
1942) 61.
33. "Instructions for use of Federal Band Pass Nomographs A to C and 1 to 3," Federal Telephone
and Radio Corporation.
34. "A convenient inductance chart for single layer solenoids" G.R. Exp. (based on Circular 74, U.S.
Bureau of Standards) 15.3 (Aug. 1940) 6.
35. Data Sheets 12-17 "Inductance of single layer solenoids on circular formers" Electronic Eng.
14.164 (Oct. 1941) 447 and 14.165 (Nov. 1941) 495.
36. Shiepe, E. M. "The Inductance Authority" published by Herman Bernard, New York, 1933
(contains 50 large sized charts based on formulae and tables of Bureau of Standards Circular No. 74).
37. Seki, H. "A new Abac for single layer coils" Wireless Engineer, 10.112 (Jan. 1933) 12 (nomo-
gram based upon Hayman's formula).
38. Maynard, J. E. " Multilayer coil inductance chart" Elect. (Jan. 1939) 33.
39. Beatty, R. T. "Radio Data Charts" published by Iliffe and Sons, London.
40. Nachod, C. P. "Nomogram for coil calculations" Elect. (Jan. 1937) 27-28.
4Oa. Sabaroff, S. " Multi-layer coil inductance chart" Comm. 29.12 (Dec. 1949) 18.
4Ob. Sulzer, P. G. "R.F. coil design using charts" Comm. 29.5 (May 1949) 10.
4Oc. "Reference Data for Radio Engineers," Federal Telephone and Radio Corp., 3rd ed. 1949, p. 75.
4Od. Wheeler, H. A. "Inductance chart for solenoid coil" Proc. I.R.E. 38.12 (Dec. 1950) 1398.
THE EFFECTS OF METAL SCREENS ON COILS .
41. David'!on, C. F. and J. C. Simmonds" Effect of a spherical screen on an inductor" W.E. 22.256
(Jan. 1945) 2.
42. Anderson, A. R. "Cylindrical shielding and its measurement at radio frequencies" Proc. I.R.E.
34.5 (May 1946) 312.
43. "Effect of shield can on inductance of coil" Radiotronics No. 108 p,67.
44. Sowerby, J. McG. "Effect of a screening can on the inductance and resistance of a coil" Radio
Data Charts (2) W.W. 48.11 (Nov. 1942) 254.
45. Bogle, A. G." The effective inductance and resistance of screened coils" Jour. I.E.E. 87 (1940) 299.
46. Reed, M. " Inter-circuit screening-survey of the general principles" W.W. 48.6 (June 1942) 135.
47. Davidson, C. F., Looser, R. C. and Simmonds, J. C. "Power loss in electromagnetic screens"
W.E. 23.268 (Jan. 1946) 8.
48. R.C.A. Radiotron Division Application Note No. 48 (June 12, 1935) reprinted in Radio Engineering
(July 1935) 11.
49. Sowerby, A. L. M. "The modem screened coil" W.W. Sep. 23, 30 and Oct. 7,14; 1931.
50. Howe, G. W. O. editoriaIs, W.E. 11.126 (March 1934) 115 and 11.130 (July 1934) 347.
51. Hayman, W. G. "Inductance of solenoids in cylindrical screen boxes" W.E. 11.127 (April 1934) 189.
52. "Formulas for shielded coils" Radio Eng. 16.12 (Dec. 1936) 17.
53. Levy, S. "Electro-magnetic shielding effect of an infinite plane conducting sheet placed between
circular coaxial coils" Proc. I.R.E. 24.6 (June 1936) 923 (contains further bibliography).
54. Moeller, F. " Magnetic screening with a plane sheet at audio frequencies" Elektrlsche Nachrlchten
Technik, Band 16, Heft 2 (Feb. 1939), 48.
55. Phillips, F. M. " A note on the inductance of screened single-layer solenoids" Proc. I.E.E. 96. Pan
111,40 (March 1949) 138; R. G. Medhurst, discussion, 98. Part III, 53 (May 1951J.248. Sequel
to Ref. 6b. --
CHARTS FOR COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING
56. Sulzer, P. G. "Coupling Chart for solenoid coils" TV Eng. 1.6 Gune 1950) 20.
CHAPTER 11
SECTION 1 : INTRODUCTION
The space available for coils in a radio receiver is invariably limited, and part of the
design work on each coil is the obtaining of maximum Q in a minimum volume.
In the case of i-f transformers the volume is clearly defined by the shield used, and the
same applies to r-f coils in cans, but where shielding is not used with r-f coils the
increased Q obtainable from larger diameter formers is offset against the increased
damping from components and magnetic materials, such as the receiver chassis, ad-
jacent to the coil.
The resulting form factor for each individual winding requiring maximum Q and
minimum self-capacitance is usually such that the length of the winding is very ap-
proximately equal to its diameter. To obtain this shape for i-f, broadcast and short-
wave coils the winding method is varied.
I-F transformers use universal windings, and where the Q and distributed capacit-
ance requirements are not severe a single coil wound with a large cam (perhaps i in.)
will be satisfactory, even without an iron core, if litz wire [see Sect. 5Ci)]] is used.
However higher Q values are usually required than are obtainable in this way and in
such cases each winding consists of two or more pies, perhaps with an iron core.
The same types of coils are satisfactory in the broadcast band, although in the case
of signal frequency coils which are tuned over a ratio of more than three to one it is
essential to use very narrow windings or two or more pies to reduce the distributed
capacitance of the winding. Litz wire and iron cores are commonly used to give a
secondary Q of 100 or more.
Another method of decreasing distributed capacitance is the use of progressive
universal windings in which the winding finger travels along the former in addition
to moving to and fro. Such coils are rarely built up to a greater height than five wire
thicknesses, and are equally useful with or without iron cores. Solenoids are also
used either with iron cores or on comparatively large diameter formers if an iron core
is not used.
450
11.1 INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN 451
At frequencies between 2 and 6 Mc/s (which are used in receivers providing con-
tinuous coverage between the normal short-wave and broadcast bands, or for oscilla-
tors giving second harmonic mixing for the short wave band) the progressive universal
winding is particularly useful because the winding length of solenoids may be too great
with the usual range of former diameters, and the number of turns is insufficient to
allow them to be split into many sections.
A set of worm driying gears which spreads the appropriate number of turns over a
length approximately equal to the coil diameter is required. This usually necessitates
a faster worm drive than is used for broadcast coils. Litz wire with a large number
of strands is useful in obtaining maximum Q.
For the 6 to 18 Mc/s band the solenoid is used, almost always with solid wire, and
this type of coil remains useful at least up to 100 Mc/s. Increased wire diameters
and spacings are used at higher frequencit..J to obtain form factors similar to those
used at low frequencies.
and H depends only on the length/diameter ratio of the coil. A table of values of H
is given below and when used in conjunction with a capacitance correction for the
cc live U lead, Medhurst states that the accuracy should be within 5 %.
TABLE 1
Length ) H ( Length ) H ( Length ) H
( Diameter Diameter Diameter
50 5.8 5.0 0.81 0.70 0.47
40 4.6 4.5 0.77 0.60 0.48
30 3.4 4.0 0.72 0.50 0.50
25 2.9 3.5 0.67 0.45 0.52
20 2.36 3.0 0.61 0.40 0.54
15 1.86 2.5 0.56 0.35 0.57
10 1.32 2.0 0.50 0.30 0.60
9.0 1.22 1.5 0.47 0.25 0.64
8.0 1.12 1.0 0.46 0.20 0.70
7.0 1.01 I 0.90 0.46 0.15 0.79
6.0 0.92 0.80 0.46 0.10 0.96
Lead capacitance can be determined separately and added to the coil self-capacit-
ance. Fig. 11.1 (from Medhurst) can be used for this purpose.
20 25 30 35 40 4S so
LENGTH OF WIRE (em)
A disadvantage of air cored i-f coils is that a trimmer capacitance is needed to re-
sonate the tuned circuit. The cheapest types of trimmers usually have poor stability
with respect to time, vibration, humidity and temperature, and satisfactory types may
cost more than a variable iron core with provision for adjusting it.
outside the coil can. Unless a good joint is made between can and chassis this trouble
~l be further aggravated.
If the peaks are not symmetrical, undesired couplings are probably responsible.
All traces of regeneration must be removed and, because the stability requirements
are more severe than usual, unusual effects are liable to be uncovered. For example,
regeneration may occur due to coupling between a loop formed by the generator input
leads and the output of the i-f amplifier (twisting generator leads will cure this) or
coupling may occur between first and second i-f transformers within the steel chassis.
When this happens, rotating one or both transformers will probably give cancellation
but leave production receivers susceptible to the trouble. Additional spacing between
transformers is advisable with each primary and secondary wired for minimum re-
generative coupling.
The switch used for the tertiary winding should preferably be of the " break before
make" variety. A" make before break" switch momentarily short circuits the
tertiary winding during switching, giving a sudden reduction and increase in sensitivity
which can be heard as a click.
Even after a satisfactory i-f selectivity curve has been obtained, the over-all curve
may be too narrow if a r-f stage is used in the receiver. In such cases the r-f stage
should also be expanded [Chapter 35 Sect. 5(iii)].
~J
FIG. 11.4
Symbols
d = former diameter (inches)
c = cam. throw (inches)
n = nominal number of crossovers per turn (see Ta,ble 1)
q = number of crossovers per winding cycle, i.e. before wire lies alongside
preceding wire (see Table 1).
v = nominal number of turns per Winding cycle (see Table 1)
R = gear ratio = former gear/cam. gear
w = modified wire diameter (inches)-see Note below
P = qc/(w + x) = :m integer
x = smallest amount necessary to make (P + 1)/v an integer (inches).
Note. For fabric covered wire, w = (measured diameter of covered wire) x 8/7.
If the wire is enamelled only, the same formula is used but the bare wire diameter is
multiplied by 8/7.
Procedure
(A) From n :} (2d/3c) determine the largest convenient value for n. Do not use
values of n less than 2 for bare enamelled wire. Obtain values of q and v froin Table 1
below for the value of n chosen.
TABLE 1
n 4 2 1 2/3 t 1/3 1-
q 4 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 2 3 4 6 8
(B) Determine w from information given in the note above.
(C) Calculate P from P = qc/(w + x).
(D) Obtain R from R = tn(P + 1)/P.
Example 1
Given d = t in. and c = 0.1 in. determine the gears to wind a coil with 42 S.W.G.
enamelled wire.
(A) (2d/3c) = 1.0/0.3. Take n = 2, giving q = 2 and v = 1 from the table.
(B) The diameter of bare 42 S.W.G. wire is 0.004 in., so w = 0.00457 in.
(C) P = qc/(w + x) and(P + 1)/v must be an integer, i.e. P must be an integer
since v = 1.
qc/w : : : : 200/4.57 = 43.7.
But P = qc/(w + x) = an integer.
Therefore P = 43.
(D) R = tn(P + 1)/P = t X 2(43 + 1)/43 = 44/43.
Example 2
Given d = 1- in. and c = 1- in. determine the gears to wind a coil with 0.016 in.
litz wire.
(A) 2d/3c = 2/3. Take n = 2/3, giving q = 2 and v = 3.
(B) w = 0.016 in. x 8/7 = 0.0183 in.
(C) qc/w = 500/18.3 =.27.3.
But (P + 1)/v ='an integer.
Therefore P = 26.
(D) R = tn(P + 1)/P = 1/3 x 27/26.
To obtain suitable gears : -
R = 2/3 x t x 27/26 = (28/42) x (27/52).
When it is known that n will be 2, as is the case with me majority of coils, the method
reduces to dividing the modified wire diameter into twice the cam throw (ignoring
any fractions in the answer). This gives P and the required ratio is (P + 1)/P.
For further information on universal coil winding see Refs. lito I 8.
458 (v) MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS 11.3
Because of the closeness of the Curie point to room temperature (the Curie point
of Ferroxcube III is 110°-160°C) some change of permeability occurs with changing
temperature. For instance the permeability of Ferroxcube III can be almost halved
by an increase in temperature from 20°C to 80°C. However, the permeability of
Ferroxcube V is decreased less than 10% by a similar temperature change under the
same conditions. Between 10° and 40°C the change in permeability averages 0.15%
per 1°C for the various types of Ferroxcube.
In cases in which the magnetic circuit is normally completely enclosed, the high
permeability of Ferroxcube can be used to minimize losses by means of an air gap.
If the gap is such as to reduce the effective permeability to one tenth of its original
value (which could still be high), losses and the effect of heat on effective permeability
will .also be reduced in the same proportion.
The properties of Ferroxcube allow considerable reductions to be made in the size
of such items as i-f transformers or carrier-frequency filters, and it is an excellent
material for magnetic screens or for permeability tuning. However its saturation
point is rather low and it is not used for power transformer or output transformer
cores.
Ref. A27 describes research on ferromagnetic spinels by the Radio Corporation
of ,America. These spinels are ceramic-like ferromagnetic materials characterized
by high permeability (up to greater than 1200), high electric resistivity (up to 108
ohm cm), and low losses at radio frequencies. Wide ranges in these and other pro-
perties are obtainable by varying the component ingredients and methods of synthesis.
Ferrospinels are being used increasingly in electronic equipment operating in the
frequency range of 10 to 5000 Kc/s. At 'power and low audio frequencies the ferro-
spinels are not competitive with iaminated ferromagnetic materials, and at very high
frequencies the losses in ferrospinels are excessive when high permeability is re-
quired. It is possible however to produce a ferrospinel, with low permeability, useful
at frequencies in the order of 100 Mc/s. The application of ferro spinels as core bodies
in the deflection yoke, horizontal· deflection transformer and high voltage transformer
for television receiverS is now finding wide acceptance. _ The ferrospinels are especi-
ally suited to television video frequencies as their use in these components results in
improved performance at lower cost and with smaller space.
In the standard broadcast receiver, the ferrospinels are expected to be used in the
radio frequency circuits as "trimmers" and as permeability tuning cores. With a
properly designed coil it is possible to tune a circuit, by the movement of a ferrospine1
rod, from 500 to 3000 Kc/s, or to cover the standard American broadcast band (540
to 1730 Kc/s) with only three eighths of an inch movement of the rod.
By using a ferrospinel with a high electric resistivity as the core body for radio
frequency ·inductances, the wire body may be placed on the ferrospine1 without
additional insulation. In fact, the conductor may be affixed by the printed circuit
technique for some applications.
phase shift in the voltage fed back from the plate into the grid circuit. Consequently
an even larger reaction winding is required and the result may be reactance reflected
into the secondary circuit which makes it impossible to tune the required range-
if the police band (U.S.A.) is to be included. In any case the reflected reactance,
which is a variable throughout the tuning range, complicates the tracking problem.
A method of decreasing the coupling inductance required, which is applicable to
progressive but not to ordinary universal windings, is to thread both secondary and
primary wires together through the winding finger, wind the required number of
primary turns, terminate the primary and proceed with the secondary winding until
completed. This method is possible with progressive windings because of the gaps
which occur throughout the winding, whereas with a normal universal winding there
is no room for a primary between turns of the secondary.
For r-f and particularly for aerial coils the need for high Q is greater. The sensi-
tivity, signal-to-noise ratio and image ratio of a receiver are all governed by the aerial
coil Q.
Since the amount of wire used in an aerial coil secondary is so much less than in
the i-f transformers it is often possible to use more expensive litz.
Probably the most satisfactory method of coupling the aerial to the grid of the first
valve (or the plate of the first valve to the grid of the second) is by means of a high
impedance primary. This can take the form of a universal winding of the finest
wire the machines will conveniently handle, wound at an appropriate distance from
the secondary to give about 20% coupling (depending on the Q of the secondary,
the amount of mistracking that can be tolerated, and the types of aerial expected to
be used). In the case of progressive universal secondaries it sometimes happens that
the primary must b~ wound as closely as possible to the secondary to obtain the re-
quired degree of coupling.
The primarJ should be resonated by its own self-capacitance, or by an additional
capacitor, below the intermediate frequency so that no normal aerial can tune the
primary to the intermediate frequency and so cause instability. A typical value of
primary inductance is 1 mH and a 150 p.p.F capacitor would be suitable for use with it.
To increase the aerial coil gain at the high frequency end of the broadcast band a
capacitor of the order of 4 p.p.F might be used between aerial and grid of the first valve.
Since the capacitor decreases image ratio at the same time as it increases sensitivity
and signal-to-noise ratio, some requirement other than flat sensitivity across the
broadcast band might be desirable.
Similar considerations apply to the coupling of the r-f valve except that primary
inductances are usually larger (say 4 mH) and their tuning capacitors may be increased
in size until the gain is reduced to the required figure.
The direction of connection for high impedance coils and oscillator coils is the same
as that already detailed for i-f transformers; the grid is connected to the end of the
secondary further from the primary, to reduce capacitance coupling, and then, con-
sidering the secondary and primary to be one tapped coil wound in the one direction,
the aerial (or plate) is connected to the other extreme of the winding.
compensate for differences between individual receivers will not seriously affect the
coupling between primary and secondary.
To avoid losses due to adjacent components with high Q coils, iron cores can be
used which completely enclose the winding. These cores give higher Q's than the
more usual slugs with a similar winding and reduce the external field of the coil to
such an extent that in extreme cases it may be difficult to obtain sufficient coupling
between the secondary and an external high impedance winding.
An advantage of using an iron core in the oscillator coil is that, apart from giving
increased Q, it can greatly increase the coupling between primary and secondary,
thereby decreasing the primary reactance for a given amount of coupling.
(iii) Permeability tuning
The increasing use of permeability tuning is an indication of the extent to which
the design and production difficulties associated with this type of tuning are being
overcome.
FIG. 11.5
r.:®
4~tt
~~ A.V.C. ":"
Fig. 11.5.
itrn
Y~I
AY.C. ":"
No gang condenser is needed, so that even with the added complication in the coil
assembly a cheap broadcast band tuning unit is possible. Gang microphony is auto-
matically eliminated, and a value of tuning capacitor can
be chosen which will make the
effects of, for instance, capacitance variations due to valve replacement negligible
over the whole tuning range. This capacitor can be a low-loss type and it may be
given a suitable temperature coefficient if desired. The space saving owing to the
elimination of the tuniJ.}g capacitor is appreciable, even taking into account the ad-
ditional space required for the iron cores and their driving mechanism.
By a suitable choice of coil and core constants the oscillator grid current can be
inaintained at or yery close to the desired figure at all points in the broadcast band.
Aerial coil gain can also be kept constant.
One of the most serious troubles·in the design of a permeability tuning unit is in
obtaining satisfactory coupling between the aerial and the permeability-tuned aerial
coil. If a no~ primary is used the coupling variations with changing core position,
as the coil is tuned over the broadcast band, are excessive. Similarly a tapped in-
ductor can not be used because the core alters the coupling between the. two sections
of the winding too much. Fig. II.5A, B and C show three methods which have been
used.
The circuit of Fig. II.5A couples the aerial straight into the tuned circuit and gives
good aerial coil gain when correctly aligned. However image rejection is poor and
the detuning effect when different aerials are connected to the receiver is considerable.
Improved image rejection is obtained from the circuit of Fig. Il.5B but sensitivity
is lost because much of the voltage developed across the tuned circuit is not applied
between grid and cathode of the valve.
Fig. ll.5Cgivesa more-satisfactory solution (Ref. A24). There is no inductive
coupling between primary and permeability tuned secondary and the coup-ling between
primary and coupling coil is unaffected by the core position. A constant gain of
about three times over the band can be obtained from a coil with average effective
Q of 100, with satisfactory image ratios across the band and reasonable freedom from
detuning effects with different aerials.
462 (iii) PERMEABILITY TUNING 11.4
(i) Design*
Much has been written on the subject of designing coils suitable for use on short
waves. A number of references will be found at the end of this chapter. The work
by Pollack; Harris and Siemens, and Barden and Grimes is very complete from the
practical design viewpoint. The papers by Butterworth, Palermo and Grover, and
Terman are basically theoretical. Austin has provided an excellent summary and
practical interpretation of Butterworth's four papers. Medhurst's paper gives the
results of measurements which in some cases disagree with Butterworth's theoretical
values. For coils whose turns are widely spaced the measurements of high-frequency
resistance are in good agreement but for closely-spaced coils the measured values are
very considerably below those of Butterworth. Theoretical reasons are· given for
these differences.
(A) Pollack (Ref. G4) summarizes the procedure for the optimum design of coils
for frequencies from 4 to 25 Mc/s as follows :-
I. Coil diameter and length of winding: Make as large as is consistent with the
shield being used. The shield diameter should be twice the coil diameter, and the
ends of the coil should not come within one diameter of the ends of the shield.
2. A bakelite coil form with a shallow groove for the wire, and enamelled wire may
be used with little loss in Q. The groove should not be any deeper than is necessary
to give the requisite rigidity. The use of special coil form constructions and special
materials does not appear to be justified (except for the reduction of frequency drift
due to temperature changes).
3. Number of turns: Calculate from
N = yL(I02S + 45)/D
where S = ratio of length to diameter of coil,
D. = diameter of coil in centimetres,
and L = inductance in microhenrys.
4. Wire size: Calculate from
do = b/NV2 = optimum diameter in centimetres.
where b = winding length in centimetres.
*This is a revision and expansion of the chapter on this subject in the previous edition by L. G.
Dobbie.
464 SHORT-WAVE COILS 11.5
That is, the optimum wire diameter is I/V2 times the winding pitch, measured from
centre to centre of adjacent turns. .
(B) Barden and Grimes (Ref. GI6) recommend for coils working near 15 Mc/s.
that No. 14 or No. 16 A~W.G. enamelled wire on a form not less than one inch dia-
meter at a winding pitch equal to twice the wire diameter is desirable. The screen
diameter should be not less than twice the coil diameter. A comparison of coils of
equal inductance on 0.5 in. and 1 in. forms in screens double the coil diameter in-
dicates that the value of Q is twice as great for the larger diameter coil. No. 24 A.W.G.
wire was used for the small diameter coil.
(C) Harris and Siemens (Ref. G21) quote the following conclusions :-
(l) Q increases with coil diameter.
(2) Q increases with coil length, rapidly when the ratio of length to diameter is
small, and very slowly when the length is equal to or greater than the diameter.
(3) Optimum ratio of wire diameter to pitch is approximately 0.6 for any coil shape.
Variation of Q with wire diameter is small in the vicinity of the optimum ratio; hence,
selection of the nearest standard gauge is satisfactory for practical purposes.
(D) The shape of a coil necessary for minimum copper loss (from Butter-
worth's paper) is stated by Austin (Ref. D7) as follows : -
(1) Single layer solenoids: Winding length equal to one-third of the diameter.
(2) Single layer discs (pancake): Winding depth equal to one-quarter of the
external diameter.
(E) Butterworth's paper (Ref. DI) deals with the copper loss resistance only, and
insulation losses must be taken into account separately. Insulation losses are
minimized by winding coils on low loss forms, using a form or shape factor which pro-
vides the smallest possible !relf-capacitance with the lowest losses. Thus' air is the
best separating medium for the individual turns, and the form should provide only
the very minimum of mechanical support. Multilayer windings in one pie have high
self-capacitance due to proximity of the high and low potential ends of the winding.
The same inductance obtained by several pies close together in series gready reduces
the self-capacitance and associated insulation losses. Heavy coatings of poor quality
wax of high dielectric constant may introduce considerable losses.
(F) In the section of Medhurst's paper (Ref. D6) dealing with h.f. resistance he
states that so long as the wire diameter is less than one half of the distance between
wire centres, Butterworth's values are applicable. An increasing error occurs as the
ratio of wire diameter to distance between centres increases, the values being 190%
too high when the ratio is 0.9.
A graph is presented giving variation in optimum wire spacing with variation in
the ratio of coil length to coil diameter (Fig. I1.6A).
It is shown that a good approximation to the high frequency Q of coils of the type
measured is given by the simple expression
Q = 0.15Rv, v7
where R = mean radius of coil (em),
f = frequency (c/s)
and '" depends on the length/diameter and spacing ratios.
A comprehensive table of ifl values is presented.
(G) M. V. Callender (Ref. D9) points out that Medhurst's formula for Q can be
approximated within a few per cent by the equation
Q = v'f/(6.9/R + 5.4/1)
where R = radius of coil (em)
and I = length of coil (em).
An even simpler expression
Q= 0.15V]iCl/R + III)
follows the data to a few per cent provided I> R.
The range of conditions under which this formula applies is the same as that to
which Medhurst'~ data refer: in particular-
11.5 (i) DESIGN 465
(a) The ratio of wire diameter to wire spacing-must approximate to the optimum
shown in Fig. 11.6A.
(b) The formulae apply only for very high frequencies because of skin effect con-
siderations. However the following table, giving the thinnest wire for which the
formula applies within ± 10%, shows that most practical solenoids will be covered-
f (Mc/s) 1.0 4.0 16
wire 22 S.W.G. 28 S.W.G. 37 S.W.G.
(c) The formulae do not hold for coils of very few turns (or extremely short coils).,
(d) Dielectric loss is not allowed for. This is unlikely to be serious except where
the coil has a rather poor dielectric (bakelite or worse) and is used in a circuit having
a low parallel tuning capacitance.
o
~ ()o9
a::
100
.,...,."
-'
v -
~C)08 ~
~ /
V
II) 0.7
~
::I v~
~ 006
Ii:
o
0.50
V 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
COil lENGTH I COil DIAMETER FIG II 6A
Fig. 11.6A. Variation of optimum spacing ratio with length/diameter (Ref. D6).
(H) Meyerson (Refs. G3 and G 11) gives the results of measurements on a large
number of coils tuned over a range between 25 and 60 Mc/s. The following informa-
tion is obtained from his work:-
(a) Q at any frequency within the band, and the frequency for maximum Q, both
increase with an increase in wire size for a given coil diameter. 10 A.W.G. wire (the
largest used) was nearly 10% better over the range than 12 A.W.G. wire on a one inch
diameter former.
(b) Maximum Q increases, and the frequency for maximum Q decreases, with an
increase in coil diameter for a given wire size, number of turns and number of turns
per inch.
(c) The coil diameter required for highest Q throughout the tuning range decreases
with increasing frequency for a given wire size, nUII1ber of turns and number of turns
per inch.
(d) Maximum Qis obtained with a spacing between adjacent wires which is slightly
greater than the bare wire diameter.
(e) No variation in Q was detected between coils wound with bare wire, enamelled
wire or silver plated wire.
On the other hand, cotton covering decreased Q by as much as 5% at 50 Mc/s and
annealing of the copper wire increased Q by less than one per cent.
(I) In Refs. Gl'() and G12 Meyerson gives details of work with frequency ranges
between 60 and 120 Mc/s on the Q and frequency stability of inductors made of wire,
tubing and strip ip. varieus shapes e.g. disc, hairpin, folded lines, etc.
(J) Other points taken from various references are given below. Dielectric losses
present in the self capacitance of the coil are reduced by altering the shape to separate
the high potential end from all low potential parts of the circuit. These losses become
relatively more important the higher the frequency. Thus, the shape of a .solenoid
for minimum total losses may need to be increased beyond what would otherwise be
the optimwil length.
The high frequency alternating field of a coil produces eddy currents in the metal
of the wire, which are superimposed upon the desired flow of current. The first
effect is for the current to concentrate at the outside surface of the conductor, leaving
the interior relatively idle. In a coil where there are numbers of adjacent turns carry-
ing current, each has a further influence upon its neighbour.
466 SHORT-WAVE COILS 11.5
In turns near the centre of a solenoid the current concentrates on the surface of
each turn where it is in contact with the form, i.e. at the minimum diameter. In
turns at either end of a solenoid the maximum current density occurs near the
minimum diameter of the conductor, but is displaced away from the centre of the
coil.
Thus most of the conductor is going to waste. Multi-strand or litz (litzendraht)
wires have been developed to meet this difficulty. Several strands (5, 7, 9, 15 being
common) are woven together, each being of small cross section and completely in-
sulated by enamel and silk covering from its neighbours. Owing to the weaving of
the strands, each wire carries a nearly similar share of the total current, which is now
forced to flow through a larger effective cross section of copper. The former tendency
towards concentration at one side of a solid conductor is decreased and the copper
losses are correspondingly reduced.
Litz wire is most effective at frequencies between 0.3 and 3 Mc/s. Outside of
this range comparable results are usually possible with round wire of solid section,
because at low frequencies" skin effect" steadily disappears while at high frequencies
it is large even in the fine strands forming the litz wire, and is augmented by the use
of strands having increased diameter.
Screens placed around coils of all types at radio frequencies should be of non-
magnetic good-conducting material to introduce the least losses. In other words,
the Q of the screen considered as a single turn coil should be as high as possible. In
addition, the coupling to the coil inside it should be low to minimize the screen losses
reflected into the tuned circuit. For this reason the screen diameter should, if pos-
sible, be at least double the outside diameter of the coil. A ratio smaller than 1.6 to 1
causes a large increase in losses due to the presence of the screen.
The design of coils for use with iron core materials depends mainly upon the type
of core material and the shape of the magnetic circuit proposed. Nearly closed core
systems are sometimes used with high permeability low loss material. More com-
monly, however, the core is in the form of a small cylindrical plug which may be
moved by screw action along the axis of the coil and fills the space within the inside
diameter of the form. The main function of the core in the latter· case may be only
to provide a means of tuning the circuit rather than of improving its Q; When im-
provement in Q is possible with a suitable material, the maximum benefit is obtained
by ensuring that the largest possible percentage of the total magnetic flux links with
the core over as much of its path as possible; the ultimate limit in this direction is
of course the closed core.
An excellent series of cha...4:s for the design of single-layer solenoids for a required
inductance and Q is presented by A. 1. Forbes Simpson in Ref. G 17. These charts
and the instrUctions for their use are reprinted by permission of" Electronic Engineer-
ing" and the author (Figs. 11.7 to 11.13 inclusive).
The use of the chans is simple and gives direct answers. As so many unascertain-
able factors govern the final inductance of a coil in position, no attempt has been made
to achieve an accuracy better than 1 per cent. The inductances indicated by the charts
assume that the leads to the coil are of the same wire as the coil and perpendicular
to it, and are each a coil diameter long.
Coils of this form have a low self-capacitance which is largely independent of all
save the coil diameter and to a lesser extent the wire gauge.
The capacitance may be expressed as
C = D(0.47 + a) p.p.F
where D is coil former diameter in ems. and a is a constant depending on the gauge
of wire, lying between 0.065 for 42 S.W.G. and 0.11 for 12 S.W.G. wire, where one
lead of the coil is connected to chassis.
Use of charts
The charts shown may be used as follows :
If the desired Q is known, then reference to Fig. 11.8 will suggest a suitable diameter
of former.
11.5 (i) DESIGN 467
-
f than those indicated by the usual Q meter, The
accuracy of these curves is rather less than that of
the inductance charts, but various values have been
checked by several methods which have given sub-
stantial agreement.
Example
J.: J;;;~ As an example* of the use of the curves, suppose
we have a variable condenser of 450 J-LJ-LF swing and
Olagrom to iUustrotl usc of Charts desire to find a coif with which it will tune from
. . FIG. ":7 12 Mc/s to 4 Mc/s. If the total capacitance at
Ftg. 11.7. Diagram to tllus- C th .
trate use of charts (Ref. GI7). 12 Mc/s. be J-LJ-LF en
*This example is presented in a different form from that in the original article.
468 SHORT-WAVE COILS 11.5
If, however, we had used the ! in. former we would find that 18 turns of 26 S.W.G.
at 37 T.P.I. would give
C p,p,F 45 100 200 400 500
Q 181 165 147 123 117
Q
300
(, FORMER 1
II r I -
I
~
- ~-
1- - -:=1=
---
T I ::::i ~;::
I ,..;;;:
100
80
-.
60
Q
300
t FORMER
I
200 ~=~
~ .......,; ...;:
t"""
100
80
I
60
r
I
..
Q FORMER I
I I
300
- -----t '- --=------
200
...: ~
100
80
60
-.... i
I
t--
r--.
Q
300
f FORM~R i I i
200
tOO
~
...- -- ~
0.;;.
f'f'F
80 45
-.;;:...;: .... :--. 100
60 ..... ISO
,~ 200
40 -~8&
500
Fig. 11.8. Q/L chart for obtaining suitable size of former (Ref· GI7).
11.5 (ii) MISCELLANEOUS FEATURES 469
middle of the coil. In this way the last half tum of the coil can be increased almost
to a complete tum or decreased to a small fraction of a turn. Both the first and last
half turns on the coil can be treated in this way, thereby providing a possible induct-
ance adjustment equivalent to approximately one complete turn of the winding.
When matching short wave coils it is essential that associated primaries, and any other
coils on the same former, be connected in a similar manner to their ultimate connection
in the receiver, i.e. earthed ends of coils should be earthed, and hot ends either earthed
or left open depending on which is more suitable.
100
90
80
70
~
I "
(ji
~
f
so
40 - g'''''-
30
I
I
20 1-
:
I I
i
I
I
,. ..~
I i
~
I
I
:
10 !OO
9 " !II,:,,: 90
8 80
7 70
I I ...... 60
6 'I
5 '#II' 1Ii-J 50
4 .....
I 30
2
I ..
20
I- L.4~
..
.S
I~
,
II
i/ ...,
I
-9
·8
·7
~
10
9
•
7
I
6
" S
•
3
a
~ !.L4 ~ '21 IJi/I'Di 13
~ I I III
111 1 I III
I l III I I
·1
01·08 -os oQ4 0()3 o()2 . -ooe 0 oQ04 oOQ3 oQQI
I
oQOl
WIRE DIAMETER IN IN04ES m. lI.t
Fig. 11.9. Optimum Q, t in.fOT1Tln' (Ref. GI7).
470 SHORT-WAVE COILS 11.5
Iron cores are widely used for adjusting the inductance of short wave coils. Be-
cause at higher frequencies increased losses in cores offset the advantage of increased
permeability, the cores in some cases do not increase the Q of a coil, but provide a
convenient method of inductance adjustment.
In shortWave oscillator coils an iron core also has the advantage of increasing the
coupling between primary and secondary for a given winding. Thus increased grid
current may be obtained although Q is not increased.
120-p-
100
90
80
70 I_~~J.
60
50
-$
"j.
~ *'0 1;'
i'
40
"
0
I I
20 , I
.~
I tR
/)1 I
l..1 I I I
I I~~~ Turn.
!!! rl ! •
III I!i~' ~
i
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9 "
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8
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38
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111111 II 1IIIIIr II III 111111 " II i
II III 111111 11111
I UI II JJ JIIIIII I II II III II1II1 1IIII I
'001
WIRE DIAMETER IN INCHES FIG. 11.10
20 200
i I t .I.
lilil
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9
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III I I1I11111 I II I III I I I I I111I11 1I11
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I Ull . II IIIIII III ,llil I I 11111f[ -1m I
0'1 '08 '05 004 003 002 '01 0008 '005 0004 0()()3 0002 o()()l
WIlle DIAMETER IN INCHES FIG. 11.11
(B) Self-capacitance
To reduce capacitances in a coil with an interwound primary winding without
noticeably decreasing the coupling, it is possible-if the spacing factor of the secondary
winding allows it-to wind the primary against the wire on the low potential side of
each space between secondary wires. A definite advantage is gained from this method
of winding and at the same time the cause of appreciable random deviations in coil
capacitance is removed.
It is usually advisable to start an interwound primary winding just outside a tuned
secondary winding for a desired coupling with minimum secondary capacitance.
Best results will probably be obtained with the primary started between one half
I 00
90 ---,
80
70
--c--
60
'III.
50
I
It I
30
I
~
~6.or rlll'N I I
20 200
I - r- .L
....~
11. ! i
1 !
10
I 1,.111, 1I.,:p ;
1
100
9
, 1-·
90
'0
7 70
6 60
16
5 IAI I. I
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~
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, 30
2 20
I
I
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.. ~
.,.,
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9
8
'7 7
... T
6
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- --t--
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n LJ ~ IJ[! r:r [211131 )W s
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1-- _.. --
·1 W :1 fl 1
0'1 008 '05 004 '03 '02 ·01 '008 -oos -004 '003 0()02 '001
WIRE OIAMETER IN INCHES
FIG. 11.12
Fig. 11.12. Optimum Q, t in.former (Ref. G17).
11.5 SHORT-WAVE COILS 473
..- 40
30
I
CIRCULAR .L .L
CAN IL
I :1 ' I r--I 20
I ~ I ':, ' I .J.lL
,
i! II IL
III rj
I
! !
!! 'I I 11'1 SQUAAE-
I 'II fj"". CAN I 10
'J~'
8
...
U
t 6 ~
Z
I I I
, !J u
0 :;)
5 o
~ . r-- - , ' [J ~
r-
... ~
III
.. ~
3 Z
rI
o
r,l;
i=
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I
: , : ,
I ,.-t-- 2 a:
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l ,
I !
i I II j
Os ! I I f/j I Ii
!
I
rI ~ . \
I! 1
"
-e
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rI!
-6
t 'JJ -5
-'- .. :/L ,..., ...
p- 1'""" -+ ,- ....... -....
3
II-
'I -2
'-', I
'i I I !
I I I
I,
,i I I Ii iIj i
1 I I II 1 .J
10 8 6 5 4 3 2 I
'RATIO OF CAN SIDE I COIL DIAMETER Os/O (SQUARE CAN)
The Reduction in Inductance of a Coil of Unity B/D Ratio When Sited
in 0 Scruning Can FIG. 11.13
Fig. 11.13. Effect of circular and square screening cans on inductance (Ref. GI7).
474 (ii) MISCELLANEOUS FEATURES 11.5
and one and one half turns outside the cold end of the secondary, close spacing being
used for parts of the primary outside the secondary and the external primary turns
being wound as close to the last secondary turn as possible
(ii) Baking
Irrespective of the moisture proofing treatment which is to be applied to a coil,
the first requirement is to remove all moisture. This is done most conveniently
by baking at a temperature above the boiling point of water. Materials used in coil
winding are liable to be damaged at temperatures greatly in excess of 100"C and a
satisfactory oven temperature is from 105° to 110°C.
The time required depends on the components being treated, and it is essential
for all parts of a coil to be raised to oven temperature and maintained at that tempera-
ture at least for a short time. Baking for a quarter of an hour is a minimum for simple
coils, and half an hour is a mOJ;e satisfactory time.
11.7 (ii) BAKING 477
One detail of oven design which must not be overlooked is that prOVISIon must
be made for removing the water vapour as it is expelled from the coils. A current
of fresh air passing through the oven is satisfactory for this purpose.
Whether the baking is followed by impregnation or flash-dipping only, the next
process should begin before the coils have cooled.
(iii) Impregnation
Although vacuum impregnation gives the best penetration of the impregnant and
best removal of moisture vapour and gas, a " soaking" treatment is often used and
gives satisfactory results for commercial requirements.
A typical soaking treatment calls for the coils to be immersed in wax which is main-
tained at 105° to 110°C for a period of from one quarter to one half hour, depending
on the type of winding, e.g'. a thick universal winding needs more time than a spaced
solenoid. In any case the coil should be left in the wax until no more bubbles are
given off.
The temperature of the wax-tank needs accurate adjustment as apart from damage
to coils which may result if it is too high, the character:stics of the wax may be altered
by excessive heating.
Soaking in varnish (air-drying or oven-drying) is also possible but it is necessary
to keep a close check on the viscosity.
(iv) Flash-dipping
Flash-dipping is commonly practised without impregnation and properly carried
out it can be a satisfactory commercial treatment. The flash-dip should be of the
same type of material as normally used for impregnation.
A wax-tank for flash-dipping can conveniently be maintained at a lower tempera-
ture than one for soaking, and a suitable temperature is one at which a skin of wax
just develops on the surface of the tank on exposure to air. By keeping the top of
the tank covered when not in use the skin will not be troublesome and it can readily
be cleared away when necessary.
With the wax temperature low, a thicker coating is obtained on the coil when dipped
and the tendency for" blow-holes" to develop is minimized. This is partly due to
the thicker coating and partly because the coil itself is heated less by the wax and so
has less tendency to expel air through the coating of wax as it is setting.
Once a hole has developed it is desirable to seal it with a hot instrument. To
attempt to seal it with a second flash-dip usually results in failure as air is expelled
through the hole in the first coat as the coil is warmed up and this punctures the
second coating in the same place.
If flash-dipping alone is used for moisture proofing a minimum treatment might
be, first flash-dip, seal all blow-holes with wax, then second flash dip.
Similar troubles are experienced with holes when varnish sealing is used.
(v) Materials
The first requirement for an impregnating compound is good moisture resistance.
It is also important that its losses be low at the frequencies concerned, and it is quite
possible to obtain impregnants which can be used without noticeably affecting the Q
of the impregnated winding.
Because it is usually desirable to have minimum self-capacitance in a coil, the dielec-
tric constant should be low, and the temperature coefficient should also be known.
Waxes can be obtained with dielectric constants having a negative temperature co-
efficient and this is useful in offsetting the temperature coefficient of the coil itself,
which is positive in all usual cases.
Apart from the resistance of a moisture proofing compound to moisture absorption,
its surface properties are important. A compound which does not wet easily is de-
sirable and tests on moisture proofing should be designed to separate the effects of
surface leakage from those of absorption.
478 (v) MATERIALS 11.7
Where flash-dipping only is carried out, some of the properties mentioned above
are not of such importance but they cannot be ignored completely.
Other points which must be considered when choosing a moisture-proofing com-
pound are that it must be capable of maintainiilg its properties over the range of tem-
peratures to which it is liable to be subjected. Melting of waxes is the trouble most
likely to be encountered, but crazing (and the consequent admission of moisture)
may be experienced at low temperatures.
Waxes and varnishes do not themselves support fungus growth, but they are
liable to collect coatings of dust which may do so. Suitable precautions to avoid
this may be desirable. More important is the avoidance in coils as far as possible of
materials which are subject to fungus attack. Some types of flexible tubing fall in
this category and should not be used, and the same applies to some cheap coil former
materials. The fabric covering of wires also may support fungi and should be com-
pletely coated with the wax or varnish to avoid this occurrence.
SECTION 8: REFERENCES
(A) REFERENCES TO IRON CORES .
AI. Nottenbrock, H., and A. Weis " Sirufer 4 " Radio Review of Australia 4.4 (April 1936) 5.
A2. Austin, c., and A. L. Oliver" Some notes on iron-dust cored coils at radio frequencies" Marcon
Review, No. 70 (July 1938) 17.
A3. Editorial" Iron powder compound cores for coils" W.E. 10.112 (Jan. 1933) 1.
A4. Editorial" Iron core tuning coils" W.E. 10.117 (June 1933) 293.
A5. Editorial" Iron powder cores" W.E. 10.120 (Sept. 1933) 467.
A6 .. Friedlaender, E. R. " Iron powder cores: their use in modem receiving sets" W.E. 15.180 (Sept.
1938) 473.
A7. Editorial" Distribution of magnetic flux in an iron powder core" W.E. 15.180 (Sept. 1938) 471.
A8. Welsby, V. G. " Dust cored coils" Electronic Eng. (1) 16.186 (Aug. 1943) 96; (2) 16.187 (Sept.
1943) 149; (3) 16.188 (Oct. 1943) 191 ; (4) 16.189 (Nov. 1943) 230; (5) 16.190 (Dec. 1943) 281.
Correspondence by E. R. Friedlaender and reply by V. G. Welsby Electronic Eng. 16.192 (Feb.
1944) 388.
A9. Cobine, J. D., J. R. Curry, C. J. Gallagher and S. Ruthberg "High frequency excitation of iron
cores" Proc. I.R.E. 35.10 (Oct. 1947) 1060.
AI0. Buckley, S. E. " Nickel-iron alloy dust cores" Elect. Comm. 25.2 (June 1948) 126.
All. Polydoroff, W. J. "Permeability tuning" Elect. 18.11 (Nov. 1945) 155.
A12. Bushby, T. R. W. "A note on inductance variation in r-f iron cored coils" A.W.A. Tee. Rev.
6.5 (Aug. 1944) 285.
A13. White, S. Y. "A study of iron cores" Comm. 22.6 (June 1943) 42.
A14. Friedlaender, E. R. " Permeability of dust cores" Correspondence, W.E. 24.285 (June 1947) 187.
A15. Fetherston, N., and L. W. Cranch "Powder metallurgy and its application to radio engineering"
Proc. I.R.E. Aust. 5.9 (May 1945) 3.
A16. Tucker, J. P. "A permeability tuned push button system" Elect. 11.5 (May 1938) 12.
A17. "Powdered-iron cores and tuning units" Comm. 21.9 (Sept. 1941) 26.
A18. Friedlaender, E. R. " Magnetic dust cores" J. Brit. I.R.E. 5.3 (May 1945) 106.
A19. Foster, D. E., and A. E. Newlon" Measurement of iron cores at radio frequencies" Proc. I.R.E.
29.5 (May 1941) 266.
A20. Jacob, F. N. "Permeability-tuned push-button systems" Comm. 18.4 (April 1938) 15.
A21. Fetherston, N. " Magnetic iron and alloy dust cores" R. and E. Retailer (1) 22.2 (28 Sept. 1944)
18; (2) 22.3 (12 Oct. 1944) 20.
A22. Polydoroff, W. J. " Coaxial coils for FM permeability tuners" Radio 31.1 (Jan. 1947) 9.
A23. Polydoroff, W. J. "Ferro-inductors and permeability tuning" Proc. I.R.E. 21.5 (May 1933) 690.
A24. Information supplied by Mr. L. W. Cranch of Telecomponents Pty. Ltd., Petersham, N.S.W.
A25. Samson, H. W. "Permeability of dust cores" W.E. 24.288 (Sept. 1947) 267.
A26. Bardell, P. R. "Permeability of dust cores" W.E. 24.281 (Feb. 1947) 63.
A27. Harvey, R. L., I. J. Hegyi and H. W. Leverenz" Ferromagnetic spinels for radio frequencies"
R.C.A. Rev. 11.3 (Sept. 1950) 321.
A28. Strutt, M. J. O. "Ferromagnetic materials and ferrites" W.E. 27.327 (Dec. 1950) 277.
A29. Snoek, J. L. "Non-metallic magnetic material for high frequencies" Philips Tee. Rev. 8.12
(Dec. 1946) 353.
A30. "Ferroxcube" Philips Industrial Engineering Bulletin, Australia, 1.5 (Jan. 1951) 18.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
(B) REFERENCES TO INDUCTANCE CALCULATION
B1. Parington, E. S. "Simplified inductance chart" Elect. 15.9 (Sept. 1942) 61.
B2. Maddock, A. J. "Mutual inductance: simplified calculations for concentric solenoids" W.E.
22.263 (Aug. 1945) 373.
B4. "The inductance of single layer solenoids on square and rectangular fomers " Data Sheet, Elec-
tronic Eng. 15.173 (July 1942) 65.
B5. Amos, S. W. " Inductance calculations" W.W. 47.4 (April 1941) 108.
B6. Everett, F. C. " Short wave inductance chart" Elect. 13.3 (Mar. 1940) 33.
B7. Tumey, T. H. " Mutual inductance: a simple method of calculation for single-layer coils on the
same former" W.W. 48.3 (March 1942) 72.
B8. "The inductance of single layer solenoids" Data Sheets Electronic Eng. (1) 14.164 (Oct. 1941)
447; (2) 14.165 (Nov. 1941) 495.
B9. Biow, T. C ... Design chart for single layer inductance coils" Elect. 16.2 (Feb. 1943) 95.
BI0. Grover, F. W. (book) "Inductance Calculations" (D. van Nostrand Co. Inc. 1946).
BU. Blow, T; C. "Solenoid inductance calculations" Elect. 15.5 (May 1942) 63.
11.8 REFERENCES 479
H4. Hartshorn, L., and W. H. Ward" The properties of chokes, condensers and resistors at very high
frequencies" Jour. Sci. Instr. 14.4 (April 1937) 132.
HS. Wheeler, H. A.," The design of radio-frequency choke coils" Proc. I.R.E. 24.6 (June 1936) 850.
H6. Miller, H. P. "Multi-band r-f choke coil design" Elect. 8.3 (Aug. 1935) 254.
(I) REFERENCES TO UNIVERSAL WINDINGS
II. Simon, A. W. "Winding the universal coil" Elect. 9.10 (Oct. 1936) :12.
12. Simon, A. W. "On the winding of the universal coil" Proc. I.R.E. 33.1 (Jan. 1945) 35.
13. Kantor, M. "Theory and design of progressive and ordinary universal windings" Proc. I.R.E.
35.12 (Dec. 1947) 1563.
14. Simon, A. W. " On the theory of the progressive universal winding" Proc. I.R.E. 33.12 Pt 1 (Dec.
1945) 868.
15. Simon, A. W. "Wire length of universal coils" Elect. 19.3 (Mar. 1946) 162.
16. Hershey, L. M. "The design of the universal winding" Proc. I.R.E. 29.8 (Aug. 1941) 442.
17. Joyner, A. A., and V. D. Landon" Theory and design of progressive universal coils" Comm. IB.9
(Sept. 1938) 5.
lB. Simon, A. W. "Universal coil design" Radio 31.2 (Feb. 1947) 16.
19. Simon, A. W. "Winding universal coils--short cut procedures to obtaining exact self-inductance,
mutual-inductance and centre-taps" Elect. IB.11 (Nov. 1945) 170.
no. Arany, D., and M. Macomber, "Universal coil-winding graph" Comm. 29.10 (Oct. 1949) 28.
Ill. Simon, A. W. "The theory and design of ordinary progressive and universal windings" Proc.
I.R.E. 37.9 (Sept. 1949) 1029.
I12. Watkinson, E. "Universal coil winding" Proc. I.R.E. Aust. 11.7 (July 1950) 179. Reprinted
Jour. Brit. I.R.E. 11.2 (Feb. 1951) 61.
(J) GENERAL REFERENCES
JI. Soucy, C. I. " Temperature coefficient effects of r.f. coil finishes" Tele-Tech. (1) 6.12 (Dec 1947)
52; (2) 7.1 (Jan. 1948) 42.
J2. Bureau of Standards Circular, C74.
J3. Much useful u-h-f information and a good bibliography are to be found in a series of five articles in
Elect. 15.4 (April 1942) 37. The articleS are (3) Kandoian. A. G. "Radiating systems and wave
propagation" (b) Mouromtseff, I. E., R. C. Retherford and J. H. Findley, "Generators for u.h.f.
waves" (c) Dudley, B. " U.H.F. reception and receivers" (d) Jaffe, D. L. " Wide band amplifiers
and frequency multiplication" (e) Lewis, R. F. "Measurements in the u-h-f spectrum."
J4. Orr, H. "Corrosion in multiple layer wound coils" Comm. (1) 29.1 (Jan. 1949) 22; (2) 29.7 (July
1949) 18; (3) 29.8 (Aug. 1949) 22.
CHAPTER 12
AUDIO FREQUENCY VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS
Section Page
1. Introduction 481
2. Resistance-capacitance coupled triodes 482
3. Resistance-capacitance coupled pentodes 496
4. Transformer-coupled voltage amplifiers 517
5. Choke-coupled amplifiers 521
6. Methods of exciting push-pull amplifiers 521
7. Push-pull voltage amplifiers 527
8. In=phase amplifiers 529
9. Direct-coupled amplifiers 529
10. Stability, decoupling and hum ... 535
11. Transients and pulses in a-f amplifiers 540
12. Multistage voltage amplifiers 541
13. References 542
SECTION 1 : INTRODUCTION
(i) Voltage amplifiers
A voltage amplifier is one in which the voltage gain is the criterion of performance.
To be strictly correct it is not possible to have -voltage without power since infinite
impedance does not exist in amplifiers, but for all ordinary purposes a "voltage
amplifier" is one in which a "voltage" output is required. Voltage amplifiers
generally work into high impedances of the order of 1 megohm, but in certain cases
lower load impedances are used and there is no sharp demarcation between " voltage"
and "power". amplifiers. In cases where transformer coupling is used between
stages, the secondary of the transformer may be loaded only by the grid input im-
pedance of the following stage and the numerical value of the impedance may not be
known. In such cases the transformer is usually designed to operate into an infinite
impedance, and the effect of normal grid input impedances on the transformer is
very slight compared with the primary loading.
_ It is important to bear in mind the reversal in polarity which occurs in any valve
when used as an amplifier with a load in the plate circuit. As a consequence, the
a-f voltage from grid to plate is
E IIP = Eak +E kP = E ak(l + A) (1)
where A is the voltage gain from grid to plate.
481
482 (i) CHOICE OF OPERATING CONDITIONS 12.2
p. not greater than 40, a grid resistor up to 5 megohms may be used, provided that the
total resistance of the plate load resistor and the plate decoupling resistor is not less
than 0.1 megohm.
If grid-leak bias is used, Ru may be from 5 to 10 megohms.
The output grid resistor (R U2) may be the maximum recommended for the
following stage by the valve manufacturers-usually 0.5 megohm for .power valves
with cathode bias-or as determined by eqn. (6) or (7) in Chapter 3 Sect. l(v)d.
Lower values are desirable to reduce the effects of reverse grid current in the follow-
ing stage, and there is no appreciable advantage in either gain or distortion through
the use of a resistance greater than 4 R L' Calculation of the maximum grid .resistance
for use with power valves is covered in Chapter 13 Sect. 10(i).
eii) Coupling condenser
The coupling condenser (C) may be selected to give the desired -low frequency
response. The loss of voltage due to C may be calculated by the use of a vector dia-
gram or by the following equation, which applies to the circuit of Fig. 12.1 provided
that the input resistance of V 2 is very high.
BulB = RIIZI (la)
where Bg == signal voltage on grid of V 2 .
B = signal voltage across R L
R = RU2 + rpRd(r'P + RJ
or as an approximation, R ~ Rut if the plate resistance of V l is
small compared with R (2)
IZI = magnitude of series impedance of R and C
Xc C
0.51 megohm 0.00624 p.F
0.76 megohm 0.00419 p.F
1.0 megohm 0.003 18 p.F
0 f--- -
!-=-- -=-
t::==="~\~ -
I ~~ t-c.~ ~
-~ rr-- ..
~
2
,.- r--
z :--h
o ~,
~
z
....
...
.~~ ~=-J
f---:.t~
'1
~
I--"~
-- ~~0
L
°4
•
5
I 20 100 200
FRfQUINCY
!IOO
cIS
Fig. 12.3A. Frequency characteristics due to cathode by-pass condenser with general
purpose triode having p. = 20, rp = 10,000 ohms, RL = 0.1 megohm, RII2 = 0.5
IpoD 2J)OO J ....
100
IA'A I
i
= J[1
effect of R k and C k on the voltage gain at any frequency is given by the equation
1 + (WC~k)2
+ (~,++I~~kJ I + (We~k)2 (2)
where A' = stage voltage gain at frequency f with self bias resistor Rk by-passed
by condenser e k
A = stage voltage gain with R k completely by-passed
= mid-frequency voltage gain
w = 27Tf = 217 x frequency of inpUt signal
*Also known as reverse grid current.
12.2 (iii) CATHODE BIAS 485
VaIUllt. of 8
I I . /t;::Vt:=: ~:::~
~/ "'/
~~
~ ~ Iv
....... ~ /V/ /
loS -I-
2 1- ....
... ~ IIVI ~
I-~
,:" /j V II I 6 :
2-5
_....
- 3
~ ....
II V I
.... ~ /
4 .... ~ / I
5
_.... ~
.... ~ II
J I
I
/ I6
Ia
()ol
10
i j
-
iiii
..... ~
()os
~~
, , i' I I i
5 10
, is&; J,oo
so
20
\00
S 10 50 \00
Fr.qucncy cis FIG. 12.38
Fig. 12.3B. Universal attenuation curves with cathode bias (Ref. All Part 4).
Universal attenuation curves are given in Fig. 12.3B (Ref. All Part 4) in which
B = 1 + Rk(P. + 1)
Tp + R'
R' = R LR I12/(R L + R (2 )
and X k = l/(wC k ).
(B) The phase angle shift is a maximum. at the frequency where the slope of the
attenuation characteristic is a maximum., and drops towards zero at zero frequency
486 (iii) CATHODE BIAS 12.2
and at higher audio frequencies. The maximum value for any normal r .c.c. amplifier
does not exceed about 30°.
Universal curves showing phase angle shift are given in Fig. 12.3C in which the
symbols have the same meaning as in Fig. 12.3B.
(C) Choice of c:athode bias resistor
The best method is to determine the grid voltage as for fixed bias-see (iv) below-
and then to calculate R". A fairly satisfactory approximation is to select R" by·the
following table.
Conditions: Plate supplv voltage 200 to 300 volts. Values of I' are the pubhshed
values.
+
V r..."-'.
/ "
/ - -.....
/.-- -.. ......... f\.VAWES OF 8
~
~"' "., "- \5 'to +
j
/. ~I' It;.
~;
[.II
~
"'' -'.
!'-... ~ ~
,~ 1'.,
~ i'
"- ~
.;,
~
~~
, ~
_ 1·5
~ "
.........
i'
'"....."r--r,..
~
-'
~, ""'r--..,
~ -..... r--.. .~. . ~ t':: ~
,-'-
po--
001
'.- ........ ~
dividual point, the values of R 11: may be plotted against E c, and the desired value may
be selected.
For greater accuracy, particularly with relatively high values of cathode resistance,
the slope of the loadline in Fig. 12.4 should be that corresponding to (R L + R J.
(E) Maximum grid resistance with cathode bias
It may be shown that the maximum permissible grid resistance with cathode bias
is greater than that with fixed bias, as indicated by the approximation :
Rg with cathode bias
Rg with fixed bias ~ 1 + g m",R1I: (3a)
where g m d = slope of dynamic. characteristic at operating point
gmr 7J P.
~ ~ -:-----'--:::--
(r7J + R L ) (r7J + R L )
Km = mutual conductance at operating point
p. = amplification factor at operating point
r p = plate resistance at operating point
and R lc = cathode bias resistor.
This ratio (eqn. 3a) is usually between 1.2 and 2
Fig. 12.4. Plate characteristics of high-mu triode (6SQ7) with Ell b = 400 volts and
R L = 0.5 megohm. Cathode bias loadlines for selected values of cathode bias resistance
(R k ) ha:ve been drawn in.
Fig. 12.5. Resistance-capacitance coupled triode with fixed bias from voltage divider.
Distortion
The percentage second harmonic distortion-see Chapter 13 Sect. 2(i)-is given by
o EQ - QF
HsYo = 2(EQ + QF) x 100 (10)
(viii) Dynamic characteristics
The dynamic characteristic of a resistance-loaded triode is described in Chapter 2
Sect, 3(i) and Fig. 2.19. In shape it closely resembles the dynamic characteristic
of a resistance-loaded pentode, and a comparison between the two is made in Sect.
3(viii) below and Fig. 12.15. With the triode dynamic characteristic the greater
part or the whole of the " top bend " is in the grid current region and therefore can-
not be used. The most nearly straight portion is therefore that of minimum· bias.
An" ideal" (linear) dynamic characteristic of a general purpose triode is shown in
Fig.12.7A. It is limited at the lower end by plate-current cut-off at A, while the
other end is in the grid current region. The usable part extends from A to G, but
in reality the lower part is curved, and is avoided as far as possible. The upper end
(GB) is also curved, but as this is in the grid current region it cannot be used in any
case. The curves are to scale for p. = 20, TJ) = 10000 ohms, RL = 0.1 megohm
and E"" = 250 volts.
@
E 0 +1
c FIG. 12.7
Fig. 12.7. "Ideal" linear dynamic characteristics (A) for general purpose triode
with p. = 20, TJ) = 10000 ohms, RL = 0.1 megohm and Ebb = 250 volts; (B) for
high-mu triode with p. = 100, T!p = 0.1 megohm, RL = 0.25 megohm and Ebb = 250
volts.
Point C at E c = 0 has a plate current I b1 = E b b/(R L + T J) which in this case is
0.91 E b lJR L" This point and point A may be used as the two basic points for plotting
the loadline. Alternatively, point B may be plotted, since FB = Ebblg""R L • Point
G is the commencemerit of grid current (E c = - 0.5 volt) and in this case its I b! =
0.86 E""IR L' The highest operating point cannot exceed 0.85 E bblR L' and this is
only possible for extremely small input voltages. The lowest useful operating point
(for high-level operation) is D, which is the mid point of AG, with I b3 = 0.43 E b blR L'
Thus the operating point must be within the limits 0.43 and <1:85 x E uIR L •
The dynamic characteristic in Fig. 12.7B applies to a high mu triode with p. = 100,
T p = 0.1 megohm, R L = 0.25 megohm and Ebb = 250 volts. The grid current
is taken as commencing at E c = - 0.75 volt. The usable part of the characteristic
extends from A to G, and the operating point must be within the limits 0.25 and 0.5
multiplied by E" "IR L' The upper limit would be somewhat extended if the load
resistance were increased to 0.5 megohm,
(ix) Maximum output voltage and distortion
It is difficult to lay down any limit to the maximum voltage output, since over-
loading occurs very gradually. It is assumed that in all cases the grid bias is sufficient
to avoid positive grid current.
492 (ix) MAXIMUM OUTPUT VOLTAGE AND DISTORTION 12.2
I-
Z
ILl
a:
a:
:>
u
ILl
I-
~
0..
FIG. 12.7C
Fig. 12.7C. Approximate method for determining conditions for maximum output
voltage (Ref. AI6).
The value of y for low distortion in a single valve is 0.5; values appreciably higher
than 0.5 are possible with push-pull operation. The value of el is a function of the
valve characteristics, the load resistance and the plate supply voltage; it is usually
less than 10 volts for R L not less than 0.1 megohm and Ell b not greater than 300 volts.
Example: Type 6J5, T'lJ = 10000 ohms, el = 5 volts, E I! b = 250 volts, R g2 = 0.5
megohm, I min = 0.2 mA, y = 0.5. We obtain x = 50, ~ = 0.00817, y/x = 0.01,
and from the equations, RL ~ 70000 ohms optimum; Eo = 186 volts peak-to-peak.
Output voltage and distortion
The maximum output voltage for a general purpose triode (e.g. type 6J5) for 14%
intermodulation distortion· and Ell b from 180 to 300 volts is given approximately by:
Load resistance Following grid Maximum output
resistance voltage r.m.s.
0.1 megohm 0.1 megohm 0.155 x E I! b
0.2 megohm 0.19 X E'I!I!
0.4 megohm 0.215 x E I! I!
0.25 megohm 0.25 megohm 0.20 x E b II
0.5 megohm 0.24 X Ell!>
1.0 megohm 0.27 x E lib
.For details of intennodulation distortion see Chapter 14 Sect. 3.
12.2 (ix) MAXIMUM OUTPUT VOLTAGE AND DISTORTION 493
For lower values of I.M. distortion, the preceding values of maximum output
voltage should be multiplied by :
I.M. R L = 0.1 megohm R L = 0.25 megohm
10% Factor = 0.8 Factor = 0.72
5% 0.48 0.36
2.5% 0.26 0.18
With a high-mu triode the voltage output for 14% intermodulation distortion is
only about 0.17 E II II to 0.21 E II II for R L = 0.25 and R g2 = 0.5 megohm.
Note that with intermodulation distortion the ouput voltage is taken as the arith-
metical sum of the component voltages-see Chapter 14 Sect. 3(ii).
The intermodulation distortion of a triode and a pentode are compared in Fig.
12.16A [Sect. 3(ix)]. At low output voltages the pentode gives less distortion while
at high output voltages the triode gives less distortion. The triode is, however, less
critical than the pentode, and the distortion increases at a lower rate than with the
pentode when the bias is made mor~ negative than the optimum value.
and cfo = angle by which the voltage across the load impedance leads the equival-
ent voltage acting in the plate circuit (cfo will be positive for an inductive load and
negative for a capacitive load)
When the load is cap~citive, as usually with a r.c.c. amplifier, R' is positive and
there is some slight additional loading of the input circuit. When the load is induc-
tive, R' is negative and self oscillation may occur in an extreme case. .
(xii) Equivalent circuit of r.c.c. triode
The exact a.c. equivalent circuit of a r.c.c. triode is given in Fig. 12.8 where the
valve VI is replaced by a generator of voltage P.Ei in series withr p • The plate load
resistor R L is shunted by Co, which includes the valve output capacitance plus stray
capacitance. The grid resistor of VII is shunted by C, which includes the input
capacitance of VI (including the Miller Effect capacitance from the plate) plus stray
capacitance. Any additional condenser connected from plate or grid to earth should
be added to Co or C, respectively.
T-
FIG. 12.8
G p e G .
,.p---..--..._-............+-Ov.
v, ....
The cathode bias resistor is here assumed to be adequately by-passed at all signal
frequencies.
This equivalent circuit is the basis of the calculations of gain and phase angle
shift at all frequencies.
(xiii) Voltage gain and phase shift .
It has been shown by Luck and others that the voltage gain/frequency characteristic
of a r .c.c. amplifier has the same mathematical form as a tuned circuit except that
the Q is very low (never greater than 0.5). There is a mid-frequency at which the
gain is a maximum (Ao) and the phase shift zero. At both lower and higher fre-
quencies the gain falls off, and when the gain is Ao/V2 the absolute values of th~
resistive and reactive components are equal. These two reference frequencies, which
correspond approximately to 3 db attenuation, are the basic points on the attenuation
characteristics, and, with the mid-frequency gain A o, are sufficient to determine the
whole frequency characteristic. The value of Q is given by
Q = 10/(/" - la) (14)
where lu = mid-frequency (at which voltage gain is Ao)
I" = (high) reference frequency at which voltage gain is 0.707 Ao
and I = (low) reference frequency at which voltage gain is 0.707 Ao.
(J
Ia = 1/21TCR' (15)
where R' = Rg + r~d(rp + R L)
and the constants are as in Fig. 12.8.
The high reference frequency (f II) is given by
III = 1/2Tr(Co + Ci)R" . (16)
where R" = r~LRg/(r~L + r~g + RLRg).
When I a and 1 II have been determined, the attenuation at any other frequency may
be found by reference to Fig. 12.9A.
The phase shift at any frequency may be determined from Fig. 12.9B; the phase
shift at j and j" is 45 0 ieading and iagging respectively .
(J
. Alternatively, if the low reference frequency is known, the gain at any frequency
I is given by (Ref. Fl):
12.2 (xiii) VOLTAGE GAIN AND PHASE SHIFT 495
f'IG.12.9 (A)
o
2 ~ .......+-
4 1 rc
..~i.,,....
.0
... 6
.!: 8
~~ "-~~<1
~~
c ((
~IO I - - - ~ ~o·~ '-'\ -
~12 r<:".~
ZI4 1/ faorfb ~~
~ 16 j I II 1\.
18 1/ I II Ir
20 I/' I II II
0-1 ·2·3 ·5·7 10() 2 3 5 7 10 10
Actual Frequency
Frequency for 70-7% voltage gain
Fig. 12.9(A). Attenuation in decibels for r.c.c. triode at low and high frequencies
(B) Phase shift at low and high frequencies. Va/ues of phase shift for frequencies beyond
the limits of the curves may be estimated with reasonable accuracy by taking the angle
as proportional or inversely proportional to the frequency.
gain at frequency f fa
. . = cos tan- I - (17)
gam at nud-frequency f
while the phase angle shift is given by
tan if> = falf (18)
where fa = low reference frequency (3 db attenuation).
Similarly if the high reference frequency is known, the gain at any frequency f
is given by
gain at frequency f f
. . = cos tan-I - (9)
gam at nud-frequency fb •
while the phase angle shift is given by
tan if> = f If b (20)
where f b = high reference frequency (3 db attenuation).
The load resistance (R L) may be any value from a few ohms to many megohms,
but for normal operation it is generally from 0.1 to 0.5 megohm. Lower values are
used when a reduction in gain or an extended high frequency response is desirable,
or when some form of tone correction is intended. Higher values are occasionally
used for special applications, but the frequency response is seriously limited unless
negative voltage feedback is used. The load resistance should never be greater than
the following grid resistor (R llz ) and should preferably be not more than one quarter
of R llz • The choice of load resistance has only a small effect on the distortion, lower
values of R L (of the order of 0.1 megohm) being somewhat better in this respect.
Plate supply voltage: As for triodes.
Screen supply: A series resistor from the plate supply voltage is generally pre-
ferred. Valves in which the screen current has wide tolerances (e.g. some remote
cut-off types and most tetrodes) should be supplied from a voltage divider.
Following grid resistor: As for triodes.
Input grid resistor: As for triodes ... '
The effect of incomplete screen by-passing on gain is given by eqn. (1) on the
assumption of complete cathode by-passing (Fig. 12.10), the derivation being given
in Ref. B3 (see also Refs; All, A12, A13, B2).
12.3 (iii) SCREEN BY-PASS 497
A'AI ~ J l.B2++R,2w 2
C.
2
I R.2w2C.2 (1)
w here A' = sJ;age voltage gain at frequency f with screen resistor R, by-passed by
condenser C s
A = stage voltage gain with R, completely by-passed
= mid-frequency voltage gain
w 217f
B 1:::::::1 1 + R~m. = 1 + Rsgma (la)
mfLt (1 + R £ir 'P) mfLt
m = I bl I c2 (assumed constant)
gm = mutual conductance at operating plate current [see Sect. 3(vii)]
gma = slope of dynamic characteristic at operating plate current
aud fLt = triode mu (with screen tied to plate).
If the screen voltage is obtained from a voltage divider (Ru R 2) then Rs should be
a ken as R 1R 2 /(R 1 + R 2 ).
-2
~~ LL ~""'v ~V./"/V
,,;
-~
I -4
~ ",~ ... V// / / II
I I,IV/ -6
~ ... ",
V// V V I IV
.0
-0
i--- 3
V/!/
/
-8 z
-~-r
~
, :t~ ~
/ V I
, , , -10j::o
-~ V L'L I II - 12~
-'--
~~ V // VI t....
- 14~
.--
-7:,.... ~ :,..-1-' ~ / V -I6~
~
I V // I -18 0en
t....
i---
~~ /// 20~
I~ ,,'"~/
-
J
22
~V
-i'" ...
-- Rs/X -24
~ .... J I"S -26
erl 0·2 0-4 06 ()-8 I 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100
FlG.12il(A) 5' I Ii i I I Ii Ii I I MOVING SCALE
50 10100 500
. F'REQUENCY C/s
Fig. 12.l1A. Curves for the frequency response of a resistance-coupled pentode
with screen dropping resistor Rs and screen by-pass reactance Xs (= II wCs).
The value of B is given by eqn. (la). The frequency for R,lXs = 1 is given by
f = 1/217 RaC a' The frequency scale should be traced and the tracing moved hori-
zontally until f corresponds to RBI X B = 1 (method after Sturley).
Eqn. (1) is plotted in Fig. 12.l1A for selected values of B versus RBIX, which is
equal to 217fR s C B and therefore proportional to the frequency.
For most purposes it is sufficient to use the approximation, for a loss not exceeding
1 db at a frequency f :
Cs 1:::::::1 Bll7fR, (2)
where B 1:::::::1 1 + R~mlmfLt
and m = I blI c2'
For example, type 6J7 with R L = 0.25, Rs = 1.5 megohms, g m = 850 fLmhos,
fLt = 20 and m = 4 has B ~ 16.5. For 1 db attenuation at f = 50 cis, C s ~ 0.07 fLF.
The limiting loss of voltage gain at very low frequencies is 1I B ; in the example
above this is 0.06 (i.e. 24.3 db). If the screen had been supplied from a voltage divider,
the loss of gain at very low frequencies would have been much less.
498 (iii) SCREEN BY-PASS 12.3
--
For example, when g m = 2000 micromhos and r, = 10 000 ohms, an unbypassed
o
~,
. 1 r- _r- --= F=" _I': i-'"'r-:
l'r'I
1\ ~'- ~5LV IL
V
VL L +
~'\"H V / V
~" ~ ~v VI +
~ r~. . )O_ L ""'v
'~ 15 ..... ~II V
0.. 0-2 04 ()-606 I 2
--
R!./X!. "- f'... ~ YALUEStOt?10-
4 6 810 20 40 60 80100
+roO
- 4 ~ ,.1---r-- r-
- '\ , .--
'8
..0 -
l' J\
c: - 12 ~/ r\~
~ l~L ,~
~
~t
~:J -16 ~O -=tl
..... q Q...
("
C ~J
~- 10 or
~
- 14 -I-, .. ~ ~ -- .. ' ~
\
1\
- 28
0.01 0.050.5 1.0
...! =
QI
Actual frequency
5.0 10
screen resistor of 20 ohms will give the same degree of degeneration as a 1 ohm cathode
resistor.
The effect of the screen by-pass capacitance on phase shift is indicated by Fig,
12.11B. Under normal conditions with a high resistance dropping resistor, the
angle does not exceed 65 0 • This angle may be considerably reduced by reducing
the effective value of R" as for example with a voltage divider. Such action is norm-
ally only necessary with negative feedback.
22
-80 0 -60 0 -40° -roo 0 +20 0 +800
(Log) Phose Shift of Output
FIG. 12.110
Fig. 12.11D. Curves from which the loss in gain and phase shift of output at low
frequencies resulting from resistance-cOndenser bias impedance R,C, can be calculated
in a resistance-coupledamplijier for the general case where both screen and bias
impedances are of importance (Ref. A12). Reprinted by permission from RADIO
ENGINEERS' HANDBOOK by F. E. Terman, copyrighted in 1943,McGraro-Hill
Book Company Inc.
500 (iv) CATHODE BIAS 12.3
R k is now I k = I b + I d. The effect of R k and Cit on the voltage gain at any fre-
A'I ~
IA
J
quency is given by the approximation (derived from Sect. 2 Eqn. 2)
1 + (WCtRII)2
(1 + gmR k)2 + (WCtRk)2 (3a)
on the assumption that the screen is completely by-passed.
When the screen is not completely by-passed, so that both cathode and screen
circuits are attenuating simultaneously, the cathode attenuation characteristic is
affected by the screen circuit. Under these circumstances it is possible to use the
method due to Terman (Refs. A12, B2) whose curves are reproduced in Figs. 12.11C
and 12.11D.
Terman expresses the relationship in the form
Actual output voltage
(3b)
Output voltage with zero bias impedance 1 + Rfg m TJ /3
where g m mutual conductance of valve in mhos, at operating point
Rf cathode bias resistance in ohms
1
1 + j(f114)
actual frequency in cis
1/21TCf Rf = frequency at which the reactance of C, equals bias re-
sistance Rf
and /3 = I~'I contributed by the screen circuit at frequency I as given byeqn.
(1). (Note that /3 = 1 for complete by-passing).
The procedure in a practical case is
1. Determine /3 = lA' I A I from equation (1).
2. Knowing I and I" calculate III,.
3. Apply this value of 1114 to Fig. 12.11C, thus determining the magnitude of TJ
in db, and also its phase angle.
4. Calculate the value of RfgmTJ/3, in db above unity.
5. Apply the value of RIg mTJ/3 and the phase angle of TJ to Fig. 12.l1D to determine
the loss in gain (in decibels).
I t will be seen that incomplete screen by-passing results in a smaller value of attenua-
tion by the cathode impedance than would occur with complete screen by-passing.
Attenuation curves for a typical r.c.c. pentode are given in Fig. 12.12 for com-
plete screen by-passing.
As a useful rule of thumb, sufficient for most design purposes other than for
amplifiers incorporating negative feedback over 2 or 3 stages,
IClt. ~ 0.55g ... for 1 db attenuation (4a)
IC It. ~ 0.35 g ... for 2 db attenuation (4b)
where C k is in microfarads,
and g m = mutual conductance in micromhos at the operating plate current.
The effect of incomplete cathode by-passing on phase angle displacement is ap-
proximately the same as for a triode, and the curves of Fig. 12.3C may be used, but
the value of B may be taken as roughly
B ~ 1 + g.".Rk
on the assumption that ,.,. is very large and that R' is small compared with r '" where
R' = R LR g2/(R L + R (2).
The combined effect of incomplete cathode and screen by-passing and of a grid
coupling condenser on gain and on phase angle displacement may be determined by
adding the attenuations in decibels aild the phase angles in degrees, provided that
eqn. (3b) is used for calculating the attenuation due to the cathode impedance.
10
--" -~
20 50
L",..ooooo'"
---
100 200
-~
500
i..oooo"'" ~
l.ciao 2pOO
-~
Spoo -I~)oc
1.
Frequency (c/s)
Fig. 12.12. Attenuation characteristics for selected values of cathode by-pass condenser
with valve type 6J7 and Ebb = 250 volts, RL = 0.25, Rg = 0.5, Rs = 1.5 megohms,
R k = 2000 ohms: screen adequately by-passed.
effect under normal operation, provided that the screen voltage is adjusted to give the
correct operating plate current.
Optimum values may be calculated for any specific case by first finding the fixed
bias and then calculating Rk = E cII(I b + I C2)'
Alternatively, the value of Rk may be determined by eqn. (5f) below.
The procedure for the calculation of the cathode bias resistor when a series screen
resistor is also used, is given in Sect. 3(vi)C, while the graphical method is described
in Sect. 3(xiii) and (xiv).
(C) Effect of reverse grid current with cathode bias
When the screen voltage is maintained constant from a low impedance source,
the following approximate relationship may be derived from Chapter 3 Sect. 1 eqn (6) :
-R gI for cathode bias
R gI fior fi·xed b'laS ~ 1 + Regk~ 1 + RkKm1kl1b (4c)
For a typical pentode, type 6J7, the ratio is approximately 1.7, 2.1 and 2.6 for
R L = 0.1, 0.22 and 0.47 megohm respectively. Now the value of Rg] for fixed bias
is derived in (v)a below for a reverse grid current of 1 [.LA, so that for type 6J7 the
maximum grid resistor under this condition with cathode bias and fixed screen voltage
is approximately
0.56 megohm for RL = 0.1 megohm,
0.91 megohm for RL = 0.22 megohm,
1.5 megohms for R L = 0.47 megohm.
With a series screen resistor the following approximate relationship may be
derived from Chapter 3 Sect. 1 eqn. (6).
R gI for cathode bias 1 R Pg"R g2
----=-='-------- ~ + kKk + - - (4d)
R gI for fixed bias [.Lg1ll2
The first two terms are the same as in eqn. (4c), while the third term is the same as
the second term of eqn. (5b) below, so that the ratio in eqn. (4d) will normally exceed
7 : 1, for RL = 0.1 megohm and will be considerably greater than this value for
R L = 0.22 megohm or higher.
However, it is ~enerally advisable to limit the grid resistor to 2.2 megohms maximum
for amplifiers having a reduced frequency range and 1 megohm or less for amplifiers
having a maximum frequency of 10000 cis or more.
(v) Fixed bias
The optimum bias is the smallest which can be used without danger of positive
grid current, provided that the screen voltage is adjusted to give the correct operating
plate current.
502 (v) FIXED BIAS 12.3
RL (I:toY·38
100 000 5.75
220000 7.8
470000 10.4
From which the following values may be calculated :
Type RL 0.1 0.22 0.47 megohm
6J7 Rill = 0.3 max. 0.4 max. 0.54 max. megohm
6SJ7 Rill = 0.33 max. 0.45 max. 0.6 max. megohm
6AU6 Rill = 0.33 max. 0.44 max. 0.59 max. megohm
We may therefore conclude that, for a maximum reverse grid cu.r;rent of
1 pA, the value of Rill with fixed bias and fixed screen voltage should Dot
exceed
0.33 megohm for RL = 0.1 megohm,
0.43 megohm for R L = 0.22 megohm,
0.56 megohm for R L = 0.47 megohm.
Where the variations of reverse grid currents are such that the large majority of
valves would have values below half the maximum value-i.e. in this case below
0.5 p.A-double these values of Rill would be satisfactory. This would also apply
in any cases where the maximum value of reverse grid current is specified as 0.5 I'A.
·2 Ebb
~
'7 •3E bb e
~
z '6
K
'4Et.b~
'5Et.b~
I&J
a: ·5
a: E
B ." '6Ebb~
'7~~
~
·3
·2 ·aEt.b
·1 '9 Ebb
D
0 ~
CEal
GRID VOLTAGE 0
Fig. 12.13. Dynamic characteristic of r .e.e. pentode for fixed screen voltage
(b) compared with mutual characteristic (a).
504 (vi) DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PENTODES 12.3
•
F!G. 12.I-4A
t., -.3~Ta
PLATE SUPPLY IIOC..TS-aso
o :; PLATE L.OAO-·a~NQ. ~I-o I0()
·9
.. §" '8
~
~
'7
f.
.. ~ I:
·6
5
IC
;::
~ !:
.. 04~ 4
i 3
r·· 2
-I
M
-0 -7
o
GIIIO [Eel VOLTa
Fig. 12.14A. Family of dynamic characteristics for typical T.C.C. pentode (type 6J7
with E"" = 250 volts, RL = 0.25 megohm).
(C) Determination of series screen and cathode bias resistors when plate
and screen current curves are available
If curves of both plate and screen currents versus grid voltage under resistance
0
loaded conditions (e.g. Figs. 12.14A and 12.18) are available, the procedure is-
1. Determine Eel-see (v) above.
2. Determine the optimum value of K-see (vi)B above.
3. From. the I b curves, determine E cZ to give the required values of E cl and K ;
also determine I b at the operating point.
4. From the I e2 curves, determine I e2 at the operating point.
5. Then Rk = Eed(I" + Ie'/.) (5d)
and R, = (Eee'/. - EeJlle2 (5e)
If the resistance of the following grid resistor RII is limited, the maximum gain
on low Jnput voltages is obtained when the load resistance is approximately equal
to the following grid resistance, i.e. R L ~ R II •
I
i~~~~r----r----r---~--~ Fig. 12.14B. Mutual conductance
ii~~--~r-~~-2~~--~--~
of resistance-capacitance coupled pen-
totIes types 6J7 and 68J7 plotted
against load resistance. In each
case the value of K is taken as being
8 adjusted to give maximum mutual
'i conductance.
~500t----+----+----+----+----l
~
o o~-Load~()O~I-Rc-S-i.t~~""e-c-R.~(~""_-hm-s>-()o.L..--()o.l..5
Plate resistance
The value of plate resistance r" at the operating point may be estimated from Sect.
3(X) below.
,..---------------------------.....,.·o
TRIODE (,,--
;jPENTODE
/
/i~STRAIGHT
h' . LINE
h/
/.
hI
h
h' 0·8
h .'1
ill
h'
/
0_5 0·5
K ,.
I..•
04 0'"
I
'1/
I
,il
'1/
'II
V~I
r-STRAIGHT LINE
/
/ Oi ().I
/
/
TRIODE /
~·~6----~1.~4----~1.2~--~~.0~---~0_~8-----~0·~6---~-4---~·-2--~8
Ee, PENTODE AND TRIODE + SLOPE FACTOR (0'0813)
F'lG.12·15
J:tJg. 12.15. Comparison between pentode and triode dynamic characteristics of the
same valve (6SJ7 with Ebb = 250 volts, RL = 0.25 megohm, EC2 = 22.5 volts for
pentode, E c2 connected to plate for triode characteristics; triode characteristics divided
by slope factor 0.0813 and superimposed so that points for I II = 0.5 mA coincide).
510 (ix) MAXIMUM VOLTAGE OUTPUT AND DISTORTION 12.3
When R" = 2R L , the factors above should be multiplied by 0.87. When RII = R L,
the factors above should be multiplied by 0.7. The valUes are for Ebb = 250 volts,
but hold closely over the range from 200 to 300 volts. Optimum operating con-
ditions are assumed.
Harmonic distortion
Type 6SJ7 with Ebb = 250 volts, R L = 0.25 MQ, RII = 0.5 MQ
K = 0.8 0.76 0.72 0.65 0.6 0.56
Eoer.m.,.1 volts 8 16 30 52 62 78
Eoer.m.,.IIE bb 0.03 0.06 0.12 0.21 0.25 0.31
HI % 0.3 0.9 2.6 3.5 5.4 4.4
Ha % 0.24 0.19 1.25 4.2 5.0 12.0
H, % 0.14 0.11 0.19 1.9 2.2 2.85
HI) % 0.01 0.02 0.18 0.67 0.28 0.17
·Modulation method-r.m.s. sum. For details and for relation between intermoduIation and har-
monic distortion see Chapter 14 Sect. 3.
tTbe arithmetical sum of the r.m.l. values of the two component waves.
12.3 (ix) MAXIMUM VOLTAGE OUTPUT AND DISTORTION 511
Comments
1. Type 6J7 (with published g", = 1225 f£lIlhos) has less distortion than type
6SJ7 (with published g", = 1650 f£lIlhos) under the same conditions.
The distortion for a given output voltage increases when a valve is replaced by
another having higher mutual conductance, although there are also differences be-
tween valve types having approximately the same mutual conductance.
2. Load resistance R L = 0.1 megohm provides lower distortion than higher values
of load resistance.
3. The distortion under any given conditions decreases when the resistance of the
following grid resistor is increased.
Comparison between triode and pentode
[Refer Sect. 2(ix)]
The comparison is based on intermodulation distortion with type 6SJ7 as both
triode and pentode, having R L = 0.25 and Rg = 1.0 megohm (Fig. 12.16A). Gener-
ally similar results are obtained with type 6J7 and with other load resistances (Ref.
BS).
1. At the level used in the first a-f stage in a typical receiver (Eo = 10 volts r.m.s.)
the pentode gives only about one eighth of the intermodulation· distortion given by a
triode, when both are adjusted for minimum distortion.
2. The two curves m Fig. 12.16A cross, and the intermodulation distortion is there-
fore the samf. for bo".h triode and pentode) at about 31 T.m.S. volts output.
3. At higher ot.:tput "loltagesthe pentode giVeS the greater intermodulation dis-
tortion, the ratio being 2.3 : 1 at 63 r.m.s. volts output.
4. The pentode, to give the minimum value of distortion, requires fairly critical
adjustment. Under the working conditions recommended in this section, however,
the distortion with it pentode is likely to be less than with a general-purpose triode at
output voltages up to about 20 volts r .m.s.
There are considerable variations between different valves, and some may have
plate resistances less than half these values, while others may have higher plate re-
sistances.
(C) Conversion factors applied to· whole amplifiers
If one set of operating conditions is available, it is possible to calculate others.
Given: Ebb RL Rk R. Rg A Eo
300 V 0.1 MQ 450 Q 0.5 MQ 0.25 MQ 82 81 V
Example:
(1) To calculate conditions for R L = 0.25 megohm,
E"b = 300 volts :-
Fr = 2.5 (i.e. resistance conversion factor).
Rrr 2.5 x 450 = 1130 ohms.
R, = 2.5 x 0.5 = 1.25 megohms.
Rg = 2.5 x 0.25 = 0.75 megohm.
Bo will be approximately the same for the same distortion.
A is affected both by the load and the mutual conductance.
The load resistance factor is 2.5; the mutual conductance factor is .tyI b21I bl =
-{Y1/2.5 = 0.74. Therefore A = 82 x 2.5 x 0.74 = 152.
Note: If Ebb had been altered, the mutual conductance factor would have been
-{Y E b 1J,ft. viE ~ /nR L'I'
(2) If all resistors are multiplied by a factor F,., leaving Ebb unchanged, the voltage
gain will be increased approximately as tabulated:
Fr 0.4· 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.5 2 2.5
Voltage
gain 0.54A 0.63A 0.83A A 1.43A 1.58A 1.85A approx.
In practice these may vary ± 10% or even more.
(xi) Equivalent circuit of r.c.c. pentode
The exact a.c. equivalent plate circuit of a r.c.c. pentode is given in Fig. 12.16B
where the "constant current generator" circuit has been adopted. This could
equally be applied to the triode case (Fig. 12.8) or vice versa. In other respects the
triode and pentode equivalent circuits are identical [see Sect. 2(xii)]. Both the cathode
and screen circuits are assumed to be adequately by-passed at all signal frequt'pcies,
or the effects to be separately calculated. 1
FIG.12.16 8
pi- Ei9m c
~="+---.--+- __--.,--.--oG,
Fig. 12.16B. Exact a.c. equivalent plate
circuit of a T.C.C. pentode.
The effect of the screen and cathode by-passing has been covered in (iii) and (iv)
above.
FIG.12.17
Rs- I'SMA
RL -O'2SMA
Ebb- 250V
Ecca-2S0V
-14
~~------~5~O~----~~------~~----~~----~~~-E-C.~(~~
Fig. 12.17. Screen IC2 'Versus EC2 characteristic for type 6}7; Ebb = 250
volts, RL = 0.25 MD. A screen loadline is shown.
FIG. 12.18
~--~~~~~~~~~~~~__~o
-7 -IS -4 -) -I 0
Ec,(VOLT$l
Fig. 12.18. Screen I e2 versus E cl characteristics for type 6J7 ; static CUT'VtS' are for
Ebb = 250 volts, RL = 0.25 MD. A screen loadline is shown.
514 (xiii) SCREEN LOADLINES 12.3
r-----------------------------------------~o
.!:!1
PLAn: SUPPLY 2!>OV.
PLATE LOAD O'2!>Mll
SCREEN SUPPLY 25011 .s
SCREEN RESISTOR I Mc.l
-a~--~--~~--~~~--~~--~------------~O
-2 -I 0 +1
Fig. 12.19. Plate dynamic characteristics for type 6J7 with screen loadline.
Variations in ratio between plate and screen currents
Although considerable variations exist, particularly in the region of high plate
current, there is a comparatively large region within which the ratio is constant within
± 5 %, this being fortUnately in the region most generally useful for amplification
(e.g. shaded area in Fig. 12.20).
The variations which occur are mainly caused by the variations in the ratio of
plate to screen voltages. It is clear that they will be serious for E b less than E e2
(above broken line in Fig. 12.20) but the variations become greater as E b approaches
E e2. If it is desired to make accurate calculations involving an assumed constant
value of m (= 1 b/1 C2) it is desirable to maintain E blE e2 nearly constant. The use
*A further approximate method is described in Ref. B12.
12.3 (xiv) COMBINED SCREEN AND, CATHODE LOADLINES 515
of a series screen resistor with a resistance equal to mR, (or slightly above this value)
assists in maintaining the constant current ratio.
(xiv) Combined screen and cathode loadlines and the effect of
tolerances
(A) Cathode loadlines
The method normally adopted is an approximate one but very convenient, since
it may be used direedy with the plate dynamic characteristics. Provided that I b/I c2 =
m = constant, the current through Rk will be (m + 1) I b, so that it is necessary to
use a " conversion factor" of m/(m + 1) in respect to both the current and slope of
the loadline. For example if m = 4, the loadline for a cathode bias resistor of 2000
ohms would have a slope of -1/2500 mhos. The effect of any error in the value of
m is minimized through the screen current being only a small fraction of the cathode
current.
.-------------,1·0
FIG.12.21
0·8
.s::...
a:
II.
:I
<
0·4 J
..J
~
.!
Fig. 12;20. Plate dynamic characteristics for type 6J7 with curves of constani
plate to screen current ratio. The shaded area has m within ± 5%.
Fig. 12.21. Cathode loadline (OF) with single plate dynamic characteristic for
type 617. The broken lines show the Hmits of ± 10% tolerances in R k •
The method is illustrated in Fig. 12.21 where only one plate dynamic characteristic
is shown, with a cathode bias loadline OF having a slope of - m/(m + I)R k • The
static operating point is at P, the intersection of OF with the dynamic characteristic.
Owing to the very large plate load resistors commonly employed, there is very little
rise in plate current due to rectification effects, so that P may be regarded as the
dynamic operating point.
The effect of ± 10% variation in Rk is illustrated by lines OF" and OF' respec-
tively in Fig. 12.21.
It may readily be shown geometrically that ± 10% variation in R k has less effect
on I b than ± 10% variation in E cl' '
(B) Cathode and screen loadlines and tolerances
When both cathode and screen resistors are used, the point of operation is the
intersection of the two loadlines (Fig. 12.22). In this diagram it has been assumed
that the screen loadline is a straight line, this being closely correct except at very low
and high values of lb' However, any practicable method for determining the screen
loadline may be used-see (xiii) above. . .
The effect of ± 10% variation in the resistance of Rs is indicated by the broken
lines, and the combined effect with ± 10% variation of both Rs and Rk is indicated
by the region shown shaded. It is on account of these inevitable variations, together
with valve variations, that it is inadvisable to operate with too low a nominal screen
voltage and consequently very close to the grid current point.
(C) Tolerances in general
All three resistors R L' Rs and R k have partially self-compensating effects which
enable fairly satisfactory results to be obtained with ordinary 10% tolerances in the
resistors. If operation is required for minimum harmonic distortion at low level or
516 (xiv) COMBINED SCREEN AND CATHODE LOADLINES 12.3
FIG. la. a2
~ -----+------~----~--~~~~~
Plate Supply • 250V
.•
Plat. Load • O'25MA
Scl'ftll SuPPly. 2SO V
-14 -10 -8 -6
Eel Volts
Fig. 12.22. Plate dynamic characteristics of type 6J7 with screen and cathode loadlines,
showing the effect of ± 10% tolerances in both R6 and Ric'
for a high output voltage, the resistors may beneficially have closer tolerances or be
selected so that high R L' high R, and high Ric go together, and similarly with low
values.
The supply voltage may be varied by a ratio up to 2 : 1 in either direction without
very serious effects in normal operation and without necessarily making any change
in R L ; R. or Ric'
(i) Introduction
Transformer-coupled voltage amplifiers usually employ general purpose triode
valves with plate resistances about 6000 to 10 000 ohms. Valves having higher
plate resistance require excessively large transformer inductances, while valves having
lower plate resistances are only used in special
FIG. 12.23
applications, with transformers designed to
handle the higher plate currents.
(c) Low operating plate current-reduces the direct current through the trans-
former primary aLd thus increases the effective inductance compared with a
valve having a higher plate current. If necessary, any valve may be over-
biased so as to bring the plate current to a suitable value-5 rnA is quite usual.
(d) High maximum plate voltage-only desirable if a high input voltage is required
by the following stage (e.g. push-pull low mu triodes, or cathode follower).
(viii) Fidelity
Distortion caused by the valve is usually very low in the vicinity of the mid-fre-
quency with unloaded transformers of high impedance-about 1 % to 2% second
harmonic with maximum grid swing-but it increases as the transformer is loaded,
up to about 5% second harmonic and 2% or 3% third harmonic. At frequencies
below 1000 cis the impedance steadily falls, while the loadline opens out into a broad
ellipse at low frequencies. The valve distortion may be considerable at high output
levels under these conditions [see Chapter 2 Sect. 4(vi)].
The transformer (core) distortion is usually quite appreciable and may cause serious
intermodulation distortion [see Chapter 5 Sect. 3(iii)].
The maximum peak output voltage in this example is (E" - E "0) T = (250 - 65)
T = 185 T volts = 0.74 E "T. This is reduced as the load becomes less, and a value
of about 0.65 E" T is fairly typical.
(xi) Transformer loading
A resistor shunted across the secondary reduces the value of Qs, thereby giving mare
uniform high frequency response, and also extends the low frequency response. A
resistor shunted across the primary extends the low frequency respanse. If fl is the
low frequency giving a specified attenuation with an unloaded transformer, then the
same attenuation is reached at 0·5 fl when the total shunt load effective across th~ prim-
ary is equal to r 1>' and at (2/3) fl with a shunt load of 2r 1>'
Loading results in higher valve distortion and secondary loading also results in
higher transformer distortion. Loading is generally undesirable, although unavoid-
able in some applications; it reduces the maximum peak output voltage and the gain.
The effective load on the valve is given by R [, = Rl + R 2 /P
where Rl = resistance shunted across the primary
R2 = resistance shunted across the secondary
and T = N2/Nl = turns ratio.
(xii) Parallel feed
Parallel feed (Fig. 12.24) avoids the direct plate current passing through the trans-
former primary and thereby increases its effective inductance, and decreases trans-
former distortion. Owing to the drop in R L the average plate voltage will be con-
siderably less than the supply voltage and this may restrict the maximum output
voltage. If a high output voltage is required, the supply voltage may be increased
up to the maximum rating. It is generally desirable to make R L a resistance of 3 or 4
times the plate resistance of the valve. Higher values of R L result in increased dis-.
tortion at low frequencies due to the elliptical load-line. Lower values of R L result
in lower gain and increased distortion at all frequencies.
The optimum value of C is dependent upon the transformer primary inductance,
and the following values are suggested-
L = 10 20 30 50 100 150 henrys
C = 4.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 fLF.
These values of capacitance are sufficiently high to avoid resonance at an audible
frequency. Use is sometimes made of the resonance between C and the inductance
of the primary to give a certain degree of bass boosting. By this means a transformer
may be enabled to give uniform response down to a lower frequency than would other-
wise be the case. It should be noted that the plate resistance of the valve, in parallel
with R L' forms a series resistance in the resonant circuit. The lower the plate re-
sistance, the more pronounced should be the effect [see Chapter 15 Sect. 2(iii)CJ.
It is frequently so arranged that the resonant frequency is sufficiently low to pro-
duce a peak which is approximately level with the response at middle frequencies,
thereby avoiding any obvious bass boosting while extending the frequency range to a
maximum.
For mathematical analysis see Ref. A13 pp. 38-41.
In all cases when making use of any resonance effects involving the inductance of
the transformer primary, it is important to remember that this is a variable quantity.
520 (xii) PARALLEL FEED 12.4
Not only are there considerable variations from one transformer to another, but there
are large variations of inductance caused by the a.c. input voltage (see Chapter 5).
The series resonant circuit presents a low impedance to the valve at the resonant
frequency, thus tending to cause serious distortion, particularly when the valve is
being operated at a fairly high level. Fot these reasons the resonance method is not
used in good design.
(xiv) Applications
The cost of a transformer having linear response over a wide frequency range is
considerable and, since equally good response may generally be obtained by a very
simple resistance-coupled amplifier, the transformer is only used under circum-
stances where its particular advantages are of value. Some of these are-
(1) High output voltage for limited supply voltage,
(2) Stepping up from, or down to, low-impedance lines,
(3) When used with split or centre-tapped secondary for the operation of a push-
pull stage, and
(4) When a low d.c. resistance is essential in the grid circuit of the following stage.
(i) Performance
A typical choke-capacitance coupled amplifier is shown in Fig. 12.26. The opera-
tion and design are similar to those of a transformer-coupled amplifier (Fig. 12.23)
with a transformer ratio 1 : 1 except that C must be designed as in a r .c.c. amplifier
to avoid additional low frequency attenuation. An amplifier of this type produces
a higher maximum output voltage than a r .c.c. amplifier but less than that with a step-
up transformer.
(ii) Application
It is occasionally used with valves having rather high plate current, for which a
suitable transformer may not be available. It was also used with· tetrode valves of
old design, the inductance being several hundred henries, shunted by a resistance of
about 0.25 megohm.
Normally we begin with a single-sided amplifier, and then at some suitable level
a stage may be inserted having a single input and a push-pull output. In a radio
receiver such a stage usually immediately precedes the output stage, but in more
ambitious amplifiers there may be several intermediate push-pull stages. In this
section we consider the methods of exciting push-pull amplifiers.
Fig. 12.27. (A) .T.riode val'!le (VI) followed by transformer (T) hamng. centre-tapp.ed
secondary and exczttng the gnds of the push-pull stage (V2' V3). (B) Modifiedfarm wzth
non-centre-tapped transformer, using two resistors to prO'Vide an equivalent centre-tap.
522 (i) METHODS INVOLVING IRON-CORED INDUCTORS 12.6
Fig. 12.28. Triode valve (VI) with parallel feed and centre-tapped choke exciting the
grids of the push-pull stage.
Fig. 12.29A. Modified form of phase splitter giving full gain without degeneration.
The input is from grid to cathode and cannot be earthed. The cathode resistor is by-passed
to provide full gain.
An analysis of the balance with equal load resistors and shunt capacitors is given
in Ref. C27, indicating that under these conditions the balance is perfect at all fre-
quencies. However, in practice, the total shunt capacitances across the two channels
differ slightly and there is a slight (and generally negligible) unbalance at high fre-
quencies; see also page 330.
If a high gain amplifier is placed between the phase splitter and the output stage,
hum may be troublesome. Part of the hum is due to the difference of potential
between the heater and cathode. This may be reduced by operating the heater of
the phase splitter from a separate transformer winding which may be connected to a
suitable point in the circuit at a potential approximating that of the cathode.
It is normal practice to assume a maximum r.m.s. output voltage (grid-to-grid)
*In an experimental test it is important to reverse the phase of the input from the B.F.O. when the
valve voltmeter is moved from one output to the other.
12.6 (ii) PHASE SPLITTER 523
of O.ISE b b for less than 2% total harmonic distortion, equivalent to 0.25 Ebb peak-to-
peak output. The distortion drops rapidly as the output voltage is decreased. With
a plate supply voltage of 400 volts to the phase splitter, the output is sufficient to
excite push-pull Class A 2A3 valves operating with 250 volts on their plates and - 45
volts bias ..
A complete circuit with 3 stages incorporating a phase splitter and negative feed-
back is shown in Fig. 7.42.
(B) A modified form of pbase splitter (Fig. 12.29A) gives the full gain without
degeneration, but the input is floating and cannot be earthed. For this reason it
cannot generally be used with a pickup, although it may be applied to a radio re-
ceiver. In the latter application, the valve may be a duo-diode triode performing
detection and 1st a-f stage amplification; a.v.c. may be operated with some com-
plication. This circuit is particularly prone to suffer from hum, owing to the high
impedance from cathode to earth and the high gain. The hum may be minimized
by adjusting the potential on the heater to approximately that of the cathode.
References (C) I, 3, 7, 11, 12.
(C) It is possible to apply positive feedback from a tapping on the cathode
resistor, through a coupling resistor to the unbypassed cathode of the preceding r.c.
pentode, and thus increase the gain. A direct-coupled version is shown in Fig. 7.5IA.
See Chapter 7 Sect. 2(xi).
(D) Another modification (Fig. 12.29B) also gives high gain not from the phase
splitter itself but from the preceding stage. It makes use of the high input resistance
of the phase splitter as the dynamic load on Vl' thereby increasing its gain. The full
analysis of its operation is given in Reference CIS and the following is a summary
The effective cathode load on V 2 (apart from the cathode resistor Rs) is R z and R6
in parallel, i.e. 20 000 ohms, which is the same as R 4 • The cathode resistor R 8
is by-passed in order to increase the input resistance.
FIG. 12.29 B . . . - - -_ _- ofo 300"
+B FIG.12.29C
o·notA.
Fig. 12.29B. Phase splitter (V z) using high input impedance to increase the gain of the
preceding stage (VJ by about six times.
Fig. 12.29C. Phase splitter using pentode with. unbypassed screen and suppressor grid.
The d.c. load resistance in the plate circuit of Vl is Rl + R2 = 0.29 megohm, while
the dynamic load is the input resistance of V 2 , i.e. [see Chapter 7 Sect. 2(ii)BJ
r/ = Rul(1 - A')
where RIJ = RlR3/(Rl + Ra) = 167000 ohms
and A' ~ 0.9,
so that in this example, r/ = 1.67 megohms.
The gain of Vl is given by
gm 950
Al = (1/r,,) + (I/r/) = 1/4 + 1/1.67 = 1120,
which is about 6 times the gain under normal conditions.
The circuit is nearly balanced if R4 = R c and
EOl JLzR u - Rc
E02 JLzRu + r,,2 + Rc
=
where Rc = RzR5/(R 2 + R5)'
524 (ii) PHASE SPLITTER 12.6
In order to visualize the operation of this circuit consider firstly the situation with
V 2 removed. Resistors R5 and Rs in series form the load on valve Vu and the voltage
at the point X will be in proportion to the voltage at the grid of V 3 • When V 2 is
replaced, the voltage initially at point X will cause an amplified opposing voltage to be
applied to resistors R7 and Rs. If resistor R7 is slightly greater than R 5, it will be
found that the point X is nearly at earth potential. If the amplification of V 2 is high,
then R, may be made equal to R5 and point X will still be nearly at earth potential.
The point X is .therefore floating, and the circuit a true Paraphase; the derivation
of the name "Floating Paraphase" is obvious.
FIG.12.32
Fig. 12.31. The Floating Paraphase self-balancine: Phase inverter with cathode bias.
Fig. 12.32. The Floating Paraphase circuit with- fixed bias in the following stage.
The degree of balance is given by
El Rs 1 ( Rs R5)
-~-+-1+-+- (1)
E2 R, A2 R, Rs
where A2 = voltage gain of V 2 into plate load resistor R4 and following grid resistor R,.
If R5 = R, = R 9, then EdE2 = 1 + 3/A 2 (2)
If V 2 is type 6J5 (or half type 6SN7-GT) R4 = 0.1, Rs = R, = Rs = 0.25 megohm,
then A2 = 14 and EdE2 = 1.21 which is too high to be acceptable. In such a case
R, may be increased to, say, 0.3 megohm giving EdE2 = 1.03.
If V 2 is type 6SQ7 with R4 = R5 = R, = Rs = 0.25 megohm, then A2 = 48 and
Ed E2 = 1.06 which is generally acceptable.
If V 2 is a pentode (e.g. type 6J7) with R." = Rs = R7 = R9 = 0.25 megohm, then
A2 = 104 and Ed E2 = 1.03; which is very close.
The gain from the grid of Vl to the grid of Vs is only slightly less than the gain
with R9 = O.
If fixed or partially-fixed bias is employed, it is
necessary to couple the grid of V 2 to point X through
E--- a suitable condenser (G in Fig. 12.32). In addition,
a hum filter (R lo, GlO) may be required, because
most partially-fixed bias sources contain appre-
~>I'IN'III-<) B+ ciable hum voltage; any hum voltage appearing
across the grid resistor of V 2 is amplified by V 2 and
V 4 • Ref-erences C12, C14, C16.
FIG. 12.34
-El =- Rs+ -1( 1+-+~ Rs R4) (3)
r------~-<> Bot E2 R4 A2 · R4 R.
R. sopooA so.ooon ~ while if Rs = R4 = R e, then EdE2 = 1 + 3/A 2 (4)
where A2 = voltage gain of V 2 into plate load re-
sistance R,. Ref. C12.
(C) See-saw self-balancing phase inverter
(Fig. 12.34)
This is merely another form of the common plate
impedance circuit, with two separate resistors.
When Rs = R4 = R 5,
then EdE2 = 1 + 3/(A 2 + 3) (5)
For perfect balance,
o--~---+--~I-
R4 = Rs [1 + 6/(2A 2 - 3)]. (6)
Fig. 12.34. " See-saw" It is desirable for A2 to be greater than 40, thereby
self-balancing phase inverter giving an out-of-balance less than 7%. References
(Ref. C9). C9, CI0, C17.
o----~~-----~8- 8-
Fig. 12.35. Modified" see-saw" self-balancing phase inverter (Ref. CI0).
Fig. 12.36. Practical" Schmitt" common cathode impedance self-balancing inverter
using type 6C8-G twin tn'ode (IL = 36). C1 and C 2 should have high insulation resistance.
(i) Introduction
A push-pull voltage amplifier stage is one having push-pull (3 terminal) input and
push-pull output. Two separate valves (or one twin valve) are required. The two
valves are each treated as for a single-ended amplifier, whether resistance- or trans-
former-coupled.
centre-tapped primary, or the so-called" phase compressor "-see (v) below. The
same also holds true when feeding into a single-ended stage.
Many push-pull transformers are designed to operate with an out-of-balance plate
current not exceeding about 1 or 2 rnA, thus necessitating matched valves, or adjust-
ed bias, or parallel feed.
and cathode of V 2 • The voltage drop across RLl will normally be more than half
the voltage between A and C.
A circuit requiring only a single source of voltage is Fig. 12.42; the two dividers
are desirable to avoid interaction (degeneration) between the two stages unless the
bleed current is very high. The output terminal is returned to a point on the voltage
divider having the same- potential.
Another circuit requiring only a single source of voltage is Fig. 12.43 ; this has only
a single voltage divider. The voltage drop across Rk2 must equal the plate voltage
of VI minus the grid bias of V 2 • There will be degeneration caused by the unby-
passed cathode resistors, which may be avoided by a push-pull arrangement with
common cathode resistors for both stages.
FIG. 12.42 FIG. 12.43
I - ~.+ I
~III---·---·-tllr----'
Fig. 12.42. Direct-coupled amplifier with only one source of voltage (E b b)'
Fig. 12.43. Direct-coupled amplifier with one source of voltage and one voltage divider.
Pentodes may be used, if desired, in all these circuits by making suitable provision
for the screen voltages. In Fig. 12.43 the screen of VI may be taken to a tap on R u ,
provided that either the screen is by-passed to cathode, or R k2 is by-passed; the
amplifier would then be limited to audio frequencies only (Ref. D40).
When the first amplifier stage is a pentode, its load resistor may be increased to
values much greater than those conventionally used, provided that sufficient negative
voltage feedback is applied to secure an acceptable high frequency response (e.g.
Ref. D40).
A pentode may also be used with another pentode as its plate resistor. By this
means a gain of several thousand times may be obtained, but this is only useful in
electronic measuring instrUments.
Such circuits (Figs. 12.40-12.43) are generally limited to two stages. If any in-
crease is made, there is distinct danger of slow drift occurring in the direct plate
current, due to variations in battery voltages and valve characteristics. These may
be minimized by voltage regulators and controlled heater voltage or current, or may
be avoided by one of the special methods described below (viii to x). See also Refs.
D36, D39.
Negative feedback may be applied to any d-c amplifier in the normal manner.
(ii) Bridge circuit
The bridge circuit (Fig. 12.44) may be used with any number of stages in cascade
from a single B supply. The basic design equations are :
R z = R1(E b + Ea)/[E1 - E b(l + RdRp)] (1)
Ra = R 1(E 2 - Ea)/[EI - E b(l + RdRp)] (2)
where RfJ = the d.c. plate resistance of VI = E lJ I b
and E b = -the direct plate voltage.
Typical operation with 6SJ7 pentode as VI
Ebb = 400 volts, EI = E2 = 200 volts, E b = 100 volts, Es = 0, RdRp = 0.5.
Amplification is 71.4% of that as a r.c.c. amplifier. A two stage amplifier using type
6J7 pentodes has an amplification of 100 per stage with fixed voltages for bias and
screen supplies, or with push-pull connection.
Negative feedback may be applied to this type of circuit.
References DB, DIS.
12.9 (ii) BRIDGE CIRCUIT 531
FIG.12.4S
Fig. 12.44. " Bridge" circuit, .Fig. 12.45. Three stage d-c ampli-
direct-coupled amplifier. fier with V 2 and Va as cathDde-
cDupled twin· tr£Ddes.
(iii) Cathode-coupled
The fundamental form of a cathode-coupled amplifier is covered in Chapter 7
Sect. 2(vili)B.
Fig. 12.45 shows a conventional d-c single triode (VI) followed by two twin triodes
as d-c cathode-coupled amplifier stages. For example, V 2 has one triode as a cathode
follower with its grid at a fixed voltage from the voltage divider R 1R g, while the other
triode operates as an amplifier but sharing the common cathode resistor R kl.
FIG.12.46
o-~--~----+---~B-
Fig. 12.46 is an alternative arrangement in which the positions of the two triodes
are reversed. This input circuit was primarily for use with a phototube (Ref. D 19)
but could be adapted to any other requirement.
In the form shown, the output circuit has a direct potential difference, being in-
tended for coupling directly to the screen of the 6V6 following.
See also Section 6(vi).
References Dl, D19; also Chapter 7 Refs. (G).
(iv) Cathode follower
The cathode follower may also be used as a d-c amplifier. One circuit ~s Fig. 12.47A
in which the total cathode load is Rk + RaR,/(R6 + R?). The value of R? is equal
to (E bb/I b) - R 6 so as to eliminate the undesired direct voltage across R 6 •.
References DIS, D36.
FIG. 12.47 A
r--------O Bop
OUTPUT
c-
+4SV+25QV •
(vi) Screen-coupled
The preceding stage may be directly-coupled to the screen of a cathode follower
pentode (Fig. 12.48). This circuit has a voltage gain of 30 db with 0.5% total har-
monic distortion at 0.85 volt peak output. Output terminal A has a d.c. potential
of - 1.5 volts, which may be used as bias for the following stage.
Screen-coupled cathode followers are stable, with a wide-band frequency response,
but the distortion is higher than with normal operation owing to the non-constant
ratio of plate to screen currents. About 85% of this distortion can be cancelled by a
push-pull arrangement.
References D 14, D 19.
+4SV +25OY
Fig. 12.48. Two stage amplifier with the plate of the first stage directly-coupled to the
screen of the second stage (Ref. DI4).
Fig. 12.49. Two stage amplifier with gas tube coupling from the plate of the first stage
to the grid of the second stage.
F"IG.12.50
plate voltages
This is used in the electrometer tube
circuit, and has low drift but cannot be Fig. 12.5IA. Cathode-coupled twin-
cascaded. Ref. DB. triode used as d.c. amplifier with
(C) Compensation for emission cathode compensation.
This can be obtained by a circuit using a pentagrid valve. Refs. D4, DB.
(D) Push-pull operation
A degree of compensation is provided by any push-pull amplifier An alternative
form is a push-pull circuit in which one half only of each stage is used as an amplifier,
and the other half as a dummy to reduce drift (Ref. D25).
- 1 T1) + RL (4)
gmRL + RL p.(p. + 1)
Eqn. (4) may be compared with the ordinary form for expressing amplification,
namely
A
1 1
--+-
gmRL
p.
and it will be seen therefore that from equation (4)
p.' =
p.(p. + I)R L (5)
T" + RL
gm' = gm (6)
p.' T~L
and therefore T fJ ' =
gm
--; -= (p. + 1)
T1)
+ RL (7)
It is preferable to make R L very much greater than T p in order to avoid distortion in
Vz due to the low load resistance into which it works; a value of 2p.r is satisfactory
1)
For example, consider a twin triode with p. = 20 and T1) = 10000 ohms under
resistance-coupled conditions. A suitable value for the load resistance is 2p. x 10000
= 400 000 ohms-say 0.5 megohm.
From eqn. (5): p.' = 20 x 21 x 500 000 -;- 510000 = 412
From eqn. (6) : g,,/ = p.IT" = 20/10 000 = 2000 p.mhos.
From eqn. (7): T/ = 21 x 10000 x 500 000 -;- 510000 = 206 000 ohms.
A high-mu triode would show even higher values of amplification factor and plate
resistance, resembling those of a sharp cut-off r-f pentode.
Curves have been drawn for some typical twin triodes
operating as cascode amplifiers; they resemble the
curves of pentodes except that the rounded knee has FIG.12.5IS R~
been replaced by a nearly straight, sloping line (Ref.
D35). +
One special application is as a low-noise r-f amplifier
(Refs. D33, D35).
Another application is as a voltage stabilizer (Refs.
D32, D34).
The cascode amplifier has been used as a direct cur-
rent amplifier responding to zero frequency (Ref. D35).
Two cascode amplifiers have been used in a "float-
ing paraphase" push-pull amplifier operating with
single-ended input, to deliver a balanced output. In
this application, two high-mu twin-triode type 6SL7-GT
valves were used each as a cascode amplifier, to deliver Fig. 12.51B. Funda-
an output of about 30 volts peak, each side. Only one mental circuit of ca5code
coupling capacitor was used in the whole stage, thus amplifier.
simplifying the design of the feedback circuit (Ref D41).
References to cascode amplifiers: D32, D33, D34, D35, D36, D41.
References to direct-coupled amplifiers (general) Refs. (D).
Ref. D36 is particularly valuable as it gives a detailed examination of the whole
subject, including all causes of "drift." See also Chapter 2 Sect. 2(vii) Drift of
characteristics during life, and (viii) Effect of heater voltage variation.
12.10 (i) COMMON IMPEDANCE IN POWER SUPPLY 535
between the path through C and the path through the B supply in the ratio
Ie Rtl + R.
(1)
1;; = Xc
where R. = resistance ot'B supply
and Xc = 1/ wC = 1/(27TIC).
If Xc is very much less than R tl + R. then almost the whole of the signal current
will pass through C, thus reducing the coupling through the B supply. If the value
of R. is unknown, it may be neglected as an approximation, since Rtl is usually much
greater than R •.
The decoupling circuit comprising G and R tl is actually a resistance-capacitance
filter [for theory see Chapter 4 Sect. 8(ii)]. The frequency at which the current
divides equally between the two paths is given by
11 ~ 1/27TR tlC (2)
A normal minimum value of RtlG is 10000 X 10-6, giving a time constant .0.01
second and 11 ~ 16 c/s. Typical combinations for this valu~ of RC are :
R Ii 5000 10000 20000 40 000 100 000 ohms
G 2 1 0.5 0.25 0.1 ILF
Higher values of C may, of course, be used if desired; these higher capacitances are
often necessary in pre-amplifiers where several stages operate from the same power
supply.
The total d.c. load resistance in the plate circuit is R L + R tl ( + R. if desired), and
the quiescent operating conditions should be based on this value. On the other
hand, the dynamic (a.c.) load is approximately R L •
The dynamic operating conditions (gain, voltage output etc.) may be determined
by referring to the published data for a supply voltage the same as that for point M
(Fig. 12.53). The voltage from M to earth is given by
EM = Ebb - I ~ tl (3)
where I b = KE b b/ R L
and the value of K (for low level operation) may be taken as approximately
K = 0.75 for general purpose triodes and pentodes
K = 0.6 for high-mu triodes
[for more exact values see Sects. 2 (vi) for triodes and 3 (vi) for pentodes].
A good general value of R tl for most purposes is one fifth of R L' If the stage is
operating at low level, R tl may be increased up to about the same resistance as R L
to give better decoupling. If the stage is operating at high level, R Ii should be reduced
as much as possible provided that sufficient decoupling can be maintained. This
may be .assisted by increasing G, but the cost and size of paper condensers may set
a limitation. Two stages of decoupling can sometimes be used to advantage. Elec-
trolytic condensers should be used with caution, since their leakage currents are
appreciable and they tend to cause noise if used in low level stages. They should
never be used with values of R Ii above 50 000 ohms, and very much lower values
are desirable.
The plate decoupling circuit of Fig. 12.53 has the effect of increasing the bass
response,· since at extremely low frequencies the total plate load becomes very nearly
(R L + R Ii)' If VI is a triode, and R L is greater than 5 r:p, then the effect is slight.
If VI is a pentode, or a triode with R L less than 5 r p) the effect may be appreciable.
The increase of gain and the phase angle are both identical in form (except for the
sign) with the loss of gain and phase angle caused by the cathode bias resistor and by-
pass condenser-see Section 2 (iii) for triodes and 3 (iv) for pentodes; also Ref. E3
for curves.
(4)
(5)
12.10 (iii) PLATE CIRCUIT DECOUPLING 537
HT-
Fig. 12.54. Special circuit giving plate decoupling without decoupling condensers
(Ref. E4).
FIG. 12.56
(B) Hum from the screens may also be reduced by screen decoupling. The
hum from the screen is out of phase with the hum from the plate, but the screen hum
predominates. For amplifiers using negative feedback, see Chapter 7 Sect. 2(ix).
(C) Hum from the grid bi'ls supply may be reduced in some cases by grid
decoupling. This hum voltage may be either in phase, or out of phase, with the
plate circuit hum, depending on the source.
(D) Hum neutralization
In a r .c.c. pentode the hum voltages from the plate and screen are out of phase,
so that it is possible to neutralize the hum by a circuit such as Fig. 12.57. Here the
screen is fed from a series resistance R g2 , and the hum voltage is applied to the screen
by the capacitance divider CI C 2 • If VI is type 6J7 with R L = 0.25 and R g2 = 1.5
megohms, minimum hum is obtained when C 1 = 0.05 and C 2 = 0.5 /LF, the hum
then being about 14% of that without neutralization. C 1 and C2 may have ± 10%
tolerances in quantity production. For perfect neutralization it is necessary to
balance both resistive and capacitive elements.
An alternative form (Ref. E2) is shown in Fig. 12.58 in which, for perfect neutraliza-
tion at all frequencies,
-- 1 + R
C-k = RL1(
- - g ) and also- C 3 = -Rk( 1 + RLl)
-- (12)
C1 Rg r p1 C1 Rg r p1
where rpl = plate resistance of VI (preceding stage) and the other values are marked
on the diagram. This circuit gives neutralization both for hum and for low frequency
regeneration.
There are other methods which may also be used for hum neutralization or re-
duction (see Chapter 31 Sect. 5).
I'IG.12.57
r-----1-_--oS+
OUTPlJT
'---+---t--{)B
. f
and their performance under these conditions is of interest.
~. 12.59 -Y,---
ruJ'
IJ] 1
E •• E
0
-~_
~
I-T-j
Fig. 12.59. A single resistance-capaci-
tance coupling and its response to a
rectangular waveform.
In the case of a single r.c. coupling (Fig. 12.59), the voltage across R is given by
e E € -tiRe (1)
where E amplitude of pulse voltage input
R = Rg + r~d(r1J + RL)~ Rg
and t = time measured from commencement of pulse, in seconds.
If t is small compared with R C, we may write the equation as the approximation
(Ref. Fl)
e ~ (1 - tIRC)E (2)
or EI(E - e) ~ RClt = (say) X (3)
the error being negligible if t is not greater than 0.1 RC.
The value of the time constant RC to give any desired value of X at the end of a
pulse is given by
RC ~ TX (4)
where T = time length of pulse,
and X = EI(E - e), .
provided that X is not less than 10.
12.12 MULTISTAGE VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS 541
For example, if X is required to be 20 (i.e. the amplitude of the square top falls by
5% at the end of the pulse) and if T = 0.01 second, then RC ~ 0.2 second. If
R = 0.5 megohm, then C = 0.4 /LF.
If the pulses are repeated periodically with the length of pulse equal to the time
between pulses, and if the applied voltage is zero during the period between pulses
(as Fig. 12.59),
then RC ~ X/2ft (5)
where It = frequency in cycles per second.
With sine-wave input, the frequency (fo) at which the response of a single-stage
r .c.c. amplifier falls by 3 db is given by
10 = 1/(21TRC) (6)
But with" square-wave" input, RC ~ X/2ft (7)
where ft = frequency of square wave in cycles per second.
Therefore fo = fd1TX (8)
By using a square wave input, and noting on a C.R.O. the frequency It at which
there is (say) 10% drop at the end of the pulse (i.e. X = 10), it is possible to calculate
the frequency for 3 db attenuation with sine-wave input:
10 ~ IdlO1T [for X = 10] (9)
Vice versa, by measuring the frequency 10 at which the sine-wave response is 3 db
below that at the mid-frequency, it is possible to calculate the frequency ft at which
the square wave shows a specified drop at the end of the pulse :
It = X1Tlo (10)
where X = B/(B - e).
Equations (9) and (10) may also be used in connection with multi-stage amplifiers .
SECTION 13 : REFERENCES
(A) REFERENCES TO RESISTANCE-CAPACITANCE-COUPLED TRIODES
(including general articles)
AI. Mitchell, C. J. "Miller effect simplified" Electronic Eng. 17.196 (June 1944) 19.
A2. Sowerby, J. McG. "Radio Data Charts-18: Transmission and phase shift of rc couplings"
W.W. 51.3 (Mar. 1945) 84.
A3. Sturley, K. R. " The frequency response of r.c. coupled amplifiers-Data Sheet" Electronic Eng.
17.209 (July 1945) 593.
A4. Design Data 1 "Cathode Bias-effect on frequency response" W.W. 52.1 (Jan. 1946) 21.
A5. Luck, D. G. C. "A simplified general method for resistance-capacity coupled amplifier design"
Proc. I.R.E. 20.8 (Aug. 1932) 1401.
A6. Cowles, L. G. "The resistance-coupled amplifier" Supplement Trans. A.I.E.E. (June 1945) 359.
A7. Seletzky, A. C. "Amplification loci of resistance coupled amplifiers" Trans. A.I.E.E. 55 (Dec.
1936) 1364; discussion 56 (July 1937) 877.
A8. Sowerby, J. McG. "Radio Data Charts (16) Voltage gain of resistance coupled amplifiers" W.W.
50.7 (July 1944) 209.
A9. Thurston, J. N. "Determination of the quiescent operating point of amplifiers employing cathode
bias" Proc. I.R.E. 33.2 (Feb. 1945) 135.
AI0. Data Sheets 45 and 46 " Performance of resistance-capacity coupled amplifiers" Electronic Eng.
15.181 (March 1943) 421.
All. Sturley, K. R. "Low frequency amplification" Electronic Eng. (1) 17.201 (Nov. 1944) 236 ;
(2) 17.202 (Dec. 1944) 290; (3) Frequency response for low and high frequency 17.203 (Jan. 1945)
335; (4) Cathode bias 17.204 (Feb. 1945) 378; (5) Anode decoupling 17.205 (Mar. 1945) 429 ;
(6) Screen decoupling 17.206 (Apr. 1945) 470; (7) Increasing 1.f. response 17.207 (April 1945) 510.
A12. Terman, F. E. (book) "Radio Engineers Handbook."
An. Sturley, K. R. (book) "Radio Receiver Design" Part 2.
A14. Roorda, J. " Improved analysis of the r-c amplifier" Radio, 30.10 (Oct. 1946) 15.
A15. Pullen, K. A. " Using G curves in tube circuit design" Tele-Tech 8.7 (July 1949) 35.
A16. Diamond, J. M. "Maximum output from a resistance-coupled triode voltage amplifier" Proc.
I.R.E. 39.4 (April 1951) 433.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
(D) REFERENCES TO RESISTANCE-CAPACITANCE-COUPLED PENTODES
Bl. Staff of Amalgamated Wireless Valve Company Ltd. " Resistance-coupled pentodes" W.W. 41.13
(Sept. 24, 1937) 308.
B2. Terman, F. E., W. R. Hewlett, C. W. Palmer and Wen-Yuan Pan, "Calculation and design of
resistance coupled amplifiers using pentode tubes" Trans. A.I.E.E. 59 (1940) 879.
B3. Baker, W. G., and D. H. Connolly" Note on the effect of the screen by-pass capacity on the res-
ponse of a single stage" A.W.A. Tec. Rev. 4.2 (Oct. 1939) 85.
B4. Hammond, C. R., E. Kohler, and W. J. Lattin" 28 volt operation of receiving tubes" Elect. 17.8
(Aug. 1944) 116.
B5. Haefner, S. J. "Dynamic characteristics of pentodes" Comm. 26.7 (July 1946) 14.
B6. Adler, R. " Reentrant pentode a-f amplifier" (u~ing CK511X valve) Elect. 19.6 (June 1946) 123.
B7. Terlecki, R., and J. W. Whitehead" 28 volts H.T. and L.T. ? " Electronic En~. 19.231 (May 1947)
157.
B8. Langford-Smith, F. "The choice of operating conditions for resistance-capacitance-coupled
pentodes" Radiotronics No. 132 (July/Aug. 1948) 63.
B9. Edwards, G. W., and E. C. Cherry" Amplifier characteristics at low frequencies, with particular
reference to a new method of frequency compensation of single stages" Jour. I.E.E .. 87.524 (Aug.
1940) 178.
BIO. Crawford, K. D. E. "H.F. pentodes in electrometer circuits" Electronic Eng. 20.245 (July 1948)
227.
Bl1. "Cathode by-passing-derivation of mathematical formula" Radiotronics No. 113 (June 1941) 39.
B12. Shimmins, A. J. "The determination of quiescent voltages in pentode amplifiers." Electronic
Eng. 22.271 (Sept. 1950) 386.
See also A6, All (Parts 1, 2, 5, 6) A12, A15.
(C) REFERENCES TO PHASE INVERTERS ETC.
C1. McProud, C. G. and R. T. Wildermuth) "Phase inverter circuits" Elect. 13.10 (Oct. 1940) 50.
C3. Paro, H. W. " Phase Inversion" Radio Eng. 16.10 (Oct. 1936) 13. '
C7. Cocking, W. T. "Phase splitting in push-pull amplifiers" W.W. 44.15 (April 13th, 1939) 340.
C8. Parnum, D. H. "The phase compressor "-a resistance-capacity output circuit complementary
to the phase splitter-W.W. 51.1 (Jan. 1945) 19. Correction 51.2 (Feb. 1945) 38.
C9. Scroggie. M. G. "The See-saw circuit: a self-balancing phase splitter" W. W. 51.7 (July 1945)
194.
CI0. Carpenter, R. E. H. "See-saw or paraphase "-origin of the circuit-W.W. 51.8 (Sept. 1945)
263, with reply from M. G. Scroggie.
Cll. Saunders, L. A. (letter) "Phase splitter" Electronic Eng. 18.216 (Feb. 1946) 63. Reference
Chart" Methods of driving push-pull amplifiers" 17.214 (Dec. 1945) 816.
C12. Wheeler, M. S. "An analysis of three self-balancing phase inverters" Proc. I.R.E. 34.2 (Feb.
1946) 67P.
C13. E.M.I. Laboratories "Balanced output amplifiers of highly st~ble and accurate balance" Elec-
tronic Eng. 18.220 (June 1946) 189.
C14. R.C.A. "Application Note on a self-balancing phase-inverter circuit" No. 97 (Sept. 28, 1938).
C16. "Resistance-coupled push pull-Floating paraphase circuit" Radiotrcnics No. 83 (January 1938)
97.
C17. E.M.I. Laboratories" Balanced amplifier circuits" Electronic Eng. 17.209 (July 1945) 610.
C18. Jeffery, E. "Push-pull phase splitter-a new high gain circuit "-W.W. 53.8 (Aug. 1947) 274.
C19. Crawley, J. B. "Self-balancing phase inverter" Elect. 20.3 (March 1947) 212. U.S. Patent
2,383,846 Aug. 28, 1945.
C20. Beard, E. G. " A new high gain phase splitting circuit" Philips Tec. Com. No.8 (Sept. 1947) 10.
C21. Cocking, W. T. "Push-pull input circuits," W.W. (1) General principles W.W. 54.i (Jan. 1948)
7; (2) Cathode follower phase splitter 54.2 (Feb. 1948) 62; (3) Phase reversers, 54.3 (Mar. 1948)
85; (4) The anode follower, 54.4 (April, 1948) 126; (5) Cathode-coupled stage, 54.5 (May 1948)
183.
12.13 REFERENCES 543
C22. Johnson, E. "Directly-coupled phase inverter," Elect. 21.3 (March 1948) 188.
C23. Sulzer, P. G. " Applications of screen-grid supply impedance in pentodes." Comm. 28.8 (Aug.
1948) 10.
C24. Sowerby, J. McG. " The see-saw circuit again" W.W. 54.12 (Dec. 1948) 447.
C25. Van Scoyoc, J. N. " A cross-coupled input and phase inverter circuit" Radio News 40.5 (Nov.
1948) 6.
C26. E. E. Carpentier, U.S. Patent 2,510,683 described by R. H. Dorf " Audio Patents-Phase in-
verter improvement" Audio Eng. 35.2 (Feb. 1951) 2.
C27. Jones, G. E. "An analysis of the split-load phase inverter" Audio Eng. 35.12 (Dec. 1951) 16.
(D) REFERENCES TO DIRECT COUPLED AMPLIFIERS
D1. Miller,. S. E. " Sensitive d.c. amplifier with a.c. operation" Elect. 14.11 (Nov. 1941) 27. "Stable
dc amplification" W.W. 48.5 (May 1942) 111.
D2. "A novel dc amplifier" Electronic Eng. 14.170 (April 1942) 727.
D3. Hay, G. A. "High sensitivity dc amplifier-another application ofthe C.R. tuning indicator" W.W.
49.1 (Jan. 1943) 9.
D5. Mezger, G. R. "A stable direct-coupled an:plifier" Elect. 17.7 (July 1944) 106.
D6. Lawson, D.!." An analysis of a d.c. galvanometer amplifier" Electronic Eng. 17.198 (Aug. 1944)
114.
D7. Goldberg, H. "Bioelectric-research apparatus" Proc. I.R.E. 32.6 (June 1944) 330.
D8. Artzt, M. " Survey of D-C Amplifiers 'J Elect. 25.8 (Aug. 1945) 112, with extensive bibliography.
D9. Williams, J. A. " Crystal-driven modulator for d-c amplifiers" Elect. 18.12 (Dec. 1945) 128.
D10. Middleton, R. G. " An analysis of cascode coupling" Radio 30.6 (June 1946) 19.
D11. Lampitt, R. A. "A d.c. amplifier using a modulated carrier system" Electronic Eng.18.225
(Nov. 1946) 347. . .
D12. Noltingk, B. E. "D.C. amplifiers" (letter with reply from R. A. Lampitt) Electronic Eng. 18.226
(Dec. 1946) 389.
DB. Iannone, F., and H. Baller" Gas tube coupling for d-c amplifiers" Elect. 19.10 (Oct. 1946) 106.
D14. Yu, Y. P. " Cathode follower coupling i., d-c amplifiers" Elect. 19.8 (Aug. 1946) 99.
D15. Ginzton, E. L. " D.C. amplifier design technique" Elect. 17.3 (March 1944) 98.
D16. R.C.A. " Application Note on special applications of the type 79 tube" No. 28 (Nov. 9th, 1933)
-Fig. 5, d-c amplifieJ;:.
D18. Mezger, G. R. " Feedback amplifier for C-R oscilloscopes" Elect. 17.4 (April 1944) 126.
D19. Scully, J. F. " A phototube amplifier" Elect. 18.10 (Oct. 1945) 168.
D20. "Balanced modulator," U.S. Patent, 1,988,472 (Jan. 1935).
D21. Whitaker and Artzt "Development of facsimile scanning heads-Radio facsimile" (R.C.A. In-
stitutes Technical Press, Oct. 1938).
D22. Black, L. J., and H. J. Scott" A direct-current and audio-frequency amplifier," Proc. I.R.E.
28.6 (June 1940) 269.
D23. Goldberg, H. "A high-gain d-c amplifier for bioelectric recording" E.E. 59 (Jan. 1940) 60.
D24. Richter, W. "Cathode follower circuits" Elect. 16.11 (Nov. 1943) 112.
D25. Shepard, W. G. "High-gain d-c amplifier" Elect. 20.10 (Oct. '.947) 138.
D26. Aiken, C. B., and W. C. Welz" D-C amplifier for low-level signalb" Elect. 20.10 (Oct. 1947) 124.
D27. Anker, H. S. " Stabilized d-c amplifier with high sensitivity" Elect. 20.6 (June 1947) 138.
D28. Gall, D. C. " A direct-current amplifier and its application to industrial measurements and con-
trol" Jour. I.E.E. 89 Part 2, 11 (Oct. 1942) 434.
D29. Offner, F. F. "Balanced amplifiers" Proc. 1.R.E. 35.3 (March 1947) 306.
D30. Lash, J. F. " Feedback improves response of d-c amplifier" Elect. 22.2 (Feb. 1949) 109.
D31. Bishop, P. O. " A note on interstage coupling for d.c. amplifiers" Electronic Eng. 21.252 (Feb.
1949) 61.
D32. Hunt, F. V., and R. W. Hickman" On electronic voltage stabilizers" Rev. of Sci. Instr. 10.1
(Jan. 1939) 6.
D33. Wallman, H., A. B. Macnee and C. P. Gadsden, "A low-noise amplifier" Proc. LR.E. 36.6
(June 1948) 700.
D34. Sowerby, J. McG. "The cascode amplifier" W.W. 54.7 (July 1948) 249.
D35. Sowerby, J. McG. "The cascode again" W.W. 55.2 (Feb. 1949) 50.
D36. Valley, G. E., and H. Wallman (book) "Vacuum tube amplifiers" (M.LT. Radiation Laboratory
Series, McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York and London, 1948).
D38. Harris, E. J., and P. O. Bishop" The design and limitations of d.c. amplifiers" Electronic Eng.
21.259 (Sept. 1949) 332; 21.260 (Oct. 1949) 355.
D39. Sowerby, J. McG. "Reducing drift in d.c. amplifiers" W.W. Part 1: 56.8 (Aug. 1950) 293;
Part 2: 56.10 (Oct. 1950) 350.
D4O. Volkers, W. K. "Direct-coupled amplifier starvatiC'n circuits" Elect. 24.3 (Mar. 1951) 126.
D41. Passman, B., and J. Ward" A new theatre sound system" Jour. S.M.P.T.E. 56..5 (May 1951) 527.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
(E) REFERENCES TO STABILITY, DECOUPLING AND HUM
E1. En-Lung Chu "Notes on the stability of linear networks" Proc. LR.E. 32.10 (Oct. 1944) 630.
E2. Wen-Yuan Pan " Circuit for neutralizing low frequency regeneration and power supply hum"
Proc. LR.E. 30.9 (Sept. 1942) 411.
E3. Sturley, K. R. " Low freqq.ency amplification-Part 5, The anode decoupling circuit" Electronic
Eng. 17.205 (March 1945) 429.
E4. British Patent 567021, Furzehill Laboratories Ltd., 27/7/43" Decoupling Circuits" Review W.W.
51.9 (Sept. 1945) 288.
E5. Design Data (1) " Cathode bias-effect on frequency response" W.W. 52.1 (Jan. 1946) 21.
E6. Zepler, E. E. (book) "The technique of radio design" (1943) pp. 206-219, 241.
E7. Reich, H. J. (book) " Theory ~nd applications of electron tubes" (1944) pp. 132, 209-211.
E8. Zakarias, 1. "Reducing hum in pentodes" Elect. 21.11 (Nov. 1948) 170.
(F) REFERENCES TO PULSE AMPLIFIERS
Fl. Moskowitz, S. "Pulse amplifier coupling," Comm. 25.10 (Oct. 1945) 58.
(G) GRID CmCUIT RESISTANCE
G1. Crawford, K. D. E. " H.F. pentodes in electrometer circuits" Electronic Eng. 20.245 (July 1948)
227-also gives additional references.
See also Chapter 2 Ref. HI, Chapter 3 Ref. 41.
CHAPTER 13
544
13.1 (i) TYPES OF A-F POWER AMPLIFIERS 545
The maximum grid swing which can be used is 20 volts, that is from A (E c = 0)
to B (E c = - 20 volts) since the E c = 0 curve is the border of the grid current region.
Actually a slight grid current usually flows at zero bias, but this is generally neglected.
FIG. 13.2
FIG. 13.1
PLATE DISSIPATION (w)
lmax
AQ/QB - 1 25 ""'''''''''''--''''''''''''''''''''''''1''''''''1'''''''''''''''''''''''17'''
2(AQ/QB + 1) X 100 (7b)
The equation (7b) has been plotted graphic-
ally in Fig. 13.3. u
The voltage gain of a power amplifier ~15itj=tij=ttj~~=tij=t±l:t±jj
~
is given by a:
«
M = (Emax - Emin)/(2Ecl) :r
= 2.82\1' P oR L (8) ~ ,0t±±t±t:t±:d±:t:t:::t:tl±tt±1
where Po = power output in watts. at i/,
is the principle of" 5% distortion rule" reproduced in Fig. 13.4. The rule has
each division to the left of 0 a length of 11/9 or 1.22 of the length of a corresponding
division to the right ofO. It may be made with each left-hand division
llmillimetres and each right-hand division 9 millimetres. Each of
these divisions may be divided into 10 equal subdivisions. It may be
used by placing the " 0 " of the distortion rule at any likely operating
point and tilting the rule gradually until the reading on the rule corres-
ponding to the zero bias curve is the same as the reading corresponding
to the curve of twice the grid bias at the operating point. AQ/QB
will then be 11/9 and the second harmonic distortion corresponding
to AQB as a loadline wilL be 5%.
There are also methods for the graphical determination of any
degree of second harmonic distortion. One of these was originated
by Espley and Farren (Ref. BI) and is illustrated in Fig. 13.5; it
must be drawn on transparent material. It is applied to die curves
o 0
in a manner similar to the 5 % distortion rule, except that a loadline
« z is first drawn in, and then the Harmonic Scale is moved so that DBC
o 0
" ....J ~ is parallel with the loadline. For example, with the loadline EFG the
on
C) distortion is 20% while with E'FG the distortion is 10%. The scale
!.;-t
... z ." may be constructed on the basis of:
~ ... 2nd Harmonic Distortion % 0 5 10 15 20
ffi 0 DB/BC 1.0 1.22 1.5 1.86 2.33
l-
N III
o If the valve is to be operated with a known plate voltage, the usual
procedure is to take as the operating point (Q) the intersection of the
a:
- ...
0 vertical line through E b with one of the E t curves such that Q is either
on, or below, the" maximum plate dissipation curve" (Fig. 13.2).
o If the latter is not included in the published curves, it may readily be
plotted over a small range. This dissipation curve only affects the
operating point Q, and there is no harm if the loadline cuts the curve.
In general, if the plate voltage is fixed, a triode gives greatest output
when it is operated at the maximum permissible plate current, with
the limit of I b = i-E b/r 1> (see eqn. 22).
If there is no predetermined plate voltage, a triode gives increasing
power output as the plate voltage is increased, even though the plate
current ill limited in each case by the dissipation.
Cli) General graphical case, power output
W and distortion
.....J In practice there are several additional factors which should be
" ::>
Q: taken into account.
(A) Resistance of transformer primary
l- Provision may be made for this resistance by giving the line QE b
on ::>
0.. a slope of - 1/R' where R' is the resistance of the transformer
I- primary or choke (Fig. 13.6). By this means the plate voltage of
:::> point Q is less than E b by the value R'I Q' This does not affect the
.0 0 slope of the loadline, which is determined solely by the effective im-
pedance of the load reflected across the primary of the transformer.
Q: It is assumed that the final filter condenser has sufficient capacitance
... UJ
to supply the varying current over each cycle without appreciable
CI
~0.. change in voltage.
(B) Effect of primary inductance
The reactance of the transformer primary gives an elliptical load-
line [see Chapter 2 Sect. 4(vi)]. This may be reduced to any desired
extent by increasing the inductance. Obviously this effect is only
serious at the lowest signal frequencies; suitable values of inductance
are given in Chapter 5 Sect. 3(iii)c.
2
FIG. 13.4 Fig. 13.4. 5% distortion rule/or use in calculating the power
output 0/ triodes.
13.2 (ii) GENERAL GRAPHICAL CASE 551
FIG. I 3. 5 A 1-
Z
ILl
IE
IE
~
()
~ tca ~--f-.l--..::....:..J,+-..u--~
«
..J
a.
Imin......,f---------,{---t--~
o L----------'-----4----~
o PLATE VOLTAGE Eb
Fig. l3.5. Alternativefarm of distortion rule for application to triode loadlines (Ref. Bll.
Fig. 13.6. Plate characteristics of triode exaggerated to show rectification effects.
CD) Rectification effects
Owing to the second harmonic component of the signal frequency plate current,
the average plate current under operating conditions is greater than with zero signal.
The increase in plate current is given by
LJI b = !(l m a:r: + I min - 21 0 ) (11)
which is also equal to the peak value of the second harmonic. current (1 h2) as shown
by eqn. (10). This may be put into the form
LJI b = 1(1A - I B) (12)
where IA = Imax - IQ and-IB = (1Q - Imin).
This is illustrated in Fig. 13.6 where AE = QB and EQ = AQ - QB. Obviously
AQ/QB oc I AI I B' The line EQ is then divided into four equal parts; C is the
centre point of AB and D is the centre point of CQ. The plate current of point D
is greater than that of point Q by the amount 1-(1A - I B) which is equal to LJI b. Point
D is the only point on the loadline which fulfils the conditions regarding current,
while point Q is the only point which similarly fulfils the conditions regarding voltage.
The condition "is therefore an impossible one, and the loadline must shift upwards
until the point of average current lies on the line QE b'
Unfortunately, as the loadline moves upwar'~J the relationship between I A and I B
changes, and the simplest procedure is to draw a second loadline A'B' (Fig. 13.7)
parallel to AB, then to determine its points E'F'C'D' as for the original loadline.
Points D and D' are joined by a straight line
FIG.13.7 DD', and the intersection of thIS with QE b
gives point D" which must be on the working
loadline. Through D" draw a loadline parallel
to AQB, and A"D"B" is then the maximum
ILl signal dynamic loadline. The only error is
~ through assuming that DD' is a straight line,
..J
Q.
whereas it is actually the locus of point D ;
the error is small if DD' is short.
I t is evident that the change from the no-
signal quiescent point Q to the maximum
signal dynamic loadline A"B" will be a gradual
process. As the signal increases, so will the
loadline move from AQB to A"P"B". At
o PLATE VOLTAGE
intermediate signal voltages the loadline will
be intermediate between the two limits. The
Fig. 13.7. Method far graphical de-
termination of " shifted " loadline due average plate current for zero signal will be
to rectification. I Q but this will rise to I b" at maximum signal.
552 (ii) (D) RECTIFICATION EFFECTS 13.2
It will be observed that D" does not correspond to the intersection of the loadline
and the static bias curve. Point P" is not the quiescent point (which is Q) but may
be described as " the point of instantaneous zero signal voltage on the dynamic load-
line." Point P" must therefore be used in the calculations for harmonic distortion
at maximum signal. The loadline A"D"P"B" provides the data necessary for the
calculation of power output, second harmonic distortion, and average direct current.
All these will, in the general case, differ from those indicated by the loadline AQB.
Summary :
1. Power output is calculated from the loadline A"B" in the usual manner.
2. Second harmonic distortion (per cent) at maximum signal = (2D"P" / A"B")
x 100.
3. Average d.c. current at maximum signal = I b" = I Q + JI b" = current for
point D".
The graphical method above is accurate, within the limits of graphical construction,
but rather slow. Approximate results may be calculated from the original loadline
by the equations :
Ib" ~ IQ + 1-(1mu + I min - 2IQ)(l + Rdrp) (13)
JI b" ~ 1-(1 mU + I min - 2I Q)(I + R drp) (14)
Alternatively the rise in current may be calculated from the second harmonic dis-
tortion (H2 ) and power output:
J[ b" ~V2H2v/Po/RL(1 + Rdrp) (IS)
In another form, the rise in current may be calculated from the harmonic distortion,
IQ and I min :
.JIb" ~ (1Q - Imin)(1 + Rdr p)[H2/(l - 2H2)] (16)
or less accurately by
JI b" ~ (0.78 I Q)(I + R dr P)[H2/(1 - 2H2)] (17)
(on the assumption that I min = 0.22 I Q)'
Eqn. (17) is interesting, since it does not involve any data beyond those normally
published. If H2 = 0.05 it may be reduced to
JI b" ~ 0.043 I Q(I + R d r p) (18)
Eqns. (13) to (18) give results slightly lower than the graphical method.
For rectification effects with cathode bias see below.
(E) Cathode bias
Cathode bias loadlines may be drawn on the mutual characteristics [Chapter 2
Sect. 4(v)] but the position is complicated by the rise in plate current caused by
rectification. The simplest approach is to assume a voltage between plate and cathode
(E b), determine the plate current under maximum signal conditions as for fixed bias
(I b") and then to calculate the cathode bias
FIG.13.8
resistor (R k) from the equation R k =
E c/ I b'" I t is then necessary to check for
plate dissipation at no signal; this may be
done by the method of Fig. 2.27, drawing
a cathode loadline having the correct slope,
and noting the plate current (1 bl) at which
I~r---7-~--~'-~~~~ the cathode loadline intersects the mutual
I tt----jf-- characteristic for the desired value of E b'
lqr--7---'--~--~~~~ The dissipation with no signal input is
then E bI bl' There is a slight error
through assuming that E b remains con-
stant from zero to maximum· signal, but
this is usually negligible. Alternatively,
the maximum value of I bl may be calcu-
lated from the maximum dissipation, and
marked on the corresponding E b curve;
Fig. 13.8. Determining change of plate through this point a cathode loadline may
current with fixed and cathode bias, be drawn whose slope will indicate the
having operating conditions identical at minimum permissible value of cathode
maximum signal. bias resistor.
13.2 (ii) (E) CATHODE BIAS 553
Alternatively, cathode loadlines may be drawn on the plate characteristics, but they
will be slightly curved [for method see Chapter 12 Sect. 2(iii)].
Rectification effects with cathode bias may be determined entirely from the
plate characteristics (Fig. 13.8). The loadline corresponding to maximum signal
conditions is A"B" (as for Fig. 13.7) while point p" is the point of instantaneous
zero signal voltage. The maximum signal plate current is 10" as for fixed bias. For
the sake of comparison, the zero signalloadline AQB for fixed bias has also been
added. From D" a straight line is then drawn to Eo 0 where Eo 0 is the total supply
voltage across both valve and R k ; this line will have a slope of - IjR k •
The cathode bias loadline must pass through the point R on the E cl curve at which
the plate current is 10"' because Rk = E cd10". The Rk loadline also passes through
o as shown; it intersects the sloping line through Eo 0 at point S with plate current
1 0 '. This point S is the quiescent operating point with cathode bias and has a plate
voltage E b2 which is slightly greater than E 01.
The change in average plate current from no signal to maximum signal is given by
LJ10' for cathode bias and LJ1 0 " for fixed bias. It is obvious that .,11 0' is always less
than .,11 b". More specifically,
.,11 0' rl' E cl
.,11 b" ~ Rk . E bl (19A)
As a typical example, for type 2A3, Eo = 250 volts, E cl = - 45 volts, r l' = 800
ohms, Rk = 750 ohms; .,11 0' j .,11 btl ~ 0.2.
In words, the change of plate current with fixed bias is five times that with cathode
bias.
If the value of the cathode bias resistor and the total supply voltage (E bb = E b + E c)
are known, the following procedure may be adopted (Fig. 13.9A).
If it is desired to make allowance for the transformer primary resistance, the slope
of D"E bb in Fig. 13.8 should be - 1/(R' + R k ) where R' = primary resistance.
In general, any single Class A triode may be operated either with fixed or cathode
bias as desired. The maximum value of grid circuit resistance frequently depends
on the source of bias. When it is permissible to use a value of cathode bias resistor
which provides the same grid bias as required for fixed bias, the load resistance,
distortion, and power output will be identical. When it is necessary, on account of
plate dissipation, to use a higher value of R k' then the conditions in the two cases will
be different.
Cathode by-passing-It is impottant for the by-pass condenser to be sufficiently
large to maintain the bias voltage constant over each cycle-any fluctuation leads to
increased distortion and loss of power output. When operating at low levels it is
usually sufficient to ensure that the reactance of the by-pass condenser, at the lowest
frequency to be amplified, does not exceed one tenth of the resistance of the cathode
bias resistor.
At high operating levels it is necessary to ensure that the direct voltage from B +
to cathode remains substantially constant over each half-cycle. This' may be treated
in the same manner as the by-passing of the power supply-see Sect. l(iv) and Eqn. (1).
The network comprising the resistive elements R. and Rk and the capacitive ele-
ments C and C k may be replaced by its equivalent network comprising C 1 in parallel
with RJ) connected from B+ to cathode. In the special case when GjG k = RkiR.
we have Rl = R. + Rk and C 1 = CCkl(C + C k ), but the general case is more in-
volved. Eqn. (1) of Sect. 1 may then be applied directly.
20
I !
I I
i I
I r
I ! ~
I I
1 i #I~~t- 00
I J ~ I.A.~ G"~
It
,,_
~~/~ ... "" 11
15
.J. - / r
1 ~' J !
,..... I , , "I "
~
j I ."
.1 I !
-5
... ,1 .- J
-
C"~ - rJ
:1 0?'--'1P-"..
~
I /
II:
I
0'" " ... ." I,
;> ..o,f--J_...,"-1
II:
::> 1<:l1"- ;1C.... II' / ,,'rF I
u
i ~ ,I . I.-- I
IIJ
10
I /of " ,.(r ..f.'.0o,,/ i J ' ~-1 i J
~ I" I' / -'" !/ i/'1
1r: lfJ-+,o'!{r/
I J, ", " I !
Q. ""- 61: ' , '~~,~. ~ ~ ~ J I
"- ~
i
'J
I, "1 i
~.'
' ">0.,,.,..
\0
'b /
........ J II
./
J ,....c.•VI J.
1"1 lJi
. . . -;}
; ; ' J I
t-~ /
!
J /' '"
~ ,J ~ \<;'V""l
.~
.... ;.;..1- 'l.60~i'- - f - '~ "''ff
IJ
~, .... ~L
iL IIIIl /
........ "'''
let .... ,~'j
I
I
...1--'
,/j,,1"
~ .... ~
Ii ........ J
0 ~ ....
..... '7
.-ICJ
I
.., 11
'''''.J...; .... ~"-\2<;, J ~o~.,..., / _h'-t-i
5
'"""'"- .,",-r i/ ~-
1/7 - _.. ~
/«~ if 'rI- 100 iL I-{)j .LJ.-,-
I
IJ ~~
'J.- ,. d
Y
..., ....
....
1.1
,- ~ ..41--
L J~'''''-'''
,j;' ~ ....
.... r-J
--'
J. -!"'"' t}~; FF '''o~~lJ-r
~IS~ J
iJ. -I-' 71
.J,. •.J-rx
I f-
~ I
.~
L"
1lTr'
J .... 1& ....
;'
.. : 1"';'" ,- _f-'
i£ f"'r"'I
E! .!-- '-'l:. f-'-.J I--I~ -~~ 1'Ii':00
z--
..; .J'-
iY ""':7 r- ~ ~ -'r:1
~o
I
10" - I
i
i
'"
~
...... 1-- '''l ..+-r' ,L.'- I--;;,d ~,"- -~ .A
!
~-::.iiI"'"': Y
""""wt.i
"'~Io...
.J. '_F. ,.. -:'-.l»'''' -~ I r--:...._
o ~id-<1If' ~. .,...., -1-- i i""" ...."j,.
o 100 200 300
PLATE VOLT~ FIG. 13.98
Fig. 13.9B. Plate characteristics type 6J5 withg m andg ll curves and loadlines (Ref. B5).
13.2 (ii) (F) METHOD USING GM AND G p CURVES 555
t·
b
Ibo
Ibl
0
Eb "Ebl Eb
Ebl
FIG.I'.13
Fig. B.12. l J
lare charactertsrtcs OJ zmaginary triode with ~~ ideal" characterz"st:'cs
above I b mi n and curved characteristics below this line.
Fig. 13.13. Ideal triode characteristics with RL = 2rp.
When a triode is being operated at a plate current which is less than the optimum,
then R L will be greater than 2r" for maximum power output. Refer to Case (3),
eqns. 23, 24 and 25.
FIG. I 3.14
,.- ---.... %
. r--.... 10i
~ ca~
0
r\ ~.... 8~III
~~~ 0
70
'\ ,0,
" ~ ~
...,'" 8
z
I
'" '\ ,
,,~
1\
'" "-
s
4 Z
3
"'i',
........... r-.o. H2.
" t'-...
,~
r--
2
0 0
~OOO 2pOO 3S)Ck>4POO ~OC~ IC~ 2~000 30,000 ~~oo SQX)(
~ ~)(), 40p0 6q000 10 :>00
LC~D R jS1io'NCE ~~HMS) I
RATIO R..frP" 2 3 4 ~6 .10 2~ 5060
Fig. 13.14. Power output and distortion oftype 45 triode plotted against load resistance.
The CUrDes were derived graphically, with allowance for shifting loadline. The operating
conditions are,' Ell = 250 ,.:olts, E c = -50 volts, peak grid signal 'Voltage 50 'Volts,
I II = 34 mA (zero signal), r" = 1610 ohms.
13.2 (v) PLATE CIRCUIT EFFICIENCY 559
I
-----r-----i
I I
I pation lin
TI'QI~stc'rm'Cr
VI
RI
INPUT
Lilli
- Ec+ Eit +
(ix) Overloading
A triode has no " cushioning" effect such as occurs with a pentode when the peak
signal voltage approaches the bias voltage. There is therefore no warning of the
impending distortion which occurs when grid current flows. The distortion may
be minimized by the use of a low-plate-resistance triode in the preceding stage, a
low grid circuit resistance or a grid stopper resistor (10 000 ohms is normally satisfac-
tory, but values from 1000 to 50000 ohms have been used).
(i) Introduction
Multi-grid valves include pentodes, beam power amplifiers and similar types, and
space-charge valves. All of these have a family resemblance, in that they have higher
plate circuit efficiencies and greater power sensitivities than triodes, but on the other
hand they have higher distortion, particularly odd harmonic distortion. Their
advantages over triodes generally outweigh their disadvantages, particularly as the
distortion may be minimized by negative feedback, and they are almost exclusively
used in ordinary commercial radio receivers. Reference should be made to Chapter 7
for amplifiers incorporating negative feedback.
The basic circuit of a power pentode with transformer-coupled load is Fig. 13.18.
A choke-capacitance coupled load may also be used, as for a triode (Fig. 13.17). The
13.3 (ii) IDEAL PENTODES 561
only essential difference from a triode is that provision must also be made for a constant
voltage to be applied to the screen. In some cases the screen is operated at the same
voltage as the plate, so as to avoid a separate screen voltage supply.
In a practical circuit the screen, the plate return and the grid return should each
be by-passed to the cathode.
FIG.13.19
A c
2Iblf<;::::-----~';------__,_ ,
I
,
I
I
Ec·-E c1 :E
I
Ec.. -2Ecl
:
18
o EIII 2Ebl 0
Ebl 2Ebl
(D) The plate circuit efficiency is usually between 28% and 43% for total har-
monic distortion le3s than 10%. Of course, the screen current is wasted, so that the
total plate + screen circuit-efficiency is lower. The plate dissipation is equal to the
d.c. watts input less the signal power output. The screen dissipation is equal to the
d.c. screen input.
(E) Screen current: In a pentode, if the control grid bias is kept constant and
only the plate voltage varied, the total cathode current (plate + screen) will remain
nearly constant, decreasing slightly as the plate voltage is reduced down to the knee of
the curve. Below this plate voltage the screen current increases more rapidly until
zero plate voltage is reached, at which point the screen current is a maximum (Fig.
13.21). It is evident therefore that if a dynamic loadline cuts the zero bias curve
below the knee, the screen current will rise rapidly and the screen dissipation may be
exceeded. The average maximum-signal screen current may be calculated from the
approximation
1C2 av ~ VA + !lQ (9)
where I A = screen current at minimum plate voltage swing and zero bias (point A),
and 1 Q = screen current at no signal and normal bias.
The screen dissipation is therefore P ,,2 where
P g2 = E C2(V A + tIQ) (10)
The variation of screen current with change of control grid voltage is such that the
ratio between plate and screen currents remains approximately constant provided that
the plate voltage is considerably higher than the knee of the curve. This ratio may
be determined from the published characteristics.
A pentode, or beam power tetrode may be used as an amplifier with the plate voltage
in the region of the knee of the curve of the E c = 0 characteristic, that is somewhere
about one fifth of the screen voltage, provided that care is taken to keep both plate
and screen dissipations within their ratings. This gives operation very similar to that
of a triode with a non-critical and low value of load resistance, which may be useful
in some special applications (Ref. C6). This method of operation is not here de-
scribed in detail.
FIG. 13.22
AG.13.21 Ik Ib
~____'-----'-'-C--L-_ - - -
"
:/
-1,707 ECI
Iy 1---I~----:==i---~-:'2E-
Imlnl-::;::=1F====--t----.;or-=~'---
o
Fig. 13.2l. Plate, screen and cathode current characteristics of pentode.
Fig. 13.22. Calculation of pentode power output and distortion using the five selected
ordinate method.
(F) The screen should be supplied from a voltage source of goad regulation; a
voltage divider, whose" bleed" current is very much higher than the maximum
screen current under dynamic conditions, is the most common source when the screen
voltage is lower than the plate voltage.
(G) The voltage gain is determined as for a triode [Section 20) eqn. 8].
(H) If oscillation or parasitics are experienced, a grid stopper resistance of
about 500 ohms may be used. A small mica condenser from the plate terminal to
earth is often beneficial. The bias resistor and its electrolytic by-pass condenser m!ly
be by-passed by a 0.001 IlF mica condenser. The shells of metal valves should be
earthed directly. The length of leads should be as short as possible, particularly
between the valve terminals and their by-pass condensers.
13.3 (iii) PRACTICAL PENTODES-oPERATING CONDITIONS 563
With type 807, a stopper resistor of 100 ohms (non-inductive) may be connected
directly to the screen terminal of the valve, and a by-pass condenser (0.01 p.F mica)
taken from the end of the resistance remote from the screen, directly to earth.
(I) Overload cbaracteristics-Owing to the crowding together of the charac-
teristics at and below the knee of the curves, a pentode tends to give a smoother over-
load characteristic than a triode. There is no point at which the distc;>rtion begins
sharply, but rather a gradual flattening effect on the top, or top and bottom, of the signal
current wave. Pentodes or beam power amplifiers with negative feedback lose most
of this " cushioning effect," and more closely resemble triodes as regards overload.
The distortion due to grid current may be minimized by a low impedance (triode)
'preceding stage and a fairly low value of grid resistor; this will then leave the dis-
tortion due to the characteristics as the predominant feature, and provide a reasonably
smooth overload.
i':~rtt-~
FIG. 13.24
eo
'"'
c( ;(.~~
&
...Z 60 .o:?'
LLI
cr It'
~\~/
II:
:> 40
1'"0 H"t---::::::::====-...;:,.,,::::--- u
:-(~
20 ~I
VII I
I I I
o -I"~. -1-8 -1"3 -()07-~f.-()oZ
o
Fig. 13.23. Calculation of pentode power output and distortion using the five equal-
voltage ordinate method.
Fig. 13.24. Calculation of pentode power output and distortion using the eleven selected
ordinate method.
Percentage third harmoruc = (l hm3/1 hml) X 100 etc.
Note that all currents, including 1 hmU 1 hm2 etc., are peak values. The exact values
of grid voltage are 0, 0.191, 0.293, 0.5, 0.691, 1.0, 1.309, 1.5, 1.707, 1.809 and 2.0.
The approximate values are, however, sufficiently accurate for most purposes.
Eqn. (26) shows that third harmonic distortion adds to the power output, while
fifd1 harmonic subtracts from u"1e power output as caiculated for distortionless con-
ditions. See also (iv)A above; Sect. 7(iii).
For theoretical basis see Chapter 6 Sect. 8Ciii).
(v) Rectification effects
The general effects are the same as for a triode except that it is sometimes possible
with a pentode to have zero second harmonic and no loadline shift. In all other cases
it is necessary to determine the corrected loadline before applying harmonic analysis or
calculating power output. The method of deriving the corrected loadline is the same
for pentodes as for triodes [Sect. 2(ii)DJ. For example see Fig. 13.28.
With a triode, the loadline always shifts upwards into such a position that the dis-
tortion is less than it would otherwise be. With a pentode, the loadline shifts upwards
when the load resistance is lower than a certain value, and shifts downwards when the
load resistance is higher than this value. When a pentode·loadline shifts downwards
it causes increased distortion or decreased power output.
(vi) Cathode bias
The operation of cathode bias is the same as with triodes [Section 2(ii)EJ except
that the total current flowing through the cathode bias resistor is the sum of the plate
and screen currents [Chapter 2 Section 4(v)J. If the screen is supplied from a voltage
divider which is returned to the cathode, the bleed current must be added to the
cathode cun;ent in calculating R k • This tends to stabilize the bias voltage. Even in
cases where there is no rise of plate current at maximum signal, there will always be
a rise in screen current [Section 3(iii)EJ.
When a tentative value of Rk has been determined for maximum signal conditions,
it is necessary to check both plate and screen dissipations at zero signal. If the plate
and screen voltages are equal, the simplest method is the use of the " triode" mutual
characteristics, if available [Chapter 2 Sect. 4(v)J.
If there is a " bleed" current through R kl the procedure is shown in Fig. 13.25
where the triode mutual characteristic is shown in the upper part, with OA repre-
senting the bleed current in the lower part. The cathode loadline is drawn from A
(instead of from 0) with a slope of - I/Rk where Rk is the value determined for
maximum signal conditions.
The no-signal grid bias is - E al and the cathode current (1" + 1 C2) is 1 kl' The
dissipation on plate and screen is given by
P D = 1klEOm/(m + 1); P g2 = 1klEC2/(m + 1) (32)
where m = ratio of plate to screen currents = 1,,/1 c2'
566 (vi) CATHODE BIAS 13.3
The rectification effects with cathode bias may, like triodes (Fig. 13.8) be determined
from the plate characteristics but an approximation is involved since D"Ebb must
have a slope of - m/Rim + 1) where m = I b/ I c2' The value of I c2 may be taken
as that for maximum signal, and a slight error will then be introduced when deriving
the zero signal condition. The cathode bias loadline should, ideally, be drawn as two
loadlines-one for zero signal, and the other for maximum signal. For most pur-
poses, however, the maximum signal cathode loadline may be used for both conditions.
The zero· bias lines are, in each case, above the lines for maximum signal, and the
difference in slope is of the order of 5% to 10%.
In general, any Class Al pentode may be operated either with fixed or cathode bias,
as desired, except for the limitations on the maximum grid circuit resistance [see
Sect. lOCi)]. It occasionally happens that a condition is permissible only with fixed
bias, owing to the rise in plate dissipation at zero signal.
For back bias, further details regarding fixed bias, and grid circuit resistance see
Sect. 10.
For cathode by-passing see Sect. 2(ii).
a
Fig. 13.25. Cathode loadline of pentode with additional bleed current passing through
the cathode resistor, plotted on mutual characteristics.
Fig. 13.26. Power output and harmonic distortion of typical pentode plotted against
load resistance. Valve type 6AK6, E b = EC2 = 180 V, ECI = -9, peak signal = 9 volts.
oot----,~OO~~2~O~O--~300~---~~OO~~SOO~--~600~---700.----800.---~900
FIG. 13.27 PLATE VOLTS
Fig. 13.27. Plate characteristics of 6L6 or 807 beam tetrode with loadlines of optimum
resistance also twice,four times and eight times optimum. The loadlines have been corrected
for the rectification effect.
The impedance of a loudspeaker is, however, far from being resistive (see Chapters
20 and 21), having a reactive component varying with frequency, which must be com-
bined with the shunt reactance of the transformer primary at low frequencies and that
of the shunt capacitance from plate to earth at high frequencies. The combined
reactive components increase the distortion and reduce the power output [see also
Chapter 5 Sect. 3(iii)c and Chapter 2 Sect. 4(vi); Ref. C4].
The published values of power output apply to highly efficient output transformers.
The available power output from the secondary of a normal power transformer is
equal to TJ times the published value, where TJ is the efficiency rsee Chapter 5 Sect.
2(ii) and Sect. 3(vi)]. Typical efficiencies are from 70% to 95% (depending on the
price class) for well-designed transformers.
568 (ix) EFFECTS OF PLATE AND SCREEN REGULATION 13.3
FIG. 13.28
200
O~:::I~~I;OO~::::~~~~::::~300~::::::~~;;~~~~SOO~~;;~~
Eb(voIU)
Fig. 13.28. Plate characteristics 0/ 6L6 or 807 illustrating method of correcting the
loadline for rectification. The corrected loadline is AN BN.
On the plate characteristics (Fig. 13.28) AB is the uncorrected loadline with C as
its average current point, A'B' is a parallel loadline with C' as its average current
point, A"B" is the corrected loadline. The average current may be determined from
the point on A"B" which has a plate voltage 300 volts; from this the rise of current
.11 b may be calculated. The value of AI c2 may be determined from eqn. (9), AE c2
may be calculated by eqn. (36) and E e2' by eqn. (34). In
the example of Fig. 13.28
let it be assumed that the plate, screen and grid voltages are all reduced proportion-
ally, Fe * being 0.9 :
E b = E e2 = 300 volts E b' = E e2' = 270 volts
Eel = - 15 volts E et' == - 13.5 volts
The procedure is :
1. Plot a new curve for Eel = 0, E t2' = 270 volts, by the use of conversion factors·.
This is drawn on Fig. 13.29. For Fe = 0.9, Fi =0.86.
2. Plot a curve for Eel' = - 13.5, E r2' = 270 volts similarly. This will be the
- 15 volt curve (for E c2 = 300 volts) with the current ordinates multiplied
by the factor 0.86.
*For conversion factors see Chapter 2 Sect. 6 and Fig. 2.32A.
13.3 (ix) EFFECTS OF PLATE AND SCREEN REGULATION 569
FIG. 13.29
200
14~
Q
u
12
ex
\II
Q.
ID
z
o
8~
~
60
u
4~
:l
ex
0(
2%
4thH
o
2pOO 3poo 4poo spoo
LOAD RESISTANCE- OHMS
FIG. 13.30
Fig. 13.30. Power output and distortion of type 6L6- beam power amplifier plotted
against load resistance, for E b = E c2 = 250 volts, Eel = -14 volts, peak signal 14 volts.
1. The two valves should be placed closely together, with very short leads between
grids and plates (and screens in the case of pentodes).
2. A grid stopper should be connected directly to one or both grids. It is usually
cheaper-and just as effective-to have one grid stopper of, say, 200 ohms than
two sroppers each of 100 ohms.
3. Screen stoppers (50 or 100 ohms for each screen) are very helpful, particularly
with types 6L6 or 807 [see Sect. 3(iii)HJ.
N .B. Plate stoppers are less helpful, are wasteful of power, and are generally
unnecessary.
The advantages of parallel operation lie principally in the elimination of the phase-
splitter or input transformer required with push-pull operation. The disadvantages
are:
1. The necessity for handling the heavy direct plate current. This necessitates
either a special output transformer or a choke (say 20 henrys) with parallel feed
to the output transformer.
2. The higher distortion--this is not serious if negative feedback is used, and in
any case is no worse than that of a single valve.
3. The attenuation of lower frequencies at maximum power output due to the
limited size of the by-pass capacitor. This effect is also a function of the plate
supply regulation-see Sect. 1(iv).
Parallel operation may be used with a cathode-follower stage, permitting the use
of rW'o smaller valves witt;' lower plate voltage in place of one valve with higher plate
voltage,and thereby reducing the difficulties of grid excitation.
(i) Introduction
(A) Fundamental principles of push-pull. operation
The fundamental circuit of a push-pull power amplifier is Fig. 13.31. A balanced
(push-pull) input voltage must be applied to the three input terminals, and a balanced
FIG. 13.3/
(push-pull primary) output transfomler must
be connected to the two plates with its centre-
tap connected to Ebb +. For the best results
the input voltage must be exactly balanced,
the valves must have identical characteristics
and the output transformer must be exactly
balanced between the two sections of the
primary, with perfect coupling between them.
Under these conditions, any even harmonics
introduced by the valves will be cancelled,
-rb% but the odd harmonics will not be affeCted ;
Fig. 13.31. Fundamental cir- the flux in the core due to the d.c. plate
cuit of push-pull power amplifier. currents would be zero.
The load resistance R2 is connected across the secondary, and the reflected resist-
ance* across the whole primary is
Rr = 4R2CN12jN22)
·See Chapter 5 Sect. ICii).
572 (i) (A) FUNDAMENTALS OF PUSH-PULL OPERATION 13.5
, ance-see Chapter 5 Sect. 3(iii)c-or by reducing the rate of change of current. The
latter is accomplished in limiting Class A operation owing to the avoidance of the
sharp bend or "discontinuity" in the characteristic at the cut-off point. Valves
of the 6L6 or 807 class, when connected as triodes, have a slower rate of cut-off than
normal triodes, and are therefore particularly adapted to Class ABI operation, which
merges closely into limiting Class A.
The use of a resistive network to pass a steady current through the primary of the
transformer does nothing to reduce the rate of change of current, although it may help
in damping out any parasitics which may occur.
by the same voltage that the other is decreased. This may be applied graphically
as shown in Fig. 1332; the upper half includes the E c characteristic for VI (ACDE)
while the lower half includes the E c characteristic for V 2 but inverted and placed left
to right (FGHD. Point C on the VI characteristic is the quiescent operating point,
and point B corresponds to the plate voltage Ebb' The V 2 characteristic is placed
so that H, the quiescent operating point, comes below C; then since BC = BH = I bO
the point B is on the composite characteristic. At any other plate voltage N:, the point
L on the composite characteristic is found by subtracting PN from KN, giving LN
as an ordinate. Valve V 2 cuts off at point J, so that the amount to be subtracted from
the VI ordinate is zero, giving D (and its opposite number G) as points on the com-
posite characteristic. The composite characteristic is therefore FGRBLDE which
may be compared with the straight line FBE. Sudden bends occur at D and G,but
the portion between D and G is fairly straight; the latter includes the whole Class A
operating region. It is obvious that the non-linearity of the composite characteristic
becomes worse as the quiescent operating point is moved towards the foot of the char-
acteristic-that is as I bO becomes less. Thus we have the Class A condition (including
limiting Class A) with nearly straight composite characteristics, the Class ABI con-
dition which includes the kinks at the points of plate-current cut-off, and finally the
Class B condition with quite considerable non-linearity.
The composite characteristic of Fig. 13.32 is that for zero signal input voltage
(e g = 0). Other composite characteristics may be drawn by a somewhat similar
method, except that the (E c + eg ) characteristic of VI must be combined with the
(E c - eg ) characteristic of V 2 to give the + e g composite characteristic. For example,
if E c = - 60 volts, we may take eg in increments of 10 volts, giving:
eg 0 +10 +20 +30 +40 +50 . +60 volts
Ee + eg -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 volts
E e - eg -60 -70 -80 -90 -100 -110 -120 volts
A family of composite characteristics is shown in Fig. 13.33 in which Ebb = 300
volts and E e = - 60 volts, with values of eg in accordance with the table above. The
roo VI
Ib'
I
...,
I/)
...,
II:
a. 0
~
c(
:::i
..J
~
100
tb2
l200
Fig. 13.34. Method of deriving the loadline on an individual valve (AQV) from the
composite characteristic AOB.
The loadline on one valve (e.g. VI) is determined as Fig. 13.34 in which the com-
posite characteristics, the composite loadline AB, and the individual VI characteristics
are the same as in Fig. 13.33. At every intersection of a composite characteristic
with the composite loadline (e.g. point C) draw a vertical line (e.g. CS) to cut the
corresponding VI characteristic. Then join these points APQSTV etc. with a smooth
curve, which is the loadline on a single valve, Q being the quiescent operating point.
It is obvious that this loadline is curved, although it is less curved with Class A than
with Class ABI operation.
Equivalent circuit for push-pull amplifier
There are various forms which an equivalent circuit might take, but the one adopted
here (due to Krauss) has some special advantages for the purpose (Fig. 13.35). The
two valves are assumed to have equal constant amplification factor (IL), and plate
resistances (r'l>l and r 'P2) which are functions of the plate current.
13.5 (ii) THEORY OF PUSH-PULL AMPLIFICATION 577
The impedance seen by VI is the impedance of the circuit to the right of the line
ab, which is called r a o'
It may be shown (Ref. E7) that
rao = R L'(1 + r pdr p2) (11)
The dynamic plate resistance of the composite valve may be expressed
rei = Lle bl/i eI (12)
From (10) i eI = Lli 01 + Lli 02'
Now Lli bl = Lle bdr III (13)
and Lli 02 = Lle 02/r ll2 (14)
From (12), (13), (14), rei = r lllr ll2/(r pI + r 1'2) (15)
This indicates that the plate resistance of the composite valve at any instant is equal
to the parallel combination of the individual plate resistances of VI and Vs' For
Class A operation r d is very nearly constant, so that
rei ~ rpo/2 (16)
where r pO = plate resistance of VI or" V 2 at the quiescent operating point.
Now if R L' = r a (the condition for maximum power output)
R/ = ra ~ r llo /2 (17)
The load impedance seen py a singl~ valve (VI or V 2 ) in Class A operation is given by
[From (11), (15), (17)], rab ~ r ll l (18)
so that each valve at any instant is working into a load resistance approximately equal
to its own plate resistance.
The value of load resistance to provide maximum power output may be determined
approximately from the plate characteristics of one valve (Fig. 13.36). Since the
E c = 0 characteristic approximately follows the 3/2 power law, it may be shown
(Ref. E5) that maximum power output occurs when the loadline intersects the E c = 0
curve at 0.6E b b' The plate current at this point is Ibm and the other values are :
R L = 1.6E b bl Ibm plate to plate (19)
Po = 0.2E b bl Ibm for 2 valves (20)
If it is desired to determine the optimum value of R L in a particular case, several
half-Ioadlines may be drawn as in Fig. 13.36 but radiating from B. The power
output for each may be calculated from the expression
Po = tI bm2RL (21)
or Po = tlbm(E bb - Emin). (22)
Eqns. (21) and (22) may be used with reasonable accuracy for Class AB I , since the
third harmonic distortion is usually less than 3%. A useful rule is to multiply the
power output, as indicated by these equations, by the factor 10000/(100 - Ha %)2
to obtain a close approximation to the actual power output. Values of this factor
for various third harmonic percentages are given below :
Ha 1% 2% 3% 5% 7% 10%
Factor 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.11 1.15 1.23
It is here assumed that fifth and higher order odd harmonics are negligible.
The loadline slope is unaffected by the grid bias, but the two extremities are slightly
affected-·as the grid bias is decreased, the point A (which is really the intersection
of the loadline with the composite characteristic) moves slightly towards B. Thus
with Class Al the output will be slightly less than indicated by eqns. (20), (21) and (22).
FIG. 13.37
FIG. 13.36
Fig. 13.36. Method of deriving the approximate power output and load resistance of a
Class ABI amplifier from the characteristics of a single valve. The method may also be
used with poorer accuracy for Class AI'
Fig. 13.37. Calculating third harmonic distortion with balanced push-pull. Curve A
is the dynamic characteristic.
The dissipation at maximum signal may be calculated from the product of the plate
supply voltage Ebb and the average plate current [see (iv) below], minus the power
output. The normal procedure is firstly to select a grid voltage such that the plate
dissipation is slightly below the maximum rating at zero signal, then to adjust the
loadline so that it approaches as closely as possible the value for maximum power
output, without exceeding the plate dissipation limit at maximum signal.
Simple method for calculating third harmonic distortion
This method is only accurate in the absence of all distortion other than third har-
monic; it is a close approximation under normal conditions provided that all even
harmonics are zero.
The procedure is to draw the loadline on the plate characteristics, then to transfer
this to the mutual characteristics in the form of a dynamic characteristic (Fig. 13.37).
·13.5 (iii) POWER OUTPUT AND DISTORTION 579
Curve A is the dynamic characteristic while B is a straight line joining the two ends
of A and passing through O. LJI b is the difference in plate current between curve A
and line B at one half of the peak grid voltage. The percentage of third harmonic
is given by
tion.
60 40 20 0 20 40 60
(iv) Average plate current -(9 SIGNAL GRID VOLTS +(9
The average plate current with maximum Fig. 13.38. Plate current (both
signal input is always greater than under valves) plotted as a Junction oj the
quiescent conditions-slightly greater for signal grid voltage.
«singie valve" conditions, more so for
limiting Class AI' and considerably greater
FIG. 13.39
for Class AB I •
The average plate current may be cal-
culated approximately by the expression
Ib ~ Ibo + !(Imax + I min - 2I bo )
(25)
provided that the plate current does not
actually cut off (Ref. El).
More generally, and more accurately, the
average plate current may be determined
by adding the plate currents of the two
valves instead of subtracting them as for the -60
composite characteristics. The total plate -Eg
current may then be plotted as in Fig.
13.38 as a function of the signal grid volt-
age. In order to find the average current
it is generally most convenient to take equal
angle increments over the cycle, for ex-
ample, every 10° as shown in Fig. 13.39.
The plate current should then be noted at
each point corresponding to 10° increase
in angle over the whole 360 0. The aver-
age plate current is then the average of I
these individual values.
In order to reduce the amount of wor k in-
volved in this calculation, use may be made
of the fact that each quadrant (90°) is simi- 310 0
0
lar. It is very easy to make an error in- this 300
calculation and the following method of ob- 26Cf' 27cf 280~
taining the average from the plate current Fig. 13.39. Plate current (both valves)
curve over one quadrant is·therefore given. with 10° angular increments.
580 (iv) AVERAGE PLATE CURRENT 13.5
This method is illustrated in Fig. 13.40 which shows the total plate current for both
valves over one-quarter of a cycle. Grid voltages are shown as fractions of the peak
grid voltage. The plate currents corresponding to grid voltages of 0,0.17,0.34,0.5,
0.64, 0.77, 0.87, 0.94, 0.98 and 1.0 times the peak voltage are shown as 1 0 , 1 0 '17 etc.
The average plate current (I a ,,) is then given by
I a ,,=-HtIo+ 10'17 +10 '34 +10 .1\ +1 0 '64 +10 '77 +10 '87+ 10 '94 +10-98 +tII'O)' (26)
t,i;'
....
~
'9. I,. o
FIG. 13.40
>
:r 200
'94
-87
~.!18
15 1'94
e ·64
'7~e!.. 1 ...,
.... ·so 1.7 Fig. 13.40. Plate current (both
z
....
150
'.34 /' 1'64 valves) plotted over one quadrant
IX
IX "7 '/ 1'5o
::l
U 100
[.../" 1.
for the calculation of average plate
.... .-""'"' I . 17
!(
current.
..J 1'1o
Go 50
..J
~
e
o -I '2 ·3 '4 ·5 ·6 -7 '8 -9 1-0
TIMES PEAK GRID SWING
ated under single valve conditions as regards grid bias. There will be only a slight
effect on the maximum power output or the odd harmonic distortion, but there will
be some second harmonic distortion and some out-of-balance flux-producing current
in the transformer. The second harmonic distortion will normally be small, par-
ticularly if the plate-to-plate load resistance is not much less than 4r vo, and for most
purposes it may be neglected with valves of ordinary tolerances. The maximum
out-of-balance plate current should be provided for in the design of the output trans-
former and this additional cost should be compared· with the alternative additional
cost of using valves which have been stabilized and matched for quiescent plate current
only. There is p.ormally no real need for matching for any other characteristic.
In order to demonstrate the effects of abnormal mismatching, composite charac-
teristics have been drawn in Fig. 13.41 for two valves of entirely different types. It
has been shown by Sturley (Ref. E27) that the method of deriving composite charac-
teristics also holds with mismatching.
Type 2A3 45
Amplification factor 4.2 . 3.5
Mutual conductance 5250 2175 /Lmhos
Plate resistance 800 1610 ohms
There is a difference of 12% in amplification factor, while there is a ratio exceeding
2 : 1 for the other characteristics. The selected operating conditions are : E b = 250
volts, E c = - 50 volts, R L = 5800 ohms (plate-to-plate). It will be seen that the
composite characteristics (dashed lines) are not quite parallel, although they are very
nearly straight. On account of the unmatched condition, rectification occurs, leading
to a shift of the loadline, and the corrected loadline may be derived by the method
of Sect. 2(ii)D and Fig. 13.7. The second harmonic distortion on the corrected load-
line is only 5%.
FIG.13."1
100 400 500
O~--------~ __ -'--~~--~--~---+--~
IOO~------~----~--~----------~----~
500 400 300 200 100 o
EbJ.(volts)
Fig. 13A1. Composite characteristics Jortwo different valves (2A3 and 45) in Class
Al push-pull. Ebb = 250 volts, E c = -50 volts, R L = 5800 ohms plate-to-plate.
582 (v) MATCHING AND THE EFFECTS OF MISMATCHING 13.5
The fact that twO valves so different in characteristics can be used in Class 'AI push-
pull to give what is generally classed as good quality (5% second harmonic) indicates
the wide latitude permissible, provided that the bias is retained at the value for a single
valve and also that the load resistance is not much less than the sum of the single
valve loads (or 4 times the average plate resistance).
For Class Al triodes it has been suggested (Ref. E8) that the following are reasonably
satisfactory limits in conjunction with ordinary commercial tolerances for valves:
Max. unbalance
Signal input voltages on the grids of VI and V 2 : 5%
Phase unbalance at high and low frequencies :
Quadrature component 3%
These are easily achieved by attention to the phase splitter or other source (see Chapter
12 Sect. 6). When testing for balance with a C.R.O. on the grids of VI and V 2 , it is
important to reverse the connections of the B.F.a. when changing from one grid to
the other.
FIG. 13.42
o 100 200 400. 500
200
~_ _- - - - - - - - +15
o o
-15 ---------~
200
Fig. 13.42. Composite characteristics for push-pull Class Al beam power amplifiers
type 6L6, EbI> = 250 volts, EC2 = 250 volts, Eel = -15 volts.
584 (ii) POWER OUTPUT AND DISTORTION 13.6
harmonic is so small that its effect on the power output may be neglected, so that
Po = !Ibm(E bb - E min ) (1)
which is the same as for triodes. With pentocles the power output will be somewhat
higher than indicated by eqn. (1) owing to the third harmonic distortion. In general;
the third harmonic distonion is slightly less FIG. 13043
than half that with a single valve, owing Ec.-o
to the effect of the lower load resistance. Ibm
If it is desired to calculate the harmonic
distortion, it will be necessary to plot at
least ponion of the composite characteris-
tics.
Ib
- The effect of a higher load resistance is
to increase rapidly the odd harmonic dis-
tonion, while the effect of a lower load re-
sistance is to decrease the power output. It
is therefore advisable, with a loudspeaker
load, to adopt a nominal impedance rather
less than the value for maximum power B
output. min Eb
The power output of Class A push-pull Fig_ 13.43. Calculation of power
pentodes is only slightly greater than output using Eel = 0 characteristic of
twice that for a single valve. one valve only.
(iii) The effect of power supply regulation
As with the case of a single valve the screen is more sensitive to voltage changes than
the plate. If neither screen nor plate is being operated at its maximum rating, the
simplest procedure is to adjust the voltages as desired for maximum signal and allow
them to rise with no signal. Alternatively, if it is desired to obtain maximum power
output, both screen and plate may be adjusted to their maximum ratings with no signal,
and allowed to fall with increasing signal. If it is desired to calculate the maximum
power output, the procedure for a single valve [Sect. 3(ix)] may be followed, except
that in this case there is no loadline shift caused by rectification.
The regulation of a common plate and screen power supply will not have a serious
effect on the minimum frequency which can be handled satisfactorily at full power
output with Class A push-pull operation, provided that a reasonably large by-pass
capacitor is used. If separate plate and screen supplies are used the screen supply
regulation is very much more important than the plate supply regulation, with Class A
operation.
With Class ABI operation, the regulation of both plate and screen supplies should
be good.
(iv) Matching and the effects of mismatching
Matching is covered generally in Sect. 5(v). It is important to match the valves
under the operating conditions in the amplifier.
The effects of mismatching with pentodes are more serious than with triodes. If
no care is taken in matching, or in the design of the output transformer, it is possible
for the distortion to be higher than with two valves in parallel. The advantages of
push-pull operation will only be obtained in proponion to the care taken to achieve
correct balance, particularly with regard to the quiescent plate currents and the signal
input voltages. As with triodes, Class ABI is more sensitive to mismatching than
Class AI'
(v) Average plate and screen currents
The average plate current for Class Al :nay be calculated approximately as for
triodes [Sect. 5(iv), Eqn. 25]. In all other cases, the composite characteristics are
required, following the same method as for triodes.
The average screen current may be calculated by the same method as for single
pentodes [Sect. 3(iii)EJ.
13.6 (vi) CATHODE BIAS 585
Fig. 13.44. Push-pull circuit using phase inversion in the power stage.
Fig. 13.45. Push-pull circuit using screen resistance coupling from VI to the gr£d'of V 2 •
The signal voltage on the grid of V 2 must first pass through VI where it is dis-
torted, then through V 2 where it will be distorted again. Thus the second harmonic
will be the same as for a single valve, and the third harmonic will be approximately
twice the value with balanced push-pull.. The balance, if adjusted for maximum
signal, will not be correct for low volume, owing to the third harmonic" flattening."
(B) Screen resistance coupling (Fig. 13.45)
This is a modification of CA) being an attempt to obtain from the screen a more
linear relationship than from the plate. No comparative measurements have been
published. R7 may be about 1500 ohms for type 6V6-GT or 2500 for type 6F6-G,
with Ell = E c2 = 250 volts-the exact value should be found experimentally; C s
may be 0.002 fLF. For better balance an equal screen resistor might be added for V 2 •
Ref. EIO.
(C) Common cathode impedance (Fig.
13.46)
RI and R2 in series provide a common cath-
ode coupling impedance [see Chapter 12
Sect. 6(vi)J. R2 may have a value of, say,
1000 ohms to give an approach tow~ds bal-
ance, but necessarily must carry the plate cur-
rents of both valves-say, 70 or 80 rnA-and
will have a voltage of, say, 70 to 80 with a dis-
sipation around 6 watts. Care should be
taken to avoid exceeding the maximum heater-
cathode voltage rating. Fig. 13.46. Push-pull circuit with
See Reference E23. common cathode impedance coupling.
586 (viii) PHASE INVERSION IN THE POWER STAGE 13.6
fig. 13.46A. Basic circuit of Parry Cathamplifier, (B) Modified circuit, (C) With
both a.c. and d.c. balancing, CD) Keeps circulating screen current out of cathode circuit
(Ref. E30).
la.6 Cix) EXTENDED CLASS A 587
(i) Introduction
A Class B amplifier is an amplifier in which the grid bias is approximately equal
to the cut-off value, so that the plate current is approximately zero when no signal
voltage is applied, and so that the plate current in a specific valve flows for approxi-
mately one half of each cycle when an alternating signal voltage is applied.
Class B amplifiers are in two main groups-firstly Class Bl (otherwise known as
quiescent push-pull, see below) in which no grid current is permitted to flow, secondly
Class B2 (generally abbreviated to Class B) in which grid current flows for at least
part of the cycle.
Class B2 amplifiers have inherently high odd harmonic distortion, even when the
utmost care is taken in design and adjustment. This distortion frequently has a maxi-
mum value at quite a low power output, making this type of amplifier unsuitable for
many applications. They are also comparatively expensive in that a driver valve and
transformer together with two output valves form an integral part of the stage, and
together give only the same order of sensitivity as a pentode.
The one outstanding advantage of a Class B2 amplifier is in the very high plate-
. circuit efficiency, although the current drawn by the driver stage should be included.
The principal applications are in battery-operated amplifiers, public address systems
and the like.
The grid bias must be fixed (either battery or separate power supply) and special
high-mu triodes have been produced to permit operation at zero bias to avoid the
necessity for a bias supply. In the smaller sizes, twin triodes are commonly used.
For the best results, accurate matching of the two valves is essential. If they are being
operated at a negative bias it is possible to match their quiescent plate currents by
adjusting the bias voltages separately. If the dynamic characteristics are not matched,
a difference of 10% in the two plate currents, measured by d.c. milliammeters under
operating conditions, will produce roughly 5% second harmonic distortion (Ref. E18).
The matching of valves is covered in Sect. 5(v).
Well regulated plate, screen (if any) and bias supplies (if any) are essential.
The rate of change of current in each half of the output transformer at the plate
current cut-off point is considerable, often resulting in parasitics
Parasitics in the grid circuit may be eliminated by the use of a driver transformer
having low leakage inductaI'ce [Chapter 5 Sect. 3(iii)a] and, if necessary, by connect-
ing a small fixed condenser from ea.ch grid to cathode-a typical value is 0.0005 JLF-
see (iv) below.
588 CLASS B AMPLIFIERS-{i) INTRODUCTION 13.7
Parasitics jn the plate circuit may be eliminated by the use of an output trans-
former with low leakage inductance-see Chapter 5 Sect. 3(iii)c-together with a
series resistance-capacitance network connected across each half of the primary or
alternatively from plate to plate.
Typical values for connection across each half of primary :
Load resistance (p-p) 6000 10000 12000 ohms
R 3300 5600 6800 ohms
C 0.05 0.05 0.05 p.F
Typical values for connection from plate to plate :
Load resistance (p-p) 6000 10 000 12000 ohms
R 6800 12000 15000 ohms
C om om 0.02 p.F
Note--The McIntosh Amplifier may also be used for Class B operation-·see
Sect 8(iii).
(li) Power output and distortion-ideal conditions-Class B2
(Circuit Fig. 13.31; characteristics Fig. 13.36.)
If the input voltage is sinusoidal, the output transformer ideal, the plate charac-
teristics equidistant straight lines, and the valves biased exactly to cut-off, the opera-
ting conditions will be-
Power output (total): Po = H btn(E b b - E mi .. ) (1)
or Po tIbtn2RL = 2(E bb - Emin)2/RL (2)
where Ibm maximum (peak) plate current of either valve
Em;n m~nimum plate voltage of either valve
and RL load resistance plate-to-plate.
Load resistance (plate-to-plate): RL = 4(Ebb - Emin)/Ibm (3)
Load resistance per valve: Rr' = Rd4 = (Ebb - Emi,,)/I bm (4)
Maximum power output is obtained when R L = 4r 1>
i.e. when E min = O.5E"b
where r 1> = plate resistance of one valve.
Average plate current (each valve): I b = I bm/7r ~ 0.3181 bm (5)
Power input from plate-supply: P b = 2Ebblb ~ 0.637Ebblbm (6)
Plate circuit efficiency: 'TJ = (1 - Emi .. /E bb) X 0.785 (7)
Plate dissipation: P 1> = d.c. power input - power output
= I bm(0.137E bb + 0.5E mi ,,) (8)
Power output in terms of plate dissipation and plate circuit efficiency:
Po = P p'TJ/(1 - 'TJ) (9)
The current in the secondary of the transformer will be sinusoidal, there being no
distortion. The plate current in each valve will have the form of a rectified sine wave.
The slope of the composite characteristic is half that for Class A operation, so that
the slope of the composite plate resistance will be twice that for Class A.
The various harmonics are unpredictable, but at maximum power output H 3 usually
predominates, and a purely arbitrary approximation is to take
F = (1 + 0.6H3)2.
Usual values of H3 at maximum power output vary from 0.05 to 0.10, so that F
varies from 1.06 to 1.12, a reasonable design value being 1.08. Thus, from eqn. (2),
Po ~ 0.1351 bm2RL (11)
Alternatively, the total power output may be calculated from a knowledge of the
average and quiescent currents of one valve, with an error not exceeding 9% (see
eqns. 12 and 13 below)-
Po ~ 2.47(1 b - 0.251 bO)2R L (12)
The more accurate method is to use the composite characteristics (which are the
same as the single valve characteristics of Fig. 13.48 over the range concerned) and
to apply the" eleven selected ordinate method" [Sect. 3(iv)D] for the determination
of power output and distortion. Although harmonics higher than the fifth are ap-
preciable, it is difficult to calculate them graphically with any degree of accuracy.
7 7
FIG. 13.47
O~----~~------~~7----;O
dissipation is the only limiting factor, six times more output may be obtained from the
same valves in Class B than in Class A.
At low audio frequencies the primary inductance Lo causes loss of gain as with any
a-ftransformer. It should be designed for an unloaded secondary (Chapter 5 Sect. 3)
because it is unloaded for part of the cycle. Secondary loading resistances should be
avoided with Class A triode drivers (Refs. E17, EI8).
In order to avoid excessive distortion due to the non-linear grid current characteris-
tic, the effective impedance looking backwards from the grid-cathode terminals
towards the driver, must be small compared with the effective input impedance of
the valve. The" looking backwards" impedance has as its components (Fig. 5.9) :
"Driver resistance" R' = r2 + (N2/Nl)2(rpl + r 1) (21)
" Driver inductance" L' = L2 + (N 2 /N1 )2L 1 (22)
It is usual to restrict the driver resistance R' to a value less than 0.2 rgmin for the
most favourable conditions with high-mu valves and with limited grid drive, where
r gmi n does not differ seriously from the minimum variational grid resistance; in other
cases it should be less than one fifth of the minimum variational grid resistance (Refs.
E2, EI2). For minimum distortion, R' should be made as low as practicable. Hence
the transformer usually has a step-down ratio from primary to half-secondary.
The " driver inductance," if large and uncompensated, produces an effect like a
faint high pitched hiss or scratch that rises and falls with the signal (Ref. EI8).
The effect of the varying load resistance on the driver valve is shown by the curved
loadline in Fig. 13.50B. The horizontal portion corresponds to the conditions
without grid current flow, while the slope at any other point corresponds to the
variational grid resistance at that point. The broken line ioining the two extremities
has a slope corresponding to a resistance of rgminCNt/N2)2; this should not be less
than 4r p1 • The driver valve should preferably be operated near its maximum rated
plate voltage and dissipation.
As the output valves are driven harder, the driver valve is called upon to provide
increased power into a decreased minimum grid resistance; this necessitates a greater
step-down ratio in the transformer. The extreme limit is when the " diode line "
is reached. As a guide which may be used for a first trial, the minimum plate volt-
age may be taken as twice the "diode line" vo1tage at the peak current level. The
diode line is shown in many characteristic curves, and is the envelope of the character-
istics-it is the line where the grid loses control, in other words the minimum plate
voltage for any specified plate current no matter how positive the grid may be.
The cathode follower makes an excellent driver for all forms of amplifiers drawing
grid current, having very low effective plate resistance and low distortion-osee Chapter
7 Sect. 2(i).
A cathode follower has been applied as a transformerless driver, one 6SN7-GT twin
triode being used as 3 push-pull driver to the grids of two 6L6 valves giving an output
of 47 watts (Ref. E22). However, this is not usually the most efficient arrangement-
see Chapter 7 Sect. 1(ii).
592 (v) DESIGN PROCEDURE-CLASS B2 AMPLIFIERS 13.7
(i) Introduction
Class AB2 amplifiers closely resemble Class B2 amplifiers, but the valves are biased
as for Class ABI operation. Consequently they are less critical with regard to match-
ing, and the distortion which occurs in the plate circuit is much the"same as for Class
AB 1 • The plate circuit efficiency is intermediate between Class ABl and B2 operation
~typical values for triodes are from 40 to 48%. The variation in plate current from
zero to maximum signal is less than with Class B operation, being of the order of 1 : 2.
The matching of valves is covered in Sect. 5(v).
Pentades a..lld bea..Tll power amplifiers may be used quite successtuJly in Class ABj
operation.
Fixed bias is essential,
Type 6L6 or 807 beam power amplifiers may be used in Class AB2 with plate circuit
efficiencies of about 65% (or 61 % including screen losses). The peak grid input
power does not exceed 0.27 watt for power outputs from 30 to 80 watts. The total
harmonic distortion under ideal laboratory conditions is 2% at maximum signal and
less than 2% at all lower output levels (this assumes a low-distortion driver stage).
Well regulated plate, screen and bias power supplies are essential.
Parasitics in plate and grid circuits-see Sect. 7(i).
References E20, E21.
(ii) Bias and screen stabilized Class AB2 amplifier (Ref. E26)
Fig. 13.50C gives a circuit with 807 valves operated in Class AB2 with stabilization
of the bias and screen supply provided by the driver valve. Two high tension sources
are used, obtained from separate windings on the power transformer, and neither
needs good regulation, so that condenser
FIG.13.50C input filters can be used.
The circuit offers three types of com-
pensation, the combined effect being to
allow the output valves to draw a
+600V~
input, the screen voltage is increased
+300V -
and the bias reduced.
Fig. 13.50C. Class AB2 amplifier with (b) When the 807's are driven into
stabilized bias and screen voltages grid current their bias is increased due
(Ref. E26). to the current in the 500 ohm resistor
594 eii) STABILIZED CLASS AB 2 AMPLIFIER 13.8
R I • This is minimized by a d.c. negative feedback circuit giving several times reduction
of the effect, and is offset by a corresponding increase in 807 screen voltage.
(c) Any tendency for the 807 screen voltage to fall and for the bias voltage to increase
with rising 807 screen current due to signal input is minimized by the same negative
feedback circuit.
Referring to Fig. 13.50C, the voltage divider from the positive side of the 600 volt
supply to the negative side of the 300 volt supply has values to provide a suitable bias
for the triode-operated 6V6 so that it draws about 45 rnA with a standing plate voltage
of 250 V. A decrease in the 807 plate voltage causes the 6V6 grid to become more
negative, decreasing its plate current which also flows through R] and so decreases
the 807 bias. The low voltage power supply is deliberately given poor regulation
with resistive filtering so that the decrease in 6V6 plate current appreciably increases
its plate voltage and thus the 807 screen voltage.
The 807 grid current at large output levels increases the negative potential at C
and also at A and B and thus increases the 6V6 bias. This reduces the 6V6 plate
current which makes point C less negative and minimizes the increase in 807 bias,
and at the same time increases the 807 screen voltage thus off-setting the bias increase.
The 807 screen current rises with increasing signal input and this tends to decrease
the screen voltage and increase the 807 bias. However the increased bias is also
applied to the 6V6, reducing its plate current and thus tending to restore the 807 bias
and screen voltages to their original values,
. Between no output and full output the 6V6 plate current falls from 45 rnA to 25 rnA
but the valve is still well able to provide the small power required to drive the 807's.
An additional feature of the circuit is that a very large input reduces the ability of
the driver to overload the output valves, and after full output is reached very effective
limiting is provided.
7-8
3&5
NONE
,
I
I
L_ - J +180V +325V -46V +42CN
+200V
J
I
I
INVERTER I
AMPLIFIER I
I
1 I
IL_______________
.IMA 68POOA J I
FIG. 13 .50E
Fig. 13.50E. Circuit diagram of complete 50 watt McIntosh Amplifier (Ref. E28).
ance is 4000 ohms and the total impedance of each primary winding is 1000 ohms; the
impedance from each cathode to earth is only 250 ohms. These low impedances
reduce the effects, of capacitive shunting and thereby improve the high frequency
performance.
The voltage from each screen to cathode is maintained constant by the unity coupling
between the two halves of the bifilar windings, no screen by-pass capacitor being re-
quired. This arrangement, however, has the limitation that it can only be used for
equal plate and screen voltages.
The driver transformer Tl makes use of the same bifilar winding method adopted
in the output transformer. The primary impedance in this design is above 100000
ohms from 20 to 30000 cis, while the response of the whole transformer is within
0.1 db from 18 to 30000 cis. These high performances are made necessary by the
inclusion of this transformer in the second feedback path of the whole amplifier.
The method of loading the output stage, with half the load in the plate and half in
the cathode circuit, provides negative feedback as a half-way step towards a cathode
follower. Additional feedback is achieved by connecting suitable resistors between
the cathodes of the output valves and the cathodes of the phase invert~rstage. The
complete amplifier (Fig. 13.50E) has a typical harmonic distortion of 0.2% from 50
to 10 000 cis, rising to 0.5% at 20 cis and 0.35% at 20 000 cis, at an output level of
50 watts. The frequency response under the same conditions, measured on the sec-
ondary of the transformer, is level from 20 to 30 000 cis, - 0.4 db at 10 cis and
- 0.3 db at 50000 cIs. The phase shift is zero from 50 to 20000 cis, - 10° at
20 cis and + 4° at 50000 cis.
596 CATHODE-FOLLOWER POWER AMPLIFIERS 13.9
The output resistance is one tenth of the load resistance, thus giving good damping
and regulation
These same principles may be applied to any type of push-pull output whether triode
or pentode, with any class of operation, A, ABH AB2 or B.
The high power output of the McIntosh amplifier as described above is due to the
operation of the screens at voltages greater than 400 volts, which is very considerably
in excess of the maximum rating of 270 volts (design centre) for type 6L6 or 300 volts
(absolute) for type 807. It is unfortunate that the McIntosh amplifier is limited to
operation with equal plate and screen voltages, but these should always be within the
maximum ratings for the particular valve type.
See also Refs. E31, G 1.
The principle of combined plate and cathode loading is applied in some high-
fidelity Class A amplifiers, e.g. Acoustical QUAD, Refs. H4, H6.
flow through the grid-cathode circuit-see Chapter 2 Sect. 2(iii), also Chapter 3
Sect. l(v)d, and Chapter 12 Sect. 2(iii)E, (iv)B, (iv)C, (iv)D; Sect. 3(iv)C, (v).
Typical values (e.g. type 6V6-GT) are :
With cathode bias 0.5 megohm (maximum)
With fixed bias 0.1 megohm (maximum).
If the heater is operated, even for limited periods, more than 10% above its average
rated voltage, the grid circuit resistance must be reduced considerably; this holds in
automobile receivers.
If partial self-bias operation (" back bias ") is used, the maximum value of grid
circuit resistance may be found from the relation :
Rgm = Rgt + P(R gs - R gt) (1)
where Rgt = max. grid circuit resistance (fixed bias)
Rgg = max. grid circuit resistance (self bias)
and P = ratio of cathode current in output valve to the total current flowing
through the bias resistor.
In cases where the ma~mum value of grid resistance for a particular application
is not specified, the procedure of Chapter 3 Sect. l(v)d should be followed, using
eqn. (6) for pentodes or tetrodes, or eqn. (7) for triodes. The value of maximum
reverse grid current (.11 Cl) should be obtained from the specifications or from the valve
manufacturer; failing this, a value of 2p.A may be tentatively assumed for valves of
the 6F6, 6V6 class, and 4p.A for valves having higher cathode currents.
If either the value of R gl for cathode bias, or that for fixed bias is specified, the value
for the other may be calculated from Chapter 3 Sect. 1 eqns. (8) to (13).
Voltage stabilized grid bias supplies are sometimes used (see Chapter 33).
It is sometimes convenient to have two plate voltage supplies, one to provide for
the plates of the output stage only, the other for the earlier stages together with the
screens of the output stage and grid bias. The second supply is loaded by a heavy
current voltage divider (say 150 rnA total drain) tapped near the negative end arid the
tapping connected to the cathodes of the output stage; one section provides grid bias,
and the other section provides the positive potentials.
Back bias is intermediate between cathode bias and fixed bias, so far as its con-
stancy is concerned. With this arrangement, the whole return cun-ent of a receiver
or amplifier is passed through a resistor between the cathodes (which are generally
earthed) and - E b l> (Fig. 13.52). The value of RI is given by E ctl1 where Eel is
598 (ii) GRID BIAS SOURCES l3.l0
FIG. 13.52
l25)lF
Fig. 13.52. Circuit of portion of a receiver using back bias. VI is the power amplifier,
V 2 is the rectifier.
the bias required by VI and I is the total current passed through R I • Bias for earlier
stages is obtainable from a tapping or tappings on R I • A hum filter is necessary for
each separate bias system. [Note that the curved plate of an electrolytic condenser
represents the negative terminal; while on a paper condenser the curved plate re-
presents the outside electrode.] Back bias works best in large receivers where the
total current is much greater than the cathode current of the power amplifier.
An alternative form having fewer components is shown in Fig. 13.53. Here the
field coil is in the place of RI in Fig. 13.52. The bias on VI is equal to the voltage
drop across the field coil multiplied by R'J./(R2 + 0.5 megohm). The filtering in
this circuit is not so complete as in Fig. 13.52.
FIG. 13.53
Fig. 13.53. Alternative form of back bias, with the speaker field coil
in the negative lead.
(i) Introduction
While every amplifier must be built up of individual stages, the purpose of the design
is to produce a complete amplifier having specified characteristics in regard to over-
all gain, maximum power output, frequency range, output resistance, distortion, hum,
noise level and special features such as overload characteristics and tone control.
A designer's job is to produce the required results at the minimum cost within any
limitations imposed by space or by the availability of valve types.
~
FlcL 13.5<,
50 II I ....
40
V
OUTPUT
I
- .......
z
....
u
40ffi
iL
1/1 0-
...J
....
cD
u30
....
l/ z
o
Q ~
~20
I \ 1\ a:
(
2 O~,
3~\ o
\
0-
....
~
0
10
~ r-.
4t , It-- 2 nd ...;" .....,
o
10 SO 102 soc Id
FREQUENCY C/$
Fig. 13.54. ,Harmonic distortion of amplifier having type 6J7 pentode coupled to 2A3
triode loaded by a loudspeaker on a flat' baffle. The distortion was meast:tTed by a wave
analyser connected across the v9ice coil. The bass resonance frequency is 70c/s.
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION
(i) Fidelity (ii) Types of distortion (iii) Imagery for describing reproduced sound.
(i) Fidelity
True fidelity is perfect reproduction of the original. In the case of an amplifier,
true fidelity means that the output waveform is in all respects an amplified replica of
the input waveform.
In acoustical reproduction, true fidelity is achieved if the listener has the same aural
sensations that he would have if present among the audience in the studio or concert
hall.
In practice, true fidelity can only be. regarded as an ideal to be aimed at.
The concept of" hole in the wall" listening put forward by Voigt (e.g. Ref. A49)
is a useful device. The listener, surrounded by his listening room, is imagined as
being in the concert hall and able to hear directly, through his open window, the
sound coming from the stage, together with echoes. Echoes from his own room will
come from all directions, but echoes from the concert hall only come through the open
window. This is probably the nearest approach to true fidelity which there is any
hope of approaching with single channel transmission. See also Ref. A50.
The purpose of high fidelity reproduction of music is to satisfy a particular listener,
who is primarily interested in the emotions arising from what he hears. The complete
process involves sensations and emotions which cannot be treated objectively and must
bring in personal preferences and differences of opinion.
It is manifestly impossible to reproduce at the two ears of the listener an exact
equivalent of the sounds which he would hear in the concert hall. The greatest
deficiencies are probably the single point sound reproducer (the loudspeaker) and the
603
604 (i) FIDELITY 14.1
I I
I
I Excess Grunt Sock Tinkly* Harsh
Muddy Shrill
Solid Brassy Hard
Dead, dull
or thick Metallic
Boom Flat- Masculine Bright
sounding
Body Baritone Brilliant
Mellow Crisp Brittle Brittle
(ii) Harmonics
One effect of this non-linearity is the production of harmonic frequencies in the
output when a pure sine-wave input voltage is applied, hence the name harmonic
distortion. For example, if the input voltage is a pure sine wave of frequency 100 cis,
the output may consist of a fundamental frequency 100 cis, a second harmonic of
200 cis, a third harmonic of 300 cis, and so on. Only the fundamental frequency
is present in the input, and the harmonics are products of the non-linearity (for mathe-
matical treatment see Chapter 6 Sect. 8).
Harmonics themselves are not necessarily displeasing, since all musical instruments
and voices produce complex sounds having many harmonics (or overtones). But all
sounds have certain relationships between the fundamental and harmonic frequencies,
and it is such relationships that give the sound its particular quality*. If certain
harmonics are unduly stressed or suppressed in the reproduction, the character of the
sound (i.e. the tone) will be changed. For example, it is possible for a displeasing
voice to be reproduced, after passing through a suitable filter, so as to be more pleasing.
The critical ability of the human ear to distinguish harmonic distortion depends
upon the frequency range being reproduced and also upon the volume. Thus, with
wide frequency range, the limit of harmonic distortion which can be tolerated is
noticeably lower than in the case of limited frequency range, for the same volume level.
If the amplifier does not amplify the harmonics to the same extent as the funda-
mental, the effective harmonic distortion will be changed. Bass boosting reduces
the harmonic distortion of bass frequencies, while treble boosting increases the har-
monic distortion of fundamental frequencies whose harmonics are in the frequency
range affected by the boosting.
The shape of the audibility curves for the ear, which has. maximum sensitivity at
about 3000 cis (Fig. 19.7), indicates that there is some effective boosting ()f harmonics
compared with the fundamental for harmonics up to about 3000 cis, and an opposite
effect for fundamental frequencies above 3000 cis. This effect, however, is quite
small at frequencies up to 1500 cis, at the usual maximum listening levels (say 65 to
80 db on a sound level meter). At lower listening levels the effect will be appreciable,
but the distortion is normally fairly low at these levels in any case. With fundamental
frequencies above 3000 cis there is an appreciable reduction of harmonic distortion
at all levels (this effect has been referred to by Ladner, Ref. EI4). For example,
with a fundamental frequency of 3000 cis, at a loudness level of 80 phons, the second
harmonic will be attenuated by 9 db and the third harmonic by 15 db.
Harmonic voltages or currents are usually expressed in the form of a percentage
of the fundamental voltage or current. For example, if the fundamental voltage is
100 volts, and there is a second harmonic voltage of 5 volts, the second harmonic
percentage is 5%.
Some harmonics are dissonant with the fundamental and (unless at a very low level)
are distinctly unpleasing to the listener as regards their direct effect, quite apart from
*The5e !emarks apply.to sounqs which have slow attack and recovery times. In the case of most
orchestra! Instruments this effect 15 largely overshadowed by the more prominent effects of transients.
Many SOL "1d~ (e.g. vowels) have an inharmonic content in addition to the harmonic content (Ref. E14).
14.2 (ii) HARMONICS 607
the secondary effect on intermodulation. The following table gives the relevant
details when the fundamental frequency (C) is taken for convenience as 250 cis.
Harmonic Harmonic Musical Effect
frequency scale*
2nd 500 Ci
3rd 750 G
4th 1000 Cii
5th 1250 E
6th 1500 G
7th 1750 dissonant
8th 2000 Ciii
9th 2250 D dissonant
10th 2500 E
11th 2750 dissonant
12th 3000 G
13th 3250 dissonant
14th 3500 dissonant
15th 3750 B dissonant
16th 4000 Civ
17th 4250 dissonant
18th 4500 D dissonant
19th 4750 dissonant
20th 5000 E
21st 5250 dissonant
22nd 5500 dissonant
23rd 5750 dissonant
24th 6000 G
25th 6250 G# dissonant
*Natural (just) scale. See Chapter 20 Sect. 8(iv).
With a single pentode the weighted values of the higher order harmonics are quite
appreciable. The values of distortion-columns 1 and 2-are derived from Olsont
for type 6F6 (Ref. E3).
Hannonic level perc~ntage weighting weighted
(db) factori distortioni
2nd -20 10 1 10%
3rd -25 5.6 1.5 8.4%
4th -35 1.8 2 3.6%
5th -45 0.56 2.5 1.4%
6th -62 0.08 3 0.24%
7th -62 0.08 3.5 0.28~
8th --63 0.07 4 0.28%
9th -65 0.06 4.5 0.27%
10th -73 0.022 5 0.11%
11th -74 0.02 5.5 0.11%
12th -73 0.022 6 0.13%
13th -67.5 0.04 6.5 0.26%
14th -74 0.02 7 0.14%
tThese are based on the ideal theoretical condition for equal intermodulation distortion; they may
differ considerably from the true effect on the listener.
With any system of at-nplification other than Class B, the percentage of total har-
monic distortion, as defined in (iv) below, decreases as the power output level is re-
duced. Moreover, the percentages of the highest order harmonics decrease more
rapidly than those of the lower order harmonics, as the power level is reduced.
The use of negative feedback* merely reduces all harmonics in the same propor-
tion and does not affect their relative importance, except when the overload point is
approached.
Comparative tests have been carried out by Olson (Ref. E3) which indicate
1. That slightly greater distortion is permissible with speech than with music.
2. That a higher value of total harmonic distortion is permissible with a single
triode than with a single pentode, for the same effect on the listener.
3. That the permissible distortion decreases as the cut-off frequency is increased.
However the rate of change varies considerably with the three categories of distortion,
as given below.
4. Perceptible distortion (for definition see below).
Distortion becomes perceptible when the measured total harmonic distortion
reaches the level of 0.7% for music, and 0.9% for speech, with a frequency range of
15 000 cis and a pentode valve. Even with the very limited frequency range of
3750 cis a total harmonic distortion of 1.1 % on music, and 1.5% on speech, is per-
ceptible with a pentode valve. The difference between pentode and triode is negli-
gibly small.
5. Tolerable distortion (for definition see below).
The measured total harmonic distortion to give tolerable distortion on music, with
either triode or pentode, increases about four times when the frequency range is re-
duced from 15000 to 3750 cis. The value of tolerable distortion with a pentode is
1.35% total harmonic distortion with a frequency range of 15 000 cis, and 5.6% with
a frequency range of 3750 cis on music, and 1.9% and 8.8% respectively on speech.
The amount of permissible total harmonic distortion with a triode is greater than that
with a pentode for the same level of tolerable distortion, in the approximate ratio of
4 to 3.
The effect of frequency range on tolerable distortion is much greater than on per-
ceptible distortion.
6. Objectionable distortion (for definition see below).
Objectionable distortion, on music, with either triode or p~ntode, increases about
5.5 times when the frequency range is reduced from 15000 cis to 3750 cis; the
tBy kind permission of the author and of the publishers and copyright holders., Messrs. D. Van
Nostrand Company Inc.
"'It is assumed that the feedback network is not frequency-selective.
14.2 (iii) PERMISSIBLE HARMONIC DISTORTION 609
effect of frequency range on objectionable distortion with music is thus greater than
its effect on tolerable distortion and much greater than on perceptible distortion. The
values of total harmonic distortion to provide objectionable distortion are 2 % -with a,
frequency range of 15000 cis and 10.8% with a frequency range of 3750 cis {.or
music, and 3% and 12.8% respectively for speech, with a pentode. The value o(
total harmonic distortion with a triode to give the same level of objectionable distortion
asa pentode is approximately in the ratio 5/4.
Definitions-Perceptibie distortion is defined as the am9un~ of dis~ortioJl. in the
distorting amplifier which is just discernible when compared with a reference system
of very iow distortion. Tolerable distortion is the amount of distortion which coUld
be allowed in low-grade commercial sound reproduction. Objectionable distortioD.
is the amount of distortion which would be definitely unsatisfaCtory for the reproduc-
tion of sound in phonograph and radio reprodu,ction. The two latter are dependent
upon personal opinion. '- -
Test conditions-Information derived from these tests has been tabulated oe1ow,
the conditions being .
Triode: single 2A3, power ou~ut 3 watts.
Pentode: single 6F6, power ou~ut 3 watts.
The soUnd was reproduced in a room with acoustics similar to a ~icalliving room
with a noise level of about 25 db. The tests were performed with a limited number
of critical observers.
Test Resu1t~ (Ref. E3)
Cut-off frC!quency 3750 5000 7500 10000 15000 cis
Objectionable distortion
Music Triode 14.0 8.8 4.8 3.4 2.5%
Pentode iO.8 6.0 4.0 2.8 2.0%
Speech Triode 14.4 10.8 6.8 5.6 4.4%
Pentode 12.8 8.8 6.4 4.4 3.0%
Tolerable distortion
Music Triode 6.8 5.6 4.4 3.4 1.8%
Pentode 5.6 4.0 3.2 2.3 1.35%
Speech Triode 8.8 7.2 4.8 3.6 2.8%
Pentode 8.8 5.2 4.0 3.0 1.9%
Perceptible distortion
Music Triode 1.2 - 0.95 0.75%
Pentode 1.1 0.95 0.7%
Speech Triode 1:4 1.15 0.9%
Pentode 1.5 1.2 0.9%
J( +
in proportion to their harmonic relationship:
2E2) 2 + (3E a)2 + . .. (3)
W.D.F. =! E12 E22 + E3 2 + ... .
For example, if El = 100, E2 5, E 3 8 volts,
i.e. second harmonic 5%
and third harmonic 8%
then W.D.F. = 0.129 (or 12.9%)
and Total distortion factor = 0.094 (or 9.4%).
When all the distortion is second harmonic, this weighted distortion factor is the
same as the total distortion factor.
With this weighted distortion factor it is desirable to measure harmonics up to a
high order (say the thirteenth) at frequencies where the high order harmonics come
within the frequency band of the amplifier.
Subjective More
Classification R.M.S. drastict
System of Sum of Weighted* Weighted Linearity
Distortion Harmonics Distortion Distortion Curvet
(i) Introduction
Intermodulation distortion is one of the effects of non-linearity when more than one
input frequency-is applied. It is evident to the listener in two forms, amplitude-
modulation of one frequency by another, and the production of sum and difference
frequencies. See also Chapter 2 Sect. 9(iv).
An example of amplitude-modulation is the effect of a non-linear amplifier on the
reproduction of a choir with a heavy organ bass accompaniment. The choir is am-
plitude-modulated by the organ-a displeasing effect to the listener. This effect is
negligibly small in amplifiers if the total harmonic distortion is less than say 2 %, but
it is apparent with some loudspeakers (see Chapter 20 Sect. 7).
The formation of sum and difference frequencies is the second and more serious
form of intermodulation distortion. These frequencies are normally in-harmonic
and are the principal cause of the distorted reproduction noticed by any listener-
sometimes described as harsh, buzz, rough or unpleasant.
In actual operation there are very many input frequencies applied simultaneously,
but it is possible to make comparative tests using only two frequencies. Tests for
612 INTERMODULATION DISTORTION-(i) INTRODUCTION 14.3
provided that the operation is restricted to the normal low-distortion region (Refs
B7, Bll). The ratio tends to increase as the distortion increases. These ratios may
increase suddenly as the amplifier reaches the overload point. They are also affected
if a lower I.M. frequency is. selected which gives appreciable attenuation. The
ratio is increased if there is any second harmonic cancellation in successive stages ;!D
the amplifier or any attenuation of harmonics. In practice therefore, with many
disturbing factors, the ratio may vary from less than I to more than 6-see summary
Ref. B19.
The usual test frequencies are 40, 60, 100, 150 or 400 cis and 1000, 2000, 4000,
7000 or 12000 cis. It is helpful to make tests at two low frequencies-one of these
(40 or 60 cis) should approximate to dIe low frequency limit of the amplifier; the
other may be 100 or 150 -cis. The distortion at the lower of these two frequencies
is largely influenced by any iron-cored transformers, while that at the higher of these
two frequencies gives a more normal overall value. The upper frequency may ap-
proximate to half the upper frequency limit of the amplifier-this does not, however,
give a stringent test of the distortion at high frequencies.
Intermodulation distortion may be visually observed with a C.R.O. (Refs. B9, B19)
-see also Sect. 3(vi) below.
Reliable intermodulation measurements may be made in the presence of consider-
able noise since the latter is excluded by filters to a greater degree than with harmonic
distortion. It may also besucces~fully applied in the case of restricted frequency
range where the harmonics would be outside the range of the amplifier. In such a
case it is important to remember that the distortion is not zero merely because the
harmonics are not reproduced.
Permissible inter modulation distortion
The following is an arbitrary grouping which maybe useful (Modulation method-
r .m.s. sum):
Extremely high fidelity a-famplifier (4Oc/s) I.M. less than 2%
High fidelity a-f amplifier (40 cis) I.M. less than 4%
Good fidelity a-f amplifier (60 cis) I.M. less than 8%
Fairly good fidelity a-f amplifier (60 cis) I.M. less than 20%
Typical radio receiver-a-f amplifier only (150c/s) I.M. less than 40%
The values quoted are only a rough guide, since so many factor:s are involved. They
apply to the equivalent single frequency maximum power output, and the lOWe( test
frequency is given in brackets.
See also comments in (vii) below.
Tests with 1 : 1 voltage ratio
More stringent tests at the higher frequencies may be made by the us.e of a I : 1
voltage ratio.
(iii) Difference-frequency intermodulation method
In accordance with this method, two frequencies 11 and 12-' of equal amplitude, are
applied to the input and the relative amplitude of the intermodulation component
at the difference frequency (.f2 - 11) is then considered a measure of the inter-modula-
tion distortion, which may be expressed as a percentage of either output voltage.
A wave analyser may be used to measure the difference frequency. Typicallower
frequencies are 1000, 5000 and 9000 cis, while difference frequencies range from 50
to 500 cis (Ref. A51) or even higher (Ref. B22). For the precise interpretation of
results, a fairly low difference frequency is desirable.
Equipment has been designed so that the frequencies of the two input voltages can
be varied over the a-f range with a constant difference frequency maintained between
them (Refs. B3, B22).
See also comments in (vii) below.
References A51,B3, B12, B13, B22.
If all significant sidebands are measured, the distortion may be recorded in accord-
ance with the peak sum modulation method-see (v) below.
(v) Modulation method of measurement-peak sum
This newer method of defining and measuring intermodulation distortion (Ref.
B16) has outstanding advantages over the older method based on the r.m.s. sum. This
peak sum method will measure the arithmetical sum of the amplitudes of the modula-
tion products involved, with no discrimination against the weaker modulation pro-
ducts.
In accordance with this method, the percentage intermodulation is defined as the
arithmetical sum of the amplitudes of the " in phase " modulation products divided
by the amplitude of the high frequency carrier,
. . . Al + A -1 + As + A -2 + ...
I.e. percentage mtermodulatton = A x 100
Where Al and A _ I are the peak amplitudes of the modulation products of frequencies
W2 ± WI) •
BD (A) (B)
Notch
t
Notch Depth· (In Percent)
Fig. 14.1A & B. Envelope of oscilloscope images without intermodulation (A), and with
intermodulation (B). Ref. B19.
Fig. 14.1C. Definition of notch depth (Ref. BI9).
Intermodulation results in an envelope such as Fig. 14.1B. Normally, the inter-
modulation causes a " notch" or notches in the envelope and the notch depth is de-
fined by Fig. 14.1C. The experimental relationship which has been determined
tetween notch depth and intermodulation (using the normal modulation method of
measurement-r.m.s. sum--as in Ref. B2) is shown in Fig. 14.1D. This curve is
practically linear below 50% notch depth (i.e. 10% intermodulation), so that a scale
may be used directly on the screen for measuring the value corresponding to each
notch. If there is more than one notch, Le Bel defines total notch depth as the arithmetical
14.3 . (vi) LE BEL'S OSCILLOGRAPHIC METHOD 615
100
/
z
2 80 L
l-
e(
~~
-I
g 60
/
o /'
2:
~
II:
~40
i!: ~ V
I- /~
ffi 20
~
(,)
~
-"
---
II:
~ 0
o 50 100 150 200 250 300
PER CENT NOTCH DEPTH FIG. 14.10
Fig. 14.10. Relation between notch depth and per cent. intermodulation (Ref. BI9).
FIG.14.IE
20
18
FIG.14.IH
,
16
o 10 I
-8
Fig. I4.1F. Normal notch pattern for
I-
Z
'"a:
(,)
'"
Q.
8
4
IMl
l
/ I
8- V
~
010 20 30 40 50 60 70
AMPLIFIER OUTPUT IN VOLT5
indicates that the method is a much more sensitive indication of the approach towards
the 'Overload point than is total harmonic distortion.
S~ also comments in (vii) below.
4400 cis. It would therefore be possible to reduce the frequency range of an ampli-
fier from 15000 cis (say the limit of hearing in a particular case) to 11 000 cis without
a non-critical listener noticing the restriction. The same principle also holds in re-
verse, when widening the frequency range. (See also Ref. A9).
(iv) Sharp peaks
One particularly objectionable form of frequency distortion is that due to sharp
peaks in the output, as may be caused by loudspeaker cone resonances, especially
in the 2000-3500 cis range. Sharp troughs are relatively unimportant through their
direct effects, although they may be accompanied by poor transient response.
The effect of restricted frequency range on articulation is covered in Sect. 11.
o
CArTICAL
IIIII
" USTE~1'-
I I
11
~l'--
! I
/
lL
Radio Manufacturing Com-
pany, based on Fletcher (Ref.
A3).
r-r-
11111 If: I
-10
10 20 50
11111
100 200 500
I Ii
1000 2000
I
5000 I000O 20000
FREQUENCY. CYCLES PER SECOND
FIG. 14.2
The maskingt effect of room noise is shown by Fig. 14.3 for average and for very
quiet residences. These curves may be applied directly to the hearing characteristics
of Fig. 14.2. The result is shown in Fig. 14.4 for average conditions and in Fig. 14.5
*The 10 db ratio is given in Ref. A51, quoting Refs. E7, E16. The 20 db ratio is mentioned in Sect
6(ii), based on Refs. E15 and .'\3. •
tThe masking level is the level of pure tones which can just be perceived in the presence of noise.
The masking level is higher than the noise (spectrum) level at the same frequency by a margin of 15db
up to 1000 cis, increasing to 28 db at 10 000 cis (Ref. A53).
14.7 (i) VOLUME RANGE AND HEARING 621
for a very critical listener and low room noise level (these latter are the extreme con-
ditions for high fidelity). In each case the room noise reduces the effective hearing
over a frequency range from about 150 to 6000 or 9000 cis.
The effect of noises other than room noise is covered in (v) below.
120
1\ II11 ii
.00 \ 1III Ii
\ :~~~~~~ .~Jf~~EL (43 db) !
120
1 \1 I IIII i 1 III j!li
I: II 1IIIilii
000
I
I
i i illl! I I 1IIIi I
CRITICAL LISTENER
i\ ! LOW NOISE LEVEL (33 db) Iii:
~ 80
_\ 11Il; 11:1
....
CD ,I III! I 11'1 Fig. 14.5. Effective hearing
U
....
060 I\, i I ! LJ! I I I I;! characteristic for very critical
d ~ I I!'\' I ill
> listener with low room noise
....
.J40 li:1 I I
,. Iii I Ii I level. Curves by courtesy of
!:
I/>
Z
-~
~ ii / Jensen Manufacturing Com-
~ 20
1 '<,
LOSS DUE
i lL pany.
i TO MOISE
~~
I :f""
-20 i i,
.0 20 50 100 aoo 500 1000 2000 5000 I000O 20000
FREOUENCY, CYCLES PER SECOND
FIG. 14.5
Fig. 14.6 gives the maximum r.m.s. intensity levels in 1/4 second intervals in critical
frequency bands for certain musical instruments and an orchestra at a distance of 20
feet from the sound source, together with the threshold of aUdibility curve for average
listeners, indicating that a frequency range from 40 to 15000 cis meets all normal
requirements for an average listener to an orchestra. *
.,,'00
I\LU~RIJ~ I I 11I1
..J
10.1
m
\
IlnTr--r---...
ORCHESTRA ~ :>-~
1I1111 Fig. 14.6. Maximum r.m.s .
E
o
80
\
1\
- ~V
,. r-. :s
/X
.?
CYMBALS
~
N
.-I
intensity levels in 1/4 second
intervals in critical fre-
SNARE ORUM i quency bands for whole
I i"..
"'-.
r- ....... 1-
i
i
1'"
"-
V
/ orchestra and certain instru-
~o
I
.50 100 .500 1000 5000
I 10000 20000
FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECOND
FIG. 14.6
Fig. 14.7 (highest curve) shows the same" orchestra" curve as Fig. 14.6, but com-
bined with the threshold of audibility curve for a very critical listener, indicating that
the maximum possible frequency range is from 32 to 21000 cis. These are the
most extreme conditions to be taken into account for high fidelity reproduction.
If this orchestra is reproduced at lower levels as indicated by the lower " orchestra "
curves in Fig. 14.7, the frequency range is more restricted, particularly at the lower
end. The values for both average and critical listeners are tabulated below :
Peak value 100 90 80 70 db
Average listener
Lower frequency 45 50 70 100 cis
Upper frequency 15000 14000 13000 12000 cis
Critical listener
Lower frequency 32 40 50 70 cis
Upper frequency 21000 20000 19000 18000 cis
120
1, " III
CRITICAL L'STE~ER
100
Fig. 14.7. Maximum
en ~ II III
r.m.s. intensity levels in ~ \, PE~ I~ Id~ I ~~tHESTRA I
· l·~ao
s In :!: v .........
1I 4 secon d Jnterva ,0 I"-
1I
critical frequency bands ..
for whole orchestra, ~
with threshold of audi- ~
~60 ~
,, V
V
V
~
...rO_
'"
'r-." .....
""--:- ---
"'"
10-'---
___ -"1
critical listener.
z
Also ~
!\. il
illustrating effect on - 20
z "- I
frequency range of re-
" V
production at lower 0
"" -I'"""
levels.
*The bass drum, played solo and very loudly, and the loud organ have frequencies in the vicinity of
30 cis audible to an average listener.
14.7 (iii) ACOUSTICAL POWER AND LISTENING LEVELS 623
The curves of Fig. 14.6 and the orchestra curves used in Fig. 14.7 are only suitable
for determining the audible frequency ranges of the various sound sources-they
cannot be used for calculating the peak power.
Programme
Public Music- Engineers En-
ians gineers
Men Women Men Women
- - - - ----
Symphonic music 78 78 88 90 87 88 db
Light music 75 74 79 89 84 84 db
Dance music 75 73 79 89 83 84 db
Speech 71 71 74 84 77 80 db
Individual varIatIons varIed from 60 to·97 db for symphoruc mUSIC, but m all cases
50% of the subjects were within ± 4 db of the mean. Increasing age showed a pre-
ference for lower listening levels.
The following table gives an approximate guide for home listening ,:
Sound-level Normal
Loudness meter reading r.m.s. peak
Very loud 80 db 90 db
Loud (serious listening) 70 db 80 db
Medium (as a background) 55-65 db 65-75 db
VI
j
100
~ ITIiiI EA Ilir, ilit LEll
III
~
III
80
\, CRITICAl. LISTENER 11II
LOW NOISE LEVEL (33db) 70db
o
DYNAMIC
i\ RANGE
\
>-
,
iiz 40 ..... ~ I
"'/~,.
'I"'u. I II
.-
III
~ "~ ~
IIORC1ESTRAL LEVEL
-'4~I, UJ.
LOSS "lI'7'P! V
DUE ~~ V; 'I ~4
o
~~lZ ~
Fig. 14.8. Effective hearing characteristic for very critical listener with low room noise
level., showing 70 db dynamic range for orchestra in a concert hall, Minimum orchestral
level based on Ref. E13.
effect of low room noise. The 70 db dynamic range of an orchestra in a concert hall
is shown, with the minimum orchestral level of 30 db well above the masking level
of the noise. In this case it would be possible to reproduce the full dynamic range
at a level 15 db lower than the level in the concert hall, without loss due to noise.
With an average listener and average noise level, however, the reproduction could not
be more than 5 db below the level in the concert hall without loss due to noise. Any
further reduction in level will result in the masking of the softest passages by the noise.
(D) Volume range broadcast or recorded
The volume range actually broadcast or recorded is frequently less than that of the
original.
Source Volume range
F-M broadcast (direct) at least 60 db (F.C.C.)
A-M broadcast (direct) at: least 50 db (F.C.C.)
Transmission over telephone lines 40-50 db*
ditto (special lines) 50-75 db*
Lateral-cut disc records:
she~c 30-45 db*
microgroove, say 40-56 db*
transcription (ort:'hacoustic) 45-58 db*
Vertical-cut (hill and dale) 45-50 db*
To reduce the volume range, it is usual to employ automatic peak limiters together
with volume compressors, although some manual adjustment is also made on occasions.
To restore the volume range, it is sometimes possible to use volume expansion (see
Chapter 16).
(v) The effect of noise
Noise as heard by the listener is contributed by many sources-for example by
background noise in the studio, by the microphone and pre-amplifier, the transmitter,
the receiver, the a-f amplifier and room noise. If the sound source is a record, there
will be additional noise due to the recording. Under conditions for good fidelity,
noise due to L.'le triU""lsmitter and receiver (if any) can be made negligibly small. The
remaining noise sources may be grouped as
• Maximum signal to noise ratio. The maximum dynamic range may be somewhat bigher--see
Sect. 7(v).
14.7 (v) THE EFFECT OF NOISE 625
On the other hand~ if the reproduction is louder than the original, the bass (and to
some extent the treble) will be accentuated. This commonly occurs with the human
voice when reproduced at a high level, unless some correction is applied in the studio
amplifier.
It is for this reason that orchestral or organ music, when reproduced at normal
room volume, sounds weak and uninteresting. The application of the correct amount
of bass boosting assists considerably in maintaining realism and tonal balance. This
application of bass boosting may be made automatically with the adjustment of the
volume control, provided that maximum setting of the control corresponds to maxi-
mum volume from the loudspeaker on musical peaks (Chapter 15 Fig. 15.59). This
provision makes a second (semi-fixed) volume control desirable in reproduction from
records-it calls for an exceptionally flat a.v.c. characteristic in a receiver, in addition
to the double volume control. If the automatic arrangement is adopted without
these precautions being taken, it is only partially effective, and many users prefer a
manually operated bass-boost. The automatic arrangement is only satisfactory when
the tonal balance is cQrrect at the maximum setting of the volume control; it merley
boosts the bass when the setting of the control is lowered.
Refs. A7, A29, A30, A33, A34, A56.
Probably the creation of synthetic bass, intermodulation distortion and transient dis-
tortion play important parts in produCing this fatigue.
An excessively high background noiseJevel, whether caused by hum, record scratch
or any form of extraneous noise, is also an important factor contributing to listener
fatigue.
Ref. C7.
(iv) Summing up
The tests by Chinn and Eisenberg indicated that, under their conditions of test,
the majority preferred a restricted frequency range. The tests by Olson indicated
that, under his "all acoustical" listening conditions the majority preferred an un-
restricted frequency range. Obviously the conditions of the tests are of vital im-
portance-see discussion (i) above, also summing-up by Olson, CIO.
Subsequent amplifier tests by Olson have indicated that an audience was able to
perceive a value of 0·7% total harmonic distortion (see Sect. 2 and Ref. E3). A reason-
able inference is that the reduction in frequency range preferred by listeners in the
Chinn and Eisenberg tests was caused by distortion present in the sound system.
It has been pointed out (Ref. C14) in connection with the Chinn and Eisenberg tests,
that the choice between" wide" and "medium" (at 60 and 70 db) and between
"medium" and" narrow" (at 50 and 60 db) was complicated by inadequate dis-
criminability.
Columns 2 and 3 are the results of separate tests with a high-pass filter and a low-
pass filter respectively. They cannot be combined to give a pass-band with the
limiting frequencies as tabulated, except as a rough approximation for high percentages
of articulation (> 90%); in this case the two articulation values should be multiplied
together (e.g. 96% x 96% = 92% articulation approximately for a pass band from
570 to 5000 c/s).
There is no loss in articulation with a frequency range (pass band) from 250 to
7000 c/s, while the loss is quite small with a range from 570 to 5000 c/s. With con-
tinuous speech the loss in articulation is noticeably less ,than with syllables.
Owing to the unnaturally high-pitched tone and obvious lack of balance, these
frequency ranges are extended towards the bass for all communication purposes.
An articulation index has been proposed (Ref. D3) which may be calculated for any
known conditions, including noise. A value of 1.0 is the maximum (for perfect
articulation) while a value of 0.5 or over is entirely satisfactory.
Those who are interested in the intelligibility of speech either with or without
noise interference should read Refs. DIO, Dl1, and DI2.
Experiments have shown that intelligibility is impaired surprisingly little by the
type of amplitude distortion known as peak clipping. Conversation is possible
even over a system that introduces" infinite" peak clipping, i.e., that reduces speech
to a succession of rectangular waves in which the discontinuities correspond to the
crossings of the time axis in the original speech signal. The intelligibility of the rect-
angular speech waves depends critiaU1y upon the frequency-response characteristics
of the speech transmission circuits used .in conjunction with the " infinite clipper"
A word srticulati~n "-value of 97 was obtained using firstl}T afilter pro\1iding a frequenc}T=
response characteristic rising 6 db/octave, followed by the in:finite peak clipper,
followed in turn by a filter with a characteristic falling at the rate of 6 db/octave
(Ref. D13).
References to articulation: A3, D3, D8, DIO, Dl1, DI2, DI3, D19.
This raises the question whether such high standards are essential. The principal
characteristics in question are variation in output., distortion, and frequency range.
Variation in output over the frequency range
A tolerance of the order of ± 5 % appears to be generally acceptable for the overall
electro-acoustical performance of a sound system.
Distortion and frequency range
The permissible non-linear distortion in a high fidelity amplifier is dependent on
the frequency range, the type of programme, the critical character of the listener
and the sound level. It has been observed that the sensitivity of the ear to distortion
in music appears to be a maximum for sound levels in the vicinity of 70 to 80 db
(Ref. A51). Hence for sound levels of the order of 90 db (sound level meter indica-
tion), somewhat higher values of distortion than those specified in (i) above would be
permissible-possibly of the order of 2% total harmonic distortion with a cut.,.off
frequency of 10000 cis, and 2.5% with a cut-off frequency of 7500 cis.
Most direct radiator loudspeakers exceed 2 % total harmonic distortion over certain
frequency bands when operated to give a sound level (meter reading) of 90 db in a
fairly large living room. However, the problem is complicated by the fact that many
types of music have maximum intensity levels in the 200 to 500 cis frequency band
where loudspeakers often have distortion values well below their maximum values.
When the distortion in any individual case is distressing to a listener, the high cut-off
frequency should be reduced until he is relieved from the discomfort. It is better
to have freedom from discomfort than to have a wide frequency response, pa..."1:icularly
when listening for a sustained period. This leads to the conclusion that " the true
measure of the quality of an electro-acoustical system is the maximum bandwidth
which the public finds acceptable" (Ref. C7). .Thus all high fidelity amplifiers
should have a choice of high roll-off* frequencies.
In addition, it is necessary to provide the listener with tone controls on treble and
bass, with the choice of boosting or attenuation on each (see Chapter 15). He can then
please himself on the choice of tonal balance and frequency range.
In the writer's opinion, nearly distortionless reproduction of bass frequencies up
to say 400 cis is far more important than reproduction of frequencies above 10 000 cis.
The importance of improved bass response in reproduced music is gradually
• gaining recognition. Various methods are being adopted to produce acceptable
extreme bass response without requiring an excessively large loudspeaker. Fortun-
ately the extension of the bass range, with or without bass boosting., does not directly
result in any increase in the subjective effects of the distortion such as occurs with
extension of the treble range.
High fidelity reproduction with a level frequency response, when compared with
a distorting amplifier, seems to lack bass. If a fair comparison is to be made between
them, when operating at the same sound levels, the high fidelity amplifier will require
bass boosting.
A direct radiator loudspeaker, or a conventional hom type, cannot give high fidelity
reproduction at frequencies lower than the bass resonance, because the distortion
rises very rapidly. Thus the minimum frequency for high fidelity depends upon the
loudspeaker and any extension to lower frequencies will require another, and usually
larger and more expensive, loudspeaker.
The output transformer should, fur high fidelity, have low distortion at the lowest
frequency which the loudspeaker can handle. A transformer to handle high power
at very low frequencies and low distortion is both heavy and expensive, but is not other-
wise difficult either in design or manufacture.
If the output transformer and loudspeaker are incapable of handling frequencies
below a critical. value without serious distortion, it is wise to filter out these lower
frequencies and so rid the amplifier of their bad effects: It is better to have a clean
bass limited to say 80 or 100 cis, than to have a distorted condition resulting in inter-
modulation effects over a wide frequency range .
• Sharp cut-ofI characteristics are undesirable for fidelity. However a roll-ofI and sharp cut-ofI may
be combined to give an acceptable result. .
(iii) THE EAR AS A JUDGE OF FIDELITY 14.12
SECTION 13 : REFERENCES
(A) REFERENCES TO DISTORTION AND FIDELITY-GENERAL
AI. Massa, F. "Permissible amplitude distortion of speech in an audio reproducing system" Proc.
I.R.E. 21.5 (May 1933) 682.
A2. Wheeler, H. A. "High fidelity problems" Hazeltine Corporation Laboratory Report, reprinted
in A.R.T.S. and P. BUlletin No.7.
A3. Fletcher, H. "Hearing, the determining factor for high-fidelity transmission" Proc. I.R.E. 30.6
(June 1942) 266.
A4. Ebel, A. J. " Characteristics of high fidelity systems" Corom. (1) 23.4 (April 1943) 38 j (2) 23.5
(May 1943) 24.
AS. Hartley, H. A. "Aesthetics of sound reprodUction-high fidelity or judicious distortion?" W.W.
50.7 (July 1944) 198; W.W. 50.8 (Aug. 1944) 236.
A6. "Aesthetics of sound reproduction-replies to queries" W.W. 50.10 (Oct. 1944) 318.
A7. Stevenson, P. "Scale distortion and ViSUal analogies" Electronic Eng. 17.200 (Oct. 1944) 207.
AS. Hanson, O. B. "Comments on high fidelity" Elect. 17.8 (Aug. 1944) 130.
A9... Frequency range and power considerations in music reproduction" Technical Monograph No.3,
Jensen Radio Mfg. Co., Nov. 1944.
AI0. Discussion" High fidelity reproduction of music" J. Brit. I.R.E. 5.5 (Oct.-Dec. 1945) 190.
All. Toth, E. "High fidelity reproduction of music" Elect. 20.6 (June 1947) 108.
A12. Haynes, N. M. (letter) " Listening tests" Elect. 20.6 (June 1947) 268.
A14. Williamson. D. T. N. "Design for a high-quality amplifier" W.W. 53.4 (April 1947) U8.
A15. Goodell, J. D., and B. M. H. Michel" Auditory perception" (with bibliog.) Elect. 19.7 (July
1946) 142.
A16. Amos, S. W. "Distortion in radio receiv~rs " Electronic Eng. 14.169 (March 1942) 686.
A17. Hanson, O. B. " Down to earth on high fidelity" Radio 28.10 (Oct. 1944) 37.
A18. Van der Ven, A. J. "Output stage distortion" W.E. 16.192 (Sept., 1939) 444.
A19. Webster. N. D .• and F. C. McPeak" Experiments in listening" Elect. 20.4 (April 1947) 90.
A20... What is goOd reproduction ?-Discussion by British Sound Recording Association," W.W.
54.1 (Jan. 1948) 20.
A2I. "Supersonic high fidelity? " W.W. 54.1 (Jan. 1948) 23; Comments by " Diallist" p. 36.
A22. Morgan, R. L. "Noise measurements," Comm. 28.2 (Feb. 1948) 28; 28.7 (July 1948) 21.
A23. Mathes, R. C .• and R. L. Miller" Phase effects in monaural perception" J. Acou8. Soc. Am. 19.5
(Sept. 1947) 780.
A24. Minter, J. "Audio distortion and its causes" F.M. Radio Handbook (1946) 94.
A25. Gannett. D. K., and I. Kerney" The discernibility of changes in program band width" B.S.T.J.
23 (Jan. 1944) 1.
A26. Glover. R. P. "The problem of frequency range in speech and music reproduction 0; (review)
J. Acous. Soc. Am. 17.1 (July 1945) 103.
A27. Hilliard. J. K. "Audio quality-intermodulation tests" (review of I.R.E. paper) Elect. 19.4
(April 1946) 218.
A28. Lloyd, M. G. and P. G. Agnew" Effect of phase of harmonics upon acoustic quality" Nat. Bureau
of Standards Sci. Paper No. 127, 6 (1909) 255.
A29. " Cathode Ray" • Scale distortion" W.W. 41.13 (Sept. 24. 1937) 'U8
A3O... Cathode Ray" "Loudspeaker versus orchestra," W.W. 42.10 (March 10, 1938) 210.
A31. Hawldngs, J. N. A ... Notes on wide-range reproduction" Audio Eng. 31.11 (Dec. 1947) 19.
A32. Camras. M ... How high is high fidelity?" Tele-Tech 7.7 (July 1948) 26.
A33. «Cathode Ray" .. Scale distortion again" W.W. 54.11 (Nov. 1948) 392.
A34. Le Bel, C. J ... Psycho-acoustic aspects of higher quality reproduction" Audio Eng. 33.1 (Jan.
1949) 9.
A35 ... Distortion-does it matter?" Further discussion by I.E.E. Radio Section, W.W. 55.1 (Jan.
1949) 11.
A36... Quality appreciation" W.W. 55.2 (Feb. 1949) 52. Review of paper by E. A. Vetter" Some
psychological factors in quality appreciation."
A37. Licklider, J. C. R ... Effects of amplitude distortion upon the intelligibility of speech" J. Acous.
Soc. Am. 18.2 (Oct. 1946) 429.
14.13 REFERENCES 633
A38. Nixon. G. M. "Higher fidelity in sound transmission and reproduction" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 17.2
(Oct. 1945) 132.
A39. What constitutes high fidelity reproduction?" (Review of pape-rs presented at Acoustical Society
meeting) Audio Eng. 32.12 (Dec. 1948) 8.
A40. Wiener, F. M. "Phase distortion in electro-acoustic systems" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 13.2 (Oct.
1941) 115.
A41. Powell. T. (letter) "Phase bandwidth " Audio Eng. 33.6 (June 1949) 6.
A42. Hilliard, J. K. "Phase distortion" being chapter 13 of book " Motion picture sound engineering"
(D. Van Nostrand Co. New York, 1938).
A43. Institute of Radio Engineers. U.S.A. " Standards on radio receivers-methods of testing ampli-
tude modulation broadcast receivers" (1948).
A44. Information kindly supplied by the Radio Corporation of America.
A45. Shorter, D. E. L. "The influence of high-order products in non-linear distortion" Electronic
Eng. 22.266 (April 1950) 152. Correspondence 22.272 (Oct. 1950) 443; 23.281 (July 1951) 278-
279.
A46. Salmon. V. (letter) "Types of reproduced sound" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 21.5 (Sept. 1949) 552.
A47. Canby, E. T. "Record revue-better audio" Audio Eng. 34.7 (July 1950) 30.
A48. Salmon. V. "Imagery for describing reproduced sound" Audio Eng. (i) 34.8 (Aug. 1950) 14;
(ii) 34.9 (Sept. 1950) 14.
A49. Voigt. P. G. A. H. "A controversial idea from England" Audio Eng. 34.10 (Oct. 1950) 40.
ASO. Canby. E. T. "The other side of the wall" Audio Eng. 35.1 (Jan. 1951) 24.
AS!. Olson. H. F .• and A. R. Morgan" A high-quality sound system for the home" Radio and T.V.
News 44.5 (Nov. 1950) 59.
AS2. Souther, H. T. "Design elements for improved bass response in loudspeaker systems" Audio
Eng. 35.5 (May 1951) 16.
AS3. Fletcher. H. "Auditory patterns" Review of Modem Physics 12 (Jan. 1940) 47.
AS4. F.L.D. "Approach to high fidelity" W.W. 57.7 (July 1951) 289.
AS5. Snyder, R. H. " Towards a more realistic audio" Audio Eng. 35.8 (Aug. 1951) 24.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commenciIlg on page 1475.
(B) REFERENCES TO INTERMODULATION DISTORTION
B1. Harries, J. H. O. " Amplitude distortion" W.E. 14.161 (Feb. 1937) 63.
B2. Hilliard, J. K. "Distortion tests by the intermodulation method" Proc. I.R.E. 29.12 (Dec. 1941)
614; Discussion 30.9 (Sept. 1942) 429.
B3. Scott. H. H. "Audible audio distortion" Elect. 18.1 (Jan. 1945) 126.
B4. Minter. J. " Audio distortion in radio reception" F.M. and T. 6.3 (March 1946) 24.
B5. Hilliard, J. K. "Intermodulation testing" Elect. 19.7 (July 1946) 123.
Bo. Roys, H. E. .• Intermodulation distortion analysis as applied to disk recording and reproducing
equipment" Proc. I.R.E. 35.10 (Oct. 1947) 1149.
B7. Frayne; J. G., and R. R. Scoville, " Variable density recording" Jour. S.M.P.E.32 (June 1939) 648;
B8. Sturley, K. R. (book) "Radio Receiver Design" Part 2 (Chapman and Hall, 1945) pp. 79-84.
B9. McProud. C. G. "Simplified intermodulation measurement" Audio Eng. 31.3 (May 1947) 21.
BI0. Instruction Book" T.l 401 Signal Generator and T.l 402 Intermodulati()n Analyzer" AItec
Lansing Corporation, New York.
BU. Warren. W. J., and W. R. Hewlett" An analysis of the intermodulation m.ethod of distortion
measurement" Proc. I.R.E. 36.4 (April 1948) 457.
B12. Avins. J. "Intermodulation and harmonic distortion measurements" Audio Eng. 32.10 (Oct.
1948) 17.
B13. " A report on the 1949 IRE National ConY-ention-highlights of papers presented by R. H. Tanner
and A. Peterson" Comm. 29.4 (April 1949) 10.
B14. Aston, R. H. "Intermodulation measurements on Radiotron Amplifier M15" Radiotronics
No. 130 (March/April 1948) 34.
B15. Read, G. W., and R. R. Scoville" An improved intermodulation measuring system" Jour. S.M.P.E.
50.2 (Feb. 1948) 162.
B16. Fine, R. S. "An intermodulation analyzer for audio systems" Audio Ep.g. 34.7 (July 1950) 11.
B17. van Beuren, J. M. "Simplified intermodulation measurements" Audio Eng. 34.11 (Nov. 1950) 24.
B18. Berth-Jones, E. W. " Intermodulation testing" W.W. 57.6 (June 1951) 233.
B19. Le Bel, C. J. "A new method of measuring and analyzing intermodulation" Audio Eng. 35.7
(July 1951) 18.
B20. Roddam. T. " Intermodulation distortion" W.W. 46.4 (Apr. 1950) 122.
B21. Callendar. M; V .• and S. Matthews" Relations between amplitudes of harmonics and intermodu-
lation frequencies" Electronic Eng. 23.280 (June. 1951)230.
B22. Peterson, A. P. G. " Intermodulation distortion" G.R. Exp. 25.10 (Mar. 1951) 1.
(C) REFERENCES TO FREQUENCY RANGE AND SOUND-INTENSITY PREFERENCES
Cl. Chinn, H. A., and P. Eisenberg" Tonal-range and sound intensity preferences of broadcast listen-
ers" Proc. I.R.E. 33.9 (Sept. 1945) 571.
C2. Chinn. H. A., and P. Eisenberg ""Tonal-range and sound intensity preferences of broadcast listen-
ers" Discussion, Proc. LR.E. 34.10 (Oct. 1946) 757.
C3. Moir, J. "Perfect v. pleasing reproduction" Electronic Eng. 19.227 (Jan. 1947) 23.
C4. Wells, L. V. (letter) " Acousti.c preferences of listeners" Proc. I.R.E. 35.4 (A.pril 1947) 378.
C5. Powell, T. (letter) "Tonal-range and sound-intensity preferences of broadcast listeners" Proc.
I.R.E. 35.4 (April 1947) 378.
C6. Moir, J. (letter) "Distortion and acoustic preferences" Proc. I.R.E. 35.5 (May 1947) 495.
C7. Le Bel, C. J." Psycho-acoustical aspects of listener preference tests" Audio Eng. 31.7 (Aug. 1947) 9.
ca. "High audio frequencies-are they necessary, are they nice?" W.W. 53.11 (Nov. 1947) 415.
C9. Haynes. N. M. "Factors influencing studies of audio reproduction quality," Audio Eng. 31.8
(Oct. 1947) 15.
CI0. Olson, H. F ... Frequency range preference for speech and music" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 19.4 Part 1
(July 1947) 549.
Cll. Olson, H. F. " Frequency range preference for speech and music" Elect. 20.8 (Aug. 1947) 80.
C12. Somerville, T., and S. F. Brownless " Listeners' sound-level preferences" B.B.C. Quarterly 3.4
(Jan. 1949) 245.
C13. Chinn, H. A. and P. Eisenberg" Influence of reproducing system on tonal-range preferences ,.
Proc. I.R.E. 36.5 (May 1948) 572. Discussion Proc. I.R.E. 37.4 (April 1949) 401.
C14. Stuntz, S. E. "The effect of sound intensity level on judgment of tonal range and volume level"
Audio Eng. 35.6 (June 1951) 17.
634 REFERENCES 14.13
SECTION 1 : INTRODUCTION
(i) The purpose of tone compensation (ii) Tone control (iii) General considerations
(iv) Distortion due to tone control (v) Calculations involving decibels per octave (vi)
Attenuation expressed as a time constant (vii) The elements of tone control filters
(viii) Fundamental circuit incorporating Rand C (ix) Damping of tuned circuits
(x) Tolerances.
635
636 (i) THE PURPOSE OF TONE COMPENSATION 15.1
-5
=
=
=
=
I-
::
~ R
~ o-.M/"vVl 0
r=
r= Ein . I C EOut
-15 0 0
f::
r= db--IO lo9 lo(l+wY)
~ T-CR w-2Tf(
-20
10 100
FREOUENCY CIS
IfCO Iqooo
15,000
75 MICROSECOND OE-EMPHAS!S CURVE
Fig. 15.1. De-emphasis curDe with time constant of 75 microseconds, a~ used in
F-M receivers.
15.1 (vii) THE ELEMENTS OF TONE CONTROL FILTERS 639
FIG. 15.2
(x) Tolerances
In all cases where a tone control, tone compensating network or filter is required
to have specified frequency response characteristics, the elements of the network
must be specified within narrow tolerances, and should preferably also be tested
after delivery by the component manufacturer. Even in cases where the response
characteristic is not specified, the effect of normal tolerances with capacitors, resistors
and inductors is to cause a wide " spread " of response characteristics since the toler-
ances are sometimes cumulative.
When a single item of equipment is being built, it is important to check either the
values of the critical components or the overall response characteristic, or preferably
both.
640 BASS BOOSTING~(i) GENERAL REMARKS 15.2
The resistor Rl is intended to reduce distortion through low a.c. load impedances
connected to the plate circuit of Vl ; it may be omitted if the stage is operating at a
low level or if R, is not less than twice the plate resistance of Vl' A suitable value is
not less than 2T v in the case of a triode or not less than 2R L in the case of a pentode.
The resistor Rl also has the effect of decreasing the gain at high frequencies more
than at low frequencies, thereby increasing the ratio of gains at low and high fre-
quencies.
It may be shown that
R,
where B
~ B ~ 1 {g;;; : :;;;~~l ~~ ~4~R2}
=
:
ratio of amplification at zero frequency to amplification at high fre-
(4)
quencies.
Typical values of resistors are given below:
General case Valve type 6J5 Valve type 6AV6
Plate resistance Tp 7700* 62500*ohms
RL 5 Tv 50000 220000 ohms
Rl 2 Tv 20000 120000 ohms
R2 20 rp 500000 1 000 000 ohms
R, for 6 db boost 2.4 Tp 25000 140000 ohms
R, for 10 db boost 1.1 Tv 11600 67000 ohms
R, for 15 db boost 0.53 Tv 5500 30000 ohms
Gain at high frequencies :
6 db boost 0.361-' 7.6 30 times
10 db boost 0.22 I-' 4.7 19 times
15 db boost 0.13 I-' 2.6 10 times
A typical example incorporating a pentode is Fig. 15.37A (Sect. 8).
The procedure in design is
(1) to determine the desired total bass boost in db from high frequencies to zero
frequency.
(2) to select a suitable valve type.
(3) to assume suitable values for R L' Rl and R 2 •
(4) to calculate t..1}e value of R, to give the desired boost, using eqn. (4).
(5) to determine a suitable value for C (this may be done by following Chapter 12
Sect. 2(ii), assuming Rl + R2 to be the effective value of R g2 ).
(6) to determine the value of C 2 to give the required position of the boosting curve
on the frequency characteristic, as described below.
Frequency characteristics
The shape of the frequency characteristic is determined solely by the amount of
the total boost in db (Fig. 15.4). It is convenient to consider the frequency at which
each characteristic reaches half the total boost in decibels, and to call this the " half-
• As normal Class At amplifier. Higher values are to be anticipated for resistance-coupled conditions.
642 (ii) (A) CONVENTIONAL BASS BOOSTING CIRCUIT 15.2
20
-....
'"
-- .........
I !Yo
~
-r- '\0~.....
I
'" I'
'\
I
IY;-~ Half Total Boost
a
- t- t-...
....
~
'" /
~V
r\.
i' X. \.
6
-r-Ioo.. '06'V V '\
"0
~
I\.
~
i"'i'" (S. I 1"1
" r::u
/"... "'
I'"
r- r-t--
"' f'.
2
0
001
r.c...! db .............
r-- '" r--.
:-r-
345.6810
I'.
roo
i'"
~~
............
20 -
30 <40 so 60 80 100
R/X
5 iii i tb i i i 50 i •• '100 sbo FIG. 15. '"
Frequency cis (Adjustablt Scale)
Fig. IS.4. Bass boosting frequency characteristics. These are quite general and may
be applied to any r .c. boosting provided that the value of the total boost in db is
known. See text for value R/X (Ref. 10).
boost point." It will be seen that the frequency of the " half boost point" (/0) in-
creases as the total boost increases.
Total boost 20 IS 10 6 3
Half-boost 10 7.S S 3 I.S
Boost ratio (B) 10 S.6~ 3.16 2.0 1.41
R/X for half-boost· 3.16 2.37 1.78 1.41 1.19
C 2t 3.16/ wR 2.37/wR 1.78/wR 1.41/wR 1.19/wR F
• (R/X) = VB at half-boost point.
t C2 = 1/(wX) = (R/X)/(wR) and w = 27Tfo
where R = [r,.Rd(r p + RL)J + Rl + Rfo (Fig. IS.3)
and f 0 = frequency at half-boost point.
The slope of the frequency characteristic at the half-boost point, which is
very nearly the point of maximum slope, is approximately :
TooU boost 20 IS 10 6 3 db
Slope at half-boost point 4.9 4.1 3.0 2.0 1.0 db/octave
If a tangent is drawn to the curve at the half-boost point, it will be seen that the
slope of the frequency characteristic does not fall off to any appreciable extent from
the. half-boost point to the three-quarters boost point (i.e. 7S% of the tooU boost in
db). The falling off in slope does not cause a difference of more than 1 db between
the curve and the tangent up to 90% of the total boost in db, the reading of 90% being
taken on the tangent.
This circuit may be applied to continuously variable bass boosting by using a variable
resistor in place of R 4 , but this has the effect of varying the amplifier gain at the middle
audio frequencies and hence varying the apparent loudness. One possible alternative
which avoids this defect, is to put a high variable resistor (say 0.5 megohm logarithmic
taper) across C 2 • This method gives a variation in total boost without much change
in level of the middle frequencies, but the shapes of the frequency characteristics
are not the most desirable for tone control purposes-Fig. IS.5; see also (D) below.
15.2 (ii) (A) CONVENTIONAL BASS BOOSTING CIRCUIT 643
Several values of C 2 may be selected by means of a tapping switch, leaving the total
boost unchanged, but this merely moves the frequency characteristic horizontally
and is not satisfactory, on its own, for tone control purposes.
R,-SO,ooo.n
R.-spoo.n
Cz-O·I",F
18
iiiz
~ 06r-~--~+---r--;----~ 15·6
1&1 Cz
IX
f-
1/1
1&1
504~~~~~\-~~---~==F=~====~~ 12 8cD
..J
1&1 J>
IX
"
O·2F"==F=:::::j."."....j.;~d----t---+---+----t---I
~~----+---r-~----T=--~~----+-~O
FREQUENCY CIS
Fig. 15.5. Frequency characteristics with conventional bass boosting circuit, having
variable resistor across C 2 (Ref. 9).
A modification which has some advantages is shown in Fig. 15.6. Here R2 has been
moved from the grid circuit of V 2 to reduce the shunting effect on R4 and C2• The
total grid circuit resistance of V 2 is (R l + R 2 ). Ref. 11.
References to conventional bass boosting circuit-9, 10, 11, 20, 23, 38, 51, 55.
(B) Plate series compensation (Fig. 15.7)
This is a simple method of providing a fixed amount of bass boosting which uses
the plate decoupling circuit. It is generally limited to use with r.c.c. pentodes.
With the values of components shown, the frequency response curves for two values
of C are given in Fig. 15.8.
References to plate series compensation: 38, 52, 53.
FIG.15.7
I BASS BOOST
"'"
~ r-~
,.
io"""" r-"
i""
3eo~
5
"" ~C:.o. r....
~?J.,~ ......
....... .....
........
0
-,...... r....
-5
10 100 10,000
FREOUENCY (CIS) FIG. 15.8
Fig. 15.8. Frequency characteristics with the circuit of Fig. 15.7, V l = 6J7,
RL = 0.05 MD, Rl = 0.2 MD, Rk = 2000 D, C k = 25 p,F, Rs = 1.5 MD,
C s = 0.1 p,F, C = 0.02 p,F, Rg = 1 MD.
CD) Improved variable bass boost
A method for obtaining continuously variable bass boost having improved shape of
the frequency characteristics, is incorporated in the bass and treble boost circuit of
Sect. 8(x)K and Figs. 15.55 and 15.56A.
(iii) Methods incorporating resonant circuits
Resonant circuits give greater flexibility than those incorporating only capacitance
and resistance. They are limited, however, to values of Q not greater than 1 (Ref. 54)
and preferably not greater than 0.7-see Sect. l(ix).
(A) Parallel resonant circuits
A parallel resonant circuit, which may be connected in the plate circuit of a r.c.c.
pentode (Fig. 15.9) provides boosting in the vicinity of its resonant frequency, with
maximum boost at its resonant frequency. For bass boosting the resonant frequency
is often between 50 and 120 cis, although higher and lower frequencies are sometimes
adopted.
The inductor Ll has to carry the greater part of the plate current of V l (several
milliamperes in a typical case) and should have a butt joint or air-gap to reduce the
effect of the plate current on the inductance.
'FIG,15.9 FIG. 15.10
B+ B+
Fig. 15.9. Bass boosting with parallel resonant tuned circuit in plate circuit.
Fig. 15.10. Bass baosting with parallel resonant tuned circuit in grid circuit.
In all circuits of this type, it is advisable to select a high LIC ratio in order to give
the highest gain for a fixed amount of boosting.
Q = (JJoCR. (5)
For the limiting value of Q = 1,
15.2 (iii) (A) PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS 645
loudspeaker, and decreasing the stage gain. This device is usually avoided on ac-
count of its short-comings. .
FIG. 15.11
FIG 15 12
+15
- _II
I
V
+10
- f~
" Fig. 15.12. Frequency
characteristics of amplifier
/I in Fig. 15.11. Condition
- f-.J. "", (1) tone control max. resis-
tance (2) three quarters
I .......... \. max. (3) half max. (4) one
- ~~ ~
quarter max. resistance.
The curves ha'Ve been super-
imposed to coincide at
1000 cis.
50 100 soo I,(XX)
FREOUENCY (CIS)
Another possible circuit is Fig. 15.13 (Ref. 36) in which the feedback is taken from
the plate to the grid through C and R z• The response is given by
(1 - ot)(1 + jwo/ w) (8)
where Wo = ot/[CR 2(I - ot)]
and ct == proportion added to the original signal by the setting of VR 1 •
Typical values are: Rl = R2 = 1 MoO, R = 0.22 MoO, C = 200 fLfLF, giving
wo/21r = 250 cis when ot = 0.25. The resistance of VR 1 and VRz should be high,
preferably with VR 2 greater than VR 1 and Rs = VR 1 •
Still another possible circuit is Fig. 15.14A in which feedback is taken from the
cathode of the second stage to a resistor at the earthy end of the volume control feeding
the grid of the first stage (Ref. 65). It i~ stated that this gives 10 db of negative feed-
back at middle and high frequencies and 3 db of positive feedback at low frequencies,
equivalent to 13 db bass boost.
15.2 (iv) (C) DECREASED FEEDBACK AT BASS FREQUENCIES 647
Fig. 15.13. Single stage amplifier giving bass boosting with adjustable frequency
characteristic (Ref. 36).
Fig. 15.14A. Two stage amplifier giving 13 db effective bass boost (Ref. 65).
In Fig. 15.14B a capacitance is inserted in the feedback network from the plate
of VI! to the plate of Vu with r.c. coupling between the stages. This capacitance
provides a fixed amount of bass boosting which is generally limited to about 6 db maxi-
mum (Ref. 68).
FIG.15.J4B
~----~~E~~~--~
L...-_ _ _ _- '
r-
A circuit using an inductor in the feedback network is Fig. 15.54-this may be
used for bass boosting only by omitting C 2 and R 4 •
A particularlY interesting circuit is Fig. 15.15 which incorporates a parallel-T net-
work in the feedback loop (Ref. 51). In the figure the parallel-T network is tuned
to 80 cis, but it may be tuned to any other desired frequency. The frequency charac-
teristic is shown in Fig. 15.16.
There have been many other applications of negative feedback to provide bass
boosting which have appeared in articles and patents, too numerous to give in detail.
Some are given in the References (Sect. 15).
See also Sects. 4, 8, 9, 10 of this chapter, and Chapter 17, Sect. 5.
FIG. 15.·16
SO"-' 8O-ISOV
.--------------i
: ·2MSl. .2M.n.: ·IM.n.
I · I .05"F ·OS.,F
'--I1--_~II_~-~F--+---1~h Z +1
Ti irl
Q
-10
...::=
40 6C 100 200 sao 1,a:xJ 2pOO
FREQUENCY (CIS)
-3D ~--+-",,*,"---1f----r--+----i
..20 !-=----,~,...t-____\i~_+---I---_;
+10 I---+--f--.-"I~~"'<:--""","""-I---_;
0 20 30 40 60 sOO
3040 60 100 200 3017 500
Fr• .,. in Cycles FIG. 15.188
FntC!- in Cycles FIG. IS. leA
t-
~o
Fig. 15.19. Bass attenuation versus frequency characteristics: (1) Single grid
coupling condenser (R = 1 megohm, C = 0.005 fLF),. (2) Two stages each with
identical values of time constant RC,. (3) Three stages each with identical values
of time constant,. (4) R.c.c. pentode with by-passed cathode resistor (6}7, R L = 0.25
MD, Rk = 2000 D, C A- = 0.5 fLP) and screen adequately by-passed.
If it is desired to vary the cut-off frequency of an a-f transformer with parallel feed,
a variable resistor may be inserted to adjust the equivalent source impedance (R I in
Fig. 15.20). The low frequency attenuation (Ref. 51) is
attenuation in db = 10 loglo [1 + (RIXI)2] (1)
where R = RI + [r~d(r2' + Rz)]
Xl =.WLI
and Ll = primary inductance in henrys.
__~----__~~--~~B-
FIG.IS.21
Fig. 15.20. Amplifier, giving variable low-:-jrequency cut~off using a-f transformer
and parallel feed. .
Fig. 15.21. Amplifier providing bass attenuation by negative feedback (Ref. 23).
~
~
Fig. 15.22. Amplifier providing bass attenuation by Parallel-T network (Ref. 59).
Fig. 15.23. Frequency characteristics of amplifier Fig. 15.22 when VI = typical
r.c.c.pentode, C 1 = 0.001 p.F, ell = 0.004 p.F, C 3 = 0.02 p.F, Rl = Rz = 2 MQ,
RL = 0.2 MQ, R,I = 0.5 MD. The frequency for infinite attenuation is 56 cis.
Switch position (1) Fidelity (2) Bass attenuation (Ref. 59).
652 (viii) BASS ATTENUATION USING CONSTANT K FILTERS 15.3
FIG .15. 24
-ai~--~~----~-----+ ____~
-12t----~f------__+-----+----___I
11+
-1':~00~""'"'-=r---5:dOO~-~1OOO~~~2POO~
FREOUENC;Y (CIS j
Fig. 15.24. Amplifier providing bass attenuation by constant k filter (Ref. 60).
Fig. 15.25. Frequency characteristics of amplifier Fig. 15.24 when VI = typical
r.c.c. pentode, C 1 = C 2 = 0.002 ,.,.F ± 5%, C a = 1 ,.,.F, L = 70 H with Q = 6 ;
Curve (1) Rl = R2 = 0.25 MQ; Curve (2) RI = 50000 Q, R2 = 0.5 MQ
(unbalanced); Curve (3) as Curve 2 with additional resistance in inductor to give
Q = 3 (Ref. 60).
(ix) Bass attenuation using M-derived filte.-s
One T section of an M-derived filter may be \lSed to provide a more rapid attenua-
tion than that of a Constant k filter-see Chapter 4 Sect. 8(viH). The filter itself
is shown in Fig. 15.26 and the frequency characteristics for balanced 2nd unbalanced
impedances in Fig. 15.27. Here, also, a considerable tolerance is permissible with the
value of L and in the degree of I!lismatching. With miSIIUltching, the value of R
may be taken as yR1R 2 (Ref. 60). +10 FIG. II. ~7 .
r_ ..o_..
~..
trl
L
ch ·_,
•• ~
:
!L_·O r CI
o--J
I
.!
50 100
FIG. 15.26 200 500 1,000
F9EOUENCY (CIs)
Fig. 15.26. One T section of a series M-derived filter.
Fig. 15.27. Frequency characteristics of filter Fig. 15.26; Curve (1) Ri = R2 =
0.25M.o,C 1 = 0.OO23,.,.F,C 2 = 0.024,.,.F,L = 74H; Curve(2)Rl = 50 000 n,
R2 = 0.5 MQ (unbalanced), C 1 = 0.0058 ,.,.F, C 2 = 0.035 ,.,.F, L = 73 H(Ref. 60).
15.4 (i) STEPPED CONTROLS 653
We may determine the value of RI for any desired value of B from the equation
Rl = (B - I)(R2 + R") . (4)
In the case of pentodes, R" approximates to R L'
The frequency characteristics for treble boosting have been plotted (Ref. 51 Fig.
9.18; also Refs. 9,55) but for most purposes it is sufficient to work on the "half-
boost" points as. for bass boosting, the curves being approximately symmetrical S
curves about these points. The values of R/X for the half-boost point are identical
to those for bass boosting, and not the inverse as might be expected.
Total boost 20 15 10 6 3 db
Half boost 10 7.5 5 3 1.5 db
Boost ratio (B) 10 5.62 3.16 2.0 1.41
(RdXI ) for half boost* 3.16 2.37 1.78 1.41 1.19
CIt 3.16/ wR I 2.37/ wR I 1.78/ wR I 1.41/ wR I 1.19/ wR I F
*(RdX1) = VB at half boost point. Xl = 1/ wCI
tCI = 1/ wXI = (RdXI ) / wR I £0 = 27T/O
where RI and C I are as shown in Fig. 15.29
and /0 = frequency at half-boost point.
A variable control may be achieved in various ways (Ref. 9) :
(a) Varying CI - This can only be done in steps. The result is to change the
frequency of the half-boost point (see table).
(b) Varying R I - This varies the amplification for middle frequencies, and is un-
satisfactory for tone control purposes.
(c) Adding a variable resistor in series with CI - This is fairly effective but the shapes
of the frequency characteristics are not ideal for tone control. It is used in a slightly
modified form in the combined bass and treble boost circuit of Fig. 15.46.
References to conventional treble boosting circuit: 9, 17, 48, 51, 55.
FIG. 15.29
B+
__ ~~ ____ ~~ ___ B-
This forms part of the usual "tone-control" in many radio receivers of the less
expensive class, as illustrated in Fig. 15.31. The control is in the form of a variable
resistance in series with the capacitance which limits its attenuation. A suitable
656 (ii) ATTENUATION BY SHUNT CAPACITANCE 15.6
maximum value for the resistance is 10 times the load resistance. In some cases a
fixed capacitance only is used-typical values are from 0.005 to 0.02 ILF for a loud-
speaker load resistance of 5000 ohms. In this application the " effective resistance"
for the calculation of the attenuation will be the loudspeaker impedance in parallel
with the output resistance (Ro) of the amplifier.
Tone control by shunt capacitance, when used with discrimination, is fairly satis-
factory with a flat amplifier operating from an equalized source. It is far from satis-
factory in selective radio receivers in which the high audio frequencies are already
heavily attenuated; this effect is minimized when variable selectivity i-f amplifiers
are used. One reason for the popularity of shunt capacitance tone control is that the
intermodulation frequencies produced by the distortion in the pentode or beam power
amplifier valve are much reduced, and listening thereby made less fatiguing. If
methods are taken to reduce the distortion, e.g. by negative feedback, the tone control
may preferably take the form of bass boosting.
In order to achieve the desired treble attenuation, a shunt capacitance may be placed
across the source (radio receiver, pickup or microphone), from any grid to earth, from
any plate to earth or across the output terminals of the amplifier. In each case the
effective resistance (R in eqn. 4 of Chapter 4 and Fig. 4.38) is the resultant a.c. re-
sistance between the points across which the shunt capacitance is connected. In
the case of a r.c.c. pentode it is approximately the load resistance in parallel with the
following grid resistor, and it does not make any appreciable difference whether the
capacitance is shunted across the plate load resistor or the following grid resistor,
owing to the coupling through the grid coupling condenser. Even if no shunt con-
denser is added, the output capacitance of the valve plus the dynamic* input capacit-
ance of the following valve plus wiring capacitances provide appreciable treble attenua-
tion-see Chapter 12 Sect. 2(xi). The effect on treble attenuation may be reduced
by reducing the plate load resistance; it may be increased by increasing the plate
load resistance or by adding shunt capacitance. A typical r.c.c. pentode followed by
a similar stage has only slight attenuation at 10000 cis when the load resistance is
less than 0.25 megohm. In the case of a r.c.c. triode the effective resistance is the
plate resistance of the valve (under r.c.c. conditions) in parallel with the load resist-
ance and the following grid resistance. .
In the general case the effective resistance is given by
R = R, + R L 'r ll /(R L ' + r ll ) (1)
where Rs = resistance in series with C as part of the tone control,
RL' = RLR/I/(RL + Rg)
RL = load resistance
R (I = following grid resistance
and r 11 = plate resistance of valve.
With a high-mu triode such as type 6SQ7 the effective input capacitance is of the
order of 100 ILILF. If this capacitance is shunted across an effective resistance of
0.5 megohm, the attenuation is about 10 db at 10 000 cis.
The total attenuation at any frequency will be the attenuation at that frequency
prior to the amplifier plus the sum of the attenuations of the stages in the amplifier
at that frequency plus the attenuation by the shunt capacitance at that frequency, all
expressed in db. It is not sufficient to assume an attenuation of 6 db / octave from each
stage in the amplifier unless all the stages have the same cut-off frequency. In the
general case it is necessary, for design purposes, to calculate the attenuation of each
stage or filter for convenient frequencies, e.g. 10 000, 14000, 20 000, 28 000, 40 000
cis and then to add the values in db to determine the overall attenuation characteristic.
The latter will, eventually, almost reach a slope of 6 db/octave per stage or per shunt
capacitance, but the knee of the curve will be very rounded unless the cut-off fre-
quencies are identical.
·Under operating conditions, including the "Miller Effect" capacitance from the plate.
15.6 (iii) TREBLE ATTENUATION BY FILTER NETWORKS 657
liE
Fig. 15.33. Po'wer amplifier valve with small condenser C giving negative feedback
at high audio frequencies (treble attenuation).
Fig. 15.34. Power amplifier valve with variable negative feedback at high audio
frequencies (treble attenuation).
658 (iv) TREBLE ATTENUATION IN "FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS 15.6
--------~----~~----~8-
Fig. 15.35A. Amplifier with variable treble attenuation due to negative feedback.
Fig. 15.35B. Amplifier with negative feedback providing treble attenuation or
treble boosting (Ref. 67).
(C) Fig. 15.35A is a further variation in which R and C form a potential divider
across the output from V 2• At increasing frequencies a larger negative feedback
voltage is applied, the amount being limited by the variable resistance R. C 1 is a
blocking condenser (Ref. 63).
CD) For feedback over more than one stage, see Sect. 9.
An alternative form using a 5 position switch is shown in Fig. 15.36 (Ref. 33). The
switch positions are
1. heavy bass attenuation and very limited treble attenuation for very distant re-
ception, no feedback .
. 2. normal bass, heavy treble attenuation, no feedback.
3. bass attenuation, medium treble attenuation, half feedback.
4. normal bass, slight treble attenuation, half feedback.
Note: Positions 1 to 4 inclusive are for use with narrow i-f bandwidth.
5. normal bass, no treble attenuation, maximum feedback, wide i-f bandwidth,
for fidelity reception of local stations.
At low settings of the tapped volUme control the capacitance in series with the
inductance provide a dip at middle high frequencies, thus effectively giving bass and
treble boost.
• Columbus Radio (Radio Corporation of New Zealand Limited).
660 (iii) TONE CONTROL NOT USING INDUCTORS 15.8
Fig. 15.37A. Simple universal tone Fig. 15.37B. Step-type tone control
control not using inductors. not using inductors (Ref. 70).
An improved form is given in Fig. 15.37B and its frequency characteristics in Fig.
15.37C (Ref. 70). The 15 p.p.F max. trimmer capacitor is for the purpose of com-
pensating in the " flat ,. position for the loss of high audio frequencies caused by stray
shunt and Miller Effect capacitances when the following stage is a triode.
FIG. IS.UC Increased rate of boost-
30 ing and attenuation is
obtainable by connecting
20
two or more r.c. filters in
.....
..........
cascade. A step of 6
db/octave (nominal) is too
I
..... ,.!.--' ... I-
great for a flexible tone
....
['..... ,. .... 1-
~
control, so that networks
I'-- -l- i"""" giving reduced rates of
............
'"enZ 0 - - - ~- ~-I- -........: ....... .......... boosting and attenuation
~
/ may be devised (Fig.
CIt
'"0:_ 10 1/10-'
,,"
V~
1
I
'" "- 15.38). These may be
combined to give any de-
sired steps. A very com-
/ prehensive example is Fig.
15.39 (Ref. 50) which
uses two six-pole 11 posi-
Xl2 tion control switches. Its
R i ~ ~ § ),. ~ i 2" overall gain is zero db at
til'
FREQUENCY CIS . 500 cis at any setting of
Fig. 15.37C. Frequency response characteristics of the the control switches.
circt4t of Fig. 15.37B (Ref. 70).
'IG. 15."
0.001. ••100 17,000 .;000, u,ooo TAP
..
21,000
... l ..
. ~g
::0 0.00 ::0
0.025
.
::0
::0
! ",000 0.011
i! Go
».ooo~
o o
r
Z
10.001.
o I'!!E!!U !!OOS'
4 01 '(II OCTAVE
® TAE!I~£ AnEIIUATlo-
101 "Ell OCTAVE
@ ,~u 'OO$T
t .. 01 PEA OCT AV!
@ 'ASS ATTEIIUATII)II
2 O' PEA OCTAVE
Fig. 15.38. Net'lvorks giving selected values of decibels per octave for boosting and
attenuation (Ref. 50).
15.8 (iii) TONE CONTROL NOT USING INDUCTORS 66]
BASS CONTROL FIG .•S." TREBLE CONTROL
+30 _ ~, +30
III
.~~-+~~~-±+~H-~~-r~ffi
~,.
./ W.~P- ~
+20
0 V ~
Tli = +10
f::-r-
;~ t:::::r-..
T6
I-. TT
T8
T9===
f- TREBLE
1 ....... 1:'
.....
:n;p:--
I ;7,1--
CPWRO~ CURVES
I I III
ITt---20
illl II II 30
5,000 I0,00O 20,000
Fig. 15.39. Step-type tone control system not using inductors (Ref. 50).
RESP. CONTACT.
CURVE. 7 8 9 10 11 12
Tl R Z AA BB NC CC
T2 S NC Z BB NC CC
T3 T Z AA NC NC BB
T4 U NC Z NC NC BB
T5 V Z NC NC NC AA
T6 Y NG NC NC NC Z
T7 X NC NC NC Z DD
T8 X NC NC NC Z EE
T9 X NC NC NC Z FF
TI0 X NC NC NC Z GG
Tll W NC NC NC Z HH
RESP. CONTACT
CURVE. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Bl J I A B NC C
B2 K NC ] B NC C
B3 L ] A NC NC B
B4 M NC ] NC NC B
B5 N ] NC NC NC A
B6 P NC NC NC NC ]
B7 P NC NC NC ] D
B8 P NC NC NC .] E
B9 P NC NC NC ] F
Bl0 P NC NC NC ] G
Bll Q NC NC NC ] 11
boosting. The inductor may be wound with an air-core as under: Former diameter
1- in. Length between cheeks ! in. Winding wire 40 S.W.G. (or 36 A.W.G) SSE.
Total turns 6740, tapped at 4520 turns. Layer wound. Total radial depth of wind-
ing say 0.6 in.
One defect of this method of treble boosting is the tendency for the inductor to
pick up hum.
(v) Fixed bass and treble boosting
When it is desired to incorporate a fixed amount of bass and treble boosting, as
for example equalizing the response of a pair of headphones, the circuit of Fig. 15.41
may be used. For headphone equalizing (Ref. 7) suitable values are C1 = 0.0003,
Ct. = 0.015 p.F, RI = R, = 0.1 MQ, R5 = O. For bass and treble boost for tone
control suitable values are (Ref. 25) :-C1 = Cz = 0.0002 p.F, RI = 0.2 MQ,
R, = 0.3 MD, R5 = 0, giving 16 db bass boost (20 cis) and 7 db treble boost (10 000
cis) relative to 1000 cis. If R5 = 50 000 ohms, other values being unchanged, the
bass boost is 16 db and treble boost 12 db.
(vi) Step type tone control using negative feedback
Circuits providing universal step-type tone control using negative feedback are
described in Sect. 9 (Fig. 15.58A).
(vii) Continuously-variable controJ.s-...general
Continuously-variable controls are in two groups, those which have one control
knob and those which have two or more. A single control knob is obviously limited
in its capabilities-for example it may be used to provide bass boosting when turned
in one direction from the centre point, or treble boosting in the other direction, with
flat response at the centre point. On the other hand, with two control knobs it is
possible to make any desired combination of bass and treble characteristics.
FIG. 15.41 8+
O'INn
B+
Fig. 15.41. Circuit giving fixed bass Fig. 15.42. Single control continu-
and treble boosting (Ref. 7). ously variable tone control (Ref. 22).
(viii) -Single-control continuously variable tone controls
(A) A typical example is Fig. 15.42 (Ref. 22). When C1 goes to the grid end of
potentiometer R z, the bass is attenuated by the grid coupling condenser Cu limited
by R 1 • When C1 goes to the earthed of RaJ the treble is attenuated by the shunt
capacitance of CI •
15.8 (viii) SINGLE-CONTROL CONTINUOUSLY-VARIABLE 663
FIG. 15.43
(B) Another example is Fig. 15.43 (Ref. 62) which is capable of giving treble boost
18 db at 10 000 cis and bass attenuation 6 db at 50 cis in one extreme position; bass
boost 4 db and treble attenuation 21 db in the other extreme.
(C) An interesting circuit which gives simultaneous bass and treble boosting,-linear
. response, or simultaneous bass and treble attenuation is Fig. 15.43A (Ref. 86). The
CRoSS-COUPLED STAGE
BALANCED
OUTPUT
FIG. IS.43A
IJ ~"" '\
90
80
~ ~-
'",,,- \vv
I 1\
~~
"" ~ ESSEr Mr-
~
'" ~ ~ 1/
"'V. "
r\ ~ I~
~I"" --...... 'l' ~ ~ .... D< " \.
0
~ 10-":"" [A t;r ~~ ~
J4i(,1 ~ ,,~~
~Es '_6E,:MAX.
L!E~ • oS E2MAX.
I-- +- I-~
V N
I""""'"
j I""r-. I
~ Es ',4 E"MAX J
.....
--
I
~
~
~
~
~I
~
\ IA Es·.25E zMAX.
o~
~ / '£,'0
0
~
-02 .05 .2 .5 I 10 0
fIfo FIG. 15.-43B
two twin triodes form the "cross-coupled phase inverter"-see Chapter 12 Sect.
6(viii}-which is here used to amplify the difference between the input voltages to
the 6SN7 grids. The frequency response curves are shown in Fig. 15.43B for differ-
ent values of R 1 • The maximum output and the point of zero phase shift occur
at fifo = 1~ where fo = 1/211RC. The frequency of the peak in the curve may be
determined by choice of R and C; in the circuit shown~ this frequency is adjustable
from 360 to 4000 cis by means of a dual 1 MQ potentiometer. A choice offo =-600
to 800 cis is pleasing in many cases.
FIG.IS.44A
Rs
O·lpF'
INPUT Rz
INPUT Ra OUTPUT
Fig. lS.47A. Paraphase- bass-treble tone control (Ref. 56). For value of plate resistor
marked Treble see Corrigenda on page (viii).
I TREB. 0 - BASS FULL " TREB 0 - BASS "4 8 TREB !l4 . . BASS 0
2 TREB 0- BASS ~ 5 TREB FULL-BASS 0 9 TREB FULL- BASS FULL
3 TRE&. 0 - BASS 11 6 TREB. 3~ - BASS 0 10 TREB. 1f2 - BASS "2
7 TREB If! - BASS 0
6
"
2
-
---f-!--
f=~
t=~
I ;
(E) Two-stage bass and treble tone control (Fig. IS.48, Ref. 41)
This employs a twin triode with the treble boost control in the coupling from VI
to V 2 and the bass boost control in the coupling from the plate of V 2 to the following
Itage.
(F) Simple two channel amplifier (Fig. IS.49, Ref. 22)
Owing to the separate amplifier valves, this circuit does not require the series re-
sistors R6 and R 8 used in Fig. IS.44 and has thereby less attenuation in the filter
Retwork.
FIG. 15.48
FIG. 15.49
OUTPUT
E--
INPUT
~
Fig. IS.48. Two-stage bass and treble Fig. IS.49. Simple two channel
tone control (Ref. 41). amplifier (Ref. 22).
(G) Wide-range two-channel amplifier (Fig. IS.S0, Ref. 31)
In this circuit V t is an amplifying valve common to both channels,
VI is a bass amplifier only, while V 3 is a twin triode having one grid fed
from the bass amplifier and the other from VI through a filter network which
only passes the higher frequencies. However two plates of V 3 are approximately
equal in amplitude for all frequencies, owing to the common cathode coupling, and
opposite in phase, so that the output may be applied directly to a push-pull power
output stage. The bass amplifier V 2 is a true bass booster, so that it is not necessary
to attenuate all except bass frequencies. The two controls provide (1) flat response
(2) independent treble boost (3) independent bass boost equal to the gain of Vl!' If
it is desired to add treble attenuation, the filter circuit of Fig. IS.51 may be used. This
gives a flat response when the moving arm of the potentiometer is at the centre tap.
5Opoon sopoon.
":"
FJG.15.50
Fig. 15.51. Modification to Fig. 15.50 to provide treble attenuation (Ref. 31).
Fig. 15.52. Resonant plate loading to provide bass and treble boost (Refs. 26, 54).
plate load resistance R 3 • Control of the bass is given by RI and of. the treble by-RI.
The Q of each of these circuits should not exceed I-see Sect. l(ix).
Fig. 15.53. Bass and treble boosting due to negative feedback incorporating
. Land C in cathode circuit (Ref. 26).
Fig. 15.54. Bass and treble boosting due to negative feedbaok incorporating
L and C (Ref. 15).
IM.CI. •
OUTPUT
~
~~~~~~~r-~--~~L-~~~
- ~
\
\ L-'
,
o
" ~
\
~~
"\ ~ V~
o~ 51
'"
$I ~ 8 ~ §. ~ §. ~0 l.
"," VI" Q" ~.
- ...0 '" 01)
-"'" . .V .....
-
~III
U
~
0
"""'r-.
MID-POSITIONS
I--'~
"" ......
I'-- ~ r--....
~ .-'" l--
~ ~ ....
I-t::::::...- ~
-....
~
r-
.-I- Io-+-
MID-POSITIONS
f'...."t--.
r-..'
-10
10"'"
~
~ V r-.. ""-
10'
~
I-o"i--'
I
-20
V FULL BASS CUT FULL TREBLE C~
(i) Introduction
Simple feedback circuits to give tone control have been described above (Figs.
IS.ll, 13, 14A, 14B, IS, 3SB). See also Ref. 80. Tone control may be achieved
by incorporating a suitable frequency selective network in the feedback loop, but
this involves the question of stability if the feedback is over 2 or more stages-in this
case the design should be based on Chapter 7 Sect. 3.
The general principles have been covered very fully in the literature e.g. Refs. 16,
19 (see also References Chapter 7).
In any amplifier in which negative feedback tone control is to be used, maximum
freedom in other aspects of the design is desirable. For example it should be possible
to alter the· feedback factor, and a variation in the feedback over the a-f range should
be acceptable. It is also desirable not to be limited to a specified value of output
resistance. The feedback should preferably be applied over a small number of stages.
In the case of fidelity amplifiers, there should be sufficient negative feedback at the
bass resonant frequency of the loudspeaker to give adequate damping.
Most tone-control amplifiers are only stable for values of f3 up to a limiting value.
One good experimental test is to determine the maximum of f3 before instability occurs.
The working value of f3 should be less than this limiting value by a comfortable margin
(say 8 to 10 db) to allow for all variable factors and for tolerances in the various com-
ponents.
Fig. lS.58A. High gain ampHfier with overall feedback giv£ng bass and treble
boosting (Ref. 42).
J
15.9 (ii) (D) FEEDBACK TO PROVIDE SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS 671
INPUT
FIG.ls.see
Fig. 15.58B. Use of feedback to provide special attenuation characteristics at
low frequencies. The total effective resistance across Tl primary is taken as 1000
ohms. Switch S1 normal; S2 tone control (low frequency attenuation). Switch Sf
controls feedback.
-
2. Design the tone control to provide a total attenuation, without feedback, of about
3 db at 10 fo (Curve D). 0
A
3. Apply sufficient negative 4
I
feedback to flatten the re- I .a ./ I
0
e
sponse over the desired fre-
quency range (Curve C). 12
I
In the example, 20 db of 16
I
/
./
Ie
""
feedback is used, and the e 20 .......c::::
L
combined effect is to give an I / /
attenuation of 18 db in the 5 24 I /
octave from 100 to 50 cis. ~z 28 I
I /
~ 32 /
il
~ /,
(b) To provide optional
bass boosting
6
1110
,
//
(i) Introduction
Owing to the special characteristics of the human ear, it is necessary for bass boosting
and (to a less extent) treble boosting to be applied to music or speech when repro-
duced at a lower level than the original sound, if it is desired to retain the full tonal
qualities of the original. Provision is therefore often made in the better quality
receivers and amplifiers for this to be done automatically as the volume control is
adjusted. For this to be fully effective) the volume with the volume control at its
maximum setting should be the same as that of the original sound-a condition which
it is rarely possible to fulfil in radio reception. One possible way of achieving an
approach to the true condition would be to fit two auxiliary volume controls-one
with settings for say (I) speech (2) orchestral and (3) solo instrument, and the other
to be adjusted to bring the reading on some form of level indicator to a predetermined
value. The first of these auxiliary controls is necessary because the various original
sounds differ in level, the second control to provide for imperfect a.v.c. in the re-
ceiver and variations in percentage modulation between stations. These complica-
tions are not likely to be popular. However the intelligent listener should have a
second volume control which may be pre-set to give a desired output level for maxi-
mum volume-this is particularly important in reproduction from records.
In practice, some form of simple automatic frequency-compensated tone control
is found beneficial, in spite of its technical imperfections. One reason for this popu-
larity is that it permits a considerable degree of bass boosting to be used at low volume
but not at maximum volume-control setting. It is therefore more fool-proof than
manually-operated bass boosting, and less likely to cause overloading of the power
amplifier.
(li) Methods incorporating a tapped FIG.15.59
potentiometer ~o~ Volume Control
t
,
Potentiometer
A typical application is Fig. 15.59 in which L and C
form a series resonant circuit tuned to about 1000 cis, ~tOVI
Input
while R is a limiting resistance to reduce the by-passing R Grid
at middle frequencies. The tapping point is usually
about one fifth of the total resistance, being equivalent
r
Output
~
to about 14 db below maximum. With this method
it is impossible to obtain theoretically correct compensa-
tion.
If treble boosting is not desired) L may be orr,itted Fig. i5.59. Tone-com-
leaving C and R to provide bass boosting. pensated 'Volume control
References 71, 72, 89. 'loilh tapped potentiometer.
15.10 (ii) METHODS INCORPORATING A TAPPED POTENTIOMETE~ 6.73
A more satisfactory result over a wider range of volume level$ can. Ix: obtained by
using a volume control with two tappings (e.g. at one sixth and. one third of the re-
sistance) as in Ref. 88.
A more elaborate ~ of continuously-variable control has been described (Ref. 19)
but requires a special volume control. .
Another more elaborate type (Ref. 82) uses three ganged volqme cont:J:'Ols wlrl~
are not tapped.
FIG. 15.61
!so,
I
I
I
j---------------,
I ·2M.n. :
I I
l
:
'------ •
___________ ..JI
TO GRID OF
Fig. 15.61. Inverse volume-expansion circuit with 3 channel amplifier for automatic
frequency-compensated tone control (Ref. 21).
given by
An/A,. = (R' + R1)/R1
where R' = rvRL' /(r" + RL')
and RL' = RLRu/(RL + Rg).
For effective filtering, the maximum attenuation
may have to be 20 db or more. The sharpness of the
attenuation curve depends upon the Q of the tuned
circuit, where Q = w,LtlR l • A value of Q = 10 is
probably the highest practicable value, and under
these conditions. the filter will have a minimum at-
tenuation of 4 db over a bandwidth of 0.64 f,. or a 8-
minimum attenuation of 8 db over a bandwidth of
0.38 f,. where f,. is the frequency of resonance. Fig. 15.62. Whistle jilter
This is equivalent to an attenuation of at uS1,'ng resonant circuit.
15.11 (ii) NARROW BAND REJECTION FILTER 675
least 8 db over a frequency range from approximately 8000 to 12000 cis whenfr =
10000 cis. Thus the filter cuts such a serious hole in the amplifier frequency charac-
teristics that it is not a satisfactory solution. It is reasonably satisfactory for a maxi-
mum attenuation of 6 db, but this may not be sufficient to eliminate the whistle.
For theory and curves see Refs. 17, 51, pp. 52-54.
Another circuit (Ref. 87) has a supplementary channel with a distorting valve (triode
6SF5) functioning effectively only below about 100 cis. Grid distortion is produced
through zero bias operation. A plate load resistor of 0.5 MD is used, and the plate
coupled to the grid of the output pentode. It is stated that the loudspeaker bass
resonance should preferabiy be iess than 60 cis, and that the results sound unnatural
to the ear on music when the loudspeaker resonance is about 150 cis.
The principles of synthetic bass are given in Chapter 14 Sect. 3(viii).
15.13 THE LISTENER AND TONE CONTROL 677
(i) Introduction
The maximum volume range of any sound reproducer is the difference in decibels
between the maximum sound output and the level of masking by background noise
which latter may include hum, random noise, needle scratch or microphone noise.
The volume range transmitted by a broadcast station may vary from a low value
up to at least 60 db for a F-M transmitter (F.C.C.), the value depending on the type
of programme. In the case of an A-M transmitter the maximum volume range is
about 50 db-see Chapter 14 Sect. 7(iv).
If the original sound has a volume range greater than the maximum volume range
of the transmitter, it is usual to compress it in some way. The compression may be
accomplished manually by the control engineer, or automatically by a device known
as a peak limiter or a volume compressor. .
A similar case arises with recorded music, where the maximum volume range may.
be as low as 35 db for shellac lateral-cut disc records.
Many types of programme have a maximum volume range less than 35 db, and
therefore do not require compression. However, most broadcast transmitters have
an automatic peak limiter permanently operating, while it has even been found bene-
ficial to use volume compression in F-M broadcasting (Ref. 29).
If reproduced music is to have the same volume range as in its original form, some
kind of volume expander is required. But, as will be shown later, volume expansion
cannot be applied indiscriminately and cannot be perfect.
One advantage of the use of volume expansion is that it reduces the background
noise, other than room noise. This is a considerable advantage when the source is
a disc record.
A serious shortcoming of automatic volume expansion is that the circuit can never
duplicate the original volume range because it has no way of knowing what these
679
680 (i) INTRODUCfrON 16.1
original ievels were-it wi~ make the loud portions louder and the soft portions softer,
but always by the same amount for a given input level. Thus the expander circuit
might increase every signal that is 10 db above the average volume level to 15 db above
the average, but the level in the studio might have been higher or lower than this.
The amplitude ratios of a soft and a loud note when rendered simultaneously can..
not be compressed or expanded by any system. If the loud note causes a certain
compression in the transmitter, the soft note will be compressed in the sante ratio
and may fall below the noise level (Ref. 33).
(iv) Distortion
Apart from the harmonic and intermodulation distortion and extraneous noises
produced by the compressor and expander, which may be kept low by good design,
there are some special features which require consideration. Some of these are de-
scribed in Sect. 2(iv) in connectien with volume compression.
(i) Introduction
In this Section it is intended to approach the subject from the point of view of the
radio receiver or amplifier designer.
Volume compressors may be divided into three groups :
!Xl
Vcl'l
18
...,~ com~rculon f - -
16 -
...
14 ... Threshold of
goin r~cfuction /
~
~
~
in db
t
I
D.
..J ...C;
12 III
>
III
..J
/
V-
T .r-
t--- -- -- 0
10 I-
::;)
Q.
0</
.p
I-
8
B V
III
6 >
4
~
...I V
V I
III
a:
I
I
o
/ 2. 4 6
RE ....... TlVE
8 10.
INPUT
12 14
LEVEL
16 II
lib
20 22. 24 '26
Fig. 16.1. Compression characteristics (B, C, D) of typical peak limiter or 'Volume
limiter.
Some static limiter characteristics are shown in Fig. 16.1. Curve OA is the curve
of a linear amplifier. Curve OTD is that of an "ideal" limiter, with point T as
the threshold of limiting. It will be seen that the output does not rise above a level
of 12 db, no matter how great the input may become.
Curve OTB is that of a practical peak limiter, the curve TB indicating by its slope
a compression ratio of 10 to 1 (both being measured in db). The compression in
db at any point is as indicated' by the arrows.
Curve OC is that of a peak limiter having " over-control" (Refs. 36, 40, 44) which
does not exceed 100% modulation (line TD) until the compression reaches 12 db.
With peak limiters a volume expander cannot be used to give correct compensation
for the compression.
Most of the earlier and simpler forms of peak limiters have a comparatively slow
" attack" time, that is· the time taken for the limiter to operate on a sudden increase
in input level-usual times are 1 or 2 milliseconds. A slow anack time results in
overmodulation and distortion for short intervals following each transient. More
recent examples of good design (Refs. 36, 38, 40, 44, 63) claim to have " attack"
times less than 100 microseconds, while some (Refs. 36, 40, 44) incorporate a time
delay filter in the signal circuit which is claimed to permit almost instantaneous opera-
tion. Tests have been carried out under dynamic conditions to demonstrate the
performance of various types of limiters (Refs. 4, 40, 63). It is good practice for the
" attack" time of a peak limiter to be less than 200 microseconds, while still shorter
times (e.g. 100 microseconds or less) are desirable.
The recovery times in most cases are manually controlled, with times up to 2 or
even 3 seconds, but automatic control has also been used to lengthen the recovery
time so as to avoid " pumping" when several programme peaks occur in rapid suc-
cession (Ref. 36). The recovery time is not made longer than necessary, since it
causes reduced modulation percentage.
One design (Ref. 86) has a subsidiary series CR circuit that has only a slight effect
with a single sharp peak, thereby giving a fairly short recovery time (0.33 sec.) but
with a sustained peak the recovery time increases to 2 seconds.
If a fixed value of recovery time is used, the most suitable range is from 0.5 to 1.5
seconds, and " pumping" may be avoided by restricting the limiting action to 4 or
16.2 (ii) PEAK LIMITERS 683
(C) Thump
Control current surges caused by rapid changes in input level mayor may not be
audible as a thump. Careful design is necessary to reduce the trouble. One design
is claimed to have a very high signal/thump ratio (Refs. 36, 40, 44).
(E) "Pumping"
This has already been described· above.
l~~r--
to the control voltage. One application
(Ref. 31) gives less than 1.8% total har-
monic distortion under all conditions, with
an output of 12 volts.
Another application of negative feedback ":'" + b. +E b ":'"
is Fig. 16.3 which employs a remote cut-off Fig. 16.3. Pentode with negative feed-
pentode with negative feedback provided back used as shunt resistance in an
by capacitance C 2 from plate to grid. attenuator to provide gain control.
By this means the effective plate resistance with feedback becomes approximately
l/g m' Thus a valve with a range of mutual conductance from 2000 to 2 micromhos
may be used as a resistance varying from 500 to 500 000 ohms. The ratio between
output and input voltages is given by
Rd(gmRIRL + RI + R L )·
FIG. 16.~ With the values given in Fig. 16.3, a varia-
80 tion approaching 33 db is obtainable when
/v VI has a maximum g m of 2000 micromhos
/. (Ref. 62). The dominant (second) harmonic
distortion is less than 0.2% for an input
/ voltage of 2 volts.
/ (v) Lamps
/ Metal filament (dial) lamps may be used as
/
control devices in volume expanders. A
/
typical tungsten filament lamp has a resistance
V at maximum brilliancy of about 10 times that
at room temperature (Fig. 16.4). See Sect.
o I 2 3 4 4(ii) for applications of metal filament lamps
VOLTAGE ACROSS FILAMENT in expanders.
Fig. 16.4. Resistance characteristic Note: Carbon filament lamps have a re-
of typ£cal 4-6 volt 0.04 A metal
filament lamp .used in volume ex- sistance which is less when at maximum
panders (Ref. 45). brilliancy than at room temperature.
686 (vi) SUPPRESSOR-GRID CONTROL 16.3
(i) Introduction
Volume expansion is very similar to volume compression, and the same control
methods are used for both, but the control voltage is of opposite polarity. In fact,
an expander/compressor may be designed with a switch to change from one to the
other (Fig. 16.14).
The desirable characteristics which a volume expander should have are :
1. Negligible non-linear distortion.
2. The degree of expansion should be under control.
3. The degree and control of expansion should be independent of the volume level
at which the amplifier is operated.
4. The expansion should result in the upwards expansion of loud passages and the
downwards expansion of soft passages.
5. The attack time should be short-times from 0.2 to 200 milliseconds are in com-
mon use, but the shorter times are preferable (say not exceeding 20 milliseconds).
6. The recovery time should be adjustable from a fraction of a second to 1 or 2
seconds.
7. There should be no audible thump or transient distortion with sudden large
transients.
8. There should be no appreciable reduction in maximum power output.
9. The overall gain should not be reduced seriously by the expander.
10. The shape of the expansion characteristic should provide some expansion at
low output levels, the amount of expansion steadily increasing all the way to
maximum power output.
For most purposes an expansion of 10 or 12 db is satisfactory, although some prefer
up to 15 or even 20 db.
It is preferable to introduce the expander into the amplifying chain so that mini-
mum amplification follows it. I t is therefore desirable to select a type of expander
which is capable of a fairly high output voltage. It is preferable for tone controls
to precede the expansion unit.
Electronic methods of volume expansion may be divided into two groups, those
in which the control voltage is derived from the output voltage, and those in which
it is derived from the input voltage, suitably amplified. The former method is cheaper
and employs fewer valves, but it has a less desirable shape of expansion characteristic
and may be unstable. The latter method is used in Figs. 16.10 to 16.15 inclusive,
and is preferable in order to avoid thumps and blocking effects.
When the control voltage is derived from the input voltage, a " side=cr.ain .. am-
plifier is used (e.g. Fig. 16.10) with the final stage transformer-coupled to a suitable
full-wave rectifier and load network.
16.4 (li) EXPANDERS INCORPORATING LAMPS 687
Fig. 16.5. Simplest form of volume Fig. 16.6. Bridge type of volume
expander using a lamp expander using lamps.
FIG .• '.7
The bridge circuit of Fig. 16.6 is quite practical, and may be used with any type
of output valve. At maximum volume this may possibly have an efficiency of 66%.
With the addition of two inductors Ll and L2 and two capacitors C 1 andCz (Fig. 16.7)
it may be used to provide bass boosting at low output levels only (Refs. 50, 51, 52,61).
Correct load matching is arranged for maximum output, leaving the low level condition
to look after itself. .
A suggested application of both carbon and metal filament lamps is Ref. 53.
Fig. 16.10. Volume expander incorporating remote cut-off pentodes (Ref. 23).
Controls A = balance, B = volume, C = input level, D = expansion, E = time
constant.
may be omitted, thus eliminating time delay in the adjustment of electrode voltages.
Valves used in each push-pull pair must be very carefully matched for plate current and
mutua! conductance at several points over the operating range of grid bias. voltages.
Owing to the limited input-voltage which may be used, there should be one voltage
amplifier stage between the controlled stage and the power amplifier.
An example of good design is Fig. 16.10 (Ref. 23). The minimum attack time is
about 10 milliseconds and the recovery time of the order of 1 second. The expansion
curve (db versus voltage) is approximately linear up to a d.c. control voltage of 20
volts, which gives 10 db expansion. The 6SC7 stage is common to both sections.
The 6SK7 push-pull stage is the controlled stage; this is followed by the 6N7 voltage
amplifier stage which is coupled to the 6V6-GT power amplifier. The signal to feed
the rectifier is taken from the plate circuit of the 6SC7 stage, amplified in two stages
(6F8-G), the second being a cathode follower; and rectified by the 6H6. The direct
voltage from the 6H6 filter circuit is applied to the signal grids of the 6SK7 valves.
In any expander of this general type, whatever may be the method of controlling
the gain, it is necessary to prevent the transients in the output of the individual ex-
pander valves from becoming so large as to cut off the following stage. This can be
accomplished by transformer coupling, by a direct-coupled phase inverter (as in
Fig. 16.13) or by the use of low values of load resistances and couplmg capacitances
(as Fig. 16.10). With the third .method it is necessary to incorporate an equalizing
network to give a flat overall frequency response.
Refs. 22 (part 1), 23.
(v) Expanders incorporating remote cut-off triodes
Any remote cut-off pentode may be connected as a triode (screen, suppressor and
plate tied together) to form a triode which may be used in a similar manner to a pen-
tode, except that the gain will be lower. It has been stated that a single valve has
0.37>/0 total harmonic distortion unexpanded, 0.64% expanded, predominately
second harmonic, when the output level is - 25 db (i.e. 0.056 volt). For further
details see Refs. 1, 42.
(vi) Expande~s incorporating suppressor-grid controlled pentodes
A sharp cut-off pentode of suitable design may be used for controlling the gain-
the English Mazda ACjSPI and the American 6SJ7 are typical examples. One
e~ple of this application is Fig. 16.11 (Refs. 7, 10) which has an attack time of about
1 millisecond, and a variable recovery time of about 1 second mlximum~ Resistors
690 (vi) INCORPORATING SUPPRESSOR-CONTROLLED PENTODES 16.4
~IG 16 II
lun
INPUT
O~
50.000
I
I..Ul ~_ _~~~
- .. sv
Fig. 16.12. Single-ended surgeless volume expander incorporating suppressor-grid
control (Ref. 27).
18.4 (vii) EXPANDERS INCORPORATING VALVES WITH FIVE GRIDS 691
CI
INPUT
IM~ R22 :J
~~---+-------+---o+:-
Fig. 16.13. Volume expander incorporating push-pu1l6L7 control valves (Ref. 21).
FIG 1614
·I,..F
TIME CONSTANT
CONTROL
"}'oF \
COMPRESS
INPUT
250V 250V
·.tom
FI-
+
lcoon
-L'''b~ !~~ I
20P
+ 300 V.
Fig. 16.15. Volume expander incorporating plate resistance control (Ref. 43).
far enough in ,phase to increase appreciably the peak amplitude of the wave. At the
bass end, satisfactory results are obtained if the response following the clipper stage
is attenuated 3 db or less.
The Plex amplifier (Ref. 37, Fig. 3) is capable of 20 db peak clipping before the
distortion becomes serious. The average increase in power level is about 12 db.
An alternative design of speech clipper incorporated in a speech amplifier is given
in Fig. 2 of Ref. 28.
FIG. 16.16
8'+
Fig. 16.16. Simple form of speech clipper suitable for an amateur transmitter.
The 3.75 H choke must have low d.c. resistance and good a-f characteristics (Ref. 28).
A much simpler fonn of speech clipper, but one good enough for use with amateur
transmitters, is shown in Fig. 16.16 (Ref. 28).
" Infinite" peak clipping has been used successfully, giving articulation from 50
to 90%. If preceded and followed by suitable frequency-tilting filters, the articu-
lation may reach 97% with a quality sounding very much like nonnal speech. See
Chapter 14 Sect. 11(ii), also Ref. 71 of this chapter.
References to speech clippers: 28, 37, 63, 71.
SECOND
DETECTOR
DIODE
CI
C3
~-----3-it-r-
r
r
I
I
A-F
OUTPUT
I •
I
I un.
Fig. 16.19. Series-type noise limiter with threshold adjustment (Ref. 30).
696 (ii) (C) LOW-LOSS SERIES-TYPE NOISE LIMITER 16.7
FIG. 16.20
~-----------------,
SECOND
] +-'_ _C...-IIOO_PfOF----1 DETECTOR
100,000 400.000
Fig. 16.20. Low-loss serie~
RI R2 ,Ra
500,000
limiter. (Ref. 30).
Ca C2
0·1
R 500,000
c..
~---~-----T-~~
A-F
OUTPUT
1..11.
~ A
NOISE
LIMITER
---+=-il---.... C
0·01
R2
~MM~--~--~SWlOWIO~
Mn
Fig. 16.23. Balancing-type noise limiter Fig. 16.24. Triode shunt-type noise
(Ref. 30). limiter (Ref. 30).
(F) Balancing-type noise limiter (Fig. 16.23)
This uses a limiter diode with reversed polarity, shunted across the detector diode.
The modulation distortion is quite high, even on relatively low modulation depths.
This circuit gives effective limiting of noise peaks. It provides about twice the
normally obtainable a.v.c. voltage when the direct potential across R2 is utilized.
(G) Triode shunt-type noise limiter (Fig. 16.24)
This circuit employs the plate resistance of a triode shunted across a portion of
detector diode load, the magnitude of the shunt resistance being controlled by the
grid and plate voltages, which act in conjunction with differential time-constants.
F'G. 16.2S SECOND The percentage· of modulation at
.--_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.:DE:..T:.;ECTOR which distortion begins depends on
the triode used, the values of Ru R"
and Ra,the time-constants involved,
and the absolute carrier level. The
higher carrier levels produce no dis-
tortion and no limiting. Serious
distortion has been observed with
100/0 modulation at low signal levels.
Effective limiting action is restricted
D I....F to a narrow range of carrier input
Fig. 16.25. Diode shunt-type noise limiter levels, generally above 10 Me/s in
(Ref. 30). carrier frequency.
(H) Simple diode shunt-type. noise limiter (Fig. 16.25)
This is the simplest form of limiter, but the performance is not very good·; some
improvement is evident on pulse type interference on signals above 10 Me/s.
FIG 16.26
r
OUTPUT
shunt limiter, although not so good
as the simple series-type limiter at
the lower carrier frequencies.
Fig. 16.26. Modified shunt noise lim£ter
(Ref. 30).
698 (ii) (J) DEGENERATIVE NOISE-LIMITER 16.7
FIG. 16 27
FROM FIRST
I-F AMPLIFIER
TO SECOND
DETECTOR
SECOND NOISE
LIMITER
Ave DIODE oI\MPLIFIER
SYSTEM AND
FIRST NOISE
LIMITER
AMPLIFIER
+IOOV
R3
50,000 ~--e------10""'OM.MOOMO----------0-.0---15 C3 -l-
Fig. 16.27. Degenerative noise limiter, acting between first and second i-1 slages
(Ref. 30).
0'01
INPUT FROM RI
DETECTOR OR
1ST A-F
AMPLIFIER
SECTION 8: REFERENCES
1. McProud, C. G. "Volume expansion with a triode" Elect. 13.8 (Aug. 1940) 17.
2. Schrader, H. J. U.S. Patent 2,343,207 (1944)-Improved voltage limiter.
3. "Contrast expansion etc." (letters) A. H. King W.W. 48.12 (Dec. 1942) 290; J. R. l:Iughes 49.1
aan. 1943) 29; J. Moir 49.3 (Mar. 1943) 92; D. T. N. Williamson, W.W. 49.5 (May 1943) 151 ;
J. R. Hughes 49.8 (Aug. 1943) 240; C. E. G. Bailey 49.10 (Oct. 1943) 313; J. R. Hughes 49.12
(Dec. 1943) 382; A. A. Tomkins 50.5 (May 1944) 152.
4. Hilliard, J. K. " A limiting amplifier with peak control action" Comm. 23.5 (May 1943) 13.
5. Lewis, R. "A peak-limiting amplifier for recording" Q.S.T. 27.9 (Sept. 1943) 26. Letter 28.8
(Aug. 1944) 55.
7. Williamson, D. T. N. "Contrast expansion unit-design giving unequal pick-up and decline
delays" W.W. 49.9 (Sept. 1943) 266. Corrections W.W. 49.10 (Oct. 1943) 315.
9. Miller, B. F. " Sibilant speech sounds" Electronic Eng. 16.185 auly 1943) 69.
10. Williamson, D. T. N. " Further notes on the contrast expansion unit" W.W. 49.12 (Dec. 1943) 375.
12. Herrick, G. Q. "Volume compressor for radio stations" Elect. 16.12 (Dec. 1943) 135.
13. Felix, M. O. "New contrast expansion circuit........applying the principle of the cathode follower"
W.W. 50.3 (March 1944) 92. Letters W. C. Newman 50.5 (May 1944) 152; D. T. N. Williamson
50.6 aune 1944) 187.
14. "Simple volume expander circuits" Australasian Radio World (April 1944) ll-based on R.C.A.
(E. W. Herold) Patent 264, 942 (March 30,1939) U.S.A.
16. Ingham, W. E., and A. ;Foster" Variable contrast expansion-control of contrast range without
change of average level" W.W. 50.8 (Aug. 1944) 243.
17. Roddam, T. " New thoughts on volume expansion-contrast should be proportional to size of room"
50.9 (Sept. 1944) 286.
18. Cosens, C. R. "RF volume expansion" W.W. 50.12 (Dec. 1944) 381.
19. Hansen,!. C. " Contrast without distortion" Australasian Radio World (April 1945) 15.
20. Crane, R. W. "Suggestions for design of volume expanders" Elect. 18.5 (May 1945) 236.
21. Weidemann, H. K. "A volume expander for audio amplifiers-reducing time constant for more
rapid response" Q.S.T. 29.8 (Aug. 1945) 19.
22. White, J. G. "Contrast expansion-the use of negative feedback; its advantages over earlier
methods" W.W. 51.9 (Sept. 1945) 275; 51.10 (Oct. 1945) 309 with bibliography.
23. Ehrlich, R. W. "Volume expander design" Elect. 18.12 (Dec. 1945) 124.
24. White, J. G. "Contrast expansion--some practical results using negative feedback" W.W. 52.4
(April 1946) 120.
25. Moses, R. C. "A volume expander compressor preamplifier" Radio News 35.6 aune 1946) 32.
27. Butt, A. N. " Surgeless volume expander" Elect. 19.9 (Sept. 1946) 140.
28. Smith, J. W., and N. H. Hale" Speech clippers for more effective modulation" Comm. 26.10
(Oct. 1946) 20.
700 REFERENCES 16.8
29. Phillips, W. E. "Volume compression for FM broadcasting-Raytheon volume limiter" F.M. and
T. 6.9 (Sept. 1946) 28.
30. Toth, E. "Noise and output limiters" Elect. (1) 19.11 (Nov. 1946) 114: (2) 19.12 (Dec. 1946) 120.
31. Stewart, H. H., and H. S. Pollock, " Compression with feedback" Elect. 13.2 (Feb. 1940) 19.
32. Moorhouse, C. W. "A high fidelity peak-limiting amplifier" Q.S.T. 28.5 (May 1944) 19.
33. Philips, "Volume expansion" Philips Tec. Com. 77 (Sept./Oct. 1940).
34. Henriquez, V. C. "Compression and expansion in transmission sound" Philips Tec. Rev. 3. 7
(July 1938) 204.
35. R.C.A. "Application Note on the 6L7 as a volume expander for phonographs" No. 53 (Nov. 27,
1935).
36. Maxwell, D. E. "Automatic gain-adjusting amplifier" Tele-Tech 6.2 (Feb. 1947) 34.
37. Dean, M. H. "The theory and design of speech clipping circuits" Tele-Tech 6.5 (May 1947) 62.
38. "Level-governing audio amplifier" (W.E. model 1126C) Tele-Tech. 6.8 (Aug. 1947) 67.
39. Jurek, W. M., and J. H. Guenther" Automatic Gain Control and Limiting Amplifier" Elect. 20.9.
(Sept. 1947) 94.
40. Maxwell, D. E. "Dynamic performance of peak-limiting amplifiers" Proc. I.R.E. 35.11 (Nov.
1947) 1349.
41. McProud, C. G. "Experimental volume expander and scratch suppressor" Audio Eng. 31.7 (Aug.
1947) 13.
42. Johnson, M. P. "Multi-purpose audio amplifier" Audio Eng. 31.7 (Aug. 1947) 20.
43. Pickering, N. C. "High fidelity volume expander" Audio Eng. 31.8 (Sept. 1947) 7.
44. Dean, W. W., and L. M. Leeds" Performance and use of limiting amplifiers" Audio Eng. 31.6
(July l(47) 17.
45. Korn, T. S. "Dynamic sound reproduction" Elect. 21.7 (July 1948) 166.
46. Tomkins. A. A. "Surgeless volume expansion" W.W. 54.6 (June 1948) 234. Correction 54.9
(Sept. 1948) 347.
48. Tillson, B. J. " Musical acoustics," Part 5, Audio Eng. 31.9 (Oct. 1947) 25.
SO. Weeden, W. N. " Simplified volume expansion" W.W. 38.17 (24th April 1936) 407.
51. Tanner, R. H., and V. T. Dickins "Inexpensive volume expansion" W.W. 38.21 (22nd May 1936)
507.
52. Tanner, R. H. "Lamps for volume expansion" W.W. 39.7 (14th August 1936) 146.
53. Sayers, G. "Notes on contrast expansion" W.W. 39.12 (18th Sept. 1936) 313.
54. Weeden, W. N. " Improving the simplified volume expander" W.W. 40.3 (15th Jan. 1937) 68.
55. Weeden, W. N. "Contrast amplification; a new development" W.W. 39.25 (18th Dec. 1936) 636.
56. "Contrast expansion unit" W.W. 41.24 (9th Dec. 1937) 590.
57. "&ntrast expamion unit; a correction" W.W. 41.25 (16th Dec. 1937) 621.
58. Stevens, B. J. " Low distortion volume expansion using negative feedback" W.E. 15.174 (March
1938) 143.
59. Amos, S. W. " Distortion in radio receivers" Electronic Eng. 14.169 (March 1942) 686.
61. "Light-bulb volume expander" Elect. 9.3 (March 1936) 9.
62. Barber, A. W. "Plate resistance control in vacuum tubes as audio gain control means" Comm.
17.10 (Oct. 1937) 23.
63. Black, W. L., and N. C. Norman" Program-operated level-governing amplifier" Proc. I.R.E. 29.11
(Nov. 1941) 573.
64. Sinnett, C. M. " Practical volume expansion" Elect. 8.11 (Nov. 1935) 14.
65. Paro, H. "Public address avc" Elect. 10.7 (July 1937) 24.
66. Cook, E. G. " A low distortion limiting amplifier" Elect. 12.6 (June 1939) 38.
67. Grimwood, W. K. " Volume compressors for sound recording" Jour. S.M.P.E. 52.1 (Jan. 1949) 49.
68. Wheeler, L. J. " Contrast expansion" W.W. 55.6 (June 1949) 211.
69. Singer, K. "Hi!,,k.t~ty recording electronic mixer" Jour. S.M.P.E. 52.6 (June 1949) 676.
70. Singer, K. "Pr&efection of variable gain tubes for compressors" Jour. S.M.P.E. 52.6 (June 1949)
684.
71. Licklider; J. C. R., and I. Pollack" Effects of differentiation, integration and infinite peak clipping
upon the intelligibility of speech" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 20.1 (Jan. 1948) 42.
72. A.W.A. Model G51501 (Amalgamated Wireless Australasia Ltd.).
73. Weller, J. A. " A volume limiter for leased-line service" Bell Lab. Rec. 23.3 (March 1945) 72.
74. Hilliard, J. K. " The variable-density film recording system used at MGM studios" Jour. S.M.P.E.
40 (March 1943) 143.
75. Miller, B. F. " Elimination of relative spectral energy distortion in electronic compressors to 39 (Nov.
1942) 317.
76. Smith, W. W. "Premodulation speech clipping and filtering" Q.S.T. 30.2 (Feb. 1946) 46.
77. Smith, J. W., and N. H. Hale, " Let's not overmodulate-it isn't necessary" Q.S.T. 30.11 (Nov.
1946) 23.
78. Smith, W. W. " More on speech clipping" Q.S.T. 31.3 (March 1947) 18.
79. Mather, N. W. " Clipping and clamping circuits" Elect. 20.7 (July 1947) Ill.
80. Kryter, K. D., J. C. R. Locklider and S. S. Stevens" Premodulation clipping in AM voice com-
munication" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 19.1 (Jan. 1947) 125.
81. Winkler, M. R. " Instantaneous deviation control" Elect. 22.9 (Sept. 1949) 97.
82. U.S. patent al'pln. 793,916-H. E. Haynes, Variable gain amplifier (RCV 11688).
83. U.S. patent appm. 794,05O-H. J. Woll Variable gain systems (RCV 11504).
84. U.S. patent appln. 768,319-W. W. H. Dean Peak clipper and indicator therefor (RCA 25944).
85. Hathaway, J. L. " Automatic audio gain controls" Audio Eng. (1) 34.9 (Sept. 1950) 16; (2) 34.10
(Oct. 1950) 27.
86. Singer, G. A. "Performance and operation of a new limiting amplifier" Audio Eng. 34.11 (Nov.
1950) 18.
87. Haynes, H. E. "New principle for electronic volume compression" Jour. S.M.P.T.E. 58.2 (Feb.
1952) 137. Reprinted Radiotronics 17.8 (Aug. 1952) 136.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing cn page 1475.
CHAPTER 17
701
702 (i) METHODS USED IN SOUND RECORDING 17.1
Needle
Tip
Centre Iinc of
Groove
o
FIG. 17. I FIG. 17. 2
Fig. 17.1. Unmodulated (left) and modulated (right) groove of lateral recording.
Fig~
17.2. Motion of stylus tip with lateral recording.
If the recorded sound is of sine-wave form, the maximum transverse velocity of the
stylUS tip will occur at 0 and zero velocity will occur at B and B', the two extremities
of travel. This is an example of simple harmonic motion (see Chapter 6 Sect. 4).
The maximum transverse velocity is 2nfA' where f is the frequency in cis and A is
the peak amplitude. The r.m.s. transverse velocity is given by 1.41 nfA.
The recorded level may be specified in terms of r.m.s. velocities at 1000 cis,
or in decibels with a reference level 0 db = 1 em/sec. lateral r.m.s. stylus velocity.
The following tables are based on this usage.
(A) 78 r.p.m.-Cross-over frequency = 500 cis
Velocity Peak Comments
Level r.m.s. amplitude *
+ 10 db 3.16 em/sec 0.56 mil RM.A. Frequency Test Record No. leA)
+ 16 db 6.31 cm/sec 1.1 mils }RM.A. Frequency Test Record No. l(B)
+ 18 db 7.94 cm/sec 1.4 mils max. velocity (1000 cis).
+ 22 db i2.6 em/sec 2.2 miis
+ 26.8 db 22 em/sec 3.8 mils Max. instantaneous programme peak.
• Over constant amplitude portion.
17.1 (ii) PRINCIPLES OF LATERAL RECORDING 703
...
o
J
~
...J O~----~--~~----~----r
a.
~
< \
\
\
,
FIG. 17.3 FIG. 17.4
Fig. 17.3. Diagram of constant velocity recording for two frequencies f and 2f.
Fig. 17.4. Diagram of constant amplitude recording for two frequencies f and 2f.
It may be shown that constant velocity recording has the following characteristics
for constant power at all frequencies-
1. The peak amplitude is inversely proportional to the frequency.
2. The maximum slope of the curve is the same for all frequencies.
In the general case when the power is changing, the maximum velocity at any fre-
quency is proportional to the peak amplitude. With an "ideal" electro-magnetic
pickup, which inherently follows a constant velocity characteristic, the output voltage
for sine waveform is proportional to the maximum velocity at all frequencies.
Constant velocity recording is not suitable for use over a very wide frequency ratio,
owing to the large variation in peak amplitudes. For example, over a range of 8
octaves the ratio of maximum to minimum amplitude is 256 to 1.
"Constant amplitude" recording indicates that the maximum amplitude is
held constant when the frequency changes, for constant power output (Fig. 17.4).
It may be shown that the maximum slope is proportional to the frequency.
Constant amplitude recording is very suitable for low frequencies, but is not satis-
factory with large amplitudes at the highest audio frequencies because the transverse
velocity of the needle tip becomes excessive, leading to distortion in recording and in
reproducing. On the other hand, constant velocity recording is satisfactory over a
·Over constant amplitude portion.
704 (ii) PRINCIPLES OF LATERAL RECORDING 17.1
(Refs. 255, 254). The average post-war shellac record, taking into account all the
various types of records on the market, both English and American, has a maximum
signal to noise ratio* of about 38 db (Ref. 2:>6).
A new vinyl fine groove record can have an average surface noise, measUJ;'ed on a
system whose response is flat on a velocity basis from 500 to 10000 cis, about ?6 db
below the peak recording level; if measured on a system whose response is the inverse
of the recording characteristic, the surface noise is approximately 62 db below peak
recording level. The B.B.C. "D Channel" recording has a weighted signal to noise
ratio greater than 60 db (Ref. 297).
The surface noise increases with the use of the record. After 100 playings with a
2 ounce pickup some shellac records showed negligible increase in noise level whi1,e
others showed 5 db increase, the average being about 2.5 db (Ref. 181). Aft~r 200
playings of a fine groove vinyl record (LP) the surface noise increased by 2 db (~ef.
308). '
The cost factor limits the use of polyethylene (Ref. 181) which ha$ a scratch level
even lower than that of vinyl. See also Sect. 9(ii) for the measurement of noise in
accordance with NAB standards for transcription records.
(v) Processing
The processing of shellac pressings is described in Refs. 7, 10 and 25. The p~
cessing of vinyl (LP) records is described in Ref. 308.
the advantage of not requiring adjustments for different inside diameters. It has the
disadvantage of requiring, in most designs, that the stylus, cartridge and arm operate, a
spring tension as they move inwards. This presses the stylus against the outside wall
of the grooves and tends to produce differential wear as well as other undesirable
effects.
The second type of trip mechanism operates when the stylUS reaches a specific inside
diameter, and the eccentricity of the inside groove has no effect. The disadyanf8ge
of this arrangement is that there are large differences in the inside diameters of the
various types of records, so that an adjustable (preferably continuously-variable)
control is required. This method is used in 45 r.p.m. record changers, where there
is no eccentric inside groove.
The third type is the eccentric groove.
Difficulty is often experienced in an attempt to incorporate automatic record
changers in high' fidelity equipment owing to rumble and, in some cases, hum pickup.
In addition, some high fidelity pickups are unsuitable for use on any automatiC record
changers. The choice of a pickup for use with an automatic record changer is n~ces
sarily a compromise, and many high fidelity enthusiasts prefer to use a good quality
turntable with manual operation.
Automatic record changers for 45 r.p.m.
The R.C.A. record changer is described in Ref. 263. The tripping mechanism
requires an extremely small lateral force from the pickup arm, since the work of p~t
ting the mechanism into cycle is supplied by the moving turntable.
I
....
-.a
DIMENSIONS OF RECORDS AND GROOVES N
U.S.A.
(in inches) English'"
Present range Recommended g
Outer diameter: 12 in. 11i ± 1/32t 11-15/16 - 11-27/32 11i - 11-27/32 tj
1-4
9t ± 1/32t 9t - 9-27/32
~
10 in. 9-15/16 - 9-27/32
Thickness : 12 in. 0.090 ± 0.010t 0.092 -- .082 0.090 - .080
10 in. 0.080 ± 0.010t 0.080-- .070 0.080 - .070 C/}
Centre hole diameter 0.286 + 0.001 t 0.292 -- 0.284 0.2845 - .2835 1-4
- 0.002 ~
Centre pin diameter .02835 ± .0005 0.282 -- 0.280 0.2825 - .2820 C/}
Outermost groove diameter: 12 in. l1i ± 0.02t 11.500 - 11l.395 11.500 ± 0.015 o"I1
lOin. 9i ± 0.02t 9.515 -- 9.485 9.500 ± 0.015
Innermost groove diameter
Grooves per inch
not less than 3H
88, 96, 104, 112, 120t
3.875 -- 3.750
103 - 72
3.875
104 - 72
~
(")
~
Radius at bottom of groove 2.2 max. milst 0.8 - 2.5 mils 1.5 - 1.8 mils
Angle of. groove 87° - 97°t 82° - 98° 85° - 90°
·021 ":'002"
Fig. 17.5A. Cross- '021 ":!:'002 "
sectional view of R.C.A.
7 inch 45 r.p.m. record
(Ref. 254). I.
Record to be '000· to-00:thICker at outer
FIG.17.SA ~ckJ~ of rois~d portion thon ot inner cdCJC.
The cross-sectional view of a record is shown in Fig. 17.5A. The outermost music
groove is 6j inch diameter, while the innermost music groove is 4.875 inches mini-
mum diameter-the latter gives 10% intermodulation distortion and a groove velocity
of 11.5 inches per second.
The maximum playing time is 5! minutes. A lead-in groove extends from the
edge of the record and makes from 1 to I! turns before entering the first music pitch.
There are from 1 to 11- tu..rns of u..nmodulated music pitch before the sta..."'t of music.
There is from 0 to i turn of unmodulated music pitch at the end of music. The
·For R.C.A. 4S r.p.m.. Extended Play records see Supplement.
17.2 (ii) DIMENSIONS OF RECORDS AND GROOVES 709
lead-out groove makes from! to Ii turns from the music pitch to 1-15/16 inch radius,
beyond which it makes from 1 to 2 turns to the concentric circle (3-13/16 inch dia-
meter).
The central hole is 1.504 ± 0.002 inches in diameter.
References 254, 263, 264, 265.
(C) 33-1/3 r.p.m. (LP)
The long-playing microgroove records revolve at 33-1/3 r.p.m. and are made with
outside diameters of 12, 10 and 7* inches.
The ·R.C.A. Victor records are identical to the 45 r.p.m. records with respect to
groove shape, recording pitch, recorded level and recommended playback stylus.
Dimension Columbia R.C.A. Victor
~.21
5 ± 1 grams.
Optimum stylus force { 0.18 ounce
References to L-P microgroove: 159, 166, 178, 179,232, 236, 255, 262.
(iii) Styli
(A) Styli used with shellac pressings are in five principal groups:
(1) Ordinary steel needles which are ground to shape by the abrasive in the
record. The exact shape of the needle point when new is not so important as with
permanent or semi-permanent styli. For examples of record wear see Ref. 10 Part 4.
(2) Semi-permanent needles such as chromium plated steel. The needle shape
is important and " shadow-graph " needles are recommended. For the best results
these should not be used for more than one playing of a 12 inch shellac record (for
photograph of wear see Ref. 274). Alloys such as osmium are also used.
*Columbia only.
710 (iii) STYLI 17.2
at right angles to the centre-line of the groove, and will permit better response to high-
amplitude high-frequency recordings.
The N.A.B. " secondary standard" stylus (permanent point) has an angle of 40°
to 55° and a bottom radius of 2.5 ± 0.1 mils. It provides a compromise suitable
for the reproduction of both transcriptions and shellac discs.
. The use oflarger styli (radius 4 mils) is advocated by some engineers (Refs. 223, 225)
but it does not appear to be the best all-round compromise.
Needles are made in various sizes. The ordinary steel needles used in mechanical
reproducers are used in the stiff heavy weight pickups whose frequency response
doeS nbt exceed about 6000 cis; they are also used in some" needle armature"
pickups. For the best high frequency response the " loud tone" or "full tone "
needles should be used, because of their smaller size and weight. "Soft tone" and
tc trailing" needles (as used with acetate discs) cause severe treble attenuation when
-qsed with typical pickups. Most light weight pickups with a frequency response
eXtending to 10000 cis or over use miniature needles to enable the armature resonance
to be at a high frequency. A typical example is the H.M.V. Silent Stylus or Columbia
99 (chromium-plated long-playing). Thorn needles are also made of similar size.
E~ have been made to develop a stylus tip suitable for both 78 r .p.m and fine
.grom"C (see Refs. 279, 281) but a considerable degree of compromise is necessary
and the best results are not obtainable from either type of recording.
(B~ StYli for fine groove records
With a few exceptions, all styli foc fine groove records are permanent types-usually
jeweb~ Diamond tips are the only really satisfactory. ones for long life, although
expensive to purchase in the first case. Sapphire tips are very common,
but wear rather rapidly-see Sect. 2(vi) for stylus wear. Other materials used are
tungsten carbide, osmium and other metal alloys.
Ditnension§ of styli for fine groove records
(RTMA Standard REC-126-A, Ref. 260, for home phonographs)
Radius of tip 0.001 + 0.0001 - 0.0002 inch
Included angle of tip 40° to 50°.
Note: With a 90° groove angle, a tip with a radius of 0.001 inch has an effective
radins of 0.0007 at the point of contact.
(C) Colour codes for styli
1. RTMA REC-126-A for home phonographs (Ref. 260). Needles with a 0.001
inch radius shall be colour coded red.
2. El'lglish Gramophone Equipment Panel of the Radio and Electronic Component
M-at1Uf~cturers' Federation (Jan. 1951). Red-O.OOIO in.; lemon-O.0020 in.;
gteen-O.0025 in.; french blue--O.0030 in. ; orange-O.0035 in. ; violet-universal;
sky blue-oval tip. Material (marked by band on shaft) black-hard metal; white-:--
diamond; no colour-sapphire.
(iv) Pinch effect
Owing to the fact that the cutting is done by a stylus having an effectively flat cutting
face, the width of the groove measured at right angles to the groove is narrower at two
places in each cycle (see Sect. 6). As a result of this effect, the stylUS tip should rise
and fall twice in each cycle-only a limited number of pickups, however, make ade-
quate provision for this movement.
The flexibility of the stylus, if mounted at an acute angle to the record, together
with that of the record itself, tends to prevent the needle from riding merely the peaks
of the vertical undulations. The pinch effect undoubtedly increases needle wear
and possibly also record wear (Ref. 212).
Various forms of "bent shan~" needles have been developed to provide some
vertical compliance. All" bent shank" needles tend to give a drooping high-fre-
quency response the amount of which varies considerably from one make to another ;
it may, of course, be compensated if desired.
(v) Radius compensation
Radius compensation does not appear to be used with shellac discs, although it
is used with LP discs (R.C.A. Victor) and in transcription discs.
112 (vi) RECORD AND STYLUS WEAR 17.2
the groove. At this point with a pickup having low stylus force, the wear apparently
stops. This wear does not produce any apparent change in quality of the reproduced
sound, although it can be seen as a light streak on the surface of the record. Both
lateral and vertical forces must be considered in producing the wear (Ref. 155). Where-
ever there is excessive stylus wear, it is always accompanied by excessive record wear.
It is important to distinguish between visible wear and audible wear. Visible
wear does not necessarily cause any audible defect. It is possible that visible wear
may occur earlier with a diamond tip, but audible wear, which is caused by actual
widening of the groove at comers, will occur far more rapidly with a worn sapphire
or metal tip. The fiats un the sides act as scrapers in attempting to negotiate sharp
bends in the record groove. A well polished spherical diamond or sapphire tip is
believed to cause less record wear than a metal alloy tip.
Wear of vinyl records
Wear of vinyl fine groove records is very slight, provided that the stylus force does
not exceed about 7 grams, that a pickup of ample lateral and vertical compliance is
used, that the jewel tip is well polished, that there are no marked mechanical reson-
ances, and that dust is excluded. Dust is the most important cause of record and
stylus wear with vinyl records in the home, and care should be taken to reduce it to
a minimum-see Sect. 2ei). Wear in vinyl records shows itself principally in widen-
ing of the groove thus leading eventually to distortion and rattles (Ref: 155),
Wear of sapphire styli
The wear of sapphire styli is a function of u'1e material of which the pressings are
made, the lateral and vertical compliance of the pickup at the stylus tip, the dynamic
mass of the pic~..lp at the stylus tip; the characteristics of the armature (high frequency)
resonance and the pickup arm (low frequency) resonance, and the stylUS force. Ad-
ditional wear may be caused by " skating" (due to the use of a tip radius which is too
small for the groove), by insufficient vertical force to maintain the stylus always in
contact with the groove, and by warped or eccentric records or turntables. When
using a pickup with high lateral and vertical compliance and low dynamic mass at the
stylus tip, an increase of stylus force has only a minor effect in increasing the wear on
the stylus tip. It has been shown (Ref. 282) that with such a pickup (GP20) on a
heavily modulated shellac record, an increase from 7.5 to 14.5 grains in stylus force
causes increased fiats on the stylus tip resulting in a drop of only 3 db at 10000 cis
on a test record. Such a stylus and pickup may be used for 800 playings of a 12 inch
shellac record with reasonably good fidelity, or 2000 playings with fair fidelity (- 5
db at 10000 cis on a test record).
On the other hand a typical light-weight pickup with a stylus force of 1 ounce (28
grams) has been shown to produce wear on sapphire styli on shellac records as follows
(Ref. 59).
Wear just noticeable after 50 playings of 12 inch disc.
1 mil fiats after 200 playings } ..
2 mil fiats after 750 playings The ,effect of fi~ts on distortion IS covered
2.5 mil fiats after 1500 playings In Sect. 6(lV).
It is obvious that this pickup produces much greater wear than the one with high
lateral and vertical compliance (GP20) described earlier. It is probable that the
greater wear is due principally to the lower lateral and vertical compliance, although
the increased stylus force would also be a contributing factor.
Some excellent photographs of stylus wear are given in Refs. 274 and 290.
The use of a test record at, say, 10000 cis to indicate wear of the stylus tip requires
careful interpretation of the results. The level of recording of the test record is lower
than that which may be reached with music, while the. effect of wear of the stylus tip
is shown less prominently towards the outer diameter of the record- than it would be
with a smaller groove diameter.
It is wise to avoid using sapphire or other permanent stylus tips on records which
have been played previously with steel needles. For a photograph of wear after 20
playings under such conditions see Ref. 274.
714 (vi) RECORD AND STYLUS WEAR 17.2
SECTION 3: PICKUPS
(i) General survey (ii) Electro-magnetic (moving iron) pickups (iii) Dynamic
(moving coil) pickups (iv) Piezo-electric (crystal) pickups (v) Magnetostrictio'lt pickups
(vi) Strain-sensitive pickups (vii) Ribbon pickups (viii) Capacitance pickups (ix)
Eddy-current pickups.
Pickups which have sufficient vertical compliance are sometimes fitted with needle
guards to reduce or prevent damage to the pickup from accidentally dropping it.
Pickup manufacturers sometimes quote the minimum vertical stylus force to pro-
vide· perfect trcl.cking. It is generally regarding as sound practice to adopt a stylus
force at least 1.5 times this minimum value, thus making some provision for warped
and eccentric records.
For styli, see Sect. 2(iii).
Sin;g1e purpose pickups for home use often incorporate a fixed spring counter-
b~ance. Dual purpose pickups usually apply a higher stylus pressure for 78 r.p.m.
~ for fine groove records. In some cases the pickup head (or cartridge) includes
the additional weight for 78 r.p.m., in other cases this is provided by an adjustment
of spring tension or by a counterbalancing weight.
It is desirable in all cases to keep the moment of inertia about both vertical and horI-
zontal pivots to a minimum. -
Where a spring counterbalance is used, it should be checked periodically for pres-
sure; during weighing, the height of the stylus from the baseboard must be exactly
the same as the top of the record.
Up and down movements of the stylus tip, due to the pinch effect and small record
surface irregularities should be absorbed by the vertical compliance of the stylus,-
without generating any output noise ..
Pickups for 78 r.p.m.
A stylus force not more than 1 ounce (say 30 grams) is desirable, with 2 ounces as
the uooer limit.
On~ ~fthe difficu1t·problems with permanent tipped styli is provision for changing
needles without adding seriously to the armature mass. Certain pickups are designed
for use with miniature needles pushed into place and gripped by. a wedge against
which they are held by the pressure from the record. There are two troubles which
Jllay occur. The first is that the needle may rotate about its axis, thus placirig its
" fiats" at some unknown angle to the groove-such a case is known to the author.
'This may be eliminated by tightening the clutch or by using a little cement. . The
second trouble is " buzz," which is more serious because there appears to be no cure ;
hqwever it orily seems to occur on deeply modulated recordings of complex wave-
:mn;n, and is orily apparent when the frequency range is extended.
, Nearly all high fidelity pickups have the stylus permanently fixed to the armature-
this appears to be essential for the high frequency resonance to occur above 10 000 cis.
Pidt~ps ·for fine groove records
The maximum desirable needle pressure is 6 grams (0.21 ounce) and high lateral
compliance is essential. Pickups have been produced by many manufacturers,
mainly using diamond, sapphire or osmium tips.
Caret)Jl pickup arm design, specifically for fine groove recording, is of paramount
importailce. It is inadvisable to use a fine groove pickup head or cartridge on an
arm -other than that designed for it.
A very simple and effective test for the tracking efficiency of a pickup and arm for
fine groove,records is known as the McPrf;)ud Test (Ref. 314). A 45 r.p.m. record
is placed on a standard turntable running at 45 r.p.m. with the maximum possible
eccentricity (ll inches swing), and the pickup is required to track the record satis-
factorily.
Dual purpose pickups have been designed which have two opposed needles 180 0
apart, suitable for playing either standatd 78 r.p.m. or fine groove records.
Pickups employ many principles of operation, but most types are basically either
constant velocity or constant amplitude. For example both electro-magnetic {moving
non) and dynamic (moving coil) pickups are basically constant velocity, while piezo-
electric (crystal) types are basically constant amplitude. Since the recording charac-
:teristic includes both constant velocity and constant amplitude sections, either group
is satisfactory although requiring different equalization.
716 PICKUPS-Ci) GENERAL SURVEY 17.3
Resonances in pickups
Most pickups have two major resonances. The arm resonance occurs at some
frequency below 100 cis, while the armature resonance occurs at some frequency
about 3000 cis. Both resonances have deleterious effects in increasing record wear.
The arm resonance tends to cause the pickup to jump out of the groove when a high
amplitude is recorded at the frequency of resonance-the frequency of resonance
(if undamped) should be well below the lowest frequency for which acceptable track-
ing is required; say from 15 to 25 cis.
A recent development is the use of pickup arms with high viscosity oil or other
viscous fluid to damp arm resonance. The damping may be applied as a viscous
film in a ball and socket (hemispherical) joint between the pickup arm and the mount-
ing socket, and gives damping in both horizontal and vertical directions. The arm
is pivoted at a point which is the centre of both ball and socket, and above the centre
of gravity of the arm. The clearance between the two surfaces is about 0.006 inch.
By this means the resonant force is greatly reduced, improved resistance to external
shock is obtained and protection against damage from accidental dropping of the pickup
head is achieved. The amount of mechanical resistance is not a critical value-
the upper limit is reached when it interferes with the tracking of records having reason-
ably small values of eccentricity or warpage. With the usual values of suspension
compliance and mass, this would occur at several times the amount of resistance neces-
sary to give critical damping of the arm resonance. Even if the damping is con-
siderably below critical, it still has quite a beneficial effect. The viscosity of the fluid
is a function of temperature, but the variation does not seriously affect the performance
over a reasonable temperature range. Ref. 311.
The armature resonance has a serious effect on needle scratch (see Sect. 1).
"During operation the needle is subjected to a continuous shower of blows, and
although highly damped by rubber buffers, it is in a state of perpetual oscillation at its
own resonance frequency" (Ref. 229). In any quality pickup, the armature resonance
with the recommended needle should be over 8000 cis; many light-weight pickups
have the resonance at a frequency over 12000 cis-in some cases over 18000 cis.
Pickups tend to be rich in harmonics at frequencies in the region of half the armature
resonance frequency. In all cases the armature resonance should be effectively
damped. Damping material used to obtain smooth response characteristics may
adversely affect the tracking capabilities of the pickup, and therefore should be in-
vestigated carefully and used judiciously (Ref. 285).
The frequency of the armature resonance is affected by the record material-for
example, a change from a lacquer disc to a shellac pressing causes in one case an
increase in the resonant frequency in the ratio 1: 2 approximately (Ref. 276). A
pickup with an armature resonance well outside the a-f range on shellac discs, shows
a much lower resonance frequency on vinyl-usually inside the a-f range. This is
an unfortunate characteristic of vinyl. The only pickups known to the author with
armature resonances above 15000 cis on vinyl fine groove recordings are of the ribbon
armature type.
There is a third resonance caused by the pickup head and arm rotating about the
arm. With heavy pickups this resonance occurs at frequencies between 100 and 400
cis, but with light-weight pickups the frequency would be higher. This resonance
does not have any effect on the general tonal balance, and in any case should be very
slight with good mechanical design.
Crystal pickups have a fourth resonance which occurs at a high frequency-the
resonance of the crystal itself.
References to resonances in pickups: 10 (part 2), 17 (second letter), 276, 283, 285,
311, 331.
The testing of pickups
The testing of pickups for frequency response characteristics is covered by R.M.A.
REC-125-A which states that the test record sh~l1 be R.M.A. Frequency Test Record
17.3 PICKUPS-(i) GENERAL SURVEY 717
No.1 when available. This is recorded on side A at a r.m.s. velocity of 3.16 em/sec
(+ 10 db). Crystal pickups are terminated by a load resistance of 1· megohm (or
5 megohms for ~onium phosphate crystals) shunted by a capacitance of 100 ,",,",F.
Other types of pickups should be terminated as required. The response should be
stated in decibels (0 db = 1 volt).
Pickups should be tested under the same conditions with which they will operate
in normal service. Pickups intended to be used on shellac records should be tested
on shellac discs; pickups intended for use on vinyl records should be tested on vinyl
discs, while those intended for use on either type of disc should be tested separately
on each. Pickups which are satisfactory on vinyl discs give, in some cases, qUite
poor results on shellac discs owing to the increased stiffness of the material and the
reduction in damping by the record. This als~ applies to pickups with very limited
vertical compliance-while passable on vinyl, they are poor on shellac.
The variable speed turntable is sometimes used as an alternative to the standard
frequency records for the calibration of pickups-see Refs. 273, 295.
In the design and production of pickups it is usual to supply some form of electro-
mechanical calibrator such as in Ref. 284.
For distortion in pickups and the procedure for determining the "tracking"
capabilities of a pickup see Sect. 6(vi).
.. Dynamic mass (also known as equivalent mass or effective mass) is that mass which, if concentrated
at the stylus point, would possess the same inertance as that of the moving system.
See also Refs. 248, 283.
(ii) ELECTRO-MAGNETIC PICKUPS 719
vdlts. Since the pickup is a constant-amplitude device, special methods are required
for frequency compensation. The pre-amplifier of Fig. 17.6 gives the required fre-
quency compensation with continuously-variable controls (see Ref. 336 for settings
for some American records) and an output of about 2 volts with types 6AU6 and 12AU7.
The final stage is a cathode follower. Refs. 96, 303, 336.
SECTION 4: TRACKING
(i) General survey of the problem (ii) How to design for minimum distortion (iii)
The influence of stylus friction.
where w 2."f
A maximum groove amplitude in inches
ex = tracking error expressed in radians (= angle in degrees divided by 57.3)
V = longitudinal groove velocity in inches per second.
and v 0 = maximum transverse velocity in inches per second = wA.
Equations (1) and (2) indicate that
(1) Distortion is directly proportional to the maximum transverse velocity.
(2) Distortion is directly proportional to the maximum groove amplitude at any
one frequency.
(3) Distortion is directly proportional to the tracking angle.
(4) Distortion is inversely proportional to the revolutions per minute. For equal
distortion, more careful tracking angle correction is required with 33-1/3 r.p.m. than
with 78 r.p.m., other conditions being the same
(5) Distortion is constant over the "constant velocity" portion of a recording
characteristic, other conditions being unaltered
(6) The angular tracking error may be increased in the same proportion that the
radius is increased, for the same distortion (roughly 3 : 1 ratio over a 12 inch record).
Example of distortion
Consider the distortion with a 12 inch 78 r.p.m. record having 2° angular tracking
at the innermost groove, recorded with a sine wave having a peak amplitude of 0.002
inch at a frequency of 250 cis (this being the cross-over frequency), the f.m.S. velocity
being 6.31 em/sec.
Here ex = 2/57.3 radians; A = 0.002; w = 2." x 250; r = 1.875 inches;
V = 27rT(78/60) = 15.3 inches/second.
From equation (1)
Percentage 2nd harmonic = 2." x 250 5~.30·~\5~3 2 x 100 = 0.72%.
If the cross-over frequency had been 500 cis, with the same recorded velocity
(Le. half the amplitude), the distortion would have been the same. Some frequency
test records are recorded with a velocity less than 6.31 em/sec, so that the distortion
due to tracking error would be less than the value stated above. The harmonic
distortion as determined for sinusoidal signals gives a fair estimate of the relative
tracking distortion produced by complex signals over the " constant velocity "
portion of the characteristic.
IO~----------------------~
t Charactuistic for
Constant Amplitude
~
.. of Needle Point
i
t;
..
>
i:
j
o
5
o 1,000 ~~
~
"
~
"ii
IX
5
'" ~~ I~~
Frequency (cIs) FIG. 17. 9 Frequency (CIS) FIG. 17. 10
It has been proposed (Ref. 228) that a suitable upper limit for tracking distortion
is 2% with 0.001 inch peak amplitude as for transcriptions or 4% with 0.002 inch
peak amplitude as for shellac discs; it seems that 1 % is a preferable limiting value
for good fidelity. On this latter basis the maximum tracking error for 12 inch discs
will be 2.8 0 for 250 c/s cross-over frequency, or 1.4 0 for 500 c/s crossover frequency,
both measured at the innermost groove, or three times these values at the outermost
groove.
No additional record wear occurs due to tracking error with permanent needles
having spherical tips. Additional record wear may occur with steel needles or with
worn sapphire tips if the tracking error is serious.
eli) How to design for minimum distortion
A straight-arm pickup (not offset) is shown in Fig. 17.11 where D represents the
distance from the centre of the record to the pivot of the pickup arm, L represents
the length of the arm measured from the pivot to the needle p<;>int while r 1 and r2
represent the radii of the outermost and innermost grooves. In this example the
pickup is mounted so that the needle point will pass over the centre of the record,
but this is not the position giving the best results. It is obvious that the axis of the
pickup is not a tangent to the groove.
Minimum distortion is always obtained from a straight-arm pickup when it is
" underhung," that is when the needle point comes short of the centre of the record
by a small distance d, the optimum value of which is given below.
I
D D
These values for d o1J ! are critical, and should be measured accurately. It is safer
to keep below than to go above the optimum overhang.
The angular tracking error oc at any position on the record is the angle between
the axis of the pickup and the tangent to the groove at the needle point. (Figs. 17.11
and 17.12).
With a straight arm, using any value of underhang (Fig. 17.11),
oc ~ 57.3(2~ + ) ~ (4)
with an error less than 10.
The optimum value of underhang is given byeqn. (3); using this value and also
the values of T J and T2 as for 12 inch discs, with T = T2 (innermost groove) and L = 8
inches, the corresponding value of tracking error is approximately 18.6 0. The dis-
tortion is therefore approximately 6.7% at this point, on the constant velocity charac-
teristic.
Fig. 17.12 shows a pickup with an offset arm for the purpose of reducing dis-
tortion due to tracking error. This differs from the straight arm in that there is an
offset angle f3 between the axis of the pickup and the straight line joining the pivot
to the needle point. Note that this angle f3 is not equal to the angle of the bend in
the arm. In this case minimum distortion is always obtained when the pickup is
" overhung,"that is when the needle point passes beyond the centre of the record
by a distance - d, the optimum value of which is given below, on the assumption
that the optimum value of offset angle is used.
When a pickup is mounted to provide minimum tracking distortion when used
with ordinary needles, the use of bent-shank or trailing type needles will seriously
affect the tracking distortion. In cases where either type of needle may be used, a
compromise may be necessary. When bent-shank needles only will be used, the
increased length of arm should be allowed for.
Offset arm (optimum offset angle) (Fig. 17.12)
T1722
Optimum overhang = -do'll! = L[!(TI (5)
For 10 inch discs -dopt = 3.99/L.
For 12 inch discs -dope = 4.60/L.
When L = 8 inches:
For 10 inch discs -doPI = 0.499 inch.
For 12 inch discs -d opt = 0.575 inch.
The optimum offset angle ({3 in Fig. 17.12) is given by
• T1TlI(Tl + T2)
(6)
SIn {3op, = L[t(Tl + T2)2 + T]T 2 ]
For 10 inch discs sin {JoP! = 2.96/L.
For 12 inch discs sin {JOPI = 3.26/L.
When L = 8 inches:
For 10 inch discs {JO'll! = 21041'.
For 12 inch discs {3oPI = 24 03'.
The harmonic distortion with optimum overhang and offset angle is given for 12
inch discs approximately by
. di' 5.5
Percentage 2nd harmornc stortton ~ -;====
VL2 - 11.6
If L = 8 inches, 2nd harmonic distortion ~ 0.76%.
7
>+10
~
u
9
~ 0L-----------~~======;=~=+~~~==~==~
o
w
fi!
~-IO
II::
-2~'~~~I~OO-----200~-300~~~~~~,~,OOO~--~~~OOO==~~~OOO~~,Q~J~
250 FREQUENCY (CIS)
system is corrective equalization, not pre-equalization. The distortion of the freq.uency characteristic
from flat (from air to record track) to some other characteristic is pre-equalizatton or pre-emphasis
,( Ref. 247). .
There is reason to believe that some record Inaa.ufactU.-ers who no:rur.allyadopt 16 db pre-emphuiii
at 10 000 cis use pan of this for corrective equalization for deficiencies of their equipment at hisrh
l~uen?es, and only the balance for true pre-emphasis (Refs. 247, 256; 193 discussion by E. W.
KelloaJ·
17.5 (i) RECORDING CHARACTERISTICS 729
The second factor is the peak frequency spectrum characteristic of the music being
recorded. The effect of the decreased amplitudes at high frequencies in speech and
music has been investigated (notably Ref. 42) but there is insufficient information
available concerning the instantaneous distribution of energy within the recorded
spectrum. Curves based on the work of Sivian, Dunn and White indicate that" no
large increase in di.stortion occurs in reproducing the 16 db pre-emphasized continuous
spectrum.. . yet the addition of a few prominent tones to this spectrum in the
region above 2000 cycles will result in intolerable distortion" (Ref. 42).
Pre-emphasis on shellac discs
If the tracking* difficulty could be overcome, it is possible that the N .A.B. pre-
emphasis characteristic would not be excessive (Ref. 193) but unfortunately it is the
tracking* problem which is the stumbling block. In one test, three records were cut
simultaneously with different values of pre-emphasis and played back on a system with
the maximum de-emphasis. The record with the 6 db pre-emphasis" reproduced
more highs and cleaner highs than the one with the 15, indicating that the overload on
the latter was so bad that it was not being tracked* " (Ref. 193, discussion by J. P.
Maxfield).
The use of the full N.A.B. pre-emphasis (16 db at 10000 cis) on standard shellac
discs has come in for much criticism. It is claimed that the cymbals and certain
brass instruments will overload the system at high frequencies, although this could be
taken care of by the use of a limiting amplifier which reduces the gain for the short
period required (Ref. 197). .A...nother writer states that trouble had been experienced
through overmodulation by second and third harmonics of the soprano voice when a
rising characteristic between 1000 and 5000 cis had been introduced (Ref. 174).
Another writer refers to the " muddiness" and " smearing" in the high level, full-
orchestra passages of many records (Ref. 117). Still another writer states that the
present N.A.B. pre-emphasis curve effectively guarantees excessive distortion and
he refers to the insufficient attention which is paid to the difference between transient
response tests and the steady state (Ref. 257). Another refers to the fact that the
N .A.B. characteristic unduly weights the importance of the signal to noise ratio and
produces the undesirable condition of signals having high velocity with high amplitude
(Ref. 189). Another again states " since the pickup stylUS can track* the recorded
high frequencies more clearly without excessive pre-emphasis, the high frequency
reproduction from such records is notable for its clarity" (Ref. 241). Other criticisms
have also been published (Refs. 155, 174).
It is interesting to note that one leading American manufacturer, R. C. A. Victor,
limits the high-frequency pre-emphasis on home records to a maximum value of
12.5 db at 10 000 cis in place of 16 db as with the N.A.B. characteristic, while the
AES Standard Playback Curve provides for 12 db pre-emphasis at 10 000 cis.
Pre-emphasis with fine groove recordings
Owing to the lower recording level, smaller radius stylus tip and more elastic
material' with fine groove records, a higher value of high frequency pre-emphasis
may be used than with 78 r.p.m. shellac discs, for the same distortion in both cases.
Measurement of recorded velocities
The recorded velocities may be measured either by the light-pattern method (see
(v) below) or by the use of a special high-fidelity pickup. These two methods do
not give the same result, owing partly to the mechanical characteristics of the record
material and partly to the finite needle size which causes tracing,distortion (see Sect. 6).
It is current practice to use the special pickup at low frequencies and the light-pattern
method at high frequencies; the latter may be checked by the pickup after allowing
for the loss caused by tracing distortion. It has been stated that the mechanical
impedance limits at the reproducing point should be included in any standardization
of frequency characteristic (Ref. 131).
*It is unfortunate that the word" tracking" should be used both here (meaning that the stylus tip
is capable of following the modulations in the groove) and also in " tracking distortion" which is due
to the angle between the axis of the pickup and the tangent to the unmodulated groove (see Sect. 4).
No alternative nomenclature seems to be in current use.
730 (i) RECORDING CHARACTERISTICS 17.5
+5 " '
.. ' ~
~. ~
...... .:::~::
.. --
_.......... ............
o .. ,.. . -- ~:. ~: •.. ., . -+- 'r-::-" f-~
-"
~
!!!
-5
Q)/~ ..:.:...... ........ '" \.
... ~.:.:.~-..
., -: '" .- ~
curvc~ E.M.l. 78 r.p.m. - I--
@) l~' E.M.1. Studiol Special Rccordirujl
100
I li~,
II 11"l I 1 1111111-
1,000 10,000
Frequency (c/l) FIG. 17. 14
Fig. 17.14. Recording characteristics used by all English, AustraHan and the majority
of European record manufacturers for 78 r.p.m., together 'with B.B.C. tramcriptions.
+ 2Q +20
Curve
+ IS Curve 2
I :-Calumbia LP micro groove
:-NAB (lateral 1~9) I I II I
"G'1 +15
Curve 3 :-R.C.A. 78,45 & 33 ~ r.p.m. I!
+10 Curve 4 :-Columbia 7e('fo1l0lWS I above ~OOO cIS) i l-"~ 1- 3
Curve
Curve
+5 Curve
5
A
:- Orthacoustic
:- 6c1b octave (cro.ss O¥'Cr 300c{s)
B :- 6db octGft (cross O¥'Cr 500c{s)
:
~
,»
..... !
~~.
:-' I
I
I
1
I
+10
+5
.!!.! 0
I ~I ~
- ~ I ! I o db
/~ ~'~ ~ fI
1
I Ii
-5 -5
~~.
-10 & . --
H-1
!
I
I
I -10
1-I - -~ .~ ~/
~
I ' i
-15
-20 ~1
I 3V
,./
~"V ./
---..
r--
I
I
-f-
--_ .. _---
i--- I
!
i
I
i
I
I
)
I
I
-15
-20
-25 1 V- i
I I ! I
i I
30 10 10 200 )00 -4OO!OO 100 2.000 3.000 5,000 1,000 2o.~5
100 1,000 10,000
Frequency cIs FIG. 17 .15
+20 r-....
..... ~
i'
+10 ~
o
" i'...
...... r-.~
--.....1'--.. . .
i'~
i'
-10
-20 " ,
20 10,000 20,000
100 1,000
It seems that this Standard Playback Curve is what is really needed by the designers
of equipment for reproduction from records. Even if record manufacturers do
not accept it, the error for any cross-over frequency from 325 to 500 cis is not more
than 2 db, and no problems will be encountered in the reproduction of NAB recording,
all fine groove records and most 78 r.p.m. discs except those with a cross-over fre-
quency of 250 cis and without any high frequency pre-emphasis. The latter may be
covered by a separate network.
The C.C.I.R. (Geneva, June 1951) proposed a compromise characteristic with a 450
f'sec. curve below 1000 cis and a 50 f'sec. curve above 1000 cis, giving turnover
frequencies of 360 and 2800 cis, for radio programmes· for international exchange.
Z L3 C3 RI R2
(Ohms) (H) (.,F) (Ohms) (Ohms)
150 0'545 24·08 12~ 30
250 0·910 14·44 204 50
500 1·81 7·22 408 101
600 2'18 6·02 491 121
FIG.I7.15C
20 N LJJJ .,'
18
~,J\ r' ~wo lJJ Stages
16 ~ ~~v I
~~.l>\ ~
. Stage
141
\~ I
12
...... ~~ f
.E 10 1
j \~
!
,
8
~,
f
u
.•...
6
o
41
20 2S 30
40 so 60
so 70
" ~
\\ \.
\ "~
\
100 125 ISO 200 2SO
......
'~ .... , .....
SOO
~ :---
750 IjX)CJ
100 140 200 250 300 400 500 Ip;YJ ~ 2,000
Frequency in cfs FIG. 17.16
Fig. 17.16. Bass equalizer characteristics (A) "ideal" characteristic with slope of
6 db/octave (B) characteristic with single stage r-c equalizer having total boost of 20 db
and max. slope 4.9 db/octave (C) characteristic with two r.c. stages in cascade, each
having total boost 10 db and max. slope 3 db/octave (circuit as Fig. 17.17).
Conventional resistance-capacitance equalizing circuits
The form of bass boosting which is normally used results in a " saturation " shape
of curve as in Fig. 15.4. Ma~mum slope is obtained at the point of half total boost,
the value being a function of the total boost (Chapter 15 Sect. 2) :
Total boost 20 15 10 6 3 db
Slope at half-boost point 4.9 4.1 3.0 2.0 1.0 db/octave
The desired slope is 6 db/octave, so that there is an appreciable error even with
a total boost of 20 db or more. This is plotted in Fig. 17,16 for a total boost of 20
db with alternative frequency scales for 250 and 500 cis cross-over frequencies. Witha
cross-overfrequencyof250 cis the error is about - 1 db at 50c/s and - 2.5 db at 30 cis,
which is generally acceptable, even though there is inevitably some additional loss in
734 (iii) INTRODUCTION TO EQUALIZERS 17.5
the extreme bass, due to coupling condensers. In the case of a cross-over frequency
of 500 c/s, however, the error is - 3 db at 50 c/s and - 4 db at 40c/s, here again
increased by the effect of coupling condensers. Some designers adopt a total boost
of as much as 40 db to provide a satisfactory characteristic for use with high cross-
over frequencies such as 800 c/s. In either case, it is good practice for the amplifier
to include a bass tone control which will permit an adjustment to suit the circumstances.
If no tone control is fitted, it is usually desirable to attenuate the extremely low fre-
quencies; a value of coupling capacitance may be chosen to give, for example, an
additional 3 db attenuation at 70 c/s and 5 db at 50 c/s.
In the circuit of Fig. 15.3 suitable values of components would be :
VI = 6J5 (half 6SN7-GT); RL = 50000 ohms; RI = 20000 ohms; R2 =
1 megohm; R., = 2800 ohms; C = 0.25 iLP for very good bass response or
0.05 iLF for bass attenuation. Voltage gain at 1000 c/s = 1.5 times = + 3.5 db.
Total boost = 20 db. C 2 = 0.2 iLF for cross-over 250 c/s or 0 1 iLF for 500 c/s.
Alternatively the total boost of 20 db could be obtained in two separate stages
each having a total boost of 1.1 db at the cross-over frequency. By this means a
maximum slope of 6 db is obtained at a frequency of 100 or 200 c/s with a cross-over
frequency of 250 or 500 c/s and more accurate equalizing is possible. The frequency
characteristic obtained is shown with a broken line (C) in Fig. 17.16, and the circuit
diagram is given in Fig. 17.17.
~~-----------------o+200V
Fig. 17.17. Circuit diagram
of two stage bass equalizing
I spoon. IS,OOO.n.
amplifier with bass boosting
in each stage. Pin 4 of the
6SN7-G T should be used for
the input circuit. Total boost
is 20 db and max. slope 6
db/octave. C = 0.25 iLF
for good bass response or 0.1
iLF for some bass attenuation;
1NPUT OUTPUl
C, fMl1 C2 O.liLF for cross-over
250 c/s or 0.05 iLF for 500 c/s.
FIG. 17.17
Voltage gain at 1000 c/s = 22
times = 26.8 dbvg.
Instead of having two networks separated by a valve, the complete two-section
equalizer may be incorporated into a single network as in Fig. 17.18. The maximum
slope is 7 db/octave which is adjustable down to 3 db/octave by means of control R 7 }
which should be tapered; maximum slope is obtained with maximum value of R 7 •
The plate load resistors may be increased if it is desired to increase the gain. This
circuit provides 25 db bass boosting with a very close approach to the true 6 db octave
slope (when R7 is correctly adjusted) and has the additional merit of incorporating
a tone control providing a total control of 13 db in the region 20 to 50 c/s depending
on the cross-over frequency. With an input voltage of about 50 millivolts, the output
will be about 1 volt.
Frequency-selective feedback to provide equalizing
A resistance-capacitance network may be used in the feedback loop of an amplifier
to provide bass boosting which gives a close approximation to the correct degree of
Fig. 17.18. Two section .os"F.~
equalizer to provide for
3 values of cross-over
frequency and adjust-
B+
I~
'12Ml1
able slope of characteris-
tic (Ref. 127). VI + 'f'30.,F
V 2 , - 6SL7 or 6SC7 or -.L 4 50V
·2SMl1 0:-
7F7 or any high-mu R7
triodes. ~_____________
o:-_ _-, FIG. 17.18
17.5 Ciii) INTRODUCTION TO EQUALIZERS 735
r---~----------------------~--~--o+300V
·OI ... F
~--~--~NV~--~~--~-;COUT~UT
'ISMn
S,ooon.
::s::::,
;--.. ....
...........
WITH & WITHOUT
- II
r---.
BO~
70
~
~
o
~~ ~ ~
;~
Flat
~~~
--r'\
II.
I FEEDBACK
""" ~
~
~ -10
R,C./'-
~ ~ ~~
;) -,";:'
~ U
III
N.~'"
~ o
""'" ~ t:::~ ~~ ~~
i - -20 r\.
-:ii"
~
z
"
;(
214' 2141 U 2 J4S a I S
,100 1,000 10,000 1,000 10.,000
Frtqumcy(c/.) Frcqumcy(c/s)
r---f-v"Ii'W'V'-t--------""1"'IIls,oooVV\"'.n'-O B+(90-4S0V)
DESIGN CENTRE
·39M.n 300V
PICKUP
INPUT(Ol-~(--<......-
FIG. 17.20
FIG. 17.22
Fig. 17.2l. Frequency selective negative feedback Fig. 17.22. Bass equalizer
used to provide equalizing for English records. incorporating L, C and R
(Ref. 199). VI = MH4 (I-' = 40, r:ll = 11 000 (Ref. 188).
ohms» load resistance = 50000 ohms.
Bass equalizers incorpor~ting L, C and R
A network incorporating L, C and R may be used to provide a very close approach
to the 6 db/octave ideal characteristic, or even higher values if desired. The simpli-
fied circuit is shown in Fig. 17.22 in which Ll is tuned by C 1 to the cross-over fre-
quency, R2 controls the shape of the band and R4 controls the slope of the characteris-
tic.
Suggested values for a cross-over frequency of 400 c/s are-L 1 = 2.9 henrys;
C 1 = 0.07 j.LF; C a = l.0 I-'F; R2 = 6800 ohms; R t = 2200 ohms.
For a slight change in cross-over frequency only C 1 and R2 need be altered (Ref. 188).
References to equalizers (general): 15,54, 106, 108, 109, 113, 117, 120, 126, 127,
133, 144, 187, 188, 197, 198, 199, 209, 220, 226, 239, 240.
(8) High-frequency equalizers (de-emphasis)
A shunt capacitance provides for attenuation at the nominal rate of 6 db/octave
(see Chapter 15 Sect. 6). The attenuation is 3 db when the reactance of the shunt
condenser is equal to the resistance of the circuit across which it is connected, that
is when
C = 1/(27TfoR) (1)
17.5 (iii) INTRODUCTION TO EQUALIZERS 737
I
fo f~
''''"
'((0
Fig. 17.23. (A) Circuit providing high-frequency attenuation with a specified limit to
the attenuation (B) Frequency characteristics.
If the maximum attenuation is 10 db, the maximum slope (which occurs at half
maximum attenuation) is 3 db loctave. This may therefore be used to provide a
3 dbloctave de-emphasis characteristic within the limitations of its range.
High frequency equalizers are incorporated in the circuits of Figs. 17.19, 17.20,
17.27.
For general treatment of equalizers see Ref. 258.
(iv) High-frequency attenuation (scratch filter)
In addition to the normal manual tone control it is advisable in good amplifiers
to incorporate a filter which proy-ides very rapid attenuation above a certain frequency,
'Say 7000 cis, so that the upper scratch frequencies on old or noisy records may be
rendered inaudible. This is provided by the circuit of Fig. 17.24A (Ref. 15) which
has negligible attenuation at 7000 cis, - 60 db at 8700 cis and over 36 db attenuation
at all frequencies above 8000 cis. The filter is designed for an impedance of 24 000
High Z
Output
l
·18Mll. 'OliJF
Fig.17.24B. Circuit of pre-amplifier and filter circuit with high attenuation at 10000
cis (Ref. 113).
ohms ; the plate resistance of VIis increased
to this value by means of a partially un-
bypassed cathode resistor, while the out-
put end is loaded directly. See reference o~
for coil winding and other details.
An alternative method is used in the pre- ,
amplifier circuit of Fig. 17.24B to produce
the response characteristic of Fig. 17.24C -10 \
This is suitable for use with low level
electro-magnetic pickups. The 10.6 Kc/s \
parallel-T network provides a maximum -20
attenuation of 34 db, while the 6 Kc/s
parallel-T network in the feedback loop re-
moves the attenuation which would other-
wise occur at this frequency and thus give -30 ./
/'
a sharper knee (Ref. 113).
There appears to be substantial evidence
that too sharp a knee on the attenuation 2 4 5 6 78910 15
characteristic gives an unpleasant effect to Frequency - Kilocycles I Sec
the listener. If the knee is initially too FIG. 17.24C
sharp, it may be slightly rounded by the Fig. 17.24C. Response curve of am-
addition of a "roll-oft''' characteristic at some plifier and filter shown in Fig. 17.24B
suitable point-e.g. in the preceding stage. (Ref. 113).
mately 100 mH and that of the G.E. pickup 120 mHo The correct value of shunt-
resistance is given by
R (ohms) = 1.2 f e for the Pickering pickup
and R (ohms) = 0.9 fe for the G.E. pickup
where f e is the frequency at which the attenuation is 3 db. Beyond this frequency
the rate of attenuation is approxin:uitely 15 db/octave.
The shunt capacitance required for various values of the cut-off frequency is:
Frequency 4000 5000 6000 7000 cis
Capacitance Pickering 0.02 .013 .009 .0065 p.F
G.E. 0.03 .019 .013 .0095 p.F
Fig. 17.25. Equalizer/or
use with E.M.I. and Mar-
LINK
comphone Model 12A
pickup. Output as shown
is 200 ohms; with link
closed, output is 600 ohms. OUTPUT
For English E.M.l. re-
cords join terminals 1 and
2, also 3 and 4; for
N.A.B. and American records leave unjoined. (E.1\,f.I. Australia).
Pre-amplifier for E.M.I. and Marconiphone Model 12A
A suitable equalizer is shown in Fig. 17.25 which gives the following output levels
at 1000 cis with Decca Z718 frequency record.
Termination Equalizer English Equalizer N.A.B
200 ohms - 49 dbm 50 dbm
600 ohms - 54 dbm - 55 dbm
Pre-amplifier for use with G.E. variable reluctance pickup
The circuit of Fig. 17.26 is suitable for use with the G.E. variable reluctance pickup.
This pickup gives an output of about 10 mV (with recorded velocity of 4.8 em/sec.),
the amplifier has a voltage gain of 35 db at 1000 c / s, so that the output voltage is
about 0.6 volt. The input shunt resistor of 6800 ohms (which is suitable for the N.A.B.
characteristic) may· be varied to control the frequency response, a higher value in-
creasing the high frequency response. A low plate voltage is desirable. The :filter
circuit of 27 000 ohms and 0.01 p.F produces an attenuation at 50 cis to reduce the
rumble from automatic record changers. A slight improvement in response may be
effected by shunting the 0.01 p.F condenser by a resistance of ISO 000 ohms (Ref. 187).
See also Fig. 17.34 for input transformer arrangement and Fig. 17.24B as an alternative
pre-amplifier.
+IOOV ,...3~3'"f\JOOO'Vll'Jl._""16",a,NOOOvv-Jl.--t·O~
OUTPUT
+2S0V(4mA)
22poon
INPUT I
6SL7
51
GND.
GAIN CONTROL LOW FREOUENCY
FIG. 17.27A CONTROL
60
0t--. . . . '\ \i\ i
1\ ! I ,II
so
6db
"'+0. i~' I ! II
..
12db . . . "+-U ~ I i I i ! IJjj
. . . "4. r~'\ I\.i iI I j
I! i ij:
40 18dl
~ i ii"-."l'll , I ill I ! U:l:
l:l 30
2~i IN- ............. '-,
\ ~
,,:.,,:~ I
I : I :I:
z
4O~b I I ITT ---..: ~ ~ ~ i Ii
~ Ii ........ I
UI
ex: 20 T I ; II
i ~ !
!
II ~
i
Fig. 17.27. (A) Circuit of I I i I i !
continuously variable equ- 10
I : I iii !
I
i I i I"
alizing pre-ampltfier (B) iii iii i i i I i ,
Variation in attenuation
0,
I i II
1.. S' 7 It 2 J . S .7.t
I I 2 J
I
• 5.7 I '
in low frequency control 100 IfXJO rqooo
FREOUENCY (CIs) ~,IG. 17.278
(C) Variation in attenua-
tion in high frequency con-
40 I III ill! : I I iill i i J- ~
trol (Ref. 246).
K I [JL6db'
~ i
~
III i i:i I
UJ
30
I 1 ~ :i ! : ! ! /~.,.~ "'Tii:r:-
."
I I , I iii ~
-
Z j..
0
~ex:
20
- 1 I ill: !
I
I
I ~ t" r-.~
IISdb
I Iii; I I I'~II ~b
: II
10 i I I' I
~db
Ij 1i I
l.I 5.7.,
II i '\
0, , l . 5 67.. a l . 5 671.
100 1,000 10,000
FREOUENCY (cIS) FlC. 17.27C
channel. Outputs from the three channels are added in a single valve feedback sum-
ming amplifier; potentiometers which add flat loss in the auxiliary channels pennit
control of the resultant transmission characteristic. The input allows for the con-
nection of two G.E. variable reluctance pick-ups simultaneously. The maximum
output is of the order of 1 volt, and the pre-amplifier may be· used at a moderately
remote location, owing to the cathode follower output.
The frequency characteristics are given in Figs. 17.27B and C (Ref. 246).
17.5 (v) EQUALIZERS FOR ELECTRO-MAGNETIC PICKUPS 741
I
VI may also be replaced by a high-mu triode (6AT6) 1NrUT
where RI = 0.1 oAfQ, R2 = 0.33 lyf.{J, RL = 0.221Y.f,Q, I
Ra omitted, C = 1200 p.p.F for 500 c/s, 2000 p.p.F for . . . - . - - - - -.....- .......
300 c/s or 2400 p.p.F for 250 c/s, giving gain of 8 db and bass boost of 26 db (see
Ref. 287).
A modification of the circuit of Fig. 17.28 is described in Ref. 280 which gives both
bass boosting (with a " very low frequency roll-off ") and high frequency de-emphasis.
Values of components are: Rl = 0.33 megohm, R2 = 1.0 megohm, RL = 0.22
megohm, C = 600 p.p.F approx. (adjustable), C 2 = 25 p.p.F approx. (adjustable)
shunted across R 2 , and VI = EF37.
A different modification of this circuit is given in Fig. 15.13; see Chapter 15
Sect. 2(iv)C This modified circuit enables adjustment to be made for any cross-
over frequency by means of a continuously variable potentiometer; unfortunately
no measured frequency characteristics have been published but this circuit seems to
be close to the ideal for simplicity and to provide a response characteristic as. good as
that of any other RC feedback amplifier.
(vi) Equalizers for crystal pickups
A crystal piekup, when working into a high load resistance of the order of 2 to 5
megohms gives a practically level response characteristic over the constant amplitude
section of a gliding-tone frequency test record (A in Fig. 17.30). If the load resistance
is decreased to 0.5 megohm (Curve B) the output at 50 c/s may fall in a typical case
by 6 db, the attenuation ratio at other frequencies being inversely proportional to the
frequency.
High temperatures cause a reduction in bass response ; an increase from 68 OF to
104°F causing a decrease of about 5 db at 50 c/s in a typical case (Curve B).
The output from a crystal pickup is so high that, if it is not attenuated between the
pickup and the first amplifier stage, it may overload the valve. Unless the equalizer
provides heavy attenuation, it is advisable to place the volume control between the
pickup and the first grid.
Above the cross-over frequency the output voltage from an unequalized high-
fidelity crystal pickup tends to fall at the rate of 6 db/octave. In popular types there
is usually a resonance peak which gives some additional lift to the top end of the charac-
teristic, thus decreasing the amount of equalization required.
742 (vi) EQUALIZERS FOR CRYSTAL PICKUPS 17.5
A simple equalizer for use with crystal pickups is t, ' FIG. 17.29
U
shown in Fig. 17.29. If R z = 0.5 megohm, Rl may
R, Grid
be taken asl0R z or 5 megohms. This gives an attenua- 01
tion at very low frequencies of 20.8 db. The effect of RZ
variation of C 1 is shown in curve C Fig. 17.30; these Cathode
response curves are only satisfactory when considerable
high-frequency de-emphasis is required. Fig. 17.29. Simple equal-
Better equalization is obtained when Rl = 4OR ll , izer circuit for a crystal
thus giving a maximum attenuation of 32 db. Suitable pickup.
values are: Rl = 5 megohms, R2 = 0.125 megohm, C1 = 100 p.p.F. The resultant
response curve is shown in curve D.
A more flexible equalizer suitable for use with a high-fidelity crystal pickup is
shown in Fig. 17.31 (Ref. 127). This gives a choice of three load re~stors, thus giv-
ing some control of the bass, and three values of capacitance suitable for three cross-
over frequencies.
An improved equalizing circuit suitable for use with the Acos GP12 high-fidelity
pickup is shown in Fig. 17.32 (Ref. 120). This gives correct equalization for H.M.V.
records within + 2.5 db, - 3.5 db from 30 to 8000 cis.
An equalizer suitable for use with the Brush high-fidelity pickup is shown in Fig.
17.33 (Ref. 106). Position (1) is for quiet shellac records with a 500 cis cross-over
ICAl
r---.... .......
I""-o~ ....
0 Od6.~
~
!'........
-
.0
...............
_.... .....
+ •0
01-'
~
1--
re: -=--- ---
~ ,
9d6eo
~
•0
.............
.......
r-.... ~r--.
+ .0
,- I'-I-t-- c,.~
~~
~
, I
~
01/ ,....
I-'~
I-
-
~db"0"4V
I-t- 1-1-
'00
~~ ~ r---_
~"
.0
+ .0
...............
--
r.:::: ...... ~
oI-
L-
-
@ Odho.OS2
;--~r-!
-
•
To
Amplifirr
-: FIG. 17.32
Fig. 17.31. Flexible equalizer for high-fidelity crystal pickups (Ref. 127).
Fig. 17.32. Equalizer for Acos GP12 highfidelity crystal pickup, for 250 cis cross-over
frequency (Ref. 120).
frequency; (2) for scratchy and noisy shellac records; (3) good Orthacoustic trans-
criptions and (4) noisy transcriptions. The low frequency filter reduces rumble and
hum.
See also Sect. 5(x) ..
-: FIG. 17.33
Fig. 17.33. Equalizer for use with Brush high-fidelity crystal pickup (Ref. 106).
To Grid
FIG. 17.34
~~
Fig. 17.34. Low impedance pickup
with balanced-to-earth input to step-up
transformer .
Fig. 17.35B. Williamson pre-amplifier including equalizer and hz"gh-pass f£lter (rumble
attenuator). Ref. 270. In the original amplifier VI3 = V 14 = Vlfi = type EF37.
V13 and V14 may be replaced by type 6J7 or 1620 if R69 IMQ, R71 =,1600 Q.
(V d.c.
working)
0.5 /LF Paper 250 20%
50 /LF Electrolytic i2
746 (ix) COMPLETE AMPLIFIERS 17.5
Rating Tolerance
0.25 MQ log.
47000 Q lW
47000 Q lW
3300 Q
0.25 MQ log.
100000 Q
6800 fJ
10 000 Q
0.1 MQ linear
17.5 (ix) COMPLETE AMPLIFIERS 747
I
I
Rating 1
I Type (V d.c. I Tolerance
I working)
C 17
C l8
I 50 ILF
180.25ILFILF
I Electrolytic
Electrolytic
12
450 I
Cn Paper 500 20%
I~;;:
C 20 1150 ILILF max. 1
C 2l 0.01 ILF 250 20%
C 22
C 23
0.05 p.F
11000 ILILF
Paper
' S£lvered m£ca
250 I 20%
20%
Cu . 50 ILF Electrolytic 12
C 25 1 0.05 ILF Paper 500 20%
C 26 100 ILILF Silvered m£ca 5%
C 27 I 200 ILILF Silvered mica 5%
C 28 ! 300 ILILF Silvered mica 5%
C 29 500 ILILF Silvered mica 5%
C ao 50 ILILF Silvered mt"ca 5%
Cal 100 ILILF I Silvered mica 5%
C32
C aa
250 ILILF
50 ILF
I Electrolytic
Silvered mica
12
5%
20%
C 34 0.05 ILF Paper 500
C 35
C a6,
8ILF
75 ILILF
I Electrolytic
Silvered mica
450
1% or
40
matched
C S7> 41 100 ILILF Silvered mica 1% or
matched
C S8 ' 42 150 ILILF Silvered mica 1% or
matched
C 39 , 43 200 ILILF Silvered mica 1% or
matched
C" 150 ILILF St"lvered mica 1% or
matched
C 45 200 ILILF S£lvered mica 1% or
matched
C 46 300 ILILF Silvered mica 1% or
matched
C 47 400 ILILF Silvered mica
C 48 16 ILF Electrolytt"c 450
Cn 16 p.F Electrolytic 500
Switches-
SI Single pole single throw.
S2 Double pole single throw.
Sa Single pole single throw.
S 4 5 bank, 5 position selector switch.
7. A high frequency attenuator or filter for worn or noisy records (may be omitted
if a sufficiently flexible tone control is fitted). One very effective form of filter is a
capacitance connected across the secondary of the output transformer--see page 214.
An example of a complete amplifier is given in Fig. 17.35A. This is a 25 watt
amplifier suitable for operation from a G .E. variable reluctance pickup, or Pickering
120M. The total harmonic distortion is under 1%. The pre-amplifier consists of
a triode with proper compensation in the output circuit. Bass boosting is obtained
by the use of frequency-selective negative feedback in the second and third stages.
Hum from the heater is reduced to the vanishing point by making the heaters of
the first two twin triodes part of the cathode resistor of the output stage. The output
stage draws approximately 300 mA, which is the correct current for the heaters of
the 6SL7 valves, and the additional bias required for the output valves is obtained
by a resistor (Ref. 240).
Another example of a complete amplifier is that due to D. T. N. Williamson (Ref.
270) shown in Figs. 17.35 B, C, D, E, F and G. The main amplifier (Fig. 17.35F)
is a new version of the earlier Williamson amplifier of which one adaptation is Fig. 7.44.
The circuit differs in minor details only from Fig. 7.44; the balancing adjustment
on VI and V 2 has been omitted as unnecessary, provided that R5R7 Rll and R13 have
the specified values and tolerances, while a transitional phase-shift network R 26 C 10
has been added to increase the margin of stability at high frequencies.
Output transformer specifications (3.6 ohm secondaries)-Williamson Amplifier:
Core: It in. stack of 28A Super Sileor laminations (M. and E.A.). The winding
consists of two identical interleaved coils each It in. wide on paxolin formers Ii in.
xl! in. inside dimensions. On each former is wound:
5 primary sections, each consisting of 440 turns (5 layers, 88 turns per layer)
of 30 S.W.G. enamelled copper wire interleaved with 2 mil. paper,
alternating with
4 secondary sections, each consisting of 84 turns (2 layers, 42 turns per layer)
of 22 S.W.G. enamelled copper wire interleaved with 2 mil. paper.
Each section is insulated from its neighbours by 3 layers of 5 mil. Empire tape. All
connections are brought out on one side of the winding, but the primary sections may
be connected in series when winding, two primary connections only per bobbin being
brought out. Windings to be assembled on core with one bobbin reversed, and with
insulating cheeks and a centre spacer.
Curves showing the loop gain and phase-shift characteristics of the main amplifier
are shown in Fig. 17.35G.
The pre-amplifier Fig. I7.35B has a voltage gain of 250 times from the grid of the
first valve to the voltage across the output terminals. The input grid voltage must
not be less than 0.8 mV; this minimum voltage can readily be provided by a suitable
transformer from any pickup. Care should be taken to avoid overloading the pre-
amplifier by too high an input voltage. The overall frequency response, when
tested with an ideal "velocity" pickup on an English Decca disc is level within
1 db from 20 to 14000 cis; below 20 cis there is attenuation at the rate of 30 dbl
octave to eliminate rumble. For the English E.M.I. characteristic, switch SI should
be opened. Other recording characteristics can be handled by the use of the tone
compensation unit.
This overall frequency characteristic, which provides bass boosting and high-
frequency de-emphasis to suit the recording characteristic, together with a rumble
filter, is provided by a careful combination of
(1) bass boosting by V13 together with the feedback network C S4 C 55 R63 R S4 '
(2) Attenuation produced by the combined inter-valve couplings.
17.5 (ix) COMPLETE AMPLIFIERS 749
(3) Feedback over Vw through the parallel-T network. This provides a peak at
20 cis which is used to give a sharp knee to the frequency characteristic instead of
the gradual attenuation produced by the inter-valve couplings. (Note that the
recording characteristic contributes 6 db/octave to the slope below 20 cis).
The final stage V1S is merely a cathode follower to permit the use of long leads
between the pre-amplifier and the tone-compensation unit.
If a high-impedance output is permissible, and an attenuation of 8 db at 10 cis is
sufficient to reduce the rumble, stage V13 may be used as a single stage pre-amplifier
with a gain of 11 times. Under these circumstances CS3 = 0.05 fLF, C 54 = 4000
fLfLF, R64 = 22 000 ohms, R6G = 2.2 MQ, R67 is omitted, and the output is taken from
the junction of C53 and R 66 . .
In the cathode circuit of V 13' closing the switch Ss reduces the gain to zero in about
1 second for use while changing records.
The noise level, with RS7 adjusted for minimum hum, is about 3 to.s fLVat V13
grid, excluding the noise due to the pickup transformer and auxiliaries. The total
harmonic distortion of the pre-amplifier and tone compensation units combined, is
considerably less than 0.1 %.
The tone compensation and filter unit Fig. I7.35C provides-
o I I Ii I I II j I i 5
~,- r-
".- II I l:i 4
l~
".0" I I ! i' ! '\
~-IO II I I ! d I r---
z
< I I :11 1 I I 1111 ~!LT~ POSITION !III
~
I i i I
~ -20 'I I
I !
~oJ I I I
w
a: i: i
-30 'I r~
!
[/1) rf'
-40 II iV V r\
10 100 ',000 10,000 30,000
FREQUENCY (cIs) FIG. 17.350
Fig. I7.35D. Measured overall response of low-pass filter (stage Vn in Fig. I7.35C
together with network controlled by switch S4)' Ref. 270.
III
IIII
-2~~0--~~~~~IOO~~--~~~.~,OOO~~~~~~I~~000~2~0,~·
lill i lot~,"
FREQUENCY (cis) FIG. 17. 3SE
Fig. I7.35E. Response curves of the tone compensation circuit following Vg in Fig.
17.35C. Curves are limiting positions for continuously-variable controls (Ref. 270).
7S0 (ix) COMPLETE AMPLIFIERS 17.5
(1) A universal tone control (switches S2S3 and controls R40Ru,) with frequency
characteristics as Fig. 17.3SE. The curves may be shifted bodily along the hori-
zontal axis by modifying the capacitance values shown by the arrows in Fig. 17.3SE.
(2) A low-pass filter with nominal cut-off values of SOOO, 7000, 10000 and 13 000
cis, together with a flat position (switch S4) providing response characteristics as
Fig. 17.3SD. This characteristic is provided by a paralle1-T network in the feed-
back loop of Vn which gives a symmetrical valley at the frequency of resonance.
A capacitor from the grid of Vl l to earth introduces a lagging phase shift which gives
-·~r.1J
FIG.I7.3SF
Fig. 17.3SF. Williamson main amplifier-new version (Ref. 270). Voltages under-
lined are peak signal voltages at IS watts output.
1 MQ i watt ±
20%
33000 Q 1 watt ±
20%
47000 Q 1 watt ±
20%
470 Q i watt ±
10%
22000 Q 1 watt ±
S%
(or matched)
R. 22000 Q 1 watt ± 20%
R s) R. 0.47 MQ i watt ± 20%
RIO 390 Q i watt ± 10%
R IU R13 47000 Q 2 watt ± S%
(or matched)
RIO Ru 0.1 MQ :l watt ± 10%
R u , R 20 1000 Q i watt ± 20%
R I .) R18 100 Q 1 watt ± 20%
R 17 ) Ru 100 Q 2· watt wirewound variable
Ru. ISO Q 3 watt ± 20%
R Z6 1200 Q X vispeech coil impedance
i watt
R z• 4700 Q i watt ± 20%
Cl) Cz, C5 ) C s 8 p,F SOOV wkg.
C 3 ) C, O.OS p.F 350V wkg.
C., C7 0.2S p,F 350V wkg.
C. 8 p,F 600V wkg.
C IO 200 p,p,F 3S0V wkg.
CHI 30H at 20 mA
CHz 10H at ISO mA
T Power transformer
20
~ I ~,,;,
I Ii II! .j.... ! [ : ~ i i
~ ,
r:
8 10
I
I 'I ! : i iii I iii,
~
,
I: ! II II!!
..
~
Ii b'- i 'I
I
.~
.J:.h ! II
~ 0 ! i "
,
,
;;;
II: I '/ i :I !
I I ~i !i
-10
I l I i - - -......PLFIER WITHOUT FEEDBACK ,
I
JI I! I
li~
,
Ii I
- - ......PlIFIER WITH FEEDBACK !
! !I
I
/ j I· / " 1--:
I
I I I I
I
,I ; ! I
-20
i I li!i I
I I; 'I lA' ,
l/ I
. ---
II, I
....J:- ,
i ! i II11 ! I i III I
I
I' I I Iii !!
C/ I
I i Iil, I Ii lilli I II 10· LI i i Ilii
10 10' 10'
Frequency (cis) FIG. 17. 3SG
Fig. 17.35G. Loop gain and phase-shift characteristics of Williamson main amplifier
(Ref. 270).
positive feedback below resonance and negative feedback above resonance, thereby
unbalancing the characteristic and giving a sharp knee before the attenuation com-
mences. The addition of an independent RC net-work controlled by S4A gives
further treble attenuation and leads to the final result in Fig. 17.35D.
the plane of the record to give a brilliant pattern. The eye should be directed vertic-
ally downwards on to the side of the record nearer to the lamp, and should be as far
above the record as possible.
A pair of dividers may be used to measure the width of the reflected light pattern
for each frequency; the width of the light pattern is proportional to the voltage
output from a perfect constant-velocity pickup. This method becomes increasingly
less accurate below the cross-over frequency, although it is very satisfactory at higher
frequencies.
The theoretical analysis and calculation of errors is given by Ref. 243.
References 25 (Part 5), 99, 219, 243, 258, 293.
Record II I f. (cross-over) 12
English
Decca flIT }(1802 14000 cis 10 cis
}(1803 14000 cis 1300 c/s 10 cis
American I
R.C.A. 12 in. (12-5-5) /10 000 cis /500 cis ( -1.5 db) 30 cis
London (album LA-32)
T-499612in.78r.p.m. 14000 cis ( +8 db) 1250
c/s (-I·db) 100 cis (-5 db)
T-499712in.78r.p.m. 14000 cis ( +8 db) 250 cis (-1 db) 10 cis ( -33 db)
Universal D61B Band 1 10000 cis (0 db) 500 cis (0 db)
Band 2 500 cis (-7 db) 200 cis (-7 db)
Band 3 200 cis (-14 db) 50 cis (-14 db)
Columbia XERD281 12
in. ,10000 cis 500 cis 50 cis
11 10 (cross-over) I 12
R.M.A. Standard REC-128 78 r.p.m.
No. I Side A 10 ()()() c/s 500 c/s I
30 c/s
Constant frequencies 1000 (+ 10 db),
10 000, 9000, 8000, 7000, 6000, 5000,
4500,4000,3500,3000,2500,2000,1500,
1000, 700, 500, 400, 300, 250, 200, 180,
160, 140, 120, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50,
40,30.
No.1 'Side B Voice announcements.
Constant frequency 1000 cis at levels
+10, +12, +14, +16, +18 db.
Then alternate gliding and constant fre-
quencies from 3boo to' 30 cis at level
+ 16 to + 18 db (1000 cis).
754 (xi) FREQUENCY TEST RECORDS 17.5
TABLE 3: BANDED FREQUENCY RECORDS
English and Australian
(78 r.p.m.)
E.M.I. Australia (ED1189) 20000, 18000, 16000, 14000, 12000, 10 000, 8000,
6000, 4500, 3500, 2000, (arbitrary 0 db); 500 (-1),
160 (-5.5), 70 (-12 db). 19000, 17000, 15000,
13 000,. 11 000, 9000, 7000" 5000, 4000, 3000, 1000
(arbitrary 0 db); 250 (-3), 100 (-8.5),50 (-14 db).
E.M.I. Australia (ED1190) 13 000 (-1.2 db), 12000 (-1.3), 11 000 (-0.4),
10000 ( -0.2),9000 ( -0.2),8000 ( -0.2),7000 ( +0.4),
6000 (+0.2), 5000 (+0.2),4000 (+0.7), 3000 (+1.2),
2000 (+0.6), 1000 (0 db arbitrary level),. 500 (+0.2),
250 (-2.9), 140 (-6), 100 (-8.9), 70 (-10.4), 50
(-12.8),35 c/s (-14 db).
E.M.I. Studios JG449 (1) 20 Kc/s, 18, 16, 14, 12, 10,8,6,4.5,3.5,2 Kc/s (0 db) ;
500 c/s (-1),160 c/s (-5.5), 70 c/s (-12 db).
(2) 19 Kc/s, 17, 15, 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, 4, 3, 1 Kc/s (0 db) ;
250 c/s (-3), 100 c/s (-8.5), 50 c/s (-14 db).
--------------_'--------------------------------------
Columbia LOX-650 11000 (0 db), 10000 (-1),9000 (-1.6),8000 (-1.6),
7000 (-1), 6000 (-0.8), 5000 (-0.8), 4000 (-0.8),
3000 (-0.8), 2000 (-0.8), 1500 (-1), 800 (-0.8),
1
500 (-0.8), 300 (-3.4), 200 (-5.2), 150 (-7.1),
, 100 (-9.4), 70 (-11.2), 50 (-13.6 db).
-------------------
I~
Decca Z718 50, 70, 100, 160,250,500, l000,2.000,C/S
-14 -11 - 8 -4 0 0 0 0 db
3000, 3500, 4000, 4500, 5000, 6000 c/s
I, 0 0 0 0 0 0 db
!
Decca ffrr K1804 14000 to 400 c/s (constant velocity) 250 to 30 c/s
(constant amplitude) ; ,in steps. Level + 10 db at
1000 cis.
American
RM.A. Standard}No. 2(A) i· Constant frequency bands at same frequencies as
REC-128 l No. 1 Side A without announcements.
78 r.p.m. No. 2(B) I 8000, 6000, 4000, 2000 (+ 10 db); alternate gliding
and constant frequencies 3000 to 30 c/s (+16 to 18
I db); 8000, 6000, 4000, 2000 (+10 db).
RC.A. (12-5-19) 12 in.11 Approx. canst. vel. 10000; 9000; 8000; 7000;
78 r.p.m. ~ 6000; 5000; 4000; 3000; 2000, 1000; (0 db =
Unfilled vinyl, SF J I 8.6 em/sec. approx.) 800 cis; 500 ( -1.5 db); Const.
I ampl. 300; 200; 100; 50; 1000 (-2 db); 10000.
RC.A. (12-5-25) 112000 (-2.5 db); 11 000 (-3); 10000 (-1.5);
(=460625-6) 12 in. 33-1/3; approx. const. vel. down to 700 (-0.5 db); 400 (1.2
r.p.m. Unfilled vinyl, SF I db below const. ampl.); 300 (0.6 db below const.
I ampl.). Also 400 and 4000 c/s tone for intermodula-
I tion testing. Groove has bottom radius less than 0.5
I mil. Max. stylus radius 3 mils.
RC.A. (12-5-31) 7 in. 45 I Approx. const vel. 10 000 ( -0.5 db); 9000; 8000;
r.p.m. I 7000 (-1); 6000; 5000 (-1.3); 4000; 3000
Unfilled vinyl, D.F. I (-1); 2000; 1000 (0 db = 5.2 em/sec.); 700
(Opposite side of 12-5-29)! (-0.5); 400 (-1.5); approx. const. ampl. 400;
I 300; 200; 100; 50; 1000. Velocity at 1000 cis
i = 5.2 em/sec.
17.5 (xi) FREQUENCY TEST RECORDS 755
Columbia
TL-l LP microgroove 10000 (+12 db); 9000 (+12); 8000 (+11.5); 7000
33-1/3 r.p.m. (+11); 6000 (+11); 5000 (+10); 4000 (+7.5);
3000 (+5.5); 2000 (+3); 1500 (+2); 1000 (0 db =
1 em/sec. r.m.s.) ; 800 (-1); 500 (-2.5); 400 (-4) ;
300 (-6); 200 (-8.5); 150 (-10); 100 (-11);
70 ( -12); 50 (-13). This record is cut with the
microgroove recording characteristic including high-
frequency pre-emphasis.
TL-2 LP microgroove 10000 (+5.5 db); 9000 (+5.5);' 8000 (+5); 7000
33-1/3 r.p.m. (+5.5); 6000 (+5); 5000 (+7); 4000 (+7.5); 3000
(+7); 2000 (+4.5); 1500 (+6.5); 1,000 (+7.5);
800 (+7.5); 500 (+7.5); 400 (+6); 300 (+3.5) ;
'!OO (-0.5); .150 (-3.0); 100 (-6); 70 (-7.5);
50 (-10.5); 30 (-12 db). 0 db = 1 em/sec. r.m.s.
RD-I03 LP microgroove 10000 (+5 db); 9000; 8000; 7000; 6000 (+5);
33-1/3 r.p.m. 5000; 4000 (+7); 3000; 2000 (+5); 1500; 1000
12 in. Bands (+7.5); 800; 500 (+7.5); 400; 300; 200 (0 db) ;
150; 100 (-6); 70; 50; 30 cis (-12); 0 db =
1 em/sec. Essentially flat over constant-velocity
portion, with cross-over 500 cis.
RD-I03A LP microgroove 10000 (+12 db); 9000; 8000; 7000; 6000 (+10
33-1/3 r.p.m. db); 5000; 4000; 3000 (+5); 2000; 1000 (0 db) ;
12 in. Bands 800; 500 (-2.5) ; 400; 300 (-6); 200; 100 (-11);
1 70; 50 cis (-13 db). 0 db = 1 em/sec. Levels
arranged to reproduce ± 2 db of. " fiat" on correctly
equalized LP reproducing system.
(l0003-M) 78 r.p.m. 1000 c/s; 10 000 (-7 db); 9000; 8000; 7000;
12 in. shellac 6000; 5000; 4000; 3000; 2000; 1500; 1000
(-1 db); 800; 500 ,; 300; 200; 150; 100; 70;
50 (-17 db). Cross-over 300 cis. Level approx.
4.8 em/sec. at 1000 cis.
(10004-M) 78 r.p.m. As (10003-M) but with cross-over frequency 500 cis.
12 in. shellac
Audiotone
78-1 78 r.p.m. 50 to 250 cis (peak amplitude 0.0017 inch); 250 cis
upwards (constant velocity).
London GraDlophone
T4998 12 in. 78 r.p.m. 14000 cis (0 db); 13 000; 12000; 11 000; 10 000 ;
9000; 8000; 7000; 6000; 5000; 4000; 3000;
2000; 1000; 400 (0 db); 250 (-2); 100 (-6);
55; 30 cis (-16 db).
Clarkstan
(2000S) 78 r.p.m. 50 to 500 (constant amplitude) 500 to 10000 cis
(constant velocity) in 17 steps.
(20002S) LP microgroove One side recorded flat, other side with NAB curve.
Cook
Series 10, lOin. Plastic Constant velocity (9 em/sec.) above 500 cis. with 3 db
DF. Side A 78 r.p.m. knee at crossover. Bands 1000 cis; 20 000; 17 000 ;
15000; 12000; 10000; 9000; 8000;, 7000 ;
6000; 5000; 4000; 3000; 2000; 1500; 1000;
700; 500; 350; 250; 125; 62.5; 40; 35; 1000
cis.
Side B: 33-1/3 r.p.m.; Band l-LP spot check for
standard LP pre-emphasis-l00 ; 1000 ; 3000; 6000 ;
10000 cis. Band 2-100 and 7000 cis intermodula-
tion test, with 7000 cis 12 db lower than 100 cis, on
756 (xi) FREQUENCY TEST RECORDS 17.5
R.C.A. Victor
(12-5-1) 10 in. 78 r.p.m. Unmodulated grooves at normal recording pitch with
Shellac DF lead out and eccentric. Same both sides.
(12-5-3) 12 in. 78 r.p.m. Unmodulated grooves at normal recording pitch with
Shellac DF lead out and eccentric. Same both sides.
(12-5-7) 12 in. 78 and On 78 r.p.m. bands 2300; 1000 c/s. On 33-1/3 r.p.m.
33-1/3 r.p.m. Shellac 1000; 433 c/s. Frequencies constant within 0.2%
DF instantaneous (12-5-5 on opposite side).
(12-5-9) 12 in. 78 r.p.m. Band I-silent; 2-400 c/s at 5.9 cm/sec.; 3-1000
Shellac SF c/s at 9.6 cm/sec ; 4-silent. Frequencies constant
within 0.2% instantaneous.
(12-5-11) 12 in. 78 r.p.m. Landing area with no lead-in spiral; at least one un-
Shellac DF modulated normal pitch groove; steep blank spiral;
normal pitch inside groove; lead out and eccentric
Same both sides.
(12-5-13) 10 in. 78 r.p.m As for (12-5-11). Same both sides.
Shellac DF
(12-5-15) 12 in. 78 r.p.m. Warble frequency bands, sweep rate 5.5 c/s. Band
Unfilled vinyl DF (1) 500-2500 c/s ; (2) 750-1250 c/s; (3) 1250-1750
c/s; (4) 1800-2600 c/s. Same both sides.
(12-5-17) 10 in. 78 r.p.m. As (12-5-15). Same both sides.
Shellac DF
(12-5-21) 12 in. 78 r.p.m. For checking automatic record changers. Three
Unfilled vinyl DF modulated bands with large eccentric groove. Bands
define standard 10 and 12 in. landing areas without
lead in grooves. Inner band 936 c/s (1 minute) for
checking wow.
(12-5-23) 12 in. 78 r.p.m. Various modulated bands joined by spiral grooves to
Unfilled vinyl DF indicate limits of standard recording dimensions
(12-5-21 on other side).
(12-5-29) 7 in. 45 r.p.m. For checking landing and tripping action of changer
Unfilled vinyl DF mechanisms. Bands 1000; 400; 1000 c/s.
(12-5-35) 7 in. 45 r.p.m. For checking landing and tripping action of changer
Unfilled vinyl DF mechanisms; for checking pickup sensitivity, turn-
table flutter and rumble.
(12-5-37) 7 in. 45 r.p.m. Bands of 400 and 4000 c/s signals combined, the
Unfilled vinyl DF (RL- 4000 c/s being 12 db below the 400 c/s level. Peak
419) velocities from 3.8 to 18 cm/sec. in approx. 2 db steps.
o db = 6 em/sec. Intermodulation distortion in the
record is less than 4%. For testing pickup" track-
ing" at various levels and stylus forces (Ref. 285).
(12-5-39) 12 in. 78 r.p.m. Bands of 400 and 4000 c/s signals combined, the 4000
Unfilled vinyl DF (RL- c/s being 12 db below the 400 c/s level. Peak re-
420) corded velocities run from 27 to 4.4 cm/sec. in approx.
2 db steps. 0 db = 9.1 em/sec. Intermodulation
distortion in the record is less than 3 %. Groove has
small bottom radius suitable for testing with 1.0 or
30 mil styli. Same use as 12-5-37.
17.5 (xi) FREQUENCY TEST RECORDS 757
(12-5-41) 12 in. 33.3 or 78 I For routine testing of record changer operation with
r.p.m. Unfilled vinyl DF 11.0 or 3.0 mil styli. Standard R.M.A. landing areas
for 10 and 12 inch records are defined by short inter-
I rupted tones. Short bands of 400 and 1000 cis tones
are included for routine pickup sensitivity measure-
ments.
I
Clarkstan
1000 A 12 in. 78 r.p.m. Sweep frequency record for oscillographic observation
vinylite SF of equipment response. Frequency range 70 to
10000 cis, flat within ± 1 db. Sweep frequency rate
20 times/sec. Crossover 500 cis.
1000 D 12 in .78 r.p.m. Sweep frequency record as 1000A but covering range
vinylite SF. from 5000 to 15 000 cis.
E.M.I. Studios
JH138 12 in. 78 r.p.m. Side 1: 400 cis (+22.5 db) with approx. 4000 cis
for use with 2.5 mil (+ 10.5 db) superimposed additively for I.M. testing of
radius stylus. pickups. Peak lateral velocity of combined wave is
equal to that of a sine wave at a level +24.5 db. The
succeeding 10 bands have levels of both tones reduced
2 db below those of the foregoing band.
I Side 2: 60 cis (+8.6 db) with 2000 cis (+10.3 db)
where A 271a/A
R 2111"/ A
a amplitude of lateral modulation of groove, measured in the plane of
the record
r = stylus radius
and ,\ = wavelength of sinusoidal modulation measured in the direction of an
unmodulated groove.
These formulae only hold when RA does not exceed Vi"
Example: Groove velocity 10 inches/sec.~ lateral groove velocity 2 inches/sec
for f = 4000 cis,
r = 2.3 mils.
Wavelength = ,\ = 10/4000 = 0.0025 inch.
Amplitude = a = 2/2TT(4000) = 1/400071 inch.
A = 271 a/,\ = 0.2.
R = 2TT(0.0023)(400) = 1.8471.
From (1): Fundamental amplitude = 0.1839 (this is 91.9% of the groove ampli·
tude).
From (2): Third harmonic amplitude = - 0.0113.
Percentage third harmonic with constant velocity pickup
3 x 0.0113 x 100/0.1839 = 18.4%.
From (3): Fifth harmonic amplitude = + 0.0035.
Percentage fifth harmonic with constant velocity pickup
5 x 0.0035 x 100/0.1839 = 9%.
Total r.m.s. distortion = 20%.
Intermodulation tracing distortion
The harmonic distortion so far discussed implies the existence of intermodulation
distortion which causes the most distressing effects on the listener and is still audible
when the offending harmonics are inaudible. The ratio of intermodulation distortion
17.6 (i) TRACING DISTORTION AND PINCH EFFECT 759
J~1\I\~D 1\
critical listener as the groove I
radius decreases towards the end
~~~~:co~~s!~~~~~li~~O ~~ ~ I
'- l.'.
types of fine groove recording. -' I' ..l
::;) 1\ \ 33~ R.P.M.-
The effect of recording char- g \ '1\ ~"--2·3 Mils._
acteristics on tracing dis- ~ \ \ \
tortion ~ 1\ 1. 0
~ is
Over the range of constant
velocity recording, the tracing
45R.P.M.
IMiI- ~ \l\ 33~RP.M~
~IIMill C7'
c
distortion is proportional to the I-
.~\ ~
178 ~U~IM.
\ I\. t...
g
square of the frequency ~ £! 3Mils lit
~ C7'~.
~
~ 1 '~
With high-frequency pre-em- \
C._
phasis. followed by the correct ~ to \
amount of de-emphasis, at the ...
g
6-----------
Q
fo I, fz
Frequency (c/s) FIG. 17.37 B
unmodulated groove. When a high degree of noise is present and the groove is
modulated by a single-frequency signal, it is found that the signal tends to modulate
the noise. The noise modulation reaches a maximum twice each cycle, and the peak
amplitude may be over ten times the peak amplitude of the measured noise in an
unmodulated groove. The use of pre-emphasis : de-emphasis is to reduce the noise
itself but to increase noise modulation. This effect is not apparent when the inter-
modulation is less than 4%.
This effect may be minimized during recording, by special means suggested in the
article.
Reference 145. See also Ref. 193 (proposed standards).
(vi) Pickup distortion
Non-linear distortion in a pickup may vary from practically nil in the best high-
fidelity types to over 5% total harmonics in some types .. The total harmonic dis-
tortion with a well designed crystal pickup is well under 2% (Ref. 120).
The usual method to test harmonic distortion is to use a suitable frequency
test record, check it for distortion with a pickup which is known to have very low
distortion, then measure the distortion with a wave analyzer. A simple test is to use
a C.R.O., but this is not capable of indicating less than about 2% or 3% total har-
monic distortion. The distortion is always a function of frequency, so that it should
be checked at all practicable frequencies. "The minimum stylus force for a given
pickup to track a given frequency recorded at a given level can be determined
by the observation of waveform on an oscilloscope. The waveform produced by
failure to track has a characteristic 'spiked ' appearance, and a very small trace of
this form of distortion is easily detectable "-Ref. 310(b).
Intermodulation distortion is preferable to total harmonic distortion as a general
indication of pickup performance. Recommended test frequencies are 400 and 4000
cis, with the latter 12 db lower than the former. Test records are available with bands
recorded at different levels, from below normal level, increasing by 2 db steps to
+ 10 db (e.g. R. C. A. Victor RL-419, RL-420, E ..M..I. JH 138).
In most cases the intermodulation distortion of a pickup increases very gradually
up to a certain level, and then rises very rapidly as the level is further increased.
This " knee" shoqt occur at a level of about + 6 db, on record RL-420, that is at
about 18.2 cm/sec. ,J A high fidelity pickup, tested on record RL-420 shows about
2.5% intermodulation distortion at a level of +6 db; most of this distortion is due
to the record (Ref. 291). Other modern lightweight pickups give up to 8% inter-
modulation at 0 db (9.1 em/sec.).
The" tracking" capability of a pickup may be checked by plotting a curve of inter-
modulation distortion against recorded level, for selected values of vertical stylus
force (for details see Ref. 285),
Intermodulation distortion may be measured either as the r m.s. sum or as the
arithmetical peak sum-see Chapter 14 Sect. 3(ii) and (v). An intermodulation
analyser using the peak sum method is described in Ref. 291.
(vii) Acoustical radiation
Acoustical radiation or needle chatter varies considerably among pickups. Some
pickups have no audible radiation. In other cases the radiation may be reduced,
if desired, by the use of a bent-shank needle or trailer type (Ref. 225).
(viii) Distortion in recording
If the distortion in the cutter head includes, say, 1 % third harmonic distortion, this
will result in 4% third harmonic distortion if both the fundamental and the harmonic
frequencies are recorded and reproduced at constant velocity. On the other hand
pre-emphasis followed by de-emphasis will reduce this form of harmonic distortion,
although intermodulation products will still be present (Ref. 189).
See also Sect. 9(i) for distortion on original recordings.
Proposed standards for the measurement of distortion in sound recording:
Ref. 193.
17.7 (i) ANALYSIS OF NOISE 763
input voltage characteristic is approximately horizontal for an input up to, say, 0.5
volt; this may be accomplished by means of a network incorporating voltage-delayed
diodes (such as 6H6) or germanium crystal diodes. The distortion products (all
harmonic and most of the intermodulation) are eliminated by splitting the high fre-
quency part of the amplifier into channels each covering only one octave. Some
possible combinations are
1. 0-3000 c/s; 3000-6000 cis (2 channels).
2. 0-2000 c / s; 2000-4000 c / s; 4000-8000 c / s (3 channels).
3. 0-1500 c/s; 1500-3000 c/s; 3000-6000 c/s; 6000-12000 cis (4 channels).
Filters are used which provide attenuation at the rate of approximately 30 db/octave
at both ends of each channel, except the low frequency end of the first channel. A
filter network for two channels is given in Ref. 115, while one for four channels is
given in Ref. 138.
The only known defects are that signals below the threshold value are lost, and
that there are some intermodulation products.
~B-
OUTPUT
Fig. 17.38. Simple Scott dynamic noise suppressor (Ref. 251 based on Ref. 114).
17.7 (vi) SCOTT DYNAMIC NOISE SUPPRESSOR 765
adjusted for minimum output at 9000 cis, but it was found preferable to tune C I and
LI for minimum output at 7500 cis to avoid too great a rise in output between the two
frequencies of maximum attenuation. This simple circuit cannot provide a response
extending above about 6000 cis.
A more recent model with minimum output at 10000 cis is described in Ref. 184.
Performance data of a more flexible dynamic noise suppressor built into a complete
amplifier are given in Ref. 173.
+10
1
~
o t::;:::r.
f ./ ~ ~ .,.
!!!! L
/'"
"""- '\".
-.,
.... ,"
-10 I 1/'"
IF
""'" " :... '\.\
-20
I
I
c-o-02V
...... ~
-,
~ IL
,I
I
.
- e-o-06V
--c-o-IV
-]()
= - c"o-2.V
I - - ' - c-o-4V
-1(- Filter Open
-40
30 50 100 soc 1,000 5,000 10,000
Frequency ell FIG. 17.39
(vii) Amplifier
The amplifier should be capable of an output of at least 10 watts, with low dis-
tortion and good frequency response. The noise and hum level should be at least
768 (viii) PICKUPS FOR LACQUER DISCS 17.8
45 to 50 db beloW' maximum power output (40 db is an extreme limit for poor re-
cordings). The amplifier should preferably have push-pull triodes with negative
feedback, although triodes without feedback or beam power valves with feedback may
be used.
Some 10 inch and 12 inch discs are also used, but these have been covered in Sect. 2.
The pickups to be used with transcription discs should· have a stylus force not
exceeding 1-1/2 ounces (42 grams). Only p~rmanent points should be used.
The total harmonic distortion on an original recording at 1000 cis or less, in accord-
ance with good practice, would be less than 2% (Ref. 219).
Intermodulation distortion measured on recordings made by three recording heads,
with low frequency peak amplitudes of 2.5 mils and high frequency velocity 12 db
lower, were approximately 1.0, 9.2 and 52% (Ref. 269). The first head is one giving
exceptionally low distortion, while the second is representative of good practice.
The readings were very little affected by the choice of low or high frequency. When
the level was reduced 6 db, the I.M. distortion was reduced to 23% with the third
recording head (say 6% harmonic distortion).
References to transcription recording (general): 4, 7, 63, (92, 99, 163), (135, 205,
146), 189, 214, 216, 218, 219, 230, 237.
Standards: Refs. 2, 87, 214, 237: Specifications: 185; Bibliography: 105.
The B.C.C. have a maximum radius compensation of 10 db, but the frequency at
which it reaches 10 db is decreased as the diameter becomes smaller (minimum 8-3/4
inches).
There is no doubt that with certain kinds of music it is impossible to apply the
full N.A.B. pre-emphasis of 16 db at 10000 cis together with the necessary amount
of radius compensation to provide a nearly level frequency characteristic without
serious over-modulation and distortion. The only answer seems to lie in the use of
fine groove recording.
Referenc·~s 4, 99, 189, 214, 227.
94. Chinn, H. A. " Disc recording" Electronic Industries (Nov. 1946) 64.
95. Capps, I.L... Recording styli .. (for lacquer records) Electronic Industries (Nov. 1946) 65.
96. Germeshausen, K. J., & R. S. John .. Phonograph pickup using strain gauge" Electronic Industries
(Nov. 1946) 7S.
97. Leidel, W. F., & N. E. Payne" Tuned ribbon pickup" (Audak) Electronic Industries, 5.10 (Oct.
1946) 67. '
99. Robinson, W. H. "Lateral recording" Comm. 27.4 (April 1947) 3S. See also Ref. 92.
103. Thompson, L. "Technics of sound methods; recording with embossed groove" Tele-Tech.
6.5 (May 1947) 4S.
105. Jorysz, A ... Bibliography of disc recording" Tele-Tech. 6.6 (June 1947) 73.
106. Queen, I. "Postwar features of phonograph pickups" Radio Craft IS.12 (Sept. 1947) 36.
109. Francis, E. H. " Moving iron pickups" W.W. 53.8 (Aug. 1947) 285.
110. Roys, H. E. "Intermodulation distortion analysis as applied to disk recording and reproducing
equipment" Proc. I.R.E. 35.10 (Oct. 1947) II49.
113. Rogers, G. L. " Simple rc filters for phonograph amplifiers .. Audio Eng. 31.5 (June 1947) 2S.
114. Scott, H. H. " Dynamic noise suppressor" Elect. 20.12 (Dec. 1947) 96. See also Ref. 275.
115. Olson, H. F. " Audio noise reduction circuits" Elect. 20.12 (Dec. 1947) 119.
116. Gordon, J. F. "A Vacuum-tube-type transducer for use in the reproduction of lateral phono-
graph recordings .. Proc. I.R.E. 35.12 (Dec. 1947) 1571.
117. McProud, C. G. "High Frequency equalization for magnetic pickups" Audio Eng. 31.8 (Sept.
1947) 13.
119. Hayes, A. E. " A new phonograph pickup principle" Audio Eng. 31.9 (Oct. 1947) 14.
120. Wheeler L.J., & K. G. Lockyer" Crystal pickups; basis of design for high fidelity reproduction"
W.W. 53.11 (Nov. 1947) 412.
126. Savory, W. A." The design of audio compensation networks" Tele-Tech 7.1 (Jan. 1948) 24.
127. McProud, C. G. "Transition frequency compensation" Audio Eng. 31.6 (July 1947) 10.
12S. Mittell, B. E. G. "Commercial disk recording and processing in England" (Review) Audio Eng.
32.4 (Apr. 1945) 19.
131. Mittell, B. E. G. " Commercial disc recording and processing" (abstract) W.W. 54.2 (Feb. 1945) 67.
133. Goodell, J. D. " The dynamic noise suppressor" Audio Eng. 31.10 (Nov, 1947) 7.
135. Tillson, B. F. " Musical Acoustics" (5) Recording groove, Audio Eng. 31.9 (Oct. 1947) 25.
136. "Stylus" (letter) "Musical acoustics" (refers to recording frequency ranges) Audio Eng. 31.9
(Oct. 1947) 3.
137. Hull, A. G. "Limelight on quality" Australasian Radio World (May 1948) 5.
13S. Cole, C. D. "Experimental noise suppressor" Audio Eng. 32.1 (Jan. 1948) 9.
140. McCracken, L. G. "Filter characteristics for the dynamic noise suppressor" Elect. 21.4 (April
1945) 114.
142. Kahr., A. "Torque-drive phono pickup" Service, 17.6 (June 1945) 32.
144. Burwen, R. S. "Feedback preamplifier for magnetic pickups" Audio Eng. 32.2 (Feb. 1948) IS.
145. Cook, E. G. " Noise modulation in recording" Audio Eng. 31.11 (Dec. 1947) 8.
146. Tillson, B. F. " Musical Acoustics" Part 7, Audio Eng. 31.11 (Dec. 1947) 23.
149. Canby, E. T. "Record Revue" (Scott noise suppressor) Audio Eng. 32.5 (May 1948) 24.
150. Price, S. L. " Balanced clipper noise suppressor" Audio Eng. 32.3 (March 1948) 13.
151. Cook, E. "Increasing volume level in disc recording" Audio Eng. 32.3 (March 1948) 17.
153. Maxfield, J. P., & J. K. Hilliard "Notes on pre-equali7.ation for phonograph records" Audio
Eng. 32.4 (April 1945) 15.
155. Pickering, N. C. " Misconceptions about record wear" Audio Eng. 32.6 (June 1948) 11.
157. "Ribbon pickup" (Brierley) W.W. 54.8 (Aug. 1948) 306.
ISS. "Modem crystal phonopickups " Radio Electronics 20.1 (Oct. 1948) 29.
159. Gernsback, M. H. ".Microgroove phonograph records" Radio Electronics 20.1 (Oct. 1945) 30.
161. Dorf, R. H ... Frequency test records" Radio Electronics 20.1 (Oct. 1948) 46.
162. Queen, I ... New magnetic pickups" Radio Electronics 20.1 (Oct. 1948) 55.
163. Robinson, W. H ... Lateral recording" Comm. 2S.9 (Sept. 1945) 34.
164. Olson, H. F., & J. Preston" Electron tube phonograph pickup" Audio Eng. 32.S (Aug. 1948) 17.
165. McProud, C. G ... Simplified dynamic noise suppressor" Audio Eng. 32.S (Aug. 1948) 22.
166. "Columbia LP microgroove records" Audio Eng. 32.S (Aug. 1948) 24.
170. Harris, H. " Making phonograph record matrices" Audio Eng. 32.7 (July 1948) 14.
173. Scott, H. H., & E. G. Dyett, " An amplifier and noise suppressor unit" F.M.&.T. 8.3 (March 1948)
2S.
174. Southey, R. V. "Modem practice in disc recording" Proc. I.R.E. (Aust.) 9.11 (Nov. 1945) 16.
17S. Hector, L. G., & H. W. Koren" Ceramic phonograph pickup" Elect. 21.12 (Dec. 1948) 94.
179. "Design of L-P records" Elect. 21.12 (Dec. 1945) 110.
181. Smith, O. J. M. " Polyethylene phonograph records" Audio Eng. 32.9 (Sept. 1945) 13.
IS2. Canby, E. T. " Record revue" (3 types of noise suppressors) Audio Eng. 32.9 (Sept. 1948) 33.
IS3. Baruch, R. M. "The LP microgroove record system" Service 17.11 (Nov. 1948) 14; 17.12 (Dec.
1945) 16.
184. Dyett, E. G. "Three tube dynamic nojse suppressor" Service 17.11 (Nov. 1948) 26.
ISS. "Recorder specifications" Tele-Tech. 7.S (Aug. 1945) 40.
IS7. Douglas, A. "The G.E. variable reluctance pickup" Electronic Eng. 21.251 (Jan. 1949) 21
(based on G.E. catalogue data).
ISS. McProud, C. G. " Elements of residence radio systems" (3) Audio Eng. 32.11 (Nov. 1948) 20.
IS9. Viol, F.O. " Some problems of disc recording for broadcasting purposes" Proc. I.R.E. (Aust.)
10.2 (Feb. 1949) 42. Reprinted Proc. I.R.E. 3S.3 (March 1950) 233.
193. "Proposed standards for the measurement of distortion in sound recording" Jour. S.M.P.E. 51.
(Nov. 1948) 449.
194. Nicholas, W.R. "Some aspects of phonograph pickup design" Prce. I.R.E. (Aust.) 10.3 (March
1949) 63. _
195. "Supersonic high fidelity" W.W. 54.1 (Jan. 1945) 23.
197. Hilliard, J. K. " Factors affecting pre-and post-equalization" Comm. 32.9 (Sept. 1943) 30.
19S. Savory, W.A. "The design of audio compensation networks" Tele-Tech 7.2 (Feb. 1948) 27.
199. Haines, F.M. "High fidelity bass compensation" Electronic Eng. IS.216 (Feb. 1946) 45.
205. Tillson, B. F. " Musical acoustics" Part 6 Audio Eng. 31.10 (Nov. 1947) 31.
209. Ellis, J. " Bass compensation" W.W. 53.9 (Sept. 1947) 319. See also Ref. 278.
210. Griffin, E. E ... Embossing at constant groove speed-a new recording technique" Elect. 13.7
(July 1940) 26.
211. Mc}>roud, C. G. "Experimental volume expander and scratch suppressor" Audio Eng. 31.7 (Aug.
1947) 13.
17.10 REFERENCES 773
212. Begun, S. J., & T. E. Lynch "The correlation between elastic deformation and vertical forces in
lateral recording" Jour. Acous. Socy. Am. 13.3 (Jan. 1942) 284. Correction 13.4 (April 1942) 392.
213. Pierce, J. A., & F. V. Hunt" On distortion in sound reproduction from phonograph records"
Jour. Acous. Socy. Am. 10.1 (July 1938) 14.
214. Davies, H. "The design of a high-fidelity disc recording equipment" Jour. I.E.E. Vol. 94 Part III
No. 30 (July 1947) 275.
215. Scott, H. H. "Dynamic noise suppressors" Service 17.9 (Sept. 1948) 16.
216. Henney, K. (book) "The Radio Engineering Handbook" (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
& London, 3rd edit. 1941) Sec. 21.
218. Aldous, D. W. "Manual of Direct Disk Recording" (Bernards, Publishers, Ltd. London, 1944).
219. "N.B.C. Recording Handbook" National Broadcasting Co. Inc., Engineering Department.
220. O'Brien, E. J. "High fidelity response from phonograph pickups" Elect. 22.3 (March 1949) 118
222. Le Bel, C. J. " Properties of the dulled lacquer cutting stylus" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 13.3 (Jan. 1942)
265.
223. Reid, J. D. " A large radius stylus for the reproduction oflateral cut phonograph records" J. Acous
Soc. Am. 13.3 (Jan. 1942) 274. Review W.W. 49.1 (Jan. 1943) 5.
224. Sepmeyer, L. W. "Tracing distortion in the reproduction of constant amplitude recordings"
J. Acous. Soc. Am. 13.3 (Jan. 1942) 276.
225. Goldsmith, F. H. "A noise and wear-reducing phonograph reproducer with controlled response"
J. Acous. Soc. Am. 13.3 (Jan. 1942) 281.
226. Savory, W. A. "Design of audio compensation networks" Tele-Tech 7.4. (April 1948) 34.
227. Kornei, O. "On the playback loss in the reproduction of phonograph records" Jour. S.M.P.E.
37 (Nov. 1941) 569.
228. Baerwald, H. G. "Analytic treatment of tracking error and notes on optimal pick-up design"
Jour. S.M.P.E. 37 (Nov. 1941) 591.
229. McLachlan, N. W. (book) "The New Acoustics" (Oxford University Press," 1936) p. 88.
230. Dorf, R. H. (book) "Practical Disc Recording" (Radcraft Publications Inc., New York, 1948).
231. Axon, P. E., & H. Davies" A study of frequency fluctuations in sound recording and reoroducinsz
systems" Jour. I.E.E. Part III 96.39 (Jan. 1949) 65. - -
232. "Columbia LP record specifications" Tele-Tech 7.10 (Oct. 1948) 63.
233. Roys, H. E. " An improved lacquer disc recording head" .Audio Eng. 33.2 (Feb. 1949) 21.
234. Baclli"'Ilan, " Phonograph reproducer design" E.E. 65.3 (March 1946) 159.
235. Mittell, B. E. G. " Annexure to recorded talk on disc-recording standards" delivered to I.R.E.
(Australia) Convention at Sydney, Australia, Nov. 3, 1948.
236. Aldous, O. W. "American microgroove records" W.W. 55.4 (Apr. 1949) 146.
237. "N.A.B. Recording and reproducing standards" Engineering (May 16, 1949)
238. "Stylus ", " Characteristics of the new 45 !.p.m. record" Audio Eng. 33.3 (March 1949) 6.
239. St. George, p, W., & B. B. Drisko " Versatile phonograph preamplifier" Audio Eng. 33.3 (March
1949) 14.
240. Van Beuren, J. M. " Cost vs quality in af circuits" F.M. & T. 9.2 (Feb. 1949) 31.
241. Scott, H. H. " Audio developments: observations on the quality of records made here and over-
seas" F.M. & T. 9.1 (Jan. 1949) 23.
242. Morse, M. " Sound embossing at the high frequencies" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 19.1 (Jan. 1947) 169.
243. Hornbostel, J. " Improved theory of the light pattern method for the modulation measurement in
groove recording" Electronic Eng. 19.1 (Jan. 1947) 165.
244. McClain, E. F. "A distortion reducing stylus for disk reproduction" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 19.2
(March 1947) 326.
245. Duffield, A. W. "Improvements in disc records through constant amplitude recording" Comm.
20.3 (Mar. 1940) 13.
246. Bomberger, D. C. " A continuously variable equalizing pre-amplifier" Audio Eng. 33.4 (Apr. 1949)
1~ .
247. Maxfield, J. P., & J. K. Hilliard" Notes on pre-equalization for phonograph records" Audio Eng.
32.4 (Apr. 1948) 15.
248. Fleming, L. "Notes on phonograph pickups for lateral-cut-records" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 12.3
(Jan. 1941) 366.
249. Bauer, B. B. " Pickup placement" Elect. 22.6 (June 1949) 87.
250. McProud, C. G. "General purpose 6AS7G amplifier" Audio Eng. 32.6 (June 1948) 24.
251. Aston, R. H. "A dynamic noise suppressor" Radiotronics No. 132 (July/Aug. 1948) 73.
252. Williams, A. L. "Further improvements in light-weight record reproducers" Jour. S.M.P.E. 33
(Aug. 1939) 203. .
254. Data kindly supplied by Radio CorporatiOn of America, R.c.A. International Division.
255. Data kindly supplied by William S. Bachman, Director of Research, Columbia Records Inc.
256. Data kindly supplied by R. V. Southey, E.M.I. (Australia) Pty. Ltd.
257. Hunt, "F. V. (in discussion on " What constitutes high fidelity reproduction?") Audio Eng. 32.12
(Dec. 19',8) 8.
258. Frayne, J. G. & H. Wolfe (book) "Elements of Sound Recording" (John Wiley and Sons, New
York; Chapman and Hall, Ltd., London 1949).
259. Langford-Smith, F. (Letter) " Recorded supersonic frequencies" W.W. 55.7 (July 1949) 275.
260. R.M.A. (U.S.A.) Standards and other data REC-I03 (Oct. 1946): Dimensional characteristics-
phonograph records for home use.
REC-105 (June, 1947): Disc home recording.
REC-125-A Quly 1949): Phonograph pickups.
REC-126-A (Oct. 1950): Playback needles for home phonographs.
REC-128 (May, 1949): Star.dard frequency test records.
261. Andrews, D. R. " Importance of groove fit in lateral recordings" Audio Eng. 33.7 (July 1949) 18.
262. Goldmark, P. C., R. Snepvangers & W. S. Bachman" The Columbia long-playing microgroove
recording system" Proc. I.R.E. 37.8 (Aug. 1949) 923.
263. Carson, B. R., A. D. Burt & H. 1. Reiskind " A record changer and record of complementary design "
R.C.A. Rev. 10.2 (June 1949) 173.
264. Corrington, M. S. "Tracing distortion in phonograph records" R.C.A. Rev. 10.2 (June 1949) 241.
265. Roys, H. E. " Analysis by the two-frequency intermodulation method of tracing distortion encoun-
tered in phonograph reproduction" R.C.A. Rev. 10.2 (June 1949) 254.
267. Institute of Radio Engineers, U.S.A. "Standards on radio receivers-methods of testing amplitude-
modulation broadcast receivers" (1948).
268. Sterling, H. T. " Simplified preamplifier design" Audio Eng. 33.11 (Nov. 1949) 16.
774 REFERENCES 17.10
269. Yenzer, G. R. " Lateral feedback disc recorder" Audio Eng. 33.9 (Sept. 1949) 22.
270. Williamson, D. T. N. "High quality amplifier-new version" W.W. 55.8 (Aug. 1949) 282; 55.10
(Oct. 1949) 365; 55.11 (Nov. 1949) 423.
271. "Disc recording system developments-solutions of many problems to bring about a fidelity range
of 20 KC" Tele-Tech. 9.1 (Jan. 1950) 14.
272. Begun, S. J. (book) " Magnetic Recording .. (Murray Hill Books Inc. 1949).
273. Haynes, H. E., & H. E. Roys " A variable speed turntable and its use in the calibration of disk
reproducing pickups" Proc. I.R.E. 38.3 (March 1950) 239.
274. Brig¥S, G, A. (book) "Sound Reproduction" Wharfedale Wireless Works, Bradford, Yorks.,
England, 1949.
275. Scott, H. H. " The design of dynamic noise suppressors .. Proceedings of the National Electronics
Conference, Chicago, Illinois, Nov. 3-5, 1947, Vol. 3. p. 25.
276. Brierley, J. H. " Reproduction of Records-I" booklet published by J. H. Brierley (Gramophones
and Recordings) Ltd., Liverpool, England.
277. Data supplied by J. H. Brierley of J. H. Brierley (Gramophones and Recordings) Ltd., Liverpool,
(England).
278. Fleming, L. "Equalized pre-amplifier using single stage feedback" Audio Eng. (Mar. 1950) 24.
See also Ref. 209.
279. Reid, J. D. "Universal phonograph styli" J.A.S.A. 21.6 (Nov. 1949) 590.
280. Warren, H. G. (letter) "Pre-amplifier circuit" W.W. 46.6 (June 1950) 238.
281. Bauer, B.B. "All-purpose phonograph needles" Elect. 23.6 (June 1950) 74.
282. Wood, G. H. H ... Record and stylus wea:r-advantage of compliant stylus mountings" W. W.
56.7 (July 1950) 245.
283. Mallett, E. S. "The determination of gramophone pick-Up tracking weights" Electronic Eng.
22.267 (May 1950) 196.
284. Woodward, J. G ... A feedback-controlled calibrator for phonograph pickups" R.C.A. Rev. 11.2
(June 1950) 301.
285. Roys, H. E ... Determining the tracking capabilities of a pickup" Audio Eng. 34.5 (May 1950) 11.
286. "Playback standards" Audio Eng. 34.7 (July 1950) 4.
287. Fleming, L ... Equalized pre-amplifier using single stage feedback" Audio Eng. 34.3 (March 1950)
24.
288. Bachman, W. S. " The Columbia hot stylus recording technique" Audio Eng. 34.6 (June 1950) 11.
289. Wortman, L. A. (Summary _of discussion) "Heated stylus recording technique" Audio Eng. 34.7
(July 1950) 24.
290. Marcus, E. J. & M. V... The diamond as a phonograph stylus material" Audio Eng. 34.7 (July
1950) 25.
291. Fine, R. S. "An intermodulation analyzer for audio systems" Audio Eng. 34.7 (July 1950) 11.
292. Roys, H. E. "Recording and fine-groove technique" Audio~. 34.9 (Sept. 1950) 11.
293. Moyer, R. C., D. R. Andrews & H. E. Roys " Methods of calibrating frequency records" Proc.
I.R.E. 38.11 (Nov. 1950) 1306.
294. Godfrey, J. W. .. Reproduction of discs and records for broadcasting" B.B.C. Quarterly 4.3
(Autumn 1949) 170.
295. Terry, P. R ... The variable-disc-speed method of measuring the frequency characteristics of
pick-ups" B.B.C. Quarterly 4.3 (Autumn 1949) 176.
296. Anderson, L. J. & C. R. Johnson" New broadcast lightweight pickup and tone arm" Audio Eng.
35.3 (March 1951) 18.
297. Moir, J. "Recorders and reproducers" FM-TV 11.1 (Jan. 1951) 14.
298. Well, M ... Phono facts" Audio Eng. 35.6 (June 1951) 20.
299. Dutton, G. F ... Gramophone turntable speeds .. W.W. 57.6 (June 1951) 227.
300. "Frequency test records-caIibration methods discussed by B.S.R.A. "W. W. 57.6 (June 1951) 227.
301. Kelly, S. " Piezo-electric crystal devices" Electronic Eng. 23.278 (April 1951) 134; 23.279 (May
1951) 173.
302. Shirley, G. (letter) "Diamond vs sapphire" Audio Eng. 35.8 (Aug. 1951) 6.
303. John, R. S. "A strain-sensitive phonopickup" Radio and TV News 43 (Feb. 1950) 40.
304. Roys, H. E ... Recording and fine groove technique" Broadcast News No. 60 (July-Aug. 1950) 9.
305. West, R. L., & S. Kelly" Pickup input circuits" W.W. 56.11 (Nov. 1950) 386.
306. Goodell, J. D. "Problems in phonograph record reproduction" Radio & TV News 44.5 (Nov.
1950) 39.
307. "AES Standard playback curve" Audio Eng. 35.1 (Jan. 1951) 22.
308... British long-playing records" W.W. 57.1 (Jan. 1951) S7.
309. Pollock, A. M. "Thorn gramophone needles" W.W. 56.12 (Dec. 1950) 450; correspondence
57.3 (March 1951) 121-; 57.4 (April 1951) 145.
310. Kelly, S. co Intermodulation distortion in gramophone pickups" W.W. ')7.7 (July 1951) 256. (b)
Letter L. J. Elliott, 57.9 (Sept. 1951) 370.
311. Bachman, W. S ... The application of damping to phonograph reproducer arms" Proc. I.R.E.
40.2 (Feb. 1952) 133.
312. Discussion on hum in moving coil and ribbon pickups: H. J. Leak, W.W.56.4 (Apr. 1950) 132;
J. H. Brierley, 56.6 (June 1950) 238; 57.2 (Feb. 1951) 81; P. J. Baxandall and R. L. West 57.4
(Apr. 1951) 146, 147.
313. Anderson, L. J.t & C. R. Johnson" New lightweight pickup and tone arm " Broadcast News No. 64
(May-June 1951) 8.
314. Weil, M. (letter) .. Tracking efficiency" Audio Eng. 34.8 (Aug. 1950) 2, also front cover.
315. "Hot stylus technique" W.W. 58.2 (Feb. 1952) 50.
316. Read, O. (book) .. The recording and reproduction of sound" (Howard W. Sams & Co. Inc.
Indianapolis, Indiana, 2nd ed. 1952).
317. Parchment, E. D ... Microgroove recording and reproduction" Jour. Brit. I.R.E. 12.5 (May 1952)
271.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
CHAPTER 18
SECTION 1 : MICROPHONES
(i) General survey (ii) Carbon microphones (iii) Condenser microphones Vv)
Crystal and ceramic microphones (v) Moving coil (dynamic) microphones (vi) Pres-
sure ribbon microphones (vii) Velocity ribbon microphones (viii) Throat microphones
(ix) Lapel microphones (x) Lip microphones (xi) The directional characteristics
of microphones (xii) The equalization of microphones (xiii) Microphone transformers
(xiv) Standards for microphones.
775
776 MICROPHONES-(i) GENERAL SURVEY IS.1
Microphone ratings
Microphones may be rated in terms of either voltage or power, as described in
detail in Chapter 19 Sect. 1(iv'). Ratings in common use include
Voltage ratings
A. Open circuit voltage (0 db = 1 V) for sound pressure 1 dyne/cm 2, expressed in
dbv*.
B. Open circuit voltage (0 db = 1 V) for sound pressure 10 dynes/cm 2, expressed in
dbv.
C. Volume units (as read by a standard Volume Indicator) for sound pressure 1
dyne/cm 2, expressed in vu.
D. High impedance grid circuit voltage (0 db = 1 V, Z = 40 000 ohms) for sound
pressure 1 dyne/cm 2 , expressed in dbv.
Power ratings
E. Output powert (0 db = 1 mW) for sound pressure 1 dynejcm 2 , expressed in
dbm.
F. Output powert (0 db = 1 mW) for sound pressure 10 dynes/cm 2, expressed in
dbm.
G. Output power (0 db = 6 mW) for sound pressure 1 dyne/cttl 2 • This rating is
now rarely used.
H. Output power (0 db = 6 mW) for sound pressure 10 dynes/em 2 • This rating
is now rarely used.
J. OutpUt power (0 db = 1 mW) for sound pressure 0.0002 dyne/cm2. This is
the R.M.A. Microphone System Rating GM (R.M.A. Standard SE-105; see
Chapter 19 Sect. l(iv)D).
E to F +20 db F to J - 94 db H to G - 20 db
E to G - 8 G to E + 8 H to J - 86
E to H +12 G to F +28 J to E + 74
E to J -74 G to H + 20 J to F + 94
F to E -20 G to J - 66 J to G + 66
F to G -28 H to E - 12 J to H + 86
F to H - 8 H to F + 8
Type Odb = 1 V o db = 1V I
0 db = 1 V I o db = 1 roW
I Z=40000Q
1 dynejcm 2 10 dynesjcm I 1 dynejcm 2
2
1 dynejcm 2
dbm db db db
Carbon (S.B.) -19 -M -27 -113
Moving coil -45 to -66 -73 to -94 -53 to -74 -139 to -160
Pressure ribbon -57 to -61 -85 to -89 -65 to -69 -151 to -155
Velocity ribbon -54 to -63 -82 to -91 -62 to -71 -148 to -157
in' one example), and the second harmonic distortion is considerably less, but the
output is about 10 db lower than that of the single button type.
Carbon microphones require a source of low voltage to pass a current of from 10
to 50 rnA through each button. When the circuit is broken by a switch there is a
tendency for the carbon granules to cohere-this may be reduced by connecting two
condensers and three inductors as shown in Fig. 18.1.
All carbon microphones have a tendency to blasting, while their other defects in-
cluding high noise level limit their application. The principal advantage is the high
output level.
References A5, A21, A23, D1, D3, D4, D7, D13, D14.
(iii) Condenser microphones
A condenser microphone consists of a stretched diaphragm and a back plate, with
a polarizing voltage between them. Owing to the high impedance, the pre-amplifier
must be mounted very close to the microphone. A possible circuit arrangement is
shown in Fig. 18.2. The response may be made almost flat from 30 to 10000 cis
with an incident angle of 90°-on the axis there is a high frequency peak of about 8
db as with all pressure microphones. The average response is about - 60 dbv across
the microphone itself (0 db = 1 volt per dyne/cm 2).
References AS, A7, A23, Dl, D3, D4, D7, Dl1, D13, D14.
The high frequency peak which occurs with microphones of standard size may be
reduced by making the diaphragm smaller. A miniature condenser microphone with
a diaphragm having the area of a hUman ear drum has been introduced with non-
directional pickup characteristics (Refs. A18, A26). The output level from the pre-
amplifier is - 50 dbm in a sound field of 10 dynes/cm 2 •
FIG. 18.1
F£g. 18.1. Circuit diagram of double button carbon microphone with filter (optional)
to re.duce coherin~ CL. = 9.0014 H, C = 0.02 /LF, E = 4.5 to 6 V).
FIg. 18.2. C,rcmt dIagram of condenser microphone.
Fig. 18.3. Circuit diagram of crystal microphone.
All crystal microphones using Rochelle salt or similar materials tend to be affected
by excessive humidity and temperatures above 125°F. Most of the crystals are now
coated to provide considerable protection against hQmidity, although their use under
tropical ,conditions appears to be risky.
A crystal microphone is effectively a capacitance, of the order of 0.03 /LF for a dia-
phragm type or 0.0004 to 0.015 /LF for a sound-cell type. This is effectively in series
18.1 (iv) CRYSTAL AND CERAMIC MICROPHONES 779
with the generated voltage and following grid .resistor. The following grid resistor·
(R in Fig. 18.3) should be from 3 to 5 megohms for a sound cell type, or 1 to 5 megohms
for a diaphragm type. A low resistance causes attenuation of low frequencies.
A long connecting cable will result in loss of output voltage, but will not affect the
frequency response. The loss is given by
db loss = 20 log [1 + (L x C L)/CM ]
where L = length of cable in feet
C L = capacitance of cable in microfarads per foot
and CM = capacitance of microphone in microfarads.
A few crystal microphones are equipped with step-down transformers for use in
low impedance circuits.
Ceramic piezo-electric microphones have advantages over crystal types as regards
high temperature and humidity. These have substantially similar performance to
that of crystal microphones. One model has a nearly fiat response from 30 to 10000
cis with an output level of - 62 dbv (0 db = 1 V per dyne/cm 2).
References to crystal and ceramic microphones: A5, A21, A23, Dl, D3, D4, D7,
D13, D14.
close to the source of sound, the low frequencies are strongly accentuated. For this
reason, a good, quiet studio and correct placement of speakers at a reasonable distance
is necessary if a normal velocity microphone is used for speech. The bi-directiona1
characteristic is useful where there are two speakers, or two groups, arranged on op-
posite sides of the microphone.
One model incorporates a switch and compensating reactor to reduce the accentua-
tion of low frequencies with close speaking (R.C.A. KB-2C, Ref. A27).
A modified form incorporates a large amount of acoustical resistance to give a nearly
flat response at all frequencies when speaking very close to the microphone (1 to 6
inches away), and noise cancellation for sounds originating at a distance. This is
particularly suitable for outdoor public address (R.C.A. KB-3A, Ref. A28).
References AS, A21, A23, A27, A28, Dl, D3, D4, D7, DU, D13, D14.
(viii) Throat microphones
A throat microphone is one which is actuated by direct contact of the diaphragm
with the throat. The high frequency response must be accentuated to obtain in-
telligible speech. Both carbon and magnetic types have been used (Refs. A19, D3).
(ix) Lapel microphones
Normal types of carbon, crystal, dynamic and velocity microphones have been used
for this application (Refs. A21, D3).
(x) Lip microphones
The velocity ribbon microphone has been used for this application (Ref. AS).
(xi) The directional characteristics of microphones
Pressure microphones are non-directional (Curve A Fig. 18.4) for low frequencies
but at high frequencies the response is a function of the angle of sound incidence-
this effect becomes smaller as the diaphragm diameter is reduced.
Velocity ribbon microphones are bi-
directional (Curve B) and the sound
source should be on one, other or both
sides. ..
There are various types of uni-direc-
tional microphones, among which the
cardioid (Curve C) is most popular. This
characteristic may be achieved by a care-
fully designed combination of a velocity
and a pressure microphone. Similar char-
acteristics may be achieved by the use of
acoustical delay systems in combination
with any pressure microphone such as
dynamic or crystal. A 'reduction of re-
sponse of about 15 db at the back of the
microphone with respect to that at the
front is obtainable with a typical cardioid
microphone. A single-element ribbon
type microphone has been developed which Fig. 18.4. Polar diagrams showing
has a reduction of 20 to 25 db at the back directional characteristics of microphones
(A) Non-directional; (B) bi-directional;
of the microphone (Ref. A22). A com- (C) cardioid.
plete survey of directional microphones is
given by Olson (Refs. A17, D3).
Polydirectional microphones provide a choice of two or three directional
characteristics or a continuously variable characteristic. A typical example is the
R.C.A. 77-D ribbon type.
The correct use of directional characteristics in microphone placement Ininilnizes
room reflection and reduces acoustical feedback and background noise.
References to directional microphones AI7, A2I, A23, D3, D13.
18.1 (xii) THE EQUALIZATION OF MICROPHONES 781
This pattern shall be plotted in the form of a polar diagram as a function of the angle
of incidence. The electrical output at anyone angle, EO' shall be referred to the output
at the zero position, Eo, by the relation 20 loglo (EO/Eo).
The directional characteristic of a bi-directional microphone shall be at least
- 20 db for all frequencies of a specified frequency range for sounds arriving from
any point in a plane perpendicular to the axis of normal usage. For a uni-directional
microphone the angle of minimum response . . . . shall be on an average of at least
- 10 db, the average to be based on minimum values for a number of frequency bands.
Standards for microphones: Refs. A8, A15, A16, A20.
(B) Microphones for radio broadcasting
Extract from R.M.A. Standard TR-I05-B (Ref. AI6). The nominal impedance
of all microphones intended for broadcasting service shall be 150 ohms ± 10% when
measured at a single frequency of 1000 cis ± 10%.
SECTION 2 : PRE-AMPLIFIERS
(i) Introduction (ii) Noise (iii) Hum (iv) Microphony (v) Valves for use in
pre-amplifiers (vi) Microphone pre-amplifiers (vii) Pickup pre-ampltfiers (viii)
Gain-controlled pre-amplifiers (ix) Standard pre-amplifiers for broadcasting (x)
Standard pre-amplifiers for sound equipment.
(i) Introduction
A pre-amplifier is a voltage amplifier suitable for operation with a low level input
and whose output is intended to be connected to another amplifier operating at a
higher input level. Pre-amplifiers are commonly used with low-level microphones
and pickups. When a pre-amplifier has to feed the a-f amplifier in a typical radio
receiver, the output voltage is usually taken for design purposes as 1 volt r.m.s. across
a high impedance. This allows for a volume control between the pre-amplifier and
the main amplifier. In some cases it is necessary to incorporate the volume control
in the pre-amplifier itself in order to avoid overloading with abnormally high input
levels. In such cases this volume control is usually placed between the first and
second stages of the pre-amplifier-with very high input levels it may be necessary
to incorporate either a volume control or a fixed attenuator prior to the first grid.
A pre-amplifier follows the same general principles of design as any other voltage
amplifier (see Chapter 12) except that particular attention has to be paid to hum, noise
and microphony, all of which tend to be troublesome.
(li) Noise
(A) The characteristics of random noise
Random noise includes both thermal agitation noise and valve noise. The
energy of such noise is distributed uniformly over the frequency spectrum. ,The
distribution of amplitude with time has been covered in Ref. Bl--occasional peaks
exceed four times the r.m.s. value.
Random noise voltages must be added in quadrature-that is to say as the root of
the sum of the squares.
(iii) Hum
The general features of power supply hum filtering and neutralization have been
covered in Chapter 31 Sections 4 and 5. Hum due to conditions Witllin the valves
and hum due to circuit design and layout have been covered in Chapter 31 Sect. 4.
Hum in voltage amplifiers has been covered in Chapter 12 Sect. 10(vi).
In pre-amplifiers the permissible hum voltage on the grid of the first valve depends
on the maximum signal level at this point. If a high ratio transformer is used, with
a reflected secondary resistance of 25 000 ohms or more, the signal level will be high
and an extremely low hum level will not be necessary. On the other hand, if a low
level pickup is coupled directly to the grid circuit without a step-up transformer,
extreme care and ingenuity will be required to make the hum inaudible.
Some of the precautions which may be necessary in certain cases to reduce hum to
a sufficiently low level are given below-
1. Complete electrostatic shielding of first pre-amplifier valve and associated
components and wiring. The grid and plate circuits should be separately screened,
so that there. is negligible capacitive coupling between them-in the case of single-
ended valves this requires care in wiring and either a shield or its equivalent between
grid and plate.
2. Electromagnetic and electrostatic shielding of microphone transformer (if any).
The more elaborately screened microphone transformers may include two or three
concentric magnetic shields of permalloy or equivalent, with copper shields between
(Ref. D2). For the lowest hum levels, hum-bucking is sometimes also provided in
the transformer.
3. It is usual for the pre-amplifier to be built on a separate, preferably non-magnetic,
chassis situated a considerable distance from the main amplifier chassis carrying the
power transformer and filter chokes. If this is not possible, the power transformer
should be designed to have low leakage flux and be mounted independently of the
chassis, with the iaminations verticai, and all a-f transformers should either be avoided
or elaborately screened.
IS.2 (iii) HUM 785
low-level valves is dependent upon the total plate current of the amplifier,
which is liable to vary. Ref. B52.
(b) The heaters may be connected in series, and supplied from a separate full-wave
rectifier and filter, using a thermionic or selenium rectifier-alternatively a
selenium bridge circuit may be used. Refs. B25; B52.
(c) The heaters may be connected in parallel, and supplied from a selenium or other
suitable rectifier, using either a full-wave or bridge circuit. Refs. B25, B52.
All methods employing rectified and filtered heater supply have a ripple component
which may be large enough to cause audible hum.
15. A r-f oscillator with a frequency of 30 or 40 Kc/s may be used as analternative
to d.c. heater supply (Ref. B25).
16. If a.c. is supplied to the heater of the first stage, the voltage of this stage alone
may be decreased to about 70% to 85% of normal. This is only permissible with a
limited number of valve types and even so may require selection of valves . . A cathode
current well under 1 rnA is essential (Ref. B20).
17. The cathodes of all pre-amplifier valves should preferably be earthed directly
to the chassis. However, in practice this is sometimes inconvenient and it may be
found that a minimum capacitance of 100 p.F shunted across the bias resistor from
cathode to chassis is satisfactory. High resistance grid-leak bias has not been found
satisfactory for low level operation.
18. An electrostatic shield in the power transformer is essential, even where the
transformer concerned supplies only heaters.
19. The pre-amplifier valves may be de-magnetized in a decreasing a.c. field. This
is only useful when the valves have become magnetized by some means.
20. Magnetic shielding of power leads and all conductors carrying a.c. may be ac-
complished by the use of an iron pipe, flexible conductor or-most effective-a per-
malloy wrap similar to that used for continuous loading of submarine cable (Ref. B51).
Additional notes on hum with pentode valves
I. l:Ium due to lack of sufficient filtering in the plate supply may be neutralized by
some suitable form of neutralizing circuit (e.g. Fig. 12.57).
2. The hum voltage caused by a magnetic field decreases more rapidly than the
gain as the load resistance is decreased. A low load resistance is therefore desirable
if there is a strong magnetic field (Ref. B42).
3. Hum caused by heater-to-plate leakage is also reduced more rapidly than the
gain as the load resistance is decreased.
4. In pentode valves operating with low input levels there is a further source of
hum in that the magnetic field of the heater varies the partition of current between
plate and screen and so introduces hum. This hum is worse with remote cut-off
valves than with those having sharp cut-off characteristics. This. form of hum may
be made zero by a suitable adjustment of grid or screen voltage (Ref. B46). See also
Refs. B23 (Jan. 1949) and B50.
(iv) Microphony
There are very large variations between valves with regard to microphony, and
special low-level types are recommended. Individual selection is, however, desirable
in addition if the valves are required to operate at very low levels. In all cases some
improvement may be made by a cushion socket and a thick rubber pad around the
valve.
(v) Valves for use in pre-amplifiers
It is generally desirable to use valve types manufactured and tested for low level
operation (e.g. types 12AY7, 1620 and 5879) but even with anyone of these types
there are large variations in hum, noise and microphony. If a particular pre-amplifier
is required to meet stringent test conditions it is advisable to select valves to meet its
requirements, and to use the balance of the valves in other less-stringent pre-amplifiers,
or in later sockets of the same pre-amplifier.
A choice is possible in the .A_1!lerican range between pentode types 1620 and 5879.
The former is very much more expensive than the latter, and its use can generally
be avoided by careful design.
18.2 (v) VALVES FOR USE IN PRE-AMPLIFIERS 787
If the designer decides to use ordinary radio valves for the first stage in a pre-
amplifier, it is advisable to test and select the valves in accordance with the following
procedure. A sufficient number of valves should be operated for about 48 hours
under the same electrode voltages as in the pre-amplifier. They should then be
tested for reverse grid current, and only those with reverse grid currents less than 0.1
p.A should be used in very critical positions. If a sensitive microammeter is not
available, a 1.0 megohm grid resistor may be cut in and out of circuit and the change
in plate current measured-see Chapter 3 Sect. 3(iv)A. Low reverse grid current
not only reduces the noise, but also permits a higher grid resistor to be used. The
valves with low reverse grid currents should then be tested in the first socket of the
pre-amplifier for noise, hum and microphony.
Some single-ended pentodes have one heater pin adjacent to the plate, and very
high leakage resistance is required to avoid hum (except when this heater pin
is earthed).
Type 6AU6 may be.used as a triode with earthed plate and suppressor, using the
screen as the anode, to reduce hum from leakage between heater and plate.
This device is only suitable for the first stage in the pre-amplifier owing to the
limited screen dissipation rating (0.65 watt). The following operating conditions
are suggested with a plate supply voltage of 180 volts (Ref. B48) :
Load resistance 0.05 0.1 0.25 megohm
Cathode bias resistance 450 750 1600 ohms
Plate current 2.4 . 1.3 0.59 mA
Stage gain* 21 23 '21
*With following grid resistor 0.5 megohm.
Characteristics of some speciai iow-noise valve types
Type 5879 is a 9-pin miniature low-noise pentode with published g m = 1000 p.mhos
at a plate current of 1.8 mAo The grid resistor (pentode or triode operation) may
be up to 2.2 megohms under maximum rated conditions, while the voltage gain with
180 volts supply is 87 with R L = 0.22 megohm and following grid resistor 0.47 meg-
ohm. As a pentode, the noise referred to No.1 grid with a bandwidth of 13 000 cis
is of the order of 7.2 p.V with grid resistor* 0.1 megohm, with only 10% exceeding
16 p.V. It may also be used as a triode having p. = 21, g m = 1530 p.mhos and I b =
5.5 mA at E b = 250, E c = - 8 volts. As a triode, the noise under the same con-
ditions as for the pentode is of the order of 6 p.V with only 10% exceeding 12 p.V.
Conditions: Triode operation Hum
1. One side of heater earthed, cathode by-passed (40 p.F), zero grid
resistance-median value 9 p.V
2. One side of heater earthed, cathode unbypassed, zero grid resistance
-median value 100 p.V
3. One side of heater earthed, cathode by-passed (40 p.F), grid resistor
0.1 mQ-median value 13 p.V
4. Centre-tapped resistance across heater supply, returned to fixed bias
point (+ 20 to + 50 volts) will reduce hum on most valves to less
~ W~
5. Centre-tapped resistance across heater supply, returned to voltage
to give minimum hum, cathode by-passed (40 p.F), grid resistor 0.1
megohm-median value 3.5 p.V
-less than 10 % exceeding 8 p.V
When adjusted for minimum hum, this feeds a small hum bucking signal into the
grid to oppose other minor sources of hum in the amplifier (Ref. BI6).
Type 12AY7 is a low noise twin triode (Ref. B17) with p. = 40, g m = 1750 p.mhos
and I b = 3 mA at E b = 250, E c = - 4 volts. The following tests were made with
a grid resistor 0.1 megohm and plate load resistor 20000 ohms. Shot-effect noise
(40 to 13000 cis) referred to the grid-median valve 4.7 p.V, maximum limit 8 p.V.
*The noise due to the grid resistor alone is about 3.8 p.V.
788 (v) VALVES FOR USE IN PRE-AMPLIFIERS 18.2
Hum referred to the grid-median valve 3.9 I-'V, maximum limit 12 I-'V with cathode
resistor by-passed (40 I-'F).
When used in a typical circuit, placed with the electron stream in a magnetic field *
of 1 gauss, the hum voltage on the grid is about 10 I-'V.
With a grid resistor of 30000 ohms, approximately 4 I-'V of hum per volt of heater
potential per I-'I-'F of capacitance between heater circuit and grid circuit will appear
at the grid. If the heater voltage is 6.3, this will give approximately 25 I-'V per I-'I-'F
of coupling. For applications see Figs. 18.7A, 18.7B.
+-~E--IH~--<;l- -- i
I Fig. 18.5. Single stage
I
pentode pre-amplifier for
I·~:,r::'", C;~,;, use 'with diaphragm-type
crystal microphone.
to Main
: Amplifl~r
I
L4---~--~~~----89:--J
FIG. 18.5
volume controls.
This is reasonably satisfactory for simple public address systems, home recording
and amateur transmitters, although the margin of gain is small. It may also be used
to feed the pickup terminals of any normal radio receiver.
Higher gain (45 dbvg*) may be obtained by the use of a selected type 6AU6 with
R L = 0.22 megohm, R2 = 0.43 megohm and R k = 1700 ohms. Under these con-
ditions VC2 may be adjusted to give about 10 db attenuation, Vel set to provide the
desired output level under average conditions, and VC2 then used as the control-
this will prevent overloading of the valve.
The recommended maximum value of VC l is 1 megohm. Higher values may be
used without damage to the valve, on account of the plate and screen resistors, but the
operating point may be seriously shifted by reverse grid current, leading to distortion
and loss of gain. Normally Vel would be set at maximum, and only reduced for
very close working.
This arrangement has many limitations, and the noise level is high, but it is good
enough for the simplest and cheapest applications mentioned above.
(B) Single stage pentode pre-amplifier followed by cathode follower (Fig.
18.6)
This circuit has the advantage over Fig. 18.5 that the pre-amplifier may be some
distance from the main amplifier, the two b.;ing linked by a low impedance line,
and that low impedance mixing may readily be applied. The gain and performance
are very similar to those of Fig. 18.5 except that the second volume control would
normally be incorporated in the low impedance line (reflected impedance about 400
ohms).
r -__~__~~5N~~~~A~__~IN~V~~n8+
IBOto250V
e,..F
Fig. 18.6. Single stage
pentode pre-amplifier fol-
lo'wed by cathode follower,
for use with diaphragm-type
crystal microphone.
LINE
FIG. 18.6
This circuit has the disadvantage that the cathode follower stage may give rise to
audible hum. It should therefore be restricted to use with a sensitive type of crystal
microphone or to applications where a low hum level is not essential.
(C) A preferred arrangement is a good t;ransformer in the cathode circuit of the 6J5,
stepping down from 20000 ohms primary impedance to any desired line impedance.
(D) Cathode follower as low-noise input stage
Fig. 18.6A shows the conventional cathode follower, and Fig. 18.6B shows the modi-
fied circuit for use as a low-noise input stage in connection with crystal microphones
-,j.dbvg = decibels of voltage gain-see Chapter 19 Sect. leu).
790 (vi) MICROPHONE PRE-AMPLIFIERS 18.2
or pickups. It has been shown (Ref. B53) that the modified circuit will have the
same stability as the conventional circuit if R .. = (I + G)Ru where G is the voltage
gain of the valve defined as the ratio of the voltage across Ra to that across R 1 • If
Z L is high, as it will be if coupled to another valve grid, then G will be approximately
constant and a real number. Ina properly designed circuit R .. can be made con-
siderably higher than R 1 •
B+ r-----...-<>B+
~-+--'------<>E
E"------ -,,-
FIG. 11.7
Fig. IS.7. Two stage broadcast station. microphone pre-amplifier with gain of 29 db.
18.2 (vi) MICROPHONE PRE-AMPLIFIERS 791
A tvVo-stage pre-amplifier using type 12AY7 twin triode is shown in Fig. 18.7A.
This has a total gain of 50 db, and the average noise and hum level referred to the input
grid is 11 p.V (Ref. BI7).
A balanced pre-amplifier employing cross-neutralization and negative feedback is
shown in Fig. 18.7B, using a.c. on the heaters. The frequency response is flat from
30 to 20000 cis, the average noise is 87 db down from the + 24 dbm level and the
distortion is 0.55% at 24 dbm output. The combined hum and noise voltages are
only 7.6 db above the theoretical value on the poorest valves, and only 2.2 db on the
average (Ref. BI7).
The essential amplifying and attenuating circuits of the four pre-amplifiers and one
" A .. amplifier of a single unit equipment for studio use are shown in Fig. 18.7C.
Each pre-amplifier has a 3-position key. In the pre-amplifiers, type 6AU6 is used as
a triode with earthed plate and suppressor, and negative feedback is applied from
plate circuit to grid. Each pre-amplifier has a separate attenuator normally " hold-
ing" 6 db. The" A" amplifier uses type 6AU6 as a high gain pentode followed by
the master gain control normally" holding" 20 db.
The" B .. amplifier of the same equipment is shown in Fig. 18.7D, and has negative
feedback from the secondary of the output transformer to the cathode of V 6'
With all controls set at maximum, an input of - 86 dbm gives an output of + 8
dbm. The distortion is less than 1 % at 18 dbm output. The noise level through
anyone channel is 60 db or more below output level with input - 60 dbm, output
+ 8 dbm.
A pre-amplifier circuit used by the B.B.C. is described in Ref. B41. A special
low-noise microphone amplifier for acoustical m~asurements is described in Ref. B54.
A pre-amplifier for the Western Electric type 640AA condenser microphone, using
subminiature valves, is described in Ref. B43. Extremely high insulation resistance
is required in the network between the microphone and the first grid, particularly
in the coupling capacitor.
PRE-AMPLIFIER
B+
PRE-AMPUFIER N02
MASTER GAIN CONTROL
PRE.-AMPLIFIER No 3
PRE-AMPLIFIER N04
FlG.IS.7C
Fig. 18.7C. Essential amplifying and attenuating circuits of pre-amplifiers and " A"
amplifier of single unit equipment for studio use (Ref. BI8). See also Fig. 18.7D.
18.2 (vi) MI~OPHONE PRE-AMPLIFIERS 793
References to microphone pre-amplifiers: A16, A24, B19, B2S, B41, B43, B48,
B53, B54.
INPUT
FROM
MASTER
GAIN
CONTROL
B+
FIG. 18.70
Fig. IS.7D. "B H amplifier of same equipment as Fig. IS.7C (Ref. BIS).
1 RI
:::~
Step 2
INPUT R RJ
INPUT R :-0
OUTPUT
Rn
1:;;;-'
...... 6
,~
OUTPUT
Fig. lS.S. Con-
tinuously variable
volume control FIG. 18.9
(potentiometer ). Fig. 1S.9. Step-type
volume control.
The step-type volume control (Fig. lS.9) has some advantages over the continuously
variable type-it is more reliable, has lower noise as the contact is being moved, and
the degree of attenuation is definitely known. In all the best designs, wire-wound
resistors are used. It is usually designed with logarithmic characteristics so that there
is a constant step (in decibels) between successive tapping points, e.g. 2 db. The
method of calculating R o, R1 etc. is given below.
Let R = total resistance of attenuator (Fig. lS.9)
N = voltage ratio corresponding to the decibel step between successive
tapping points (N less than unity)
and M = (1 - N).
Then Ro = MR; Rl =, MNR; R2 = MN2R etc.
R n = MNnR; R, = R - Ro - Rl - R2 ... - R n'
As a practical case take R = 100000 ohms with 2 db steps.
ThenN = 0.794 and M = 1 - 0.794 = 0.206. By simple calculation Ro = 20600;
Rl = 16340; R2 = 129S0 ; Rs = 10300; R.l = S 190 ; R5 = 6500; R6 = 5 170 ;
R7 = 4100; Rs = 3260; R9 = 2590 and RIO = 10000 ohms (all values correct to
three significant figures).
Slide rule or logarithm accuracy is sufficient for most purposes ; for greater accuracy
see Ref. C9.
18.3 (ii) SINGLE SECTION-CONSTANT IMPEDANCE 795
Ra = Z( --uc-1) and R(
K2 -
= Z (K +
K _ 1
1) (2)
Values of Rs and R.:, are given in Table 1 on page 796. For formulae giving trans-
formations from T to II or from II to T forms see Ref. C12.
Both T and II sections may be arranged in a " balanced " form for use with an
earthed centre-tap-in this case the series resistors Rl and Rs are divided into two
halves, one on each side of the centre (for table of formulae see Ref. D6) .. They may
al~o be. ?~signed to match unequal source and load impedances (see Refs. C7, C12,
Du, Du).
For the derivation of the equations above, see Ref. C13.
If the output impedance is increased beyond the design value, the input impedance
will be increased (although to a less extent) and the attenuation will be reduced-
see Refs. C6, CI2,. D6.
There are many other forms of constant impedance attenuators, but none does more
than the T or II section-they may be preferred for practical reasons in certain
applications. See Refs. C12, D6, DB, Dl1.
A, t t
~IG.
~.
18.10
-I~
Z
E
t Z
~
_1_
Z t z
A.
~IG.18.11
-
z
~IG.18.12
Fig. IB.IO. Constant im- Fig. IB.l1. Constant im- Fig. IB.12. The L
pedance T section at- pedance n section at- type single section
tenuatar. tenuator. attenuatar .
The values of resistances given in Table 1 are for Z = 100 ohms. For any other
value of Z, the tabulated values of resistances should be multiplied by (Zjl00). See
Figs. IB.I0, IB.11 and IB.12.
796 (iii) CONSTANT IMPEDANCE ONE DIRECTION 18.3
db K RI R2 Ra R4 Rs R,
1 1.122 5.76 866 11.6 1740 10.9 819
2 1.259 11.46 430 23.2 874 20.6 386
3 1.413 17.10 284 35.2 585 29.3 242
4 1.585 22.6 210 47.6 443 36.9 171
5 1.778 28.0 164 61.0 357 43.8 129
6 1.995 33.2 134 74.6 302 49.9 100.5
7 2.239 38.2 112 89.3 262 55.4 80.7
8 2.512 43.1 94.6 106 232 60.2 66.1
9 2.818 47.6 81.2 123 210 64.5 55.0
10 3.162 51.9 70.3 142 193 68.4 46.2
I I
The following references will be found helpful in supplying further general in-
formation on attenuators:
Periodicals C6, C12 (the most comprehensive of all), C13, C17 (the basic treatment).
Books 02, 06, 08, 011 (brief treatments are given in several other books).
(iv) Multiple section attenuators
Any convenient number of II sections may be connected in tandem, and the effec-
tive resultant is the " ladder" attenuator of Fig. 18.13, in which the two parallel re-
sistors at the end of each section and the commencement of the next are drawn as a
single equivalent resistor (R4/2). The values of Rs and R4 are calculated as for a
single II section (eqn. 2 and Table 1) to provide the desired attenuation per stage.
The value of Rs is given by R4 Z/(R 4 + Z). The minimum attenuation is 3.5 db
on tapping point Pl' The input impedance varies considerably as the tapping point
is changed but may be made constant, if desired, by inserting resistors at the points
marked X. The output impedance also varies, although less so than the input im-
pedance. This device may also be used when the impedance of the source differs
from Z.
1 C)P.
R,
P,
R,
P,
R,
,P,
L 0"'0
1 Z/2 )P.
. R,
PI
R,
~P2
R,
P,
L0"'0
--,
- ~z
~
IN PUT
INPUT ~R. & ~ ~ R. ~R. ~ ~ ~R..
~ 2 2 z. 2 ~ 2 ~
___ J ~ ___ J
~
FIG.la.IS
---
INPUT
z z
R, R, FIG. 18.17
t
INPUT t
I
OUTPUT
INPUT OUTPUT
~
FIG. 18.16
adjustment provided that the input level is not too high. Fixed grid bias must be
used. A universal design curve is given in Fig. IS.IS (Ref. CI5).
A circuit using type 6BE6 as a fader-mixer is shown in Fig. IS.ISA. This has a
voltage gain of 62 from grid I input, and 25 from grid 3 input. The distortion for
798 (v) ELECTRONIC ATTENUATORS 18.3
60
so
~
, ",
I"'-
... 4 0
A
'"
.5
z
o
~30 ~
z
...
IrJ
"~
!c I'
"20
" "r--..
~
........... t---..
0
,00' 00' ., 10
9mR
FIG. 18.18
Fig. 18.18. Universal design curve for electronic attenuator (Ref. CI5).
an output of 5 volts is 0.19% with input to grid 1, and 1.4% with input to grid 3. A
plate load resistor of 50 000 ohms gives lower gain and distortion. For electronic
gain control purposes, it is advisable to apply the signal to grid 3 and the control
voltage to grid 1 (Ref. C20).
~~~~==~~tt~~~~
b b 'OIIiF Fig. 18.I8A. Fader-mixer
circuit using type 6BE6
Input Input ItotSl. (Ref. C20).
pedance. In some cases the mixing is carried out between the input sources and the
grid of the first amplifier stage, and here the load impedance presented to each source
must be maintained constant.
The simplest type offader*, which does not provide mixing, is shown in Fig. 18.19.
It is only suitable for high level pickuPs, or the secondaries of step-up tr~sformers,
sw.ce the noise from the moving contact is appreciable. The control is a centre-
tapped potentiometer with a total resistance 2R. The value of R shoUld be that
recommended for each pickup.
Fig. 18.20 shows a series network mixer which may be used as a fader, but it has
serious drawbacks. Both sides of input source A are above earth, and any hum picked
up in this channel is fed without appreciable attenuation to the following grid. More-
over stray capacitances to earth. of channel A tend to by-pass the high frequency signal
voltages of channel B. This arrangement is not recommended.
A modified series network mixer is shown in Fig. 18.21 in which one side of each
channel may be earthed, but a transformer must be used to couple the outputs to the
grid. This may be used for fading and mixing.
Fig. 18.19. Simple type Fig. 18.20. Series Fig. 18.21. Modified
of fader for two pickups. network mixer. series network mixer.
The parallel network mixer is shown in Fig. 18.22 where three input sources are
provided for, althol,lgh any number may be used. The value of R4 may be made equal
to or greater than Ru and similarly with the other channels. If the mixer is con-
nected between two amplifying stages, all resistances may be equal (say 0.5 megohm)
and the maximum insertion loss will be 6 db for 2 channels, 9.5 db for 3 channels or
12 db for 4 channels. The insertion loss varies when the controls are moved-the
maximum variation in insertion loss caused by anyone potentiometer is 2.5 db for
two channels but less for more channels. This interaction is less if the source im-
pedance is considerably smaller than the resistances in the mixer, so that triode valves
~ are preferable to pentodes in the preceding stage.
The circuit of Fig. 18.22 may also be used when the sources
are microphones or pickups, but Ru R2 and R3 should be the
correct load resistance in each case. The isolating resistors.
Ru Rs and R6 may be made equal to the highest of the load re-
sistances. This arrangement is only practicable with fairly
high source levels, on account of the insertion loss and its
effect on the signal-to-noise ratio ..
One application of the parallel network mixer is
given in Fig. 18.23--this general set-up may be modified to
suit any practical case when there is a considerable difference
in level between the two sources.
Fig. 18.22. Parallel Probably the most popular of all mixing circuits in this
network mixer. class is the method using a common plate load for two or more
valves. When two valves are used with a common
*The word " fader" is here used in the sense of fading out one input source and fading in another.
The fading of a single source is here called attenuation. Mixing is the combination of two (or more)
sources so that both are amplified simultaneously; a mixer may however be used also for fading.
800 (vii) NON-CONSTANT IMPEDANCE MIXERS AND FADERS 18.3
plate load resistor, the plate resistance of each valve acts as a shunt load on the other,
thereby reducing the gain and the output voltage for a limited distortion. With
triodes, the gain is equal to the normal gain for a single valve multiplied by
(r 21 + R L)/(r 21 + 2R L). If RL is considerably greater than r p , the gain is slightly
greater than half that for a normal valve. With pentodes, the loss of gain due to shunt-
ing is slight, and may be neglected in most calculations. The effect of the shunting
on the maximum output voltage is much more severe than on the gain. The output
voltage for limited distortion is approximately equal to the normal output voltage.
multiplied by r.21 /(r 21 + R L)' If R L = 5r 21 as for a typical triode, then the output
voltage is reduced to one fifth of its normal value. For this reason it is suggested that
R L = 2r 21 would be more suitable, giving a reduction to one third of the normal value.
Here again, .the effect on pentodes is small.
One simple but very effective mixer incorporating
common plate load mixing is Fig. 18.24. VI may be any
twin triode, R L may be determined as outlined above, E-o
while the plate supply voltage may be about 250 volts,
or higher if a high output voltage is required with low
distortion. If desired, a second twin triode with a
further two input channels can be added. Alternatively, IH
two r-f pentodes may be used in place of VI to provide
increased gain. Various combinations may be devised FIG. 11.24
incorporating one or more common plate load mixers Fig. 18.24. Simple
with other types of mixers or faders to meet almost any mixer using twin triode
possible requirements. Fig. 18.25 is one example- with comml!n plate load
V l and V 2 may be any suitable twin triodes, Rl pro- resJStor.
vides fading for the two microphones and R2 is a combined microphone volume control,
R4 and R5 provide fading and mixing for the pickups while Ra is a master volume con-
trol. V 2 has a common plate load resistor.
One of the problems with mixers of the common plate load type is the control of
volume without introducing noise or circuit complications. This problem may be
overcome by the use of 6L7 type valves in which the amplification is controlled by
varying the voltage on the third grid (Fig. 18.26). This mixer is intended for use
Fig. 18.25. Mixer for two microphones and two pickups. Values of resistors are for
VI = V 2 = 6SN7-GT.
18.3 (vii) NON-CONSTANT IMPEDANCE MIXERS AND FADERS 801
r-----~----~NV~--------~----~-B+
so,OOO.n.
INPUT
A
FIG. 18.26
Fig. 18.26. Three channel mixer with electr:wzic volume control (Ref. C4).
with three high-level crystal microphones; the volume controls operate on d.c. and
may therefore be placed some distance from the mixer (Ref. C4).
References to non-constant impedance mixers: C3, C4, DIO.
R,
Fig. 18.27. Constant impedance
R-!;-R
o.B
mixer using three T type attenua-
~o---+---o--~ tors in parallel.
by RD where RD = Rn 2 j(2n - 1), and the Fig. 18.28. Constant impedance mixer
mixing loss up to terminals D is 10 loglo using three T type attenuators in series.
(2n - 1), where n is the number of channels. Values are tabulated below:
n 2 3 4 5 6
Ra 2.00 1.50 1.33 1.25 1.20
RD 1.33 1.80 2.29 2.78 3.27
Mixing loss 4.77 6.99 8.45 9.54 10.41 db.
If this mixer is followed by a transformer there is no further loss, but if it is followed
by a taper pad as in Fig. 18.28 there must be added the loss in the taper pad, the value
of which is given by
N = 20 log1o (Rz + V RZ 2 - 1) decibels
where RZ 2 = impedance ratio (greater than unity)
= n"j(2n - 1).
n 2 3 4 5 6
impedance ratio = 1.33 1.80 2.29 2.78 3.27
loss in pad (N) = 4.77 6.99 8.45 9.54 10.41 db.
(C) Series-parallel type mixers
Fig. 18.29 shows a four channel mixer using T type attenuators in series-parallel.
The input and output are both balanced. The values of R4, and Ro are given by
R4, = R(n - 3)jn and Ro = 4R(2n - 3)jnl
where n is the total number of input channels.
Ifn 4 6 8
then R4, 0.25R 0.5R 0.625R
Ro 1.25R R 0.75R
and loss in· mixer 7.0 9.5 11.1 db.
With six channels, the output resistance is equal to R and the taper pad will not be
required. In other cases its loss should be added to that in the mixer.
(D) Bridge type mixers
Fig. 18.30 shows a bridge type mixer with four input channels. This can only be
earthed at one point, but is otherwise satisfactory for four input sources. The output
resistance is equal to R, so that no taper pad or matching transformer is required-
the mixing loss is 6 db, which is less than that of any other 4 channel resistance mixer.
(E) Coil mixing (Ref. C18)
Coil mixing refers to the use of a special transformer (Fig. 18.31). The loss is the
theoretical minimwn and is given by iO ioglO n where n is the number of input sources
-it is 6 db when n = 4. The value of Rs is given by
Rs = lR(n - 1)
and is equal to R when n = 4. The secondary transformer impedance is equal to nR.
18.3 (viii) CONSTANT IMPEDANCE MIXERS AND FADERS 803
F"IG.18.29
I I
I. MIXER • I. TAPER PAO+i
Coil mixing appears to be very little used.
(F) Choice of mixer circuit
The parallel circuit has the very important advantage that one terminal of all (un-
balanced) attenuators can be earthed. Other circuits in which one or more attenuators
are above earth nearly always suffer from cross-talk and variation of frequency response
at high attenuations. There are thus two features on which" the choice of a mixer
circuit must be based-the earthing of all attenuators, and minimum mixing loss.
Many engineers insist on the earthing even at the expense of increased mixing loss in
some cases.
" FIG. 18.3b
The following comments are based solely on minimum mixing loss, and are there-
fore to be applied with discretion-
1. When the impedance of the input circuit is required to be higher than that of
the output circuit, a parallel mixer should be used.
2. When the impedance of the output circuit is required to be higher than that of
the input circuit, a series or coil type mixer should be used.
3. When the input and output circuits are required to be nearly the same im-
pedance, a series-parallel or bridge type mixer should be used.
References to constant impedance mixers:
Cl, C2, C3, C12 (parts 7 and 8), C16, C18, DI0,
DU.
(G) Precautions with studio type mixing r· _ _ R
systems 8
Under any possible operating conditions, the OUTPUT
nR _ _ _ nil
level at any stage should be kept at least 6 db and
preferably 10 db above the critical pre-amplifier
level of - 60 vu.
With mixer controls turned right off, and a
normal level applied to each input in turn, the ..... --R
ratio of "leakage" at 10 000 cis to normal pro- o
gramme level should be better than 70 db.
Cross-talk between two different circuits may
be reduced by using twisted leads for all speech Fig. 18.31. Constant impedance
circuits with an electrostatic screen around each mixer using cot."l mixing with
pair. four input sources.
804 REFERENCES 18.4
Where there are long circuits between pre-:amplifier outputs and mixer outputs,
it is usually considered wise to use balanced transformer inputs to avoid the possi-
bility of cross-talk or noise affecting the programme.
SECTION 4: REFERENCES
(A) MICROPHONES AND THEIR APPLICATION, STUDIO EQUIPMENT
A2. Queen,!." Microphones" Radio Craft (Sept. 1944) 723.
A5. Amos, S. W. and F. C. Brooker" Microphones-a detailed review of their design and characteris-
tics" (1) Electronic Eng. IS.21S (April 1946) 109 ; (2)" Sound waves and the physical properties
of microphones" IS.219 (May 1946) 136; (3) "Pressure operated microphones" IS.220 (June
1946) 190, also IS.221 (Iuly 1946) 221; (4)" Ribbon velocity and combined types" IS.222 (Aug.
1946) 255.
A7. Nygren, A. C. "Condenser microphone design-tiny condenser microphone (W.E. 640-AA)
combined with bullet shaped amplifier" F.M. and T. 6.S (Aug. 1946) 3S.
AS. Report of the Standards Committee (1933) of the Institute of Radio Engineers, U.S.A.
A15. American Standards Association" American recommended practice for the calibration of micro-
phones" Z24.4-193S.
A16. Radio Manufacturers Association (U.S.A.) " Standard audio facilities for broadcasting systems"
TR-105-B (Nov. 1949). .
A17. Olson, H. F. "Gradient microphones" I. Acous. Soc. Am. 17.3 (Jan. 1946) 192.
AIS. Hilliard, I. K. "An omnidirectional microphone" (Altec-Lansing miniature condenser type)
Audio Eng. 33.4 (Apr. 1949) 20.
A19. Martin, D. W. "Magnetic throat microphones of high sensitivity" I. Acous. Soc. Am. 19.1
(Jan. 1947) 43.
A20. Radio Manufacturers Association (U.S.A.) .. Microphones for sound equipment" SE-105 (Aug.
1949). '
A21. Catalogues of microphones.
A22. Olson, H. F., and I. Preston "Single-element unidirectional microphone" Jour. S.M.P.E. 52.3
(March 1949) 293.
A23. Beranek, L. L. (book) "Acoustic Measurements" (Iohn Wiley and Sons Inc. New York j Chap-
man and Hall Ltd. London, 1949).
A24. Telfer, I. E. "Audio-frequency equipment for broadcasting services" Proc. LRE. (Aust.) U.5
(May 1950) 107.
A25. Olson, H. F., and I. Preston" Unobtrusive pressure microphone" Audio Eng. 34.7 (July 1950)
IS.
A26. Hilliard, I. K. "Miniature condenser microphone" lour. S.M.P.E. 54.3 (March 1950) 303.
A27. Anderson, L. I., and L. M. Wigington" The Bantam velocity microphone" Audio Eng. 34.1
(Jan. 1950) 12.
A2S. Anderson, L. I., and L. M. Wigington" The KB-3A high-fidelity noise-cancelling microphone"
Audio Eng. 34.4 (April 1950) 16.
A29. Beaverson, W. A., and A. M. Wiggins" A second-order gradient noise cancelling microphone
using a single diaphragm" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 22.5 (Sept. 1950) 592.
A30. Radio Manufacturers Association" Standard amplifiers for sound equipment" SE-I01-A (July
1949).
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
B46. Zakarias, 1. "Reducing hum in pentodes" Elect. 21.11 (Nov. 1948) 170.
B48. "Grounded plate type 6AU6 triode connection for pre-amplifier use" Radiotronics 142 (April
1950) 45.
B49. Data Sheet XIX" Circuit noise due to thermal agitation" Electronic Eng. 14.167 (Jan. 1942) 591.
B50. Zakarias, I. (letter) "Hum in a.c. valves" ElectronicEng. 22.263 (Jan. 1950) 33. See also B23,
B46.
B51. Hopper, F. L. "Noise considerations in sound-recording transmission systems," Jour. S.M.P.E.
54.2 (Feb. 1950) 129. .
B52. Hedge, L. B. " D.C. heater supply for low-level amplifiers" Audio Eng. 35.6 (June 1951) 13.
B53. Tucker, M. J. " Cathode followers as low-noise input stages" Electronic Eng. 23.281 (July 1951)
270.
B54. Shorter, D. E. L., and D. G. Beadle" Equipment for acoustic measurements-A portable general
purpose microphone amplifier using miniature valves" Electronic Eng. 23.283 (Sept. 1951) 326.
See also Chapter 31 Refs. 6, 7,8, 9, 10.
(C) AITENUATORS AND MIXERS
Cl. Wright, P. B. "Mixer and fader control circuit design" Comm. (1) (Nov. 1943) 44; (2) (Oec.
1943) 44.
C2. Cooper, M. F. "Audio frequency mixers" W.E. 21.246 (March 1944) 117.
C3. Crane, R. W. " Audio mixer design" Elect. 18.6 (June 1945) 120.
C4. Patchett, G. N. "Mixing crystal microphones" W.W. 52.2 (Feb. 1946) 57.
C6. Espy, D. "Attenuator design" Elect. (Nov. 1941) 51.
C7. Honnell, P. H. "Unsymmetrical Attenuators" Elect. 15.8 (Aug. 1942) 41.
C9. Wright, P. B. "Attenuator design-for amplifier gain controls" Comm. 23.10 (October 1943) 38.
CU. Blackwell, R. F., and T. A. Stranglar "Attenuator design" W.E. 21.246 (March 1944) 122.
C12. Wright, P. B. " Resistive attenuator, pad and network, theory and design" Comm. (1) 24.8 (Aug.
1944) 49; (2) 24.10 (Oct. 1944) 62; (3) 25.1 (Jan. 1945) 50; (4) 25.5 (May 1945) 62; (5) 25.6
(June 1945) 68; (6) 25.7 (July 1945) 50; (7) 25.8 (Aug. 1945) 64; (8) 25.8 (Sept. 1945) 68; (9)
25.lO (Oct. 1945) 72; (10) 25.11 (Nov. 1945) 61.
C13. West, S. S., and E. O. McConnell" Attenuator design" W.W. 46.14 (Dec. 1940) 487.
C14. Baker, W. G. "Notes on the design of attenuating networks" A.W.A. Tec. Rev. 1.2 (June 1935)
19; 2.1 (Jan. 1936) 42.
Ci5. Smith, F. W., and M. C. Thienpont "Electronic attenuators" Comm. 27.5 (May 1947) 20.
C16. Morrical, K. C. " Design and use of mixing networks" Audio Eng. 31.10 (Nov. 1947) 11.
C17. McElroy, P. K. "Designing resistive attenuating networks" Proc. I.R.E. 23.3 (March 1935) 213.
CIS. M;l1er W. C. 2...'1d H . R. ¥i-rnball " ...1\. recordiP~ console;. associa.ted circuits a..'ld constant B equal~
j j
806
19.1 Ci) POWER RELATIONSHIPS EXPRESSED IN BELS AND DECIBELS 807
watt" is misleading unless it is also stated that the original level was 1 watt. A far
more satisfactory way is to state that a rise of 3 db has occurred. This may be cal-
culated quite simply since the gain in decibels is
10 loglo C2/1) = 10 log102 = 10 x 0.301 = 3.01 db
or approxima1;ely 3 db.
In a similar manner a decrease from 2 watts to 1 watt is a change of approximately
- 3 db.
lt has been found that a change in level of 1 db is barely perceptible to the ear,
while an increase of 2 db is only a slight apparent increment. For this reason variable
attenuators are frequendy calibrated in steps of 1 db or slighdy less. In a similar
manner an increase from 3 watts to 4.75 watts is only a slight audible increment, being
an increase of 2 db.
In order to simplify the understanding of barely perceptj.ble changes the follow-
ing table has been prepared, and it will be seen that a move from one column to the
nearest on left or right is equivalent to a change of 2 db. In this table 0 db is taken
as 3 watts.
db: -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 +2 +4 +6 +8 +10 +12
watts: 0.30 0.47 0.75 1.2 1.9 3.0 4.75 7.5·. 12 19 30 47.5
In addition to the application of decibels to indicate a change in level at one point,
they may also be used to indicate a difference in level between two points such as the
input and output terminals of a device such as an amplifier or attenuator. For ex-
ample, consider an amplifier having an input power of 0.006 watt and an output power
of 6 watts. The power gain is 6/0.006 or 1000 times, and reference to the tables
shows that this is equivalent to 30 db. The amplifier may therefore be described
as having a gain of 30 db, this being irrespective of the input or output impedance.
References 1, 8, 9, 16 (Chap. 32).
widely used at the present time. As an example, a power of 1 watt may be described
as
30 db (reference level 1 mW)
or 30 db (0 db = 1 mW).
or 30 dbm*.
The abbreviation db 6m is sometimes used to indicate a level in decibels with a
6 milliwatt reference level.
To conven from a reference level of 1 mW to 6 mW, add - 7.78 db.
To conven from a reference level of 1 mW to 10 mW, add - 10.00 db.
To convert from a reference level of 1 mW to 12.5 mW, add - 10.97 db.
To convert from a reference level of 6 mW to 1 mW, add + 7.78 db.
To conven from a reference level of 10 mW to 1 mW, add + 10.00 db.
To conven from a reference level of 12.5 mW to 1 mW, add + 10.97 db.
With any reference level, a power with a positive sign in front of the decibel value
indicates that this is greater than the reference power, and is spoken of as so many
" decibels up." A negative sign indicates less power than the reference power, and
is spoken of as so many" decibels down." 0 db indicates that the power is equal to
the reference power.
A statement of power expressed in decibels is meaningless unless the reference
level is quoted.
References 1, 5, 8, 9, 10.
(B) Voltage
A reference level of 1 volt has been standardized in connection with high impedance
microphones. The abbreviation dbv has been standardized (Ref. 38) to indicate
decibels referred to 1 volt.
(iv) Microphone output expressed in decibels
The output of a microphone may be expressed either in terms of voltage or power.
(A) In terms of output voltage
The response of a microphone at a given frequency may be stated in decibels with
respect to a reference level 0 db = 1 volt (open-circuit) with a sound pressure of
1 dyne per square centimetre (Ref. 36). The abbreviation dbv is used to indicate a
voltage expressed in decibels, with reference level 1 volt (Ref. 38).
For example, the output of a microphone may be stated as - 74 dbv with a sound
pressure of 1 dyne per square centimetre. This is the open-circuit voltage developed
without any loading such as would be provided by the input resistance of the amplifier.
Table 1 [Section l(x)] may be used to determine the corresponding open-circuit
voltage, which for the example above is approximately 0.0002 volt r.m.S. (Column 1).
If the input resistance of the amplifier is equal to the internal impedance of the micro-
phone (here assumed to be resistive as the worst possible case) the voltage across the
input terminals will be only half the generated voltage, giving a loss of 6 db or an
effective input voltage of -.: 80 dbv.
FIG. 19.1
In the general case, the input voltage to the amplifier will be (Fig 19.1):
El ERd(R + R 1 )
where E open-circuit voltage developed by the microphone
Rl input resistance of amplifier
and R internal resistance of microphone (here assumed purely resistive).
(B) In terms of output power
Alternatively the output of a microphone may be g!ven in terms of output [,["vel'
for a stated sound press_ur_e'_~----:---:7--:-----'~_-:-_---=_:-:---;::=;-__
*dbm indicates a power expressed in decibels with a reference level 1 mW.
19.1 (iv) MICROPHONE OUTPUT EXPRESSED IN DECIBELS 809
For example, the output of a microphone may be stated as - 65 dbm into a load
of 150 ohms, with an input sound pressure of 1 dyne per square centimetre. From
Table 3-Sect. l(x)-the power is 3.2 X 10- 7 milliwatt. If desired this may be
converted into voltage across 150 ohms.
Microphone system ratings are most commonly used in a complete sound system-
sound, microphone, amplifier, loudspeaker, sound-see (ix) below.
See Chapter 18 Sect. 1 for the relationships between various forms of microphone
ratings.
(v) Pickup output expressed in decibels
Although many pickups are rated on the basis of output voltage, some are rated on
a power basis with respect to a specified reference level. The procedure is the same
as for microphones.
Reference 9.
(vi) Amplifier gain expressed in decibels
Much confusion has been caused by the incorrect or careless use of decibels to
indicate the gain of a voltage amplifier. pecibels may be used in various ways to
indicate the gain of an amplifier-
(A) In terms of voltage gain (Fig. 19.4)
This is really an arbitrary use of decibels, but it is so convenient that it cannot be
suppressed.
Gain in decibels of voltage gain = 20 log E2/El (12)
where E2 = voltage across output terminals of voltage amplifier
and El = voltage across input terminals of amplifier.
It is important to distinguish these decibels from decibels of power, which have
an entirely different meaning. The abbreviation dbvg is suggested as indicating
decibels 0/ 'Voltage gain.
Some engineers express the gain of an amplifier in terms of voltage by taking El
(eqn. 12) as the open circuit generator voltage (E in Fig. 19.1). If the load resistance
(Rl in Fig. 19.1) is equal to the generator resistance (R), the indicated gain by this
method will be 6 db less than that given by eqn. (12). If Rl is greater than lOR,
both methods give approximately the same result. If the generator impedance has
an appreciable reactive component, the difference between the two methods will be
less than indicated above. .
= 20 loglo E 2EzJR
R; = 6 + 20 10glO
EzJIfR;
E (16)
If, in addition, R2 = Rl = R, then
gain in decibels = 6 + 20 10g1o (E2/E) (17)
(C) Gain of a bridging amplifier
A bridging amplifier is one whose internal input impedance is such that it may be
connected across a circuit without appreciably affecting the circuit performance in
any respect. Its function is to operate into progriilT.tffie circuits or similar ioads
(Ref. 33).
19.1 (vi) AMPLIFIER GAIN EXPRESSED IN DECIBELS 811
Bridging gain is the ratio, expressed in db, of the power delivered to the bridging
amplifier load to the power in the load across which the input. of the amplifier is
bridged (Ref. 33).
The commonest case is that of the input to an amplifier having a load of 600 ohms,
with the input terminals of the bridging amplifier connected across it. The output
load of the bridging amplifier is most commonly 600 ohms.
(vii) Combined microphone and amplifier gain expressed in decibels
(A) When a microphone, rated in terms of voltage, is connected to a voltage
amplifier which is rated in decibels of voltage gain (dbvg), the output may be
calculated as under :
Output in dbv* = microphone rating in dbv* + coupling factor + amplifier gain
in decibels of voltage gain (dbvg). (18)
The coupling factor = 20 log [Rd(R + R 1 )] (Fig. 19.1). (19)
Typical values of the coupling factor are tabulated below :
Rd(R + R 1 ) 0.5 0,56 0.63 0.71 0.79 0.89
Coupling factor = -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 db
Example: Microphone -54 dbv*
Amplifier + 80 dbvg
Rd(R + R 1 ) = 0.5
Output = -54 - 6 + 80 = + 20 dbv* = 10 volts.
It should be noted that the calculated output applies for the rated sound pressure,
for example 1 dyne per square centimetre. At other sound pressures the voltage
will be proportional to the sound pressure.
(B) ·Wl.len a microphone, rated ~n tel"1'1'1S of effective output level, is con-
nected to an amplifier having its gain expressed in terms of power in accord-
ance with R.M.A. Standard SE-101-A:
The amplifier power gain is measured effectively with a. constant input voltage in
series with a resistance equal to the rated source impedance of the amplifier as in
Fig. 19.3. Under these conditions no correction factor is necessary and the output
from the amplifier in dbm is equal to the sum of the microphone effective output
level in dbm and the amplifier power gain in decibels. This output level will oilly be
attained when the pressure at the microphone is equal to the rated pressur~.g.
10 dynes/sq. em.
FIG. 19.3 FIG. 19.4
an amplifier with a power gain of 40 db will give an output level -153 +40 +94 =
-19 dbm. The microphone amplifier and sound pressure in this example are the
same as for (B) above.
(viii) Loudspeaker output expressed in decibels, in terms of acousti.
cal pressure
In accordance with the American R.M.A. Standard SE-I03 (Ref. 29) the loud-
speaker pressure rating is the difference between the axial sound pressure level (re-
ferred to a distance of 30 feet) and the available input power level, and is expressed in
db.
It is expressed by the following forms (equations 20, 21, 22, 23) :
G SP 10 loglo [CP S/PO) 2 /(W As/Wo)] (20)
G sp = 44 + 20 loglo Ps - 10 loglo WAS (21)
G SP = 44 + 20 loglo P S - 20 loglo Ea + 10 IOglo RSR
+ 20 loglo [1 + (Rsa/RsR)] (22)
(pressUre in db above Po) = G SP + (power in dbm) (23)
where G S p = loudspeaker pressure rating in db
P S = axial, free-space, r.m.s. sound pressure at 30 feet, in dynes/em 2
Po = reference r.m.s. sound pressure = 0.0002 dyne/em 2
WAS electrical power· available to the speaker, in watts, and is equal to
Ea2RsR/(Rsa + RSR)2 (Fig. 19.5)
reference power = 0.001 watt
r.m.s. value of the constant voltage of the source, in volts
loudspeaker rating impedance, in ohms·
speaker measurement source impedance, in ohms·
and power in decibels referred to 1 milliwatt.
~_.
FIG. 19.5
Ru .1 Fig. 19~5. Loudspeaker
E. 30ft-"..,
testing conditions (R.M.A.
Standard SE-I03).
The sound pressure (p d) at any distance d feet may be used to compute the pressure
P. at 30 feet by the relation
Pa = (d/30)Pd (24)
See also Ref. 34.
Example: If the loudspeaker pressure rating (G sp) is 46 db, what is the axial
sound pressure level at 30 feet, with an available power input of 10 watts, using a
standard test signal?
G sp = 46 db WAS = 10 watts = 40 dbm
From equation (21),
20 loglo P s = 46 - 44 + 10 loglo 10 = 12 db.
Therefore P s = 4 dynes/cm2 (Le. 86 db above Po).
The same result may be derived more directly from equation (23), pressure
46 + 40 = 86 db above Po.
(ix) Sound system rating
The total gain of a system from sound, through microphone, amplifier and loud-
speaker to sound again may be calculated by adding the system ratings of the several
sections and coupling factors (if any).
(A) Using the American R.M.A. system ratings for microphone, amplifier
and loudspeaker we may put
SR = GM + G + G s p (25)
where SR sound system rating (gain in db)
GM = R.M.A. microphone system rating (equations 10 and 11)
G = arnpiifier power gain (equation 15)
and G Sp = loudspeaker pressure rating in db (equations 20, 21 and 22).
·See Chapter 20 Sect. 6(x)B for definitions of RSR and Rsa.
19.1 (ix) SOUND SYSTEM RATING 813
A system rating of 0 db indiCates that the sound pressure 30 feet from the loud-
speaker is the same as that at the microphone. Similarly a system gain of x db in-
dicates that the sound pressure 30 feet from the loudspeaker is x db greater than that
at the microphone.
(B) Proposed method of rating microphones and loudspeahers for systems
use by Romanow and Hawley (Ref. 11)
This proposed method has not been adopted generally in the precise form ex-
pounded, but the article gives a most valuable analysis of the whole subject of system
gain. This method is also described in Ref. 34.
10
s i 1/
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i I i ~
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~
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,
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lpoe
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t(,'"
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I II ~~")"f"
100
G"'\~
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10
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lot"
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o +10 +20 +30 +40 +50 +60
DECIBELS
Fig. 19.6. Gain ratio plotted against decibel gain. This chart may also be used for
. attenuation by inveriing the ratio and making the decibels negative.
Interpolation: If it is required to find the power ratio corresponding to 22.5 db,
or any other value which is not included in the table, the following procedure may be
adopted : -
1. Take the next lowest multiple of 20 db (in this case 20 db), and note the corres-
ponding power ratio (in this case 100).
*dbm is unit of power expressed in decibels with 0 db = 1 mW.
tdbv is unit of voltage expressed in decibels with 0 db = 1 volt.
814 (x) TABLES AND CHARTS OF DECIBEL RELATIONSHIPS 19.1
2. Take the difference between the specified level and the multiple of 20 db (in
this case 22.5 - 20 = 2.5 db) and note the corresponding power ratio (in this
case 1.778).
3. Multiply the two power ratios so determined (in this case 100 X 1;778 = 177.8).
Ratio
db
(Power
db
(Voltage'" Ratio
I db db
(Power (Voltage*
Ratio) Ratio) Ratio) Ratio)
I
1.0 0 0 5.7 7.559 15.117
1.1 0.414 0.828 5.8 7.634 15.269
1.2 0.792 1.584 5.9 7.709 15.417
1.3 1.139 2.279 {i.0 7.782 15.563
1.4 1.461 2.923 6.1 7.853 15.707
1.5 1.761 3.522 6.2 7.924 15.848
1.6 2.041 4.082 6.3 7.993 15.987
1.7 2.304 4.609 6.4 8.062 16.124
1.8 2.553 5.105 6.5 8.129 16.258
1.9 2.788 5.575 6.6 8.195 16.391
2.0 3.010 6.021 6.7 8.261 16.521
2.1 3.222 6.444 6.8 8.325 16.650
2.2 3.424 6.848 6.9 8.388 16.777
2.3 3.617 7.235 7.0 8.451 16.902
2.4 3.802 7.604 7.1 8.513 17.025
2.5 3.979 7.959 7.2 8.573 17.147
2.6 4.150 8.299 7.3 8.633 17.266
2.7 4.314 8.627 7.4 8.692 17.385
2.8 4.472 8.943 7.5 8.751 17.501
2.9 4.624 9.248 7.6 8.808 17.616
3.0 4.771 9.542 7.7 8.865 17.730
3.1 4.914 9.827 7.8 8.921 17.842
3.2 5.051 10.103 7.9 8.976 17,953
3.3 5.185 10.370
3.4 I 5.315 10.630
8.0
8.1
9.031
9.085
18.062
18.170
3.5 5.441 10.881 8.2 9.138 18.276
3.6 5.563 11.126 8.3 9.191 18.382
3.7 5.682 11.364 8.4 9.243 18.486
3.8 5.798 11.596 8.5 9.294 18.588
3.9 5.911 11.821 8.6 9.345 18.690
4.0 6.021 12.041 8.7 9.395 18.790
4.1 6.128 12.256 8.8 9.445 18.890
4.2 6.232 12.465 8.9 9.494 18.988
4.3 6.335 12.669 9.0 9.542 19.085
4.4 6.435 12.869 9.1 9.590 19.181
4.5 6.532 13.064 9.2 9.638 19.276
4.6 6.628 13.255 9.3 9.685 19.370
4.7 6.721 13.442 9.4 9.731 19.463
4.8 6.812 13.625 9.5 9.777 19.554
4.9 6.902 13.804 9.6 9.823 19.645
5.0 6.990 13.979 9.7 9.868 19.735
5.1 7.076 14.151 9.8 9.912 19.825
5.2 7.160 14.320 9.9 9.956 19.913
5.3 7.243 14.486 10.0 10.000 20.000
5.4 7.324 14.648 100 20 40
5.5 7.404 14.807 1000 30 60
5.6 7.482 14.964 10000 40 80
I
·Or Current Ratio.
To find the decibels correspondi!)g to ratios above 10, break the ratio into two factors
and add the decibels of each. For example-
Voltage ratio = 400 = 4 x 100. pecibels = 12.041 + 40 = 52.041.
818 ex) TABLES AND CHARTS OF DECIBEL RELATIONSHIPS 19.1
db down Level. db up
db down Level db up
I
Volts Watts db Volts Watts
I I I
1.90 6.00 x 10-8 -0+ 1.90 00600
1.69 4.77 x 10-8 1 2.13 .00755
1.51 3.79 x 10-8 2 2.39 .009 51
\ 1.34
1.20
3.01
2.39
x
x
10-8
10-8
3
4
2.68
3.01
.0120
.0151
~. 1.07 1.90 x 10-8 5 3.37 .0190
.951 1.51 x 10-8 6 3.78 .0239
.847 1.20 x 10-8 7 4.25 .030 1
.775 9.51 x 10- 4 8 4.77 .0379
.673 7.55 x 10- 4 9 5.35 .0477
.600 6.00 x '10- 4 10 6.00 .0600
.535 4.77 x 10- 4 11 6.73 .0755
.477 3.79 x 10- 4 12 7.55 .0951
.425 3.01 x 10-' 13 8.47 .120
.378 2.39 x 10-' 14
337 i.90 X 10- 4 15
I 9.51
10.7
.151
.190
.301 1.51 x 10-' 16 12.0 .239
.268 1.20 x 10-' 17 13.4 .301
.239 9.51 x 10- 5 18 15.1 .379
.213 7.55 x 10- 5 19 16.9 .477
.190 6.00 x 10- 5 20 19.0 .600
.107 1.90 x 10- 5 25 33.7 1.90
.0600 6.00 x 10- 6 30 60.0 6.0
.0337 1.90 x 10- 6 35 107 19.0
.0190 6.00 x 10- 7 40 190 60.0
.0107 1.90 x 10- 7 45 337 190
.006 00 6.00 X 10- 8 50 600 600
.00337 1.90 x 10- 8 55 1070 1900
.00190 6.00 x 10- 9 60 1900 6000
.001 07 1.90 x 10- 9 65 3370 19000
.000 600 6.00 x 10- 10 70 6000 60000
.000337 1.90 X 10-10 75 10700 190 000
.000 190 6.00 x 10- 11 80 19000 600000
820 (x) TABLES AND CHARTS OF DECIBEL RELATIONSHIPS 19.1
db down Level db up
(
.6310 2
0.548-4- .5012 3 1.094 1.995
0.4887 .3981 4 1.228 2.512
0.4356 .3162 5 1.377 3.162
0.3882 .2512 6 1.546 3.981
0.346 0 .199 5 7 1.734 5.012
0.3084 .1585 8 1.946 6.310
0.2748 .1259 I 9 2.183 7.943
0.244 9 .1000 10 2.449 10.000
0.2183 .07943 11 2.748 12.59
0.1946 .06310 12 3.084 15.85
0.1734 .05012 13 3.460 19.95
0.154 6 .03981 14 3.882 25.12
0.1377 .03162 15 4.356 31.62
0.1228 .02512 16 4.88i 39.81
0.1094 .01995 17 5.484 50.12
0.09752 .01585 18 6.153 63.10
0.08691 ~01259 19 6.905 79.43
0.077 46 .010 00 20 7.746 100.00
0.04356 .00316 I 25 13.77 316.2
0.02449 .00100 30 24.49 1.000W
0.013 77 .000 316 35 43.56 3.162W
0.007746 .000 100 40 77.46 1O.00W
0.004 356 3.16 x 10- 5 45 137.7 31.62W
0.002449 1.00 x 10- 5 50 244.9 l00W
0.001377 3.16 x 10- 6 II 55 435.6 316.2W
0.000 774 6 1.00 x 10- 8 I 60 774.6 I l000W
0.000 4356 3.16 X 10- 7 65 1377 3162W
0.000 244 9 1.00 X 10- 7 70 2449 I I0000W
0.000 1377 3.16 X 10- 8 75 4356 · 31620W
0.000 077 46 1.00 X 10- 8 80 7746 I100000W
I
19.1 (x) TABLES AND CHARTS OF DECIBEL RELATIONSHIPS 821
milli-
Watts dbm volts
across
milli-
watts
dbm volts
across
I micro-
watts
dbm volts
across
5000D 5000D 5000D
---
20 +43 315 63 +18 -17.8 1.0 -30 71
15.8 +42 280 40 +16 14.0 0.63 -32 56
12.6 +41 250 25 +14 11.2 0.40 -34 45
10 +40 213 16 +12 8.9 0.25 -36 35
7.9 +39 200 10 +10 7.1 0.16 -38 28
6.3 +38 178 6.3 + 8 5.6 0.10 -40 21.3
5.0 +37 158 4.0 + 6 4.5 0.063 -42 17.8
4.0 +36 140 2.5 +4 3.5 0.040 -44 14.0
3.16 +35 126 1.6 + 2 2.8 0.025 -46 11.2
2.5 +34 112 1.0 0 2.13 0.016 -48 8.9
2.0 +33 100 0.63 -2 1.78 0.010 -50 7.1
1.59 +32 89 0.40 -4 1.40 0.0063 -52 5.6
1.26 +31 79 0.25 -- 6 1.12 0.0040 -54 4.5
1.0 +30 71 0.16 - 8 0.89 0.0025 -56 3.5
0.79 +29 63 0.10 -10 0.71 0.0016 -58 2.8
0.63 +28 56 63 p.W -12 0.56 0.0010 -60 2.13
0.50
0.40
+27
+26
50
45
40 p.W -14
25 p'w -16
0.45
0.35
I ~.~~~
0.00040
-62
-64
1.78
1.40
0.32 +25 39 16 p.W -18 0.28 0.00025 -66 1.12
0.25 +24 35 10 p.W -20 0.213 0.000 16 -68 0.89
0.20 +23 31.5 6.3p.W -22 0.178 0.000 10 -70 0.71
0.16 +22 28 4.0p.W -24 0.140 3.2:x 10- 5 -75 0.39
0.13 +21 25 2.5p.W -26 0.112 l.00xlO-t; -80 0.21
0.10 +20 I 21.3 , 1.6/lW, ~28 , 0.089 I 3.2xlO-G -85I 0.13
db-
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
factor-
3.6 4 4.5 5 5.8 6.4 7.2 8 9 10
true factor-
3.55- 3.98 4.47 5.01 5.62 6.31 7.08 7.94 8.91 10.0
Comparing the multiplying factors computed in this manner with the true factors
it will be seen that the greatest error (at 15 db) is just over 3% which is negligible for
the type of calculation intended to be performed by this method.
When working with" db down," the number of db can be subtracted from 20 and
the multiplying factor from the table can be divided by 10, e.g. 7 db (20-13) down is
equivalent to a multiplying factor of 0.45. A small amount of practice at such mental
conversions soon resUlts in many of the factors being memorized (or else becoming
- immediately obvious) without any conscious effort in this direction.
this is for use in measuring instruments etc. where the reading of the meter together
with the reading of an associated attenuator (where necessary) give the actual power
level. With" Scale B " the percentage scale is made more prominent being situated
above the vu scale-this is for use in studio controls etc. where the operator is non-
technical and is not interested in actual levels.
The sen$itivity shall not depart from that at 1000 cis by more than 0.2 db between
35 and 10000 cis at an inpUt level of 0 vu, nor more than 0.5 db between 25 and
16000 cis (Ref. 19). .
The instrument is calibrated by connecting it in shunt with a resistance of 600 ohms
through which is flowing 1 milliwatt of sine-wave power at 1000 cis, when a reading
shall be 0 vu (or n vu when the calibrating power is n db above 1 milliwatt).
If the instrument is connected across any impedance other than 600 ohms, the
volume indicated must be corrected by adding 10 10g10 (600IZ), where Z is the acrual
impedance in ohms.
The total impedance of the volume indicator is usually about 7500 ohms, of which
about 3600 ohms is external to the instrument.
The Volume Indicator is intended to be read as deviations from the reference volume
(0 vu), after making allowance for the sensitivity control (attenuator) which is also
calibrated in ·vu. The reading is determined by the greatest deflections occurring
in a period of about a minute for programme waves, or a shorter period (e.g. 5 to 10
seconds) for message telephone speech waves, excluding not more than one or two
occasional deflections of unusual amplitude.
References 18, 19, 39.
(i) Nepers
Just as there are two systems of logarithms in general use, so there are two logarith-
mic units for the measurement of difference of power levels. The bel and the decibel
are based on the system of Common Logarithms (to the base 10).
The neper is based on the system of Naperian Logarithms (to the base e).
Nepers are not commonly used in English-speaking countries, but are used by some
European countries.
Equation (1) below should be compared with Section 1, equation (2) above:
N n = t logE (P2/ P l) (1)
where N n is the ratio of two powers expressed' in nepers
PI = reference power
and P 2 = power which is referred back to Pl.
when the impedances relating to PI and P 2 are the same,
N n = logE (E2 /E1 ) = logE (12 /11) (2)
Equation (2) should be compared with equations (4) and (5) in Section 1 above.
826 (i) NEPERS 19.4
SECTION 5: LOUDNESS
(i) Introduction to loudness (ii) The phon (iii) Loudness units.
120
-- rEELING
120
110--'"
.... LOUDNESS LEV EL / .
PHON 51
r-..... ~ --'I
--... r--.... -'l,
100
-
j§;::::
100
80
- ~
r--.... t--~ ~
r-... I-~
.... I~
~
V.
III
..J
I&J
III
U
I&J
80
60
~...;;:
"..... '
r--
~ ""--
- 70
60
r- -~1
---- 'r-"/
-!L
./---
~ . . . . . r-.
0
~
" so
--
--
r""/
i"
J.
J.
i'~"
..J
40 .......... r---- .... 40 /
I&J
............. L
""'"
>
I&J
..J ......"" --J!)
l"'- i- .....
j
........ r-.,.r--. .. 20 ./
--r-r-
>
I-
iii
zI&J
I-
20 .
i- .....
L
~ 0
-r-..... _f.-'
20 100 soc 1000 !>OOO 10000
rREQUENCY IN C'/CLES PER SECOND
FIG. 19.7
Fig. 19.7. Contours of equal loudness level (0 db = 10-1• wattlcm')-Rej. 28, after
Fletcher and Munson (Ref. 40).
-The equivalent reference pressure for sound pressure measurements is 0.0002 dyne per square ceoti-
metre. The equivalent reference velocity for sound vdocity measurements is 0.000 OOS centimetre
per second.
19.5 (iii) LOUDNESS UNITS 827
100000
L
10000 ./
~ ./
III
.J
III '/
a::
J:
.<d
1000
I I
'/' I I
j
.J
!; /
1/1
1/1
ill
'00 /
Z
e THRESHOLD OF HEARING FOR AN AVERAGE OBSERVER
0.J /
I
10
~
I
I I
,oI 10 20 38 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
LOUDNESS LEVEL IN PHONS FIG. 19.8
Fig. 19.8. Relation between loudness and loudness level; referencefrequency 1000 c/s-
Ref. 28, after Fletcher and Munson (Ref. 41).
(i) Introduction
Sound includes wanted sound-music or speech-and also unwanted soWid-
noise. Noise may be measured acoustica11y, as for example by a sound level meter,
or electrically. Acoustical methods of measuriJ::lg noise and other sounds are de-
scribed in (ii) below. Electrical noise may be measured either with or without a
weighting network. If a weighting network is used, there will be appreciable attenua-
tion of the lower frequencies, including hum frequencies. It is normally assumed in
good engineering practice that the hum components have negligible effect on the
noise reading; if this is not so, they should be filtered out before the noise voltage is
applied to the measuring equipment.
828 (ii) THE SOUND LEVEL METER 19.6
Small store 52
Theatre (with audience) 42
Hotel 42
Apartment 42
House, large city 40
House3 country 30
Average whisper 4 ft. 20
Quiet whisper 5 ft. 10
Rustle of leaves in gentle breeze 10
Threshold of hearing o
(iii) The measurement of noise in amplifiers*
(A) Amplifiers for sound equipment
(based on R.M.A .. Standard SE-I01-A-Ref. 35).
This is an interim standard for the measurement of steady-state noise, and of pulse
noise waves having a peak factor (ratio of peak to r .m.s.) approximating the maximum.
obtainable in speech (20 db).
Noise level is the level of any noise signals appearing at the output terminals with
no signal applied to the input.
The weighted noise level is the .noise level weighted in accordance with the 70
decibel equal-loudness contour of the human ear and expressed in dbm. The weighted
noise level shall be measured under test conditions specified in Ref. 35. The measur-
ing amplifier shall be one whose a-f response is weighted with the 70 db equal-loud-
ness contour in accordance with Curve B of A.S.A. Specification Z24.3-1944 (Ref.
23) with a standard vu meter as defined by A.S.A. Specification CI6.5-1942 (Ref. 19)
as an indicator.
A properly weighted amplifier may be obtained by applying a r.c. network with a
1 millisecond time constant to an amplifier having a frequency response of ± 1 db
from 50 to 15000 cis. This will give an attenuation of 1 db at 300 cis, 5.7 db at
100 cis and 9 db at 60 cis.
(B) Audio facilities for radio broadcasting systems
(Based on R.M.A. Standard TR-I05-B-Ref. 33).
Measurement of steady state noise· shall be made with a device having an a-f
response flat within ±: 2 db from 50 to 15000 cis and having the ballistic characteris-
tics of the standard vu meter (Ref. 19) but reading the r .m.s. value of a complex wave.
Measurement of pulse noise conditions has not been included because of lack of de-
finition and equipment.
Measurement made on those instruments incorporating average rather than r.ni.s.
rectifiers will give indications differing in general less than 1 db from the latter due to
this difference. This is within the overall accuracy ordinarily obtained on this type of
measurement.
Audio frequency signal to noise ratio-definition
The a-f signal to noise ratio is the numerical ratio between the sine-wave signal
power required for standard output and the noise power measured with zero applied
signal, received by the rated load impedance from the output of the equipment under
test, expressed as a power ratio in decibels (Ref. 33).
SECTION 7: REFERENCES
1. Wright. P. B. "Evolution of the db and the vu" Comm. (1) 24.4 (April 1944) 54; (2) 24.5 (May
1944) 44; erratum and additional data 24.6 (June 1944) 68.
2. Harrison. C. E. "Electrical and acoustical equivalents" Comm. 25.6 (June 1945) 44.
3. Rhita. N ... A decibel nomograph" Radio Craft (Sept. 1945) 769.
4. Hudson. P. K. "Cah"bration of decibel meters" Comm. 25.7 (July 1945) 58.
5. Scott. F. S. G. "Absolute bela" W.E. 23.272 (May 1946) 132.
6. Miedke. R. C. "Decibel conversion chart" Proc. I.R.E. 34.2 (Feb. 1946) 76W.
7. Haefner. S. J. "Amplifier pin formulas and measurements" Proc. I.R.E. 34.7 (July 1946) 500.
8. Perry. S. V. "The decibel scale" R.M.A. Tech. Bull. U.S.A. (Nov. 1940).
9. Rao. V. V. L. (book)" The Decibel Notation and its Applications to Radio Engineering and Acous-
tics" (Addison and Co. Ltd. Madras. India. 1944).
10. Fowler. N. B. " Measurements in communications .. E.E. 66.2 (Feb. 1947) 135. :/
11. Romanow. F. F .• and M. S. Hawley" Proposed method of rating microphones and loudspeakers
for systems use" Proc. I.R.E. 35.9 (Sept. 1947) 953.
12. MorPn, R. L. "Noise measurements" Comm. 28.2 (Feb. 1948) 28; 28.7 (July 1948) 21.
13. Chinn, H. A. co dbm vs. vu" Audio Eng. 32.3 (March 1948) 28.
14. Shea, T. E. (book) .. Tnnamiuion Networks and Wave Filters" (D. Van Nostrand Company Inc.,
New York, 1929). ,.
15. Pender, H. and K. McDwain .. Electrical Engineers Handbook-VoJ. 5. Electric Communication
and Electronics" (John Wiley and Sons Inc. New York; Chapman and Hall Ltd.• London, 3rd
edit. 1936).
16. Research Council, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (book) "Motion Picture Sound
Enaineerina" (D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc. New York. 1938).
17. Aflel! H. A.~ H. A. Chinn and R.. M. Morris" A standard VI and. reference level" Comm. 19.4
. (April 1(39) 10. .
18. Chinn, H. A., D. K. Gannett and R. M. Morris" A new standard volume indicator and reference
1eve1." Proc. I.R.E. 28.1 (Jan. 1940) 1.
19. .. American recommended practice for volume measurements of electrical speech and program
waves" CI6.5-1942. American Standards Association.
20. McLachlan N. W. (book) "Noise" (Oxford University Press. 1935).
21. Burrill, C. M. " An evaluation of radio-noiae-meter performance in terms of listening experience I t
Proc. I.R.E. 30.10 (Oct. 1942) 473.
22. .. American standard acoustical terminology" Z24.1-1942. American Standards Association.
23... American Standards for sound level meters" Z24.3-1944, American Standards Association.
24. Olson, H. F. (book) .. Elements of Acoustical Engineering •• (D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc. New Yor~
2nd edit. 1947).
25... Methods of Measuring radio noise," Report of Joint Co-ordination Committee on Radio
Reception of the Edison Electric Institute. National Electrical Manufacturers Association
and Radio Manufacturers Association-R.M.A. Engineering Bulletin No. 32 (Feb. 1940).
26. Burrill, C. M ... Progress in the development of instruments for measuring radio noise,I. Proc. I.R.E.
29.8 (Aug. 1941) 433.
27... The characteristics and· perf01'1llllIl,ce of apparatus for the measurement of radio interference "
B.S.S. No. 727. British Standards Institution. London (1937).
28. •• American standard for noise measurement" Z24.2-1942. American Standards Association.
29. American R.M.A. Standard SE-I03 .. Speakers for sound equipment" (APril 1949).
30... Reference Data for Engineers" (book) (Federal Telephone and Radio Corporation, New York;
3rd ed. 1949).
31. Black. W. L •• and H. H. Scott, "Audio frequency measurements" proc. I.R.E. 37.10 (Oct. 1949)
1108.
32. American R.M.A. Stan<l;ardl SE-105 .. Microphones for sound equipment" (Aug. 1949).
33. American R.M.A. Stanaara TR-IOS-B .. Audio facilities for radio broadcasting systems" (Nov.
1949).
34. Beranek, L. L. (book)" Acoustic Measurements" (John Wiley and Sons Inc. New York; Chapman
and Hall Ltd., London, 1949).
35. American R.M.A. Standard SE-I0I-A .. Amplifiers for sound equipment" (July 1949).
36. American R.M.A. Standards Proposal 198 .. Microphones" (adopted Nov. 1938).
37. Di Mattia. A. L. t and L. R. Jones II Adding decibel-expressed quantities" Audio Eng. 35.7 (July
1951) IS.
38. 1.R.E. I I Standards on abbreviations of radio-electronic terms 1951" Standard 51 I.R.E. 21 Sl ;
Proc. I.R.E. 39.4 (April 1951) 397.
39. Chinn. H. A... The measurement of audio volume" Audio Eng. 35.9 (Sept. 1(51) 26.
40. Fletcher, H., and W. A. Munson I I Loudness, its definition, measurement and calculation .. J. Acous.
Soc. Am. 5.2 (Oct. 1933) 82.
41. Fletcher. H .• and W. A. Munson" Loudness and masking" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 9.1 (July 1937) 1.
42. King. A. J., R. W. Gue1ke, C. R. Maguire and R. A. Scott" An objective noise-meter reading in
phona for suatained noises. with special reference to engineering plant" Jour. I.BoB. S8, Part II
(1941) 163.
43. Chinn, H.A. "The measurement of audio volume .. Audio Eng. 35.10 (Oct. 1951) 24.
CHAPTER 20.
LOUDSPEAKERS
By F. LANGFORD-SMITH, B.Sc., B.E.
Section Page
1. Introduction 831
2. Characteristics of moving-coil Celectro-dynamic) loudspeakers 835
3. Baffles and enclosures for direct-radiator loudspeakers 842
4. Hom loudspeakers 851
5. Dual and triple system loudspeakers 860
6. Loudspeakers in operation 861
7. Distortion in loudspeakers 868
8. Summary of acoustical data 871
9.· Standards for loudspeakers 874
10. References 876
SECTION 1 : INTRODUCTION
(i) Types of loudspeakers (ii) Direct-radiator loudspeakers (iii) Horn loudspeakers
(if}) Headphones (f}) Loudspeaker characteristics (vi) Amplitude -of cone mOfJement
('Vii) Good" qualities of loudspeakers (viii) Louds~aker grilles.
831
832 (ii) DIRECT RADIATOR LOUDSPEAKERS 20.1
relatively stiff springs to return the armature to the position of equilibrium, so that the
bass resonance usually occurs at a frequency above 100 cis.
Refs. 13, 14, 15.
(C) The inductor dynamic type differs from the older electromagnetic type
in that the two iron armatures are balanced so that they lie at rest without a strong
spring tension. The natural resonance frequence may be about70 cis, and the am-
plitude of movement is about the same as that of a moving-coil type. Ref. 15.
CD) The piezo-electric (" crystal") type generally uses Rochelle salt for the
bimorph elements. It takes two forms, in which the elements either bend or twist
with the voltage applied between the two electrodes. The crystal has a predominately
capacitive impedance, the capacitance being of the order of 0.02 p.F.
The impedance varies considerably with frequency in both scalar value and phase
.angle, so that it is difficult to provide a correct load impedance for the output valve.
This is not very important with a triode or if another loudspeaker is connected in
parallel.
The crystal loudspeaker naturally responds to the higher frequencies, and is some-
times used as a " tweeter" in a dual or triple speaker system (Sect. 5). In this case
the response may be maintained roughly constant over the desired band of frequencies
by a small inductance in series with the primary of the transformer. Crystal loud-
speakers are not normally used alone.
Refs. 13, 14, 24, 60.
(E) The condenser type of loudspeaker usually takes the form of one large solid
electrode, and a thin movable electrode which is mounted in such a way that it can
vibrate (usually in sections) without touching the solid electrode.
Either the solid or the movable electrode may be corrugated; the movable electrode
may be of insulating material with a metal foil coating. An alternative form has both
electrodes flexible (Ref. 22).
The sensitivity is dependent upon the total area; with 300 to 500 square inches the
sensitivity may approximate that of an electro-dynamic type.
The Kyle speaker (Ref. 58) has a cllpacitance of 0.004 p.F for an area of 96 square
inches. The impedance is predominately capacitive. A high polarizing voltage is
required for high efficiency and good performance-5oo to 600 volts is usual.
Condenser loudspeakers are little used at the present time.
Refs. 13, 14, 15, 22, 58.
(F) Throttled air-flow loudspeaker-this consists of a mechanical valve, actu-
ated by an electrical system, which controls a steady air stream, the air flow being
made proportional to the a-f input current. . It is normally limited to very large sizes.
Ref. 14.
(iii) Horn loudspeakers
Any type of driving unit actuating a cone or diaphragm may be given greater aCOU8-
tical loading by means of a hom, thereby improving the efficiency and power output.
The hom ceases to have any beneficial effect below a frequency whose value depends
on the law of expansion and the size of the hom. Hom loudspeakers have considerably
greater efficiency than direct radiators. For further information see Sect. 4.
(iv) Headphones
Headphones (telephone receivers) make use of a diaphragm which is effectively
sealed to the ear by means of a cap with a central opening. The pressure of the small
quantity of air enclosed between the diaphragm and the ear drum varies in accordance
with the displacement of the diaphragm.
The driving mechanisms of headphones resemble those for loudspeakers.
(A) Magnedc diaphragm : The a-f forc~ caused by the a-f current in the electro-
magnet operates directly upon a steel diaphragm. The bipolar type is the most
popular of all headphones at the present time. A permanent magnet supplies the
steady flux. At frequencies above the second diaphragm resonance the response
falls off rapidly. Refs. 13, 14, 59, 62.
20.1 (iv) HEADPHONES 833
(B) Moving armature type: The principles are the same as for loudspeakers.
Ref. 14.
(C) Moving-coil type: This follows the same principles as the loudspeaker,
and with careful design is capable of greater fidelity and wider frequency range than
the magnetic types. One model has a response from 10 to 9000 cis ± 2 db except
for a dip of 6 db at 4000 cis. (Ref. 63). Refs. 13, 14, 63.
(D) Crystal type: The impedance of one model is 80 000 ohms (predominately
capacitive) at 10 000 cis. A high resistance may be connected in series to raise the
low frequency response relatively to the high frequency response. Refs. 13, M.
(E) Ribbon type: The principle is the same as for a ribbon microphone. It is
only used for high-fidelity reproduction. Refs. 13, 14, 65.
(F) Inductor type: This has been developed to deliver practically constant
sound pressure to the ear cavity from 50 to 7000 cis. It has a V shaped diaphragm
driven by a straight conductor located in the bottom of the V. Refs. 13, 14, 66, 67.
Correction circuits for magnetic diaphragm headphones
A typical magnetic diaphragm unit has a pronounced peak slightly below 1000 cis;
A circuit for attenuating this peak and thereby giving reasonably uniform response
is Fig. 20.1 (Ref. 25).
FIG. 20.1
1
Fig.20.1. Tone correction circuit for magne~ic
diaphragm headphones (d.c. resistance 4000
ohms) giving 15 db bass and treble boost.
Secondary impedance roughly 500 ohms,
primary load resistance 10 000 ohms (Ref. 25).
\d
(v) Loudspeaker characteristics
The amplifier designer is mainly interested in a limited number of characteristics.
Impedance: See Sect. 2(iv) for moving-coil type, and Sect. 4(v)G for hom type.
All types of electro-magnetic loudspeakers have a somewhat similar form of im-
pedance characteristic, although the relative values vary considerably.
Phase angle: See Sect. 2(iv) for moving-coil-type.
Frequency response characteristic
This only applies under the strict conditions of the test, particularly generator
impedance, and is very often misleading. The most serious defect is the existence
of sharp upward peaks extending higher than say 5 db above the smooth curve, par-
ticularly in the region from 1500 to 4000 cis. These are not always shown by the
published curves; which frequently show signs of having been smoothed.
Reflections in rooms may result in changes of 15 db or mOre in level at certain fre-
quencies, and the shape of the frequency characteristic may be altered out of all re-
cognition by variations in placement of loudspeaker and microphone, or by a change
of room.
It is important to know the source impedance (i.e. the output resistance of the
amplifier) used in the test. A loudspeaker should always be used with the correct
source impedance--too low a source impedance may result in loss of low frequency
response, while too high a source impedance will usually result in over-accentuation
of a narrow band of frequencies in the vicinity of the loudspeaker bass resonance.
See Sect. 9(ii) for R.M.A. Standard loudspeaker measurement source impedance.
Refs. 13, 14, 15, 26 (No.1), 42, 70.
Damping
The source impedance (i.e. the output resistance of the amplifier) also affects the
damping of the loudspeaker at the bass resonant frequency. One value of source
impedance will normally (in loudspeakers of high flux density) give critical damping-
this being the value for no overshoot-while a slightly lower degree of damping may
be considered as the optimum. Too high a resistance will give insufficient damping
for good transient response. For further information see Sect. 2(x).
834 (v) LOUDSPEAKER CHARACTERISTICS 20.1
Directional characteristics
The usual frequency response characteristic is measured with the microphone
on the axis of the loudspeaker, this being the position of maximum high frequency
response. There is a serious loss of higher frequencies (4000 cis and above) even
with the microphone 30° off the axis.
See Sect. 2(vii) for further information on moving-coil types, and Sect. 4Cvii) for
hom types.
Refs. 13, 14, 15, 26 (No.1), 61, 70, 133.
Non-linear distortion: see Sect. 7(i) and (v).
Efficiency versus frequency characteristic: see Sect. 2(vi).
Transient response: see Sect. 7(iii).
Matching: see Chapter 21.
Characteristics of cones: see Sect; 2(ii).
low frequencies the whole assembly moves together, but at high frequencies the larger
part of the voice coil remains stationary, and the smaller part drives the cone. The
corrugations in the cone are designed to decrease the effective cone area at the higher
frequencies.
Refs. 13A, 14, 57.
(D) Double coil, double cone: This consists of a light coil coupled to a small
cone, the light coil being connected by a compliance to a heavy coil which is firmly
fixed to a large cone. The heavy voice coil is shunted by a capacitance to by-pass
the higher frequencies. At low frequencies both voice coils are operative, and the
whole assembly moves together, but at high frequencies the small cone is driven by
the light coil, and the large cone and heavy coil remain stationary. This is really
equivalent to two separate loudspeakers.
Refs. 13A, 71.
(E) Duode: This has a light aluminium sleeve as the voice coil former covered
on the outside by a layer of rubber, over which is wound the voice coil. At high
frequencies, it is claimed, the relatively heavy voice coil winding remains stationary,
the aluminium sleeve acting as a one tum coil receiving its power by transformer
action and driving the cone. Refs. 242, 243.
(iv) Impedance and phase angle
The impedance characteristic (e.g. Fig. 20.2) is drawn from measurements made
on an electrical impedance bridge, or equivalent method, with the loudspeaker mounted
on a flat baffle. The nominal value is usually taken as the impedance at 400 cis
and is reasonably constant from about 200 cis to about 600 cis. At lower frequencies
it rises to a peak at th.e bass resonant frequency and then falls rapidly to the resistance
of the voice coil at still lower fre-
roo quencies; at higher frequencies it
II'
rises steadily throughout.
i III
80 The impedance at the bass resonant
Iii) frequency is a function of the damping
I Ul I I I II 11 Ilillll I Ii I
of the cone suspension, the height of
60 uz
«
0 I II
I
Ii the peak decreasing as the damping is
made heavier (see Ref. 13A, Fig. 6.31).
40 ~
Ul
Q. Ii I III It is also a function of the applied
I
I Iii /1'
voltage, owing to non-linearity of the
20
!!/ I cone suspension.
~- - 1P"--- .~- If the loudspeaker is mounted
o 2
!III 3
other than on a flat baffle, the imped-
10 10 10 10· ance characteristic at frequencies in
FREOUENCY cIS
FIG. 201. the vicinity of the bass resonant fre-
quency may be modified. For ex-
Fig. 20~2. Impedance versus frequency ample with a vented baffle there are
characteristic of a typical popular loud- normally two impedance peaks--
speaker. Sect. 3(iv).
The impedance at 10000 cis is always greater than that at 400 cis, the ratio varying
between 1.1 and 10 times. A high ratio is most undesirable with pentode operation,
with or without feedback, but is of no great consequence with triodes. The im-
pedance at 10000 cis is increased by any leakage inductance in the transformer.
The equivalent electrical circuit which gives approximately the same imped-
ance characteristic up to 400 cis is shown in Fig. 20.3 (Refs. 15, 72). If adjust-
ments are made in the values of Lo, Ro, Rl and C u the circuit may be· extended to
higher frequencies. The bass resonant frequency is the parallel resonance of L1 and
C1 •
838 (iv) IMPEDANCE AND PHASE ANGLE 20.2
" blocked" impedance which is measured with the voice coil prevented from moving.
The "motional" impedance is found by a vector subtraction of the "blocked"
from the "free" impedance. The difference between the free and blocked im-
pedances is small except in the vicinity of the bass resonant frequency, where the
motional impedance becomes the major portion of the free impedance (Refs 13, 41).
Refs. 13, 13A, 14, 15,26 (No.2), 36, 37, 41, 47, 70.
FIG. 20.4
9c:f.
Phase Angle: The phase angle versus
frequency characteristic of a typical mov- 6,d~~
~
ing-coil loudspeaker is given in Fig. 20.4. ~ 10--1-
The impedance is resistive at two fre- 3 8 1&1
V
quencies only, being capacitive between the
two points and inductive at lower and 0° ~
..J
Ci
z t 1I~
higher frequencies. The resistive and re- ~
~
active components are shown in Fig. 20.5. J ~ :x:Q,
III
t ~
Refs. 13, 13A, 37, 41, 61. >
d_ E
~
(v) Frequency response ~
90 ~
2
10 10 10J 10·
When used on an adequate flat baffie, a . FREOUENCY CIS
moving-coiIloudspeaker only operates Fig. 20.4. Phase angle versus frequency
satisfactorily at and above the bass resonant characteristic of a typical popular
frequency. The upper limit of frequency loudspeaker (same as Fig. 20.2),
response rarely extends much beyond 6000 c/s for popular 10 or 12 inch single coil,
single cone loudspeakers. Any further extension adds appreciably to the cost. If
wide frequency range is required, there is a choice between a complex single unit-
see (iii) above-and a multiple unit (Sect. 5). Refs. 13, 13A, 14, 15, 26 (No.1), 42,
61, 70.
FIG. 20.5 (A) (8)
10
III
::E .! ! !
12 a8 J
>
I 6 ~
'i' u
~
::)
z c
8 iii 4
.... -V
z
~ ..........~
6 x 2
1&1
~"
III
U
i;~ U
~ 4 Z 0 ~
Iii ",
t~ -2 7 '!f
iii
1&1 2
~ u
t:
II: ~ II:
~
u
°0 -4
~ 80.. ~ ~. ~ t~
0
VI .2
VI
8 ~ 0
VI
Fig. 20.5. CA) Resistive and (B) Reactive components oj the impedance of a typicai
loudspeaker. Ref. 37.
20.2 (vi) EFFICIENCY 839
(~) Efficiency
Loudspeaker efficiency may be regarded either as the efficiency of the loudspeaker
itself, or in the form of available power efficiency.
The efficiency of the loudspeaker itself is the ratio of the radiated acoustical
power to the electrical input power, and is not influenced by the regulation of the
power source. The efficiency of moving-coil cone loudspeakers on large flat baffles
varies from about 2% to 10% at 400 c!s, depending on the design and on the flux
density, 3 % being a typical average. The maximum possible electro-acoustical
efficiency is given by (Fig. 20.7)
Tima;r = R2/(Ro + R2 + R 3) (2)
and the electro-mechanical efficiency is given by
Tiem = (R2 + R3)/(Ro + Ri + R 3) (3)
where Ro blocked (d. c.) resistance of voice coil
R2 = equivalent radiation resistance
and R3 = equivalent frictional and eddy current loss resistance.
The electro-acoustical efficiency is always less than the electro-mechanical efficiency
owing to the losses represented by R 3 • It is possible to measure the electro-mechani-
cal efficiency fairly readily because (R 2 + R 3 ) is the motional resistance, and
(R2 + R 3 ) = free resistance -Ro (4)
but the accuracy is very poor except at frequencies in the region of the bass resonant
frequency.
The available power efficiency is usually defined as the electrical power avail-
able to the load when the loudspeaker is ,replaced by a resistance equal to the rated
load impedance with a constant voltage applied in series with the loudspeaker measure-
ment source impedance (see pp. 812, 874-876). The electrical power WAS avail-
able to the loudspeaker is
W A S = EG 2R SR/(R SG + R SR)2
where EG r.m.s. value of constant source voltage
R S R = loudspeaker rating impedance
and R S G = loudspeaker measurement source impedance.
If R SG = 40% of R SR (as in SE-I03, see page 874), then the power available to
the load will be half that when R S G = O. Maximum' available power efficiency
occurs at the bass resonant frequency if the baffle is sufficiently large and if the ampli-
fier output resistance is fairly high, but if the output resistance is low, the available
efficiency may be less at this frequency than at some higher frequency. The avail-
able power efficiency Ifrequency characteristic at low frequencies is affected by the
type of baffle-see Sect. 3(iii) and (iv).
FIG. 20.7 Fig. 20.7. Equivalent circuit for power
Lo Ro R2 R, em considerations, at frequenC£es above the
El bass resonance. The values of R 2 , Ra and
Ie", are not constant with change of fre-
0----------------' quency.·
Refs. to efficiency, 13, 13A, 14, 15,36, 43, 54 (Part 3), 56,70, 71, 74, 95, 121, 156.
References to equivalent circuits, 13, 13A, 15 (page 135),41,43, 54 (Part 3), 59, 75,
166, 188.
(vii) Directional characteristics
At low frequencies (up to 400 cis for a 10 inch cone) a cone has only very slight
directional characteristics. The angle of radiation from a flat disk 10 inches in dia-
meter for a decrease of 4 db in sound pressure as compared with that on the axis is :
Frequency 678 1355 2710 5420 cis
Angle (approx.) 180° 70° 35° 18°
In practice it is possible to improve the angle of radiation by various expedients.
One is to fit a deflector or diffusing lens (Ref. 120) so as to spread the higher frequency
waves. Another is to use corrugations (compliances) in the cone so that only a small
central area is vibrating at the higher frequencies. A further expedient is to use two
co-axial loudspeakers and a frequency dividing network, the high frequency unit
having some form of deflector. The ordinary popular loudspeaker is highly direc-
840 (vii) DIRECTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS 20.2
tional at high frequencies, but the best of the expensive designs are capable of 120 0
radiation up to 15000 cis (Refs. 36, 61).
General references: 13, 14, 15, 54 (Part 2), 70.
(viii) Field magnet
Field magnets may be either electro-magnets or permanent magnets. In either
case the requirement is to provide the greatest possible flux density in the air gap.
Fidelity loudspeakers should have a uriiform field up to the limits of movement of
the voice-coil; cheaper models are usually lacking in this respect. Alternatively
the voice coil may be longer than the gap length (Ref. IS).
Permanent magnets have advantages in that they have lower heat dissipation,
leading to a lower ambient temperature for the voice coil, and the voltage drop across
a suitable choke is less than that across the field coil.
Increasing the flux density increases the efficiency, the output and the damping;
it reduces the rise of impedance at the bass resonant frequency. There is an optimum
value of flux density to give the most nearly uniform frequency response (Ref. 56,
Fig. 3).
(ix) Hum...bucking coil
Some electro-magnetic fields are fitted with a hUIn-bucking coil connected in series
with the voice coil such that the field coil induces equal hum voltages in the voice
coil and hum-bucking coil. By connecting the hum-bucking coil and the voice coil
in series opposition, the hum due to ripple in the field is minimized.
(x) Damping
Damping on a loudspeaker is partly acoustical, partly frictional, and partly electro-
magnetic. The electro-magnetic damping is a function of the effective plate resistance
of the power amplifier.
With a direct radiator loudspeaker on a flat baffle the
damping if, slight, except in the vicinity of the bass resonant
frequency, where the electro-magnetic damping may be-
come quite large. The equivalent circuit at the bass re-
R,
sonant frequency is given by Fig. 20.8, which is identical
with Fig. 20.3 except that Lo has been omitted as being
negligibly small, and Rc has been added to allow for the
FIG. 20.8 damping effect of the amplifier output resistance. Rl is
Fig. 20.8. Equi'llalent the damping resistance equivalent to the combined effect
circuit of loudspeaker of friction and acoustica1loading on the cone. Ro is equal
at bass re.\C.mant jre- to the resistance of the voice coil plus that of the secondary
quency, shotl:ing damp- of the transformer and leads plus that of the primary re-
ing effect of amplifier ferred to the secondary. Rc is the effective plate resistance
output resistance R. ?f the valve referred to. the secondary. Any reduction
c In R(; below about one fifth of No has only a very small
effect Oll the Q of the tuned circuit.
At the bass resonant frequency, the Q of the tuned circuit is given by-
Case I-Rc is infinite Q woC1R 1
RIRo
Case 2-R c = 0 Q WOe l Rl +
Ro
Rl(Ro + Rc)
Case 3-general Q +
woC t Rl +
Ro Rc
where Wo is angular velocity at the bass resonant frequency.
Critical damping is defined* as given by Q = 0.5.
Hence for critical damping,
Rl + Ro - 2w OC 1RIRo
(5)
Rc = 2w OC 1Rl - I
*See "American Standard Definitions of Electrical Tenns" A.S.A. C42-1941 (05.05.365): also
C. E. Crede" Vibration and Shock Isolation" John Wiley & Sons, Chapman & Hall Ltd. 1951, p. 171.
and other textbooks on vibration. However some engineers take Q = 1 as critical damping.
20.2 (x) DAMPING 841
From Fig. 20.8 it will be seen that critical damping is only possible with a positive
G
value of R when R 0 is not too high, that is to say with loudspeakers having fairly
high efficiencies, since the values of LI and C 1 are functions of the flux density. The
damping of any loudspeaker may be increased by increasing the flux density.
In general, there is no advantage in using greater than critical damping.
With enclosed cabinet loudspeakers as a result of the effect on frequency response,
the value of Q should not fall below 1, and the most desirable all-round condition
appears to be with Q from 1.0 to 1.5-see Sect. 3(iii).
Alternatively, if the impedance is carefully measured and the impedance curve
plotted over the region of the bass resonant frequency, the frequencies of the two
half-power points may be noted, and the Q of the loudspeaker may be computed from
the relation
Another method is to wind a separate feedback coil of very fine wire over the
existing voice coil in a conventional loudspeaker. The voltage induced in this coil
by the motion of the voice coil is a pure motional voltage at most frequencies. This
voltage may be used as a feedback voltage to increase the damping and to reduce
distortion arising from non-linearity of the cone suspension and from fringing of the
magnetic field.
At very high audio frequencies the mutual inductance between the driving voice
coil and the feedback coil produces in the feedback voltage a component which is
dependent on the induction between the coils rather than on the motion alone. This
difficulty is overcome by incorporating additional mutual inductance equal in value
but of opposite sign, between the voice coil and feedback circuits at a point external
to the magnetic field (Ref. 148).
Open back cabinets are undesirable for good fidelity. If un!lvoidable, they should
be as shallow as possible, with the minimum of acoustical obstruction, particularly
at the back of the cabinet. Open back cabinets should be placed at least 6 inches
out from the wall.
References to open back cabinets: 13A, 14, 147, 151, 188.
(iii) Enclosed cabinet loudspeakers
An enclosed loudspeaker is one which is totally enclosed so that there can be no
interference between the front and back of the cone. There is no critical value for
the volume of the enclosure but a large volume is desirable because it reduces the rise
in resonant frequency above that on a large flat baffle. The increase in resonant
frequency for Jensen speakers is shown in Fig. 20.10 and may be taken as fairly
typical There is practically no non-linear distortion caused by the suspension, since
this only contributes a small part of the total stiffness.
25
...
III
III
IL 20
U I
di
:;:)
u
I IS
III
~
:;:)
..J
0
> ()
...
III 10
IS· i I
Z
;
di
<
U !!o.. £<"I'v"A"'" 16
.x,~ r"-Y0 12
;;-o..
~.' y)('~
5
I I I I I I
.... ,~~8·i ~~
i ~..2S.
I I IT
o I : I I I
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0/0 INCREASE IN RESONA~T FREQUENCY
FIG. 20.10
It is desirable for the enclosure to have appreciably different values of linear dimen-
sions--typical ratios are 1 : 1.5 : 2.7. However, the longest dimension should be
less than l of the wavelength at the lowest working frequency. The enclosure should
have rigid walls-timber at least ! inch thick, and braced where necessary.
One limitation of the enclosed cabinet loudspeaker is the bass attenuation
which occurs with critical damping, although this only happens with high flux density
and low amplifier output resistance-see below under Equivalent Circuit.
Some loudspeakers have been designed specially for use with enclosed cabinets.
These usually have very low bass resonant frequencies, when measured on a flat
baffle, so that when loaded by the enclosure, the resonant frequency is still sufficiendy
low.
The volume of the cabinet is given below for some examples :
Western Electric 755A 8 in. 70 cis 2 cubic feet
" ,,756A 10 in. 65 cis 2i""
" ,,754A 12 in. 60 cis 3 ""
Goodmans " Axiom 80" 9! in. * 3! " "
R.C.A. (Ref. 84) peak at 80 cis 1.5""
Stromberg-Carlson 8 in. 1.7 " "
12 in. 3.9 " "
Equivalent circuit
Fig. 20.11 is a simplified electrical equivalent circuit of the acoustical system of the
loudspeaker (Ref. l35).
Lu represents cone mass + effect of radiation reactance.
Ru represents radiation resistance (which varies with frequency)t.
C c represents acoustical capacitance of cabinet volume.
C u represents equivalent capacitance of cone suspension.
R s represents effect of electrical circuit of loudspeaker and driving amplifier
reflected into acoustical circuit. The mechanical resistance of the cone sus-
pension maybe taken as being included with R s'
E s = constant voltage generator.
I u = alternating air current produced by cone, which is proportional to cone
velocity.
B2
Now R s OC at low frequencies
RG + Ro
where B flux density in gap,
R G = output impedance of amplifier referred to voice coil circuit,
and R 0 = resistance of voice coil.
The acoustical response of the loudspeaker is proportional to I ufo
The voltage E LU = 2 nfL uIu OC I uf OC acou-
stical response. Therefore the variation with fre-
quency of E LU' for anyone value of L u' gives the fre-
quency response of the loudspeaker. Over the
frequency range for which the equivalent circuit is
valid, and the wavelength is large compared with the
size of the cone, the loudspeaker can be reduced-so
far as frequency response is concerned-to a half-
FIG. 20. II section high-pass filter working into open circuit.
Fig. 20.11. Equivalent elec- Small values of R S' resulting from low flux density or
trical circuit of acoustical ele- high amplifier output impedance, give a resonance
ments in an enclosed cabinet peak and bad transient response, while large values of
loudspeaker at low frequencies. R s' corresponding to high flux density and lowampli-
(Ref. 135). fier output impedance, can give a serious loss of bass.
Fig. 20.12 shows curves for three values of R s
and hence for three values of Q, for a resonant frequency of 45 cis. This indicates
that values of Q less than about 1 result in serious attenuation of low frequencies.
*Resonance 17 c/s on fiat baffle.
tNote that RU is small compared with other impedances in the circuit.
20.3 (iii) ENCLOSED CABINET LOUDSPEAKERS 845
+15
1
+10
II! , I I
RS SMALL Q ..
I ( 2lT( LU
"if"+"R" = 4·5
)
j: 1,\ I 5 U :
+5 II 'I'.. I
Ii i'-
ttr7
I
\1,)'"
-~ r---~
~"~\'\~~
db 0
i ~
O~
I ~G~J...- r-i
~
-5
«I.e:. 0.,,0'''& i
-10
V
V
-15
30 40 50 60 80 roo 200 300 400 500
FREQUENCY (CIS)
FIG.20.12
./ /// I ""20t"
'<~/
19"' /'. ", with sound absorbent material to absorb the
~,higher frequencies, but should not be too heavily
V'< . ,> ,7 damped at frequencies below about 150 cis.
~ The cabinet should be strongly made of heavy
4~ I~----- ~----I~i timber with adequate bracing to prevent vibration.
20 ~ ~ Many cabinets which have been built for
this purpose are partially ineffective as the
INCH PADDING ON ALL
INSIDE FACES
5"
4 HOLES i6 DIA.
EOUISPACED ON
114'3" P.C. DIA.
Fig. 20.13. Typical corner cabinet with vented baffle, designed for a Goodmans Axiom
12 inch loudspeaker with a bass resonant frequency oj 55 cis, which can be used with
a speaker resonant at 75 cis by removing the tunnel. Cubic capacity about 8000
cu. ins. = 4.6 cu. ft. (Ref. 182).
• An I1ternative form uses several tuned resonators from the inside to the outside of the cabinet (Ref. 18).
846 (iv) ACOUSTICAL PHASE INVERTER 20.3
to ...
• 04"
LIs I=f=
I=~ ·· 12 IN. Lfo
~~ ~ i""-~ ~
r--~
" ~
..........
I - r- -,.....
~~ ~i""- ~ r-.
~
r""-r-. r--
~ 1000. I'-I'- -1000
I '
.."["10...""!11 1-0..
:- -- ~
· ~
L-"
r""'!.
:"'" ""'"
M
~"'~:-.,...to... ~
~~N~t"-- · .... l1li r-...
·
loa'
• • • • • • • • •
I
• • • M • • • -.. . . .. .. . .... ...
....· ....·
·, ·,
·· ,...., ~
.. ·· " -... ~
-,......
." I'.. .... ·" ~
""'"
----
-
t"oo. """ l""'-
.!'. r"oo.. I'" r-_ .r"oo.. I"""- Lit r- ..... r- ~-
..........
- .....
~ I" ...... ~ ~I" i"
~I' ~ "'"
i ..... ~ ....... ~
- --
........... .....
---- ii · ..... ~~ r-- -1-0
,.
r-
.
V•
~
,f' ....... ~ ........... .......... .....
~ ....... ....... ~"" ..... .....
~ ....... ~ ..... .....
::: -
--
-I-
_ ..L
P"~
!E i""- ......
~~ ~ r- """
to-
i" r--
r--... ~r-..
~~ r--- I'- t:
r- '- --
.....
IL
.....
III
•
:S ~i:
--
'~II
,......
I ' " ~:~
• C"-
~ : ~~
>
··
I I
· I
I I I
l~ r-
I-- · I ....
II., l/S Fr-
· I
f5IN.L/S
11 11.011.
0
I'lI t . . . . SGJN.
· II.
I n l .1OI111.111.
l"'-
FIG. 20.14
Fig. 20.14. Curves showing tunnel length for 10, 12, 15 and 18 inch Goodmans loud-
speakers with bass resonant frequencies from 20 to 100 cis. (Ref. 182).
20.3 (iv) ACOUSTICAL PHASE INVERTER 847
result of wall vibration under the extremely arduous conditions of operation. . Other
materials which have been used satisfactorily include brick and concrete.
Vented baffles are normally designed so that the loudspeaker bass resonant fre-
quency is matched to the acoustical resonant frequency of the cabinet; unmatched
combinations are, however, also used.
(A) Matched vented baffles
The merits of the vented baffle, when correctly applied, include
(1) improved bass response,
(2) much reduced amplitude of movement of the cone at the resonant frequency,
and hence reduced distortion at the same power output or increased power
handling capacity for the same distortion,
(3) decreased peak electrical impedance,
(4) increased acoustical damping over a limited range of low frequencies (not
including the vent resonance),
(5) increased radiation resistance and decr.eased reactance of the loudspeaker
at low frequencies.
The vented baffle appears to be preferred by most engineers to the acoustical
labyrinth, even apart from cost.
The vent area should normally be the same as the effective radiating area of the
cone, and the curves in Fig. 20.14 are based on this relationship. Thus the cross-
sectional area of the tunnel is given by l7R2 where R is the radius of the piston equiva-
lent to the speaker cone at low frequencies. The tunnel may have any length from
the thickness of the timber (i.e. when no tunnel, as such, is constructed) to a maximum
of approximately one twelfth wavelength, indicated by the broken curves in Fig. 20.14 ;
consequently the area to the right of the broken curves should not be used.
A reasonable length of tunnel enables a smaller enclosure to be used, but the space
between the end of the tunnel and the rear of the cabinet should not be less than R.
The volume occupied by the loudspeaker must be added to the volume derived from
the curves to obtain the volume of the enclosure. If the volume of the loudspeaker
is not known, the following approximation may be used :
Volume displaced by loudspeaker:
Loudspeaker dia. 8 10 12 14 16 18 ins.
Volume (approx.) 250 400 650 1000 1600 2300 cu. ins.
Also add volume displaced by internal timber bracing.
Note that no allowance should be made for the thickness of the damping material.
The curves for the volume of the cabinet are derived from the relationship
V l7R2 [
1.84 X 108
w2
1
x 1.7R + L + L
J (1)
80 40---+---+--+----4-t1-f-f-+-++-----+---I
2
,,
~60 30----+---+--+--rl:~1~-+-"+_~----~-~
~
a ~
z
:\ , I
I-- 0 --+----+-3~1--f_H-tt--+-+-~----~---I
l"'
~ ~ i! : /1: ~ j! :
~
Q.
..i3 "!. : " ,
iI,/ ,.
/'I! \
~40 20 ~ ----t---t-!-+-t++t--+*M+--+--H----+---I
~
20 10---+---+~J~-4~~'~~~~----~-~
LV ~ \
~N1r-.:~~~tt_"
-
20 30 40 60 100 200
cis
FREQUENCY
part of the energy is radiated by the port. Phase shift occurs suddenly at the re-
sonant frequency, so that the radiation below this frequency is reduced, being the
vector difference between the two sources.
At the resonant frequency, the air in the vent or tunnel moves vigorously while the
acoustical impedance on the rear of the cone is resistive and reaches a maximum.
At the frequency of the vent resonance, the motion of the speech coil is so small that
no appreciable electrical damping can take place and there is no danger of bass attenua-
tion such as may occur with the enclosed cabinet or flat bafHe. The energy dissipated
by mechanical resistances and by the radiation of sound is generally small, so that the
vent resonance on which the maintenance of the bass response depends, is quite lightly
damped. For this reason, when good fidelity is required, the vent resonance fre-
quency should not be greater than 60 cis. (Ref. 135).
A corner speaker cabinet for 15 inch cones is described in Ref. 100, while one
for 12 inch cones is described in Ref. 105. These both employ a vented baffie arrange-
ment with the vents on both sides of the cabinet, between the cabinet and the walls.
Equivalent circuit (Ref. .135)
The Fig. 20.16 is a simplified electrical equivalent circuit
of the acoustical system and is based on Fig. 20.11 with the
addition of Rv representing the radiation resistance of the vent,
and Lv, the acoustical inductance of the vent plus the effects of
its radiation reactance. Let f v be the frequency of the vent
resonance (i.e. the resonance of Lv and C c) and assume that
the cone resop.ant frequency is the same. Below f v' the series
I)
Es }
combination LuCu appears as a capacitance and the parallel
combination LvC c as an inductance, and the overall effect is to
produce a series resonance at some frequency fl in this region. FIG. 20.16
At frequencies above fv' LuCu appears" inductive and LvCc Fig. 20.16. Equiva-
capacitive, and a second series resonance appears at some fre- lent electrical circuit
quency f2' The resonances atfl andf2 are responsible for the of vented baffle
chara<..teristic double hump in the electrical impedance fre- loud-speaker at low
quency cbaracteristic of a vented b2.A.4fie and arc subject to the jrequencies. (Ref.
circuit damping represented by R s' 135).
20.3 Civ) ACOUSTICAL PHASE INVERTER 849
I u and I v represent the alternating air current flow in the cone and vent respectively.
I u originates at the back of the cone and I v must therefore be reversed in phase with
respect to I u if the acoustical output of the vent is to reinforce that from the front of
the cone. At f v' the frequency of the vent resonance, I u and I v are approximately
in quadrature; above f v the desired reinforcing condition is approached, but below
f v the two air currents oppose one another.
The performance of the system is determined by the value offv' which is normally
made equal to the loudspeaker bass resonant frequency, and also by the ratio Lvi C c'
With a large cabinet and large vent CG c large, Lv small) the response can rise to a
peak in the bass, while a small cabinet and a small vent CG c small, Lv large) will give
much the same effect as a completely closed cabinet, i.e. there may be bass loss.
+5
+15
(a '\ 1 (I» J1i~
i. I o VJoot-"
10."
I
I I
.'~ (a)(b)(cJ
+10
IV 11\ IMPEDANCE V
-5
I/lIrc) I I
I 11
db I 'AXIAL FREQUENCY
db II ;\(b) / (a)~~ \ : RESPONSE
fj \ \ I -10 I,
-,
+5 I/(a)
/
I
\ .... f1' '{ I'. /.~ -15
" 1\ I~./ U
f.-:"'" r
o
20 30 50 80 IOC 200 300 500 20 30 50 80 100 200 300 500
FREQUENCY (CiS) FREQUENCY (cIs)
FIG. 20.17
Fig. 20.17. Free-air axial resp:mse of a vented baffle loudspeaker and corresponding
impedance characteristics (a) conventional damp£ng (b) optimum damp£ng (c) excessive
damping of partition. (Ref. 135.)
Between these two extremes, there will be a pair of values for Lv and C c which gives
the best approximation to a flat frequency response. The cabinet volume required
for this last condition depends on the efficiency of the loudspeaker unit and the output
impedance of the amplifier. Fig. 20.17 shows the response and impedance charac-
teristics of a 15 inch unit in a 10.5 cu. ft. cabinet. Curves (a) are for the cabinet lined
with kapok quilt and carpet felt, with internal space left free; a serious internal
resonance shows at about 120 cis. Curves (b) show how this resonance was sup-
pressed by introduCing into the cabinet a partition having a window of area about
170 sq. ins. covered with three layers of t in. carpet felt. This damping does not
seriously affect the frequency response but it suppresses the lower frequency impedance
hump. Curve (c) shows the effect of too many layers of felt on the window. In
this case the design aimed at a nearly level frequency characteristic down to 50 cis.
See also Ref. 211 for other form of equivalent circuit. .
(B) Unmatched vented baffles
Unmatched vented baffles preferably incorporate a loudspeaker having a very low
bass resonant frequency. The cabinet is designed quite independently of the loud-
speaker and may, if desired, be fitted with an adjustable vent. In the latter case
the maximum vent area may be somewhat greater than the· loudspeaker cone area,
while in the other extreme the vent may be completely closed. Using a cabinet
2 ft. x 2 ft. x 18 ins. (volume 6 cu. ft.) and a loudspeaker with a bass resonant fre-
quency of 30 cis, the frequency of maximum acoustical pressure increases from 40
to 60 thence to 75 cis as the vent area is varied from small to medium to large respec-
tively. The height of the maximum response above that at 400 cis rises from 4 db
(small vent) to 6 db (medium vent) thence to 8 db (large vent) (Ref. 13A) .
. In other cases a loudspeaker is used which has a bass resonant frequency of con-
ventional value, but here also the vent frequency is higher than the loudspeaker bass
resonant frequency. This permits the use of a smaller cabinet while still retaining
some of the good features of a matched vented baffle, although it is not so good on
transients. In all cases an adjustable vent area is desirable. Tunnels are not gener-
ally used, since they give no fi~xibi1ity of adjustment. .
The vent frequency should not exceed (say) 90 cis, otherwise the tone will be poor.
This limits the reduction in cabinet volume to about 2i cubic feet.
850 (iv) ACOUSTICAL PHASE INVERTER 20.3
The shape of the cabinet, as well as its volume, affect its frequency response and
impedance characteristics. For example, a change from 30 ins. x 15 ins. x 8 ins.
to an equivalent volume 15 ins. x 15 ins. x 16 ins. caused an increase from 45 to
58 cis in the lower impedance peak and from 75 to 110 cis in the higher peak (Ref.
117). In the cubic shape of cabinet the addition of an internal partition between
loudspeaker and vent, extending approximately half-way from front to back, causes a
reduction in the frequencies of both impedance peaks, and is claimed to give improved
results on both speech and music (Ref. 117).
Careful attention to damping, along the lines given above for both enclosed cabinets
and matched vented bafHes, would be well repaid.
(c) Special types of vented baffle loudspeakers-see Supplement.
Refs. to vented bafHes: 4,9, 12, 13, 13A, 29, 36, 76 (Part 2), 85, 96,113, 116, 116A,
117, 118, 135, 143, 144, 147, 150, lSI, 166, 168, 175, 182, 188, 202, 209, 211, 225,
229, 230.
(v) Acoustical labyrinth* loudspeaker
The acoustical labyrinth gives a performance somewhat similar to that of a vented
bafHe. The rear of the cone drives a long folded tube, lined FIG. 20.18
with sound absorbing materials, the mouth of which opens in
front of the cabinet (Fig. 20.18). The length of the tube is
approximately 7 feet (measured on the centre-line) for nearly
linear response down to 70 cis. The loudspeaker bass re-
sonance loaded by the labyrinth is preferably at a frequency at
which the wavelength is four times the length of the tube; in
the example this is 40 cis. If this latter condition is not ful-
Absorbent Walls
filled, the frequency response will not be linear. The loud-
speaker resonance frequency in the example was reduced from
50 to 40 cis by the loading of the labyrinth. This is the only Wouth
form of bafHe which r~duces the bass resonant frequency of a
loudspeaker. The rise of impedance from 400 cis down to the
bass resonant frequency is reduced considerably by the acous- Fig. 20.18. Sec-
tical labyrinth-in one case the ratio was reduced from 10 : 1 to tional view of
4.3 : 1 (Ref. 27). acoustical labyrinth
References 13, 14, 27, 28, 188, 204, 225 Part 2. loudspeaker .
(vi) The R-J loudspeaker
The R-J loudspeaker has a particularly compact bass unit, to which any desired
tweeter can be added. In one design a 15 inch woofer unit is mounted in a cube with
18 inch sides and fundamental bass reproduction is claimed down to 20 cis. Only
the forward radiation is used, but both sides of the cone are loaded. The back of the
speaker is completely enclosed within a small stiff cavity. The front of the woofer
wor ks into a carefully designed rectangular duct, and the sound issues from a slot
extending across the base of the enclosure.
Refs. 189, 190, 219, 234.
(vii) Design of exterior of 1/
cabinet I'\..
The sharp comers on the usual more- I '\.~--r
or-less box shaped cabinet, particularly
/
T
those of the side in which the loud-
speakercausing
is mounted, produce
of diffraction 1·
3rt
1
effects a sequence peaks and
valleys up to ± 5 db in the response
characteristic. The best shaped en-
closure is a complete sphere, while the
worst is a cube with the loud-speaker 1.. -.-'-.-
.-.. . .
-~"'I ...t 6insk-lft....!
. the centre 0 fone
10 ·dSI e. A rectangu-
lar parallelepiped (box shaped) with
...-.ft~
2 It 1 FiG. 20 ii
the loudspeaker closer to one of the Fig. 20.19. Loudspeaker enclosure to
short sides than to the other is an im- minimize diffraction effects (after Ref. 193).
·"Acoustical Labyrinth" is a registered trademark of Stromberg-Carlson Co.
20.3 (vii) DESIGN OF EXTERIOR OF CABINET 851
provement over th~ symmetrical cube, but still far from. the ideal. A very close ap-
proach to the ideal is given by a rectangular truncated pyramid mounted on a rect-
angular parallelepiped (Fig. 20.19) Ref. 193.
In all cases it is desirable that the edge· of the cone should be flush with the front
of the c:abinet.
(i) Introduction
A hom is used in conjunction with a diaphragm or cone loudspeaker for the pur-
poses of increasing the acoustical loading on the diaphragm (over a limited frequency
range) and thereby increasing the efficiency and reducing non-linear· distortion.
With a hom, inside the use~ frequency limits, the movement' of the diaphragm is
much less and the acoustical damping is much greater than on a flat baffle, for the
same acoustical power output. Thus with a horn, a smaller diaphragm can radiate
a given acoustical power.
A hom is essenti21!y a device which tr"ansfonns acoustical energy at high pressure
and low velocity to energy at low pressure and high velocity. .
Horns are of various shapes--conical, parabolic, hypex and exponential, but the
exponential is most widely used.
A well designed andwcrJl executed exponential or hypex hom loudspeaker is capable
of giving a flatter frequency output characteristic with less distortion than any other
fonn of loudspeaker. .
References 13A, 14, 15, 59, 82, 142, 177, 188.
x = 0 (at throat) So
x l' S 2So
x = 21' S 4S o
x = 31' S 8So etc.
The corresponding diameter and side of circular and square cross sections
are:
x o (at throat) do ao
x l' 1.414do 1. 414a o
x 21' 2do 2ao
x 3/' 2.818do 2. 818a o
x 4/' 4do 4ao
Throat
(~
Fig. 20.20. Exponential horn of either circular or square cross-section.
Design on basis of minimum useful frequency
The characteristics below are given as a function of f', the lower frequency limit
for satisfactory horn loading. The value of f' is arbitrarily taken as 1.2 times the
flare cut-off frequency for an infinite exponential horn; it is, of course, influenced
also by the dimensions of the mouth and the length of the horn.
The value of m, the flaring constant, should then be equal to or less than
10.5!A' (2c)
where A' = wavelength (in feet) of the minimum useful frequency (f') for satisfactory
horn loading.
20.4 (iii) EXPONENTIAL HORNS 853
The cut-off frequency is the same as for an exponential hom having the same
Baring- constant-see eqn. (2a). When T = 1, the hom is exponential. When
T = 1/(m.xo) and m is allowed to go to zero, the hom is conical. When T = 0 the
hom is hyperbolic cosine or catenoidal (Refs. 13A, 123, 140, 142, 188). The name
"hypex n is usually applied when T is greater than zero and less than unity.
The value of Tin" hypex" horns is usually between 0.5 and 0.7, and within these
limits the throat resistance of an infinite hom is more nearly constant than that of an
exponential hom, at frequencies slightly above the cut-off frequency. These com-
parisons are for constant throat, mouth and length of hom; under .these conditions
a " hypex n hom with T of the order of 0.6 has improved low frequency characteris-
tics as compared with those of an exponential hom. Consequently, for equivalent
performance, a " hypex " hom may be made more compact than an exponential hom.
A further useful feature of the " hypex" characteristic is that it makes possible a
gradual transition from conical, via " hypex " with varying T, to exponential (Ref. 123).
An analysis of the response peaks in finite hyperbolic horns, and design procedure
for horns to have peaks at pre-determined frequencies, is given in -Ref. 139.
FIG. 20.21
Fig.20.21. Differentfarms of sound chambers in harn loudspeakers.
For example if a hom with a 40 cis cut-off is to reproduce a 4000 cis note, there
will theoretically be 8% second harmonic distortion for an acoustical power of 0.01
watt per square inch of hom throat. The actual distortion appears to be about half
the theoretical value.
Thus for reasons of both efficiency and distortion, a hom should only be designed
to cover a limited frequency range.
(C) Driving units
The simplest driving mechanism is the electro-magnetic type with an iron dia-
phragm as the armature (Fig. 20.21~).
All modem driving units are of the moving-coil type and may have a diaphragm
of aluminium alloy or some form of paper or a cloth base impregnated with synthetic
resin.
Well designed direct-radiator loudspeakers may be used as the driving mechanisms
for horns. The most suitable size is from 8 to 12 inches diameter for medium power
requirements. Some loudspeakers are designed specially for this application.
Where high power output at very low frequencies is required, a 15 inch unit may
be used, as in the Klipsch comer hom described below.
(D) Distortion
In addition to the distortion caused by the throat, there is also distortion due to
the soun~ chamber. The acoustical capacitance is a function of the position of
the diaphragm, and the effect is most apparent at low frequencies where the amplitude
is large. This distortion may be reduced by the use of a large sound chamber, thus
limiting this unit to low frequencies only. A separate high frequency unit with a small
sound chamber may be used, since it will not be required to handle large amplitudes.
Distortion is also caused by a non-linear suspension; this. is only serious at low
frequencies .(Ref. 14, Fig. 8.21). Distortion at low frequencies due to non-
linear suspension may be' reduced by
(1) the use of a large dynamic driver,
(2) increased compliance in the suspension,
(3) an enclosed air-chamber at the rear of the diaphragm as in the Klipsch comer
hom.
Another cause of distortion is frequency modulation through the Doppler
Effect-see Sect.· 7(ii)-which can be reduced to small proportions by the use of
separate high and low frequency units.
It is impossible to design a hom loudspeakc:r that covers a wide frequency band
and is simultaneously free from non-linear distortion. Thus two separate units for
low and high frequencies are essential for fidelity. This is a limitation peculiar to
hom loudspeakers.
(E) Efficiency
With hom loudspeakers efficiencies as high as 80% can be achieved over a limited
frequency range. A typical hom of the type used in cinema theatres has an efficiency
from 30% to 45% over its useful range. The Klipsch comer hom has an efficiency
around 50% over its useful range.
856 (v) HORN LOUDSPEAKERS-GENERAL 20.4
DRIVER
UNIT
Fig. 20.22. Concentric folded horns (A) three section reflex (B) three section reflex
radial type.
One outstanding design is the Klipsch comer type speaker which includes a folded
low frequency hom.
This is notable mainly on account of the comparatively small space which it occupies
FIG. 20.23 -20 cubic feet in.all-compared with other dual hom systems
having equivalent performance. The efficiency of the low
frequency woofer unit (K-3-D) is not less than 50% down to
36 cis, and still fairly high at 32.7 cis; it is capable of radiating
a clean fundamental at reduced power down to 27 cis. Maxi-
mum electrical power input is 15 watts, so that the maximum
acoustical power output is over 7 watts.
The low frequency unit has a 15 inch direct radiator loud-
speaker with an enclosed cabinet baffie at the rear and a folded
hom in front. The recommended driver for ordinary home
'and small theatre power levels is the Stephens P-52-LX-2
woofer motor; this is specially treated to increase its com-
pliance before installation. The enclosed cabinet baffie at
the rear is designed to offset the mass reactance of the throat
impedance at low frequencies. The volume of the enclosed
Fig. 20.23. Folded baffie is given theoretically by
horns for low fre- V = 2.9 AR (15)
quencies actuated where V = volume in cubic inches
by rear of cone with A = throat area in square inches
area increasing in and R = length of hom in inches within which the hom
steps. area doubles. .
FIG. 20.24
I
Fig. 20.24. Folded horns for low frequencies-as part of dual system, with conical
individual sections. (Ref. 52.)
858 (vi) FOLDED HORN LOUDSPEAKERS 20.4
V 1,
I
I
--"~tl'~~~I--;(/'
\~,
\'
____ /':/
"
!'
!
•
single driver to give good coverage over
a wide horizontal angle (Refs. 76 Part 1;
52, 136). Alternatively the multi-
cellular construction may be adopted
(Ref. 33). Diffusing lenses may· also
~) ,-;.~~~~~~"~-:':~" \. . .~~'..~.... ~:,v be used with high frequency horns as
an alternative to multi-cellular con-
/ ,-;.,,-:.' ....'::.-::..... ~ struction, to spread the sound over
FIG. 20.26
a wider angle. In one example the
angle was increased from about 20 0
Fig. 20.26. Side and front views of the to over 50° at 8000 cis by the use of
Klipsch bass -reproducer Model K-3. such a diffusing lens. The construction
(Ref. 48). appears cheaper than a multi-cellular
20.4 (vii) HIGH FREQUENCY HORNS 859
FIG. 20.27
(i) Introduction
When a wide frequency range has to be covered there is a choice between
1. A single unit employing some special construction to extend'the frequency
range-see Sect. 2(iii),
2. Two or three separate loudspeakers, each covering a limited frequency range,
3. An integral dual or triple system with two or three loudspeakers mounted
(usually co-axially) in one equipment, and
4. Some compromise arrangement-see (iv) below.
If separate loudspeakers are used, they should be mounted as clo~ly together as
possible, with co-axial mounting as the ideal; this is not so important when the
cross-over frequency is below 500 cis. In addition, they should be co-planar, with
the plane of hom loudspeakers taken as the plane of the diaphragm. The loud-
speakers should be correctly phased, so as to be additive in the overlap region.
A frequency dividing network is used to split the output between two loudspeakers
so that neither unit is called upon to handle large amplitudes of frequencies beyond
its range. This has the advantage that Doppler Effect distortion (see Sect. 7) is much
reduced. Other advantages are that, on account of limitations in the frequency range
of each unit, the system efficiency is increased, while the directivity characteristic
is improved due to the smaller diaphragm (or hom mouth) for the high frequency
unit. In addition, the transient response is improved, and there is less intermodula-
tion and reduced frequency modulation.
The loudspeakers should preferably have the same efficiency, otherwise one will
have to be attenuated. The directional characteristics of the high frequency unit
should receive careful attention.
Integral dual systems
One excellent arrangement employs two cones, co-axial andco-planar, with the
small high-frequency cone mounted near the apex of the ~ge cone. Both cones
vibrate in unison in the overlap region. (Refs. 61, 116, 116A).
Another arrangement employs a large low-frequency cone and a co-axial high-
frequency hom. This has the disadvantage that the sound sources are not co-planar,
since the diaphragm of the high frequency unit is mounted to' the rear of the cone.
Integral triple systems
In one design there is a large low-frequency cone, a mid-frequency hom using the
flared low-frequency cone for its mouth, and a high-frequency hom mounted in
front of the mid-frequency hom.
In a triple system there is no necessity for such a compromise regarding the cross-
over frequency. The" woofer" may handle up to between 300 and 600 c/s, the
middle unit up to between 2000 and 5000 c/s, and the "tweeter" will then look
after the higher frequencies (e.g. Ref. 134).
The design of frequency dividing networks is covered in Chapter 21, Sect. 3
(i) Loudness
Loudness may be measured in loudness units-see page 827 and Fig. 19.8.
~\
_V /
.... ""
...... ~
V I; .... "" % ~ .,.~
:,.....'
:::~
io"'''''
...... ~ 1,..""
I 10
I
...... /
~V . . . . . . . ~ . . "" ~ ~
~.,. .... ~ ......
/ /
~
/ ioo"~ / V ......... ~
/ / ...... """
100"./ .............. """ ""
","t!I .... ~ ................. ~""
...... ioo"
io"'''''
:;:~
100 .JJ' 100
..... ~ ",
~
/
/
/ ...... """ ~""
...... """ ~"" ".:/;/ ,,- /"" / ...... """ io"'''''
o~ ~ .,.
""" io"'''''
~ ~~
...... """
:10- 'P~"""'" ~Io- ~ ~ ~~ 10-
...... """ ~ :::""" ioo'~
V""": t:::: ~ ~
V V"o,--""I-""ioo"~""10-"'" ~ t:::: ~~ 90
~ /
~.~
ioo'' ' '
.... 10-
~V.,o \--I'~"'"
%~ . .~.~~""
/~ 'P~--"'"
~
• / ~
°v /
10
I"'"
/ ~ioo" .... ~V~\cP
~ ~ ~ ~ioo"
/ ~~ ....
.... "'~"
~V
~ / ............ """
ioo"l0-
I;o~
70 70
~ ~/
".
60
~ 60
001 ()Ol 1·0 10
ACOUSTICAL WATTS OUTPUT
Fig. 20.29. Intensity in db 'Versus acoustical watts output at specified distances along
the axis of a .loudspeaker which is considered as a small source in an infinite baffle.
This iwids jairly accurately at iaw frequencies, with an error oj 1 db at 500 cis wirh
a cone 10 inches in diameter. The numbers on the sloping lines indicate the distance
in feet from the loudspeaker (based on F. Massa, Ref. 69, but extended and modified).
20.6 (ii) POWER REQUIRED 863
Again, the loudspeaker percentage efficiency may be known, say 3%, and it is
desired to calculate the jntensity at a distailce of, say, 30 feet with an input of 8 watts.
The unknown factor is the angle of radiation, but at frequencies up to 500 cis this
may be taken as approximately 180 0 (assuming a direct radiator with a large flat
baffle) and we may therefore make use of Fig. 20.29. In this case the acoustical
output will be 8 x 0.03 = 0.24 watt and the intensity will be 87 db at 30 feet (Fig.
20.29).
At higher frequencies there Will be an increasingly greater focusing effect, and the
intensity on the axis will be somewhat greater than the value calculated above.
(B) Power required indoors
When a loudspeaker is operated indoors the direct radiation is supplemented by
the reflected sound.
The reverberation time is the time in seconds for a sound to fall to one millionth
of its original intensity (- 60 db) after stopping the source. Eyring* gives
0.05 V
T = --------------
- Slog" (1 - rt)
where T = reverberation time in seconds,
V = volume of room in cubic feet,
S surface area of walls; ceiling and floor in square feet,
and rt = average absorption coefficient per square foot, in sabins (values are less
than unity).
The sabin is an absorption unit representing a surface capable of absorbing sound
at the same rate as does 1 sq. ft. of perfectly absorbing surface, such as an open window.
In a typical living room, the reverberation time is about 0.5 second at 500 cis and
the absorption coefficient is about 0.25. The reverberation time falls to possibly
0.3 second at 5000 cis and rises to possibly 0.75 second at 200 c/s.(Ref. 14, Fig. 13.26).
In a very large living room, the reverberation time would probably be about 0.8
second at 1000 cis.
FIG. 20.30
10
v
V
I
V I
/ !
V II
I
~ I
/ I
i
()ooo I I Ii
d d d ~ ~
VOLU .... E IN CUBIC FEET
The" optimum reverberation time" at 1000 cis depends on the volume of the
room (Ref. 13A):
Volume 1000 2000 4000 20000 100000 500000 cu. ft.
T Otlf 0.7 0.75 0.82 1.01 1.28 1.62 secs.
In a typical room 20 ft. x 15 ft. x 10 ft., with a reverberation time of 0.5 second,
and with the listener 6 feet from the loudspeaker, the reflected sound adds 3 db to the
direct radiation at 500 cis under steady state conditions, and 1 db when the sound only
continues for 0.02 second as for speech (Ref. 14, Fig. 13.26). At higher frequencies
the reflected sound becomes rapidly smaller, and may be neglected. At 200 cis
the reflected sound adds 5.5 db under steady state conditions or 2 db when the sound
continues for 0.02 second. At 100 cis the reflected sound adds 9.5 db under steady
state conditions, or 6 db when the sound continues for 0.02 second. The effect of
the reflected sound becomes more important as the listener moves further away from
the loudspeaker.
References 13A, 14, 15, 50, 55, 175, 178.
The acoustical power in watts to produce an intensity level of 80 db (0 db
0.0002 dyne/cm 2 ) is plotted in Fig. 20.30 against the volume of the enclosure in cubic
feet (after Olson, Ref. 13A). For living rooms the following information may be
derived-
These values apply to enclosures with optimum reverberation times. Living rooms
may have reverberation times which are lower than the optimum values, and the
acoustical power required will then be greater than indicated above.
The intensity levels for home listening under various conditions are set out in
Chapter 14 Sect. 7(iii).
waves. In a typical case with a room 16 ft. 9 in. x 11 ft. 6 in. X 8 ft. 6 in. the first
nine resonances are 36.8, 51.1, 62.9, 68.6, 73.6, 77.6, 85.5, 102.3, 137.2 (Ref. 53).
The most desirable shape for a listening room is approximately in the ratio height :
width: length = 1 : 1.27: 1.62, so as to distribute the resonances fairly uniformly..
The peaks due to these resonances are of the order of 20 db and completely mask
less pronounced effects. The bad effects may be reduced by
(1) increased acoustical damping at low frequencies, especially near the comers
of the room where it is twice as effective as elsewhere (Ref. 175), and
(2) an open door or window, or preferably both.
In addition to these room resonances, which occur over the whole room, there are
other peaks of response due to focusing or interference between different paths, at
middle and high frequencies, which vary from point to point. Thanks to our two
ears, these sharp peaks and valleys are much less evident than they otherwise would be.
References 13A, 14, 53, 175, 192, 208, 220, 221.
ment varies linearly from a maximum at the centre to zero at either end, the direc-
tionality is improved. The line-source should be tilted slighdy forwards so that the
central loudspeaker points directly to the centre of the audience. Better results may
be obtained by using two line-sources, a long one for the low frequencies and a shorter
one (one quarter the length of the long one) for the high frequencies, with a cross-over
network for Ie = 1000 cis (Ref. 197).
In large installations, time delay may be incorporated (Ref. 145, 197).
Multiple loudspeakers
It has been proved by Haas (Ref. 125) that when there are two or more loudspeakers,
the listener only appears to hear from one of the loudspeakers-the nearer one in all
cases-and that a separate echo is not heard until the time delay reaches 50 milli-
seconds, equivalent to a path difference of 56 feet. He also proved that the echo has
negligible disturbing effect on the listener if it is 10 db lower in level than the original.
As a result of the latter effect, listeners in the vicinity of one loudspeaker are not dis-
turbed by the echo from another. It seeins reasonable to infer that spacing between
loudspeakers up to about 70 feet would be satisfactory so far as echoes are concerned.
(vii) Open air public address
A typical reflex hom, with an input of I watt to the voice coil, gives the following
sound levels on the axis (Ref. 73) :
Distance 10 20 40 80 160 320 feet
Sound level 100 94 88 82 76 70 db
With a single hom, the axis should point directly to the farthest part of the audience.
Horns may be arranged r",dially to cover a larger audience, allowing 30° for each horn~
For 8~.aech reproducti?f only, a 10 watt amplifier VY ;th two hom loudspeakers is
sufficient for a crowd of 5000 people in quiet surroundings. For musical repro-
duction a power of f> watts with four loudspeakers will be required. It is usual to
allow from 5 to 10 watts for each hom loudspeaker. Alternatively a large number of
any convenient type of loudspeaker may be used, with the spacing between loud-
speakers not greater than 70 feet. When a wider frequency range is required, some
dual hom system is frequendy used, particularly with open-air orchestral sound re-
inforcing.
For large crowds, several1ine-source loudspeakers-see (vi) above-may be used
at the centre of the crowd.
References 13A (pp. 292-296), 14 (pp. 406-409), 73, 104, 125, 176.
(viii) Intercommunicating systems
Only speech is to be reproduced, and the usual requirement is merely to have suffici-
ent articulation to be understood. A reduced frequency range is almost universal,
while a very restricted range is used in noisy surroundings (see Chapter 14 Sect. 11).
References 1, 13 (pp. 297,299), 13A (p. 426).
(iX) Background music in factories
If the noise level is comparatively low, the system may be quite conventional, with
a frequency range from say 100 to at least 6000 cis. Loudspeakers should be placed
fairly close together to give good coverage of high frequencies. The spacing should
be adjusted so that, with the prevailing noise level, the range of each is slighdy over
half the distance between them.
If the noise level is high, the highest noise intensity is often limited in frequency
range at both extremes: In such a case, as an alternative to over-riding the noise,
the full frequency range up to 8000 cis may be used for the music;-which may be at
the same level as the mid-frequency noise. The low -frequency music range may
either be used or attenuated as desired. Careful choice of the source of music is
required to give the full frequency range without distortion. A conventional A-M
receiver is unsuitable, owing to sideband cutting. Many shellac discs, especially
the older ones, are unsuitable on account of limited frequency range.
In all cases some form of volume compressor or limiter is required to reduce the
volume range, and the music should be selected to avoid sudden large changC$ in
volume.
868 (i) NON-LINEARITY 20.7
A system has been developed (Ref. 152) for automatically recording the total har-
monic distortion of a loudspeaker over the a-f range. This is particularly helpful .
in detecting narrow frequency bands where the distortion is high.
One method of recording the performance of a loudspeaker with regard to non-
linear distortion is to measure on the axis the maximum sound level before a certain
amount of harmonic distortion is produced. This may be plotted as a curve of
maximum undistorted sound pressure as a function of frequency (Ref. 153). Alter-
natively the distortion may be plotted as a function of frequency for constant electrical
input. In all cases the loudspeaker must be tested iIi the enclosure for which it has
been designed.
References 13A (pp. 163-173), 20, 21) 23, 36, 61, 106, 108, 109, 133, 152.
The intensity level, in decibels, of a sound is 10 times the logarithm to the base 10
of the ratio of the intensity 1 of this sound to the reference intensity 10 • Unless other-
wise specified, the reference intensity 10 shall be 10- 18 watt per square centimetre.
Compliance is ease in bending. It is the reciprocal of stiffness.
See Chapter 14 Sect. 7 for volume range and peak dynamic range.
See Chapter 19 Sect. 5 for loudness and Sect. 7 for sound level and noise.
See also I.R.E. Standards on Acoustics: Definitions of Terms, 1951, Proc. I.R.E.
39.5 (May 1951) 509; "American Standard of Acoustical Terminology ", A.S.A.
Z24.1-1951.
(ii) Electri~al, mechanical and acoustical equivalents
Electrical Acoustical Acoustical unit
Capacitance acoustical capacitance em 5/ dyne
Inductance inertance grams/emB/emS
Resistance acoustical resistance acoustical ohms
~.M.F. pressure dynes/emS
lmpedance acoustical impedance acoustical ohms
Electrical Mechanical Mechanical unit
Capacitance Compliance em/dyne
TABLE 1
Frequency ratio
Tone Interval
---------------1----------------
Natural (just) scale Tempered scale
;~}
A# Augmented sixth 125/72
1.782
B" Minor seyenth 9/5
B Major seVenth 15/8
The frequency of any tone may be calculated by multiplying the value of C next
below it by the frequency ratio of the tempered scale as given by the appropriate row
in -Table 1.
References 13 (pp. 334-335), 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 127.
33. Klipsch, P. W. "A high quality loudspeaker of small dimensions" Jour. Acous. Socy. Am. 17.3
Gan. 1946) 254. With extensive bibliography on hom loudspeakers.
34. Klipsch, P. W. "A note on acoustic horns" Proc. I.R.E. 33.7 Guly, 1945) 447.
35. Fletcher, H. "Hearing, the determinin~ factor for high-fidelity transmission," Proc. I.R.E. 30.6
Gune, 1942) 266.
36. Olson, H. F., and J. Preston" Wide range loudspeaker developments" R.C.A. Rev. 7.2 Gune,
1946) 155.
37. Stanley, A. W. "The output stage-effect of matching on frequency response" W.W. 52.8 (Aug.
1946) 256.
38. Olson, H. F. "Hom loud speakers" R.C.A. Rev. (1) 1.4 (April, 1937) 68; (2) Efficiency and dis-
tortion, 2.2 (Oct. 1937) 265. i
39. Sanial, A. J. " Graphs for exponential hom design," R.C.A. Rev. 3.1 Guly, 1938) 97.
40. Wait, E. V. "Loudspeaker cones" A.W.A. Tee. Rev. 1.1 (March, 1935) 14.
41. ~93i~'lk~' "The impedance of the voice-coil of a loudspeaker" A.W.A. Tee. Rev. 3.3 Gan.
42. Rudd, J. B. "Equipment for the measurement of loudspeaker response" A.W.A. Tee. Rev. 3.4
(April, 1938) 143. .
43. de Boer, J. "The efficiency of loudspeakers" Philips Tee. Rev. 4.10 (Oct. 1939) 301.
44. Shorter, D. E. L. " Loudspeaker transient response," B.B.C. Quarterly 1.3 (Oct. 1946) 121; sum-
mary" Loudspeaker transients" W.W. 52.12 (Dec. 1946) 424. See also Ref. 117.
45. Hilliard, J. K. "High fidelity reproduction" F-M & T 6.1 Gan. 1946) 28.
46. "The design of acoustic exponential horns" Electronic Eng. 19.235 (Sept. 1947) 286.
47. Sanial, A. J. " Loudspeaker design by electro-mechanical analogy" Tele-Tech 6.10 (Oct. 1947) 38.
48. Klipsch, P. W. "The Klipsch sound reproducer-a comer type speaker which uses the walls as
part of the acoustical system," FM & T 7.9 (Sept. 1947) 25.
49. "Enhancing sound reproduction" (Review of patent No.2, 420, 204 by C. M. Sinnett) Audio
Eng. 31.6 Guly, 194'7) 43.
50. Hopkins, H. F., and N. R. Stryker" A proposed loudness-efficiency rating for loudspeakers and
the determination of system power requirements for enclosures " Proc. I.R.E. 36.3 (March, 1948)
315.
51. Olson, H. F., and R. A. Hackley" Combination hom and direct radiator loud-speaker" Proc.
I.R.E. 24.12 (Dec. 1936) 1557.
52. Massa, F. "Hom-type loud speakers-a quantitative discussion of some fundamental require-
ments in their design," Proc. I.R.E. 26.6 Gune, 1938) 720.
53. Moir, J. "Acoustics of small rooms," W.W. 50.11 (Nov. 1944) 322.
54. Roder, H. "Theory of the loudspeaker and of mechanical oscillatory systems" Part 1, Radio
EnlrineerinlZ 16.7 (Julv 1936) 10; Part 2. 16.8 (AUlZ. 1936) 21 ; Part 3. 16.9 (Seot. 1936) 24; Part 4.
16.10 (Oct~ 1936j 19. . - - . - . -. - . - . - -
35. Morison, G. E. "Power and realism-estimating the watts required for a given sound intensity"
W.W. 48.6 Gune, 1942) 130.
56. Seabert, J. D. " Electrodynamic speaker design considerations" Proc. I.R.E. 22.6 (June, 1934) 738.
57. Olson, H. F. " A new cone loud speaker for high fidelity sound reproduction" Proc. I.R.E. 22.1
Gan. 1934) 33.
58. Greaves, V. F., F. W. Kranz and W. D. Crozier" The Kyle condenser loud speaker" Proc. I.R.E.
17.7 Guly, 1929) 1142.
59. Terman, F. E. (book) "Radio Engineering" (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York and London,
3rd edit. 1947).
60. Sawyer, C. B. "The use of rochelle salt crystals for electrical reproducers and microphones"
Proc. I.R.E. 19.11 (Nov., 1931) 2020.
61. Rand, G. E. " An F-M quality speaker" (R.C.A. LC-IA) Broadcast News, No. 46 (Sept. 1947) 24.
62. Kennelly, A. E. "Electrical vibration instruments" (The Macmillan Company, New York).
63. Wente, E. C., and A. L. Thuras " Moving-coil telephone receivers and microphones," Jour. Acous.
Socy. Am. 3.1 Guly, 1931) 44.
64. Williams, A. L. "New piezo-electric devices of interest to the. motion picture industry" Jour.
S.M.P.E. 32.5 (1939) 552.
65. Olson, H. F., and F. Massa" A high-quality ribbon receiver," Proc. I.R.E. 21.5 (May, 1933) 673.
66. Olson, H. F., and F. Massa" Performance of telephone receivers as affected by the ear" Jour.
Acous. Socy. Am. 6.4 (1935) 250.
67. Olson, H. F., Jour. S.M.P.E. 27.5 (1936) 537.
68. Fletcher, H. and others" Auditory perspective" (6 papers) E.E. 53.1 Gan., 1934) 9.
69. Massa, F. (Book) "Acoustic design charts" (The Blakiston Company, Philadelphia, 1942).
70. "American recommended practice for loudspeaker testing" CI6.4-1942 (American Standards
Association, Nov. 6, 1942). .
71. Olson, H. F. "Multiple coil, multiple cone loudspeakers" Jour. Acous. Socy. Am. 10.4 (April,
1939) 305.
72. Langford-Smith, F. "The relationship between the power output stage and the loudspeaker"
Proceedings World Radio Convention, Australia, April 1938 (reprinted W.W. 44.6 (Feb. 9, 1939)
133; 44.7 (Feb. 16, 1939)) 167.
73. Edwards, E. M. "Conversion efficiency of loudspeakers" Service 17.3 (March, 1948) 24.
74. Cook, E. D. " The efficiency of the Rice-Kellogg loudspeaker" G.E. Review 33.9 (Sept. 1930) 505.
75. Massa, F. "Loud speaker design" Elect. 9.2 (Feb. 1936) 20.
76. McProud, C. G. "Two-way speaker system" Audio Eng. (1) 31.11 (Nov. 1947) 18; (2) 31.12
(Dec. 1947) 19; (3) 32.2 (Feb. 1948) 21.
77. Logan, G. H. " Design for exponential horns of square cross section" 'Elect. 12.2 (Feb. 1939) 33.
Reprinted in "Electronics for Engineers" (McGraw-Hill, 1945).
78. Barker, A. C. "Single diaphragm speakers-obtaining wide frequency response and effective
damping" W.W. 54.6 Gune, 1948) 217.
79. Lanier, R. S. " What makes a good loudspeaker? " Western Electric Oscillator No.8 Guly, 1947)
11.
SO. Nickel, F. " Quality loudspeakers for every use" Western Electric Oscillator No.8 Guly, 1947) 7.
81. Davies, L. A. "Electro-acoustic coupling-how to get high fidelity from ordinary speakers,"
Australasian Radio World, 11.10 (March, 1947) 7.
82. White, S. J. "Hom type loudspeakers" Audio Eng. 32.5 (May, 1948) 25.
84. Olson, H. F. and Radio Corporation of America" Improvement in folded suspension loudspeaker "
U.S. Patent 545,672 (Div. 5) July 19, 1944.
85. Langford-Smith, F. "The ce3ign of a high-fidelity amplifier (1) The power valve and the loud-
speaker" Radiotronics No. 124 (March-April, 1947) 25.
86. "Stereophonic sound," Elect. 21.8 (August, 1948) 88.
878 REFERENCES 20.10
87. Beard, E. G. (Book) "Philips Manual of radio practice for servicemen" (Philips Electrical In-
dustries of Australia Pty. Ltd., 1947) pp. 257-259 describing the Philips Miller system.
88. Meyer, E. (Book) .. Electro-acoustics" (G. Bell & ions Ltd. London 1939).
89. Wood, Alexander (Book)" The physics of music "(Methuen & Co. Ltd., London, 3rd edit. 1945).
90. Tillson, B. F. " Musical acoustics" Audio Eng. Part 1,31.5 (June, 1947) 34; Part 2,31.6 (July,
1947) 25; Correction 32.6 (June, 1948) 8.
91. Vermeulen, R. " Octaves and decibels," Philips Tee. Rev. 2.2 (Feb., 1937) 47.
92. Jeans, Sir James (Book) " Science and Music" (MacMillan Company and Cambridge University
Press, 1938).
93. Mills, J. (Book) "A Fugue in cycles and bels" (Chapman & Hall, London, 1936).
94. Souther, H. "Coaxial and separate two-way speaker system design" Comm. 28.7 (July, 1948) 22.
95. "Speakers for sound equipment" American R.M.A. Standard SE-I03 (April, 1949).
96. Drisko, B. B. •• Getting the most out of a reflex-type speaker" Audio Eng. 32.7 (July, 1948) 24.
97. Angevine, O. L., and R. S. Anderson" The problem of sound distribution" Audio Eng. (1) 32.6
(June, 1948) 18; (2) 32.9 (Sept. 1948) 16; (3) 32.10 (Oct. 1948) 28.
98. Kendall, E. L. "Electric power required for sound systems" Service 17.9 (Sept. 1948) 12.
99. Klipsch, P. W. "Progress in Klipsch speakers" FM-TV 8.11 (Nov. 1948) 36.
100. McProud, C. G. "A new comer speaker design" Audio Eng. 33.1 (Jan. 1949) 14; 33.2 (Feb.
1949) 13.
101. Camras, M ... A stereophonic magnetic recorder" Proc. I.R.E. 37.4 (April 1949) 442.
102. Seashore, C. E. (Book) "Psychology of music "(McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York and London,
1938).
103. Briggs, G. A. (Book) "Loudspeakers-the why and how of good reproduction" (Wharfedale
Wireless Works, Bradford, Yorkshire, England, 2nd edit. 1948).
104. Greenlees, A. E. (Book) .. The amplification and distribution of sound" (Chapman and Hall Ltd.,
London, 2nd edit. 1948).
105. McProud, C. G. "Comer speaker cabinet for 12 inch cones" Audio Eng. 35.5 (May 1949) 14.
106. Cunningham, W. J ... Non-linear distortion in dynamic loudspeakers due to magnetic fields"
Jour. Acous. Sa<;y.--ADi. 21.3 (May 1949) 202.
107. Hartley, H. A. " New notes in radio" (booklet published by H. A. Hartley Co. Ltd., London).
109. Veneklasen, P. S ... Physical measurements of loudspeaker performance" Jour. S.M.P.E. 52.6
(June 1949) 641.
110. Maxfield, J. P. " Auditorium acoustics" Jour. S.M.P.E. 51.2 (Aug. 1948) 169.
112. Grignon, L. D ... Experiment in stereophonic sound" Jour. S.M.P.E. 52.3 (March 1949) 280.
113. Chapman, C. T. .. Vented loudspeaker cabinets-basis of design to match existing loudspeaker
units," W.W. 55.10 (Oct. 1949) 398.
114. American R.M.A. Standard REC-I04" Moving coil loudspeakers for radio receivers" (Jan. 1947).
115. Klipsch, P. W ... New notes on comer speakers JJ FM-TV 9.8 (Aug. 1949) 25.
116. Olson, H. F., J. Preston and D. H. Cunningham" New 15-inch duo-cone londspeaker" Audio
Eng. 33.10 (Oct. 1949) 20.
116A. Olson, H. F., J. Preston and D. H. Cunningham .. Duo-cone loudspeaker" R.C.A. Rev. 10.4
(Dec. 1949) 490.
117. Briggs, E. A. (Book) .. Sound reproduction" Wharfedale Wireless Works, Bradford, Yorks.
England, 1949.
118. Planer, F. E., and 1. 1. Boswell .. Vented loudspeaker enclosures" Audio Eng. 32.5 (May 1948) 29.
119. Klipsch, P. W ... Woofer-tweeter crossover network" Elect. 18.11 (Nov. 1945) 144.
120. Harvey, F. K ... Focussing sound with microwave lenses" Bell Lab. Record 27.10 (Oct. 1949) 349.
121. Beranek, L. L. (Book) " Acoustic measurements" (John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York; Chapman
& Hall Ltd. London, 1949).
122. U.S. Patents 2,310,243 and 2,373,692.
123. Salmon, V ... A new family of horns" Jour. Acous. Socy. Am. 17.3 (Jan. 1946) 212.
124. Olson, H. F., J. C. Bleazey, J. Preston and R. A. Hackley" High efficiency lOud speakers for per_
sonal radio receivers" R.C.A. Rev. 11.1 (Mar. 1950) 80.
125. Haas, H. (report) "The influence of a single echo on the audibility of speech" Translated into
English and available from Director, Building Research Station, Garston, Watford, Hens, England.
126. Moir, J. " Transients and loudspeaker damping" W.W. 56.5 (May 1950) 166.
127. Barbour, J. M. "Musical scales and their classification" J.A.S.A. 21.6 (Nov. 1949) 586.
128. Mawardi, O. K ... Generalized solutions of Webster's hom theory" J.A.S.A. 21.4 (July 1949) 323.
129. Goodfriend, L. W ... Simplified reverberation time calculation" Audio Eng. 34.5 (May, 1950) 20.
l30. Gilson, W. E., J. J. Andrea .. A symmetrical comer speaker" Audio Eng. 34.3 (March 1950) 17.
131. Corrington, M. S. "Transient testing of loudspeakers" Audio Eng. 34.8 (Aug. 1950) 9.
l32. Moir, J. .. Developments in England-new loudspeaker measurement technique are being used to
correlate subjective and instrumental performance evaluations." FM-TV 10.9 (Sept. 1950) 23.
133. Olson, H. F ... Sensitivity, directivity and linearity of direct radiator loudspeakers" Audio Eng.
34.10 (Oct. 1950) 15.
134. Plach, D. J. and P. B. Williams .. A new loudspeaker of advanced design" Audio Eng. 34.10 (Oct.
1950) 22.
135. Shorter, D. E. L. " Sidelights on loudspeaker cabinet design" W.W. (1) 56.11 (Nov. 1950) 382 ;
(2) 56.12 (Dec. 1950)436. British Patent Application No. 24528/49.
l36. Smith, B. H ... A distributed-source hom" Audio Eng. 35.1 (Jan. 1951) 16.
137. Taylor, P. L ... Ribbon loudspeaker" W.W. 57.1 (Jan. 1951) 7.
138. Ewaskio, C. A., and O. K. Mawardi .. Electroacoustic phase shift in loudspeakers" J. Acous. Soc.
Am. 22.4 (July 1950) 444.
139. Molloy, C. T ... Response peaks in finite horns" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 22.5 (Sept. 1950) 551.
140. Thiessen, G. J ... Resonance characteristics of a finite catenoidal hom" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 22.5
(Sept. 1950) 558.
141. Kock, W. E., and F. K. Harvey" Refracting sound waves" J. Acou8. Soc. Am. 21.5 (Sept. 1949) 471.
142. Morse, P. M. (Book) .. Vibration and Sound" (McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. 2nd ed. 1948).
143. Worden, D. W ... Design, construction and adjustment of reftexed loudspeaker enclosures .. Audio
Eng. 34.12 (Dec. 1950) 15. .
144. Smith, B. H ... Resonant loudspeaker enclosures" Audio Eng. 34.12 (Dec. 1950) 22.
145. Parkin, P. H., and W. E. Scholes .. Recent-developments in speech reinforcement systems" W.W.
57.2 (Feb. 1951) 44.
146. Preisman, A ... Loudspeaker damping" Audio Eng. 35.3 (March 1951) 22; 35.4 (April 1951) 24.
147. Souther, H. T ... Design elements for improved bass response in loudspeaker systems" Audio
EnF. 35.5 (May 1951) 16.
20.10 REFERENCES 879
148. (A) Tanner, R. L. " Improving loudspeaker response with motional feedback" Elect. 24.3 (Mar.
1951) 142. (B) Letter R. B. McGregor 24.6 (June 1951) 298.
149. Gardner, M. F., and J. L. Barnes (Book) "Transients in Linear Systems" (John Wiley & Sons,
New York 1942) Chapter 2.
150. Moir, J. "Loudspeaker performance--achieving optimum reproduction in small rooms-com-
parative advantages of open-cone and horn-loaded speakers" FM-TV 11.4 (Apr. 1951) 32.
151. Plach, D. J., and P. B. Williams" Loudspeaker enclosures" Audio Eng. 35.7 (July 1951) 12.
152. Olson, H. F., and D. F. Pennie" An automatic non-linear distortion analyzer" R.C.A. Rev. 12.1
(Mar. 1951) 35.
153. Hall, H. H., and H. C. Hardy" Measurements for aiding in the evaluation of the quality of loud-
speakers" Abstract J. Acous. Soc. Am. 20.4 (July 1948) 596.
154. Peterson, A. P. G. "Intermodulation distortion" G. R. Exp. 25.10 (March 1951) 1.
155. Moir, J. "Loudspeaker diaphragm control" W.W. 57.7 (July 1951) 252.
156. Salmon, V. "Efficiency of direct radiator loudspeakers" Audio Eng. 35.8 (Aug. 19:1) 13.
157. Clements, W. " A new approach to loudspeaker damping" Audio Eng. 35.8 (Aug. 1951) 20.
158. Hardy, H. C. and H. H. Hall "The transient response of loudspeakers" (summary) J. Acous.
Soc. Am. 20:4 (July 1948) 596.
159. Sleeper, M. B. and C. Fowler" The FAS audio system" FM-TV 10.10 (Oct. 1950) 22; 10.11
(Nov. 1950) 31; 10.12 (Dec. 1950) 24; 11.2 (Feb. 1951) 32; 11.3 (Mar. 1951) 46; 11.5 (May
1951) 34.
Allison, R. F. "Improving the air-coupler" FM-TV (1) 11.10 (Oct. 1951) 26; (2) 11.12 (Dec.
1951) 32.
160. Fletcher, H. "The stereophonic sound film systems-general theory" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 13.2
(Oct. 1941) 89.
161. Maxfield, J. P., A. W. Colledge and R. T. Freibus "Pickup for sound motion pictures (including
stereophonic) " J. Acous. Soc. Am. 30.6 (June 1938) 666.
162. Koenig, W. " Subjective effects in binaural hearing" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 22.1 (Jan. 1950) 61.
163. Goodfriend, L. S. "High fidelity" Audio Eng. 34.11 (Nov. 1950) 32.
164. Meeker, W. F., F. H. Slaymaker and L. L. Merrill" The acoustical impedance of closed rectangular
loudspeaker housings" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 22.2 (March 1950) 206.
165. Smith, B. H., and W. T. Selsted " A loudspeaker for the range 5 to 20 Kc" Audio Eng. 34.1 (Jan.
1950) 3.
166. Beranek, L. L. "Enclosures and amplifiers for direct radiator loudspeakers" Paper presented at
the National Electronics Conference, Chicago, Illinois, Sept. 26, 1950.
167. Plach, D. J. and P. B. Williams" A 3-channel unitary loudspeaker" Radio and T.V. News 44.5
(Nov. 1950) 66. _
,168. Olsen, H. F. and A. R. Morga.1l "A high-quality sound system for the home." Radio and T.V.
News 44.5 (Nov. 1950) 59.
169. Moir, J. "Stereophonic sound" W.W. 57.3 (March 1951) 84.
170. Pipe, D. W. " Sound reinforcing" W.W. 57.3 (March 1951) 117.
171. Peterson, A. P. G. " Intermodulation distortion" G.E. Exp. 25.10 (Mar. 1951) 1.
172. Shorter, D. E. L. " Loudspeaker transient response" B.B.C. Quarterly 1 : 3 (Oct. 1946) 121.
173. Bordoni, P. G. " Asymmetrical vibrations of cones" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 19.1 (Jan. 1947) 146.
174. Powell, T. (letter) " Transients" Audio Eng. 35.9 (Sept. 1951) 12.
1,175. Kinsler, L. E. and A. R. Frey (Book) "Fundamentals of Acoustics" John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
New York; Chapma.Tl & Hall Ltd., London, 1950.
176. "Reference Data for Radio Engineers" Federal Telephone and Radio Corporation, 3rd ed. 1949.
177. Frayne, J. G. and H. Wolfe (Book) "Elements of Sound Recording" John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
New York; Chapman & Hall, London, 1949. .
178. Sabine, H. J. " A review of the absorption coefficient problem" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 22.3 (May
1950) 387.
179. Corrington, M. S. and M. C. Kidd " Amplitude and phase measurements on loudspeaker cones "
Proc. LR.E. 39.9 (Sept. 1951) 1021.
180. Beranek, L. L. "Design of loudspeaker grilles" Newsletter of LR.E. Professional Group on
Audio, yolo 2, No.4, July 1951. Reprinted Radiotronics 17.2 (Feb. 1951).
181. Schneider, A. W. " Sound reinforcing systems" Audio Eng. 34.11 (Nov. 1950) 27.
,"182. Youngtnark, J. A. "Design data for a bass-reflex cabinet" Audio Eng. 35.9 (Sept. 1951) 18.
183. Moir, J. "Developments in England-A discussion of the latest trends in the design of English
loudspeakers for high fidelity applications" FM-TV, 10.7 (July 1950) 26.
184. Williamson, D. T. N. (letter) " More views on loudspeaker damping" W.W. 53.10 (Oct. 1947) 401.
185. Langford-Smith, F. (letter) "Loudspeaker damping" W.W. 53.8 (Aug. 1947) 309; Replies 53.9
(Sept. 1947) 343-4; 53.10 (Oct. 1947) 401-2; also Ref. 186.
186. Voigt, P. G. A. H. (letter) "Loudspeaker damping" W.W. 53.12 (Dec. 1947) 487.
187. Geppert, D. V. " Loudspeaker damping as a function of the plate resistance of the power output
tube" Audio Eng. 34.11 (Nov. 1950) 30.
188. Knowles, H. S. "Loud-speakers and room acoustics" being Chapter 16 of" Radio Engineering
Handbook" edited by K. Henney, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 4th ed., 1950.
189. Canby, E. T. "Record Revue--The RJ speaker" Audio Eng. 35.10 (Oct. 1951) 23.
190. Joseph, W., and F. Robbins" The R-J speaker enclosure" Audio Eng. 35.12 (Dec. -1951) 17.
191. Wentworth, J. P. "Loudspeaker damping by the use of inverse feedback" Audio Eng. 35.12
(Dec. 1951) 21.
192. Yeich, V. " Listening room design" Audio Eng. 35.11 (Nov. 1951) 28.
193. Olson, H. F. "Direct radiator loudspeaker enclosures" Audio Eng. 35.11 (Nov. 1931) 34.
194. Kramer, K. "A three-channel loudspeaker" FM-TV 11.9 (Sept. 1951) 40.
195. Kobrak, H. G. "Auditory perspective--a study of the biological factors related to directioDlI
hearing" J.S.M.P.T.E. 57.4 (Oct. 1951) 328.
196. Beranek, L. L., W. H. Radford, J. A. Kessler and J. B. Wiesner" Speech-reinforcement system
evaluation" Proc. I.R.E. 39.11 (Nov. 1951) 1401.
197. Parkin, P. H., and J. H. Taylor" Speech reinforcement in St. Paul's Cathedral" W.W. 58.2
(Feb. 1952) 54; 58.3 (Mar. 1952) 109.
198. Lowell, H. H. "Motional feedback" Elect. 24.12 (Dec. 1951) 334.
199. Childs, U. J. "Loudspeaker damping with dynamic negative feedback" Audio Eng. 36.2 (Feb.
1952) 11. .
200. Clements, W. " It's positive feedback" Audio Eng. 36.5 (May 1952) 20.
201. Childs, U. J. " Further discussion on positive current feedback" Audio Eng. 36.5 (May 1952) 21.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
CHAPTER 21
880
21.1 (ii) OPTIMUM PLATE RESISTANCE 881
less than the maximum electrical power output, because the signal plate current is
reduced by the high load resistance. This effect is most pronounced with low values
of plate resistance, and with triode valves or negative feedback the loudspeaker
acoustical output may actUally fall at the bass resonant frequency. With pentodes
without feedback the reverse occurs, since a pentode approximates to a constant
current source, and there is a high peak of output at the bass resonant frequency.
A similar effect occurs at the higher frequencies, the highest level of response
occurring with pentodes, an intermediate value with triodes having R L = 2r:ll' and
the lowest with constant voltage at· all frequencies (a condition approached when a
high value of negative feedback is used).
For anyone loudspeaker there is a value of plate resistance which pro-
7
Fortunately, owing to the characteristics of music, the input voltage applied to the
grid of the power amplifier at high frequencies will normally be less than the maximum.
This somewhat reduces the distortion at high frequencies.
Pentodes with negative voltage feedback, when operated well below maximum
power output, are less affected by the loudspeaker impedance variations than pentodes
without feedback. If the feedback is large, the output voltage remains nearly con-
stant irrespective of the loudspeaker. There is an optimum value of amplifier output
resistance to give most nearly uniform response at all frequencies with anyone loud-
speaker.
When operated at maximum power output with the small degree of feedback usual
in radio receivers, the load resistance is critical. Satisfactory operation with low
distortion can only be obtained by reducing the grid input voltage.
With a large amount of feedback, as for a cathode follower, the impedance at 400
cis should be the nominal value for the valve. The increase of impedance at other
frequencies will not then cause distortion. See also Chapter 7 Sect. 5(iv).
T, soon.
611
FIG. 21.1
&+
61FIG. 21.2
8+
Alternatively the parallel loudspeakers may be connected across a 500 ohm (or any
other convenient value) line from the secondary of transformer T3 as in Fig. 21.2.
Here T 3 will have a 500 ohm secondary and will reflect an impedance R L into the
pritna..ry. Tl and T2 will have nominal impedances each 1000 ohms. If there are
N loudspeakers in parallel, each will have a nominal impedance of N x 500 ohms.
21.2 (i) MULTIPLE LOUDSPEAKERS-GENERAL 883
~
__ c· 8(] The most common provision for an extension loud-
speaker is shown in Fig. 21.3 in which the extension
loudspeaker (marked "EXT") is fed through a
-- OJ- blocking condenser connected to the plate of the
I • -
B+y ~ EXT. power valve. It is necessary for the user to arrange
F~.21.3 u~B(]
for flexible leads to be taken from two terminals on
the chassis, across the primary of the stepdown trans-
former, to the permagnetic extension speaker. If
Fig. 21.3. Common form of the extension speaker has the same reflected load
extension loudspeaker. impedance as the transformer of the original speaker,
- the power output will be shared equally between the two, but the impedance of the two
speaker primaries in parallel will be only half what it should be for maximum power
output. If no provision is made to provide correct matching, the arrangement will be
quite practical, except that the power output of both speakers together will be less than
with correct matching.
884 (iii) EXTENSION LOUDSPEAKERS 21.2
An alternative arrangement, which has much to commend it, is the use of an ex-
tension speaker with an impedance of about twice that of the speaker in the set. This
means that the extension speaker will operate at a lower sound level than the one in
the set, but the mis-matching will be less severe and the maximum volume obtain-
able from the set will not be seriously affected.
If negative feedback is used in the receiver, the effect of the connection of the
extelJlal speaker on the volume level of the loudspeaker in the set will not be very
noticeable at low or medium levels, although the same problem arises in regard to
the overload level.
.JJ;J-~ ~~
~II
FIG. 21.4
t ~n8tr1
L.3B~
y~
,FIG. 21.5 ~
Fig. 21.4. Extension loudspeaker with provision/or switching either loudspeaker alone.
Fig. 21.5. Extension loudspeaker connected to the voice coil circuit.
It is possible to modify the previous arrangement by means of switches which can
open-circuit the voice coil of the first speaker and at the same time close a switch in
the primary circuit of the second speaker. This is illustrated in Fig. 21.4 from which
it will be seen that only one speaker will be operating at the one time and there is
therefore no problem with correct matching. With this arrangement, the extension
speaker should have the same impedance as the one in the set and the power input
to both speakers will then be equal. The two switches Sl and S2 could, of course,
be combined into a single wafer switch.
The previous arrangements have all adopted an extension from the primary of the
loud speaker transformer and therefore at a high impedance. There are advantages
to be gained in using the voice-coil circuit for the extension, as illustrated in Fig. 21.5.
This avoids the necessity for a step-down transformer on the extension speaker and
for a blocking condenser. The set manufacturer may fit two terminals on the loud-
speaker housing, connected to the voice coil, as an alternative to Fig. 21.3. To obtain
the same power from both speakers, it is necessary for the voice-coil impedances to be
equal. If it is required to have one speaker operating at a higher level of sound than
the other, the impedance of the second (lower output) speaker should be made higher
than that of the first speaker. In such a case it is possible to obtain correct matching
by calculating the impedance of both voice-coils in parallel and selecting a step-down
tran~former to suit. Very few voice-coils have an impedance less than about 2 ohms,
so that it is possible to use quite ordinary wiring in the connections of the extension
speaker. If the second speaker is to be situated more than say 10 feet from the first
speaker, it may be desirable to use heavy wire, such as power flex (twin plastic is very
convenient). In some cases it may be desired to operate the extension speaker at a
rather lower level than the first speaker, in which case losses in the extension line may
be desirable.
A single-pole double-throw switch may be used to change over from one to the
other voice-coil as shown in Fig. 21.6 (A). Here switch S is used to open-circuit
the first voice-coil and at the same time to close the circuit to the second voice-coil.
The further refinement of a series volume control R is shown in the extension speaker
circuit, so that the volume may be reduced below that of the speaker in the receiver.
The resistance R should have a maximum value about 20 times that of the voice-coil
impedance, but even so this arrangement cannot be used to reduce the volume to zero.
In order to have a complete control over the volume from the extension loudspeaker,
the arrangement of (B) may be used in which R is a potentiometer with the moving
contact taken to the extension speaker.
21.2 (iii) EXTENSION LOUDSPEAKERS 885
The series resistor volume control shown in Fig. 21.6 (A) increases the effective
impedance of the extension loudspeaker circuit at low volumes, but this is not a
serious detriment since the volume will be low and the mis-matching of only minor
importance, particularly if negative feedback is used. The potentiometer method of
volume control in Fig. 21.6 (B) has to be a compromise, and is incapable of giving
satisfactory matching under a wide range of conditions. A reasonable compromise
for the resistance R would be about five times the impedance of the voice-coil, but
this will result in appreciable loss of power even at maximum volume. For perfect
matching, resistance R should be taken into account, but for many purposes the effect
~~~
Fig. 21.6. Extension loud-
speaker circuits incorporating
'Volume control of the extension
~f~ CA) ~
speaker.
may be neglected provided that R is not less than five times the voice-coil impedance.
At low levels this a....rrangement has a high impedance but here again the effect will
not be serious.
Another form of volume control is a tapped secondary winding, with the extension
speaker connected through a rotary switch to a selected tap. Taps may be made
with each one 70% of the turns of'ithe one above it, giving· roughly 3 db steps, or
80% for 2 db steps. This method causes serious mis-matching, and is not advisable
unless there are several main loudspeakers and only one " extension " with volume
control.
The best method of volume control is a L type level control (Fig. 21.11) which
provides constant input resistance and may be continuously variable (see Chapter 18).
All the preceding arrangements are limited to the. use of either of two speakers or
have given a choice between one and both. The ideal arrangement is to permit
the use of one or other or both. This is particularly helpful when the extension
speaker is used in a different room and one may wish to operate the extension speaker
alone. Tuning-in may be done by switching over to both speakers, adjusting the
volume level to suit the extension speaker, and then switching over so that only the
extension is in operation. Then, if at any time the speaker in the receiver is required
to operate, this may be· done simply by moving the switch without causing any inter-
ference to the extension speaker:
~r ~
, operate either or both speakers.
FIG. 21.7
when one speaker only is operating. Only half the full power output is available
when one speaker is operating alone; the full power output is, however, available
when both speakers are operating together (switch position 1). This has the result
that the switching in of the second speaker does not affect the volume level of the
first speaker, the resistor R really being a dummy load to take the power which
would otherwise be supplied to the second speaker. The two switches Sl and S2
may be made from a single wafer wave-change switch.
A preferred arrangement, which does not result in any power loss under any cir-
cumstances, is the use of a tapped secondary winding on the transformer. The full
winding on the secondary is used for one or other loudspeaker, while the tap is used
for both operating together; this involves a more elaborate switching arrangement
but one which may be justified in certain circumstances.
The use of an appreciable amount of negative voltage feedback results in nearly
constant voltage across the load under all conditions, and minimizes changes in
volume level with any form of switching. .
When the loudspeaker is some distance from the transformer secondary, the power
loss in the connecting wiring should not exceed 15%.
Line length for 15% line power loss in low impedance lines:
A.W.G. S.W.G. 2 4 6 8 10 15
14 16 60 ft. 120 ft. 180 ft. 240 ft. 300 ft. 450 ft.
16 18 38 ft. 75 ft. 113 ft. 150 ft. 190 ft. 285 ft.
18 19 23 ft. 47 ft. 70 ft. 95 ft. 118 ft. 177 ft.
20 21 15 ft. 30 ft. 45 ft. 60 ft. 75 ft. 112 ft.
22 23 9 ft. 18 ft. 28 ft. 37 ft. 47 ft. 70 ft.
Reference 20.
Although 500 ohms is a popular value, any lower or higher value may be used pro-
vided that the resistance of the line is not too great, and that the capacitance across
the line does not seriously affect the high frequency response.
A very popular line impedance is 600 ohms.
21.3 LOUDSPEAKER DIVIDER NETWORKS 887
The number of turns may be calculated from the formulae of Chapter 10 Sect.
2(iv)A or alternatively from curves (Ref. 11 for 17 A.W.G. D.C.E.).
Iron cores introduce distortion, and are therefore undesirable. However if iron-
cOred inductors are used, an air gap of 0.008 in. or 0.010 in. should be provided
(Ref. 6 p. 101). Ferrite cores present possibilities for this application.
In the filter type arrangement which is also popular, the two inductors and the
two capacitors have different values, and the nominal attenuation is 12 db per octave
(Fig. 21.8). Taking the design constant m = 0.6, we have
Lo = Ro/(21Tf c) Co = 1/(2Trj eRo)
Ls = Ro/(3.21Tfe) Cs = 0.8/(1TfeR o)
where L is in henrys and C is in farads (Refs. 6, 19).
In all cases the series connection is preferable to the parallel connection. Resistance
in the inductors has a slight effect on the attenuation at the cross-over frequency, wbile
it also introduces insertion loss (0.3 to 1 db). Care should be taken to keep the re-
sistance as low as practicable. The usual position is between a single power amplifier
valve (or two in push-pull or parallel) and the loudspeakers. The insertion loss is
therefore a loss of maximum output power. The divider network may be connected
either on the primary or secondary side of the output transformer, the latter being
more usual- in this case the transformer must be suitable for the total frequency
range of both units.
·SSS LOUDSPEAKER DIVIDER NETWORKS 21.3
If the dividing network is placed on the primary side, each of the two output trans-
formers is only called upon to handle a limited frequency range, and may be of cheaper
construction. One interesting application is Fig. 21.9 (Refs. 9, 16). For a plate-
to-plate load of 5000 ohms and a cross-over frequency of 400 cis the component
values are:
L1 = 2.0 henrys (series aiding); inductance T1 primary = 50 henrys min. ;
Ls = 1.0 henry (with air gap); Ts primary inductance = 2.0 henrys (with air
gap); C1 = 0.16 f-LF: C s = 0.04 f-LF: leakage inductance of T1 not over 1
henry: leakage inductance of Ts not over 0.05 henry.
FIG. 21.9
It has been shown that the arrangement of Fig. 21.9 produces less distortion than
the conventional circuit: this is due to two features. Firstly, the low-pass filter
Lu 2C1 attenuates high frequencies propagating in either direction; as a result
the harmonic components of magnetizing current in T 1 have less effect on the high-
pass channel. Secondly, the low-pass filter attenuates high frequencies on. their way
to T1 so that the transformer is only called upon to handle a limited range of fre-
quencies, thereby reducing the distortion (Ref. 9).
In the case of separate amplifiers for low and high audio frequencies, the divider
network preferably precedes the amplifiers. This permits separate attenuators to
be used for each channel; these may be used for balancing the two units, or for tone
control.
If the high frequency unit is more sensitive than the low frequency one, a simple
form of fixed attenuator may be incorporated (Fig. 21.10). Here
R1 + Ra = Ro and RdRs = (EdE'I) - 1
where Ra = Ra Ro/(Ra + Ro).
For'example, to give (E1IE.) = 2 (i.e. an attenuation of 6 db) :
R1 = !Ro and Ra = Ro.
If it is desired to use this as a variable attenuator to give tone control, it should pre-
ferably be of the constant input impedance type such as the L pad LFig. 21.11, also
see Chapter IS Sect. 3(iii)]. If a simpler type must be used, it may be desiRlled as
for Fig. 21.10 to give the correct input impedance at the normal operating pOsition,
but with a sliding contact. It will then have an incorrect impedance at any other
21.3 LOUDSPEAKER DIVIDER NETWORKS 889
setting; the effect is only slight if the sensitivity of this unit is very much greater than
the other, as happens with hom and direct-radiator assemblies.
If one loudspeaker unit has a lower impedance than the other, an auto-transformer
may be used to provide correct matching. This may not be necessary if an attenuator
is used on one unit.
FIG. 21.11
It is important to check for the phasing of the two loudspeakers; in the vicinity of
the cross-over frequency both units should be in phase (aiding one another). This
may be checked by the use of a single dry cell connected in series with the secondary
of the transformer; in the case of 2 ohm voice coils there may be a 5 ohm limiting
resistor connected in series with the cell.
Ref~rences 1, 2, 6, 9, II, 12, 16, 19.
SECTION 4: REFERENCES
1. Sowerby, J. MeG. "Radio Data Charts lo-loudspeaker dividing networks" W.W. 49.8 (Aug.
1943) 238.
2. Sieder, E. N ... Design of crossover networks for loudspeaker units" Q.S.T. 28.12 (Dec. 1944) 35.
4 ... Matching transformers for loudspeakers" Philips Tee. Com. 78 (Nov.-Dec. 1940) and 79 Gan.-
Feb. 1941).
5. Stanley, A. W ... The output stage-efl'ect of matching on frequency response" W. W. 52.8 (Aug.
1946) 256.
6. Terman, F. E ... Radio Engineers' Handbook" (McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York and
London, First edition 1943) pp. 249-251. .
7. Langford-Smith, F ... The relationship between the power-outout· stalte and the loudspeaker"
A.W.A. Tee. Rev. 4.4 (Feb. 1940) 199. Originally published in Proceedings of World Radio Con-
vention, Sydney, April 1938 (Institution of Radio Engineers, Australia). See also Ref. 7a.
7a. Langford-Smith, F ... The output stage and the loudspeaker" W. W. 44.6 (Feb. 9, 1939) 133 ;
44.7 (Feb. 16, 1939) 167.
8. R.C.A. " Application Note on receiver design--output transformer" (variation of impedance with
current) No. 75 (May 28, 1937).
9. Klipsch, P. W ... Low distortion cross-over network" Elect. 21.11 (Nov. 1948) 98.
10. Langford-Smith, F ... The design of a high fidelity amplifier-(l) The power valve and the loud-
speaker," Radiotronics 124 (March-April 1947) 25. (2)" Negative feedback beam power amplifiers
and the loudspeaker," Radiotronics 125 (May-June 1947) 53.
11. McProud, C. G. " Design and construction of practical dividing networks .. Audio Eng. 31.5 (June
1947) 15.
12. Schuler, E. R ... Design of loudspeaker dividing networks" Elect. 21.2 (Feb. 1948) 124.
13. McProud, C. G ... Two-way speaker system" Pan 3 Audio Eng. 32.2 (Feb. 1948) 21.
14. Angevine, O. L ... Impedance matching" Audio Eng. 31.11 (Dec. 1947) 20.
15. Jonker, J. L. H ... Pentode and tetrode output valves" Philips Tee. Com. 75 Guly 1940) 1.
16. Klipsch, P. W. "Woofer-tweeter crossover network" Elect. 18.11 (Nov. 1945) 144.
18. Amos, S. W. "Feedback and the loudspeaker" W.W. 50.12 (Dec. 1944) 354.
19. Hilliard,. J. K ... Loudspeaker dividing networks" Elect. 14.1 (Jan. 1941) 26.
20. .. Impedance matching and power distribution in loud speaker systems" Technical MO:lograph
No.2, Jensen Radio Mfg. Co.
21. Smith, B. H ... Constant-resistance dividing networks .. Audio Eng. 35.8 (Aug. 1951) 18.
n. White, S. " Design of crossover networ.ts" FM-TV 12.1 (Jan. 1952) 42.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
CHAPTER 22
SECTION 1 : INTRODUCTION
Aerials and transmission lines differ from simple electrical networks in that their
inductance, capacitance and resistance are not lumped but are distributed over dis-
tances such that the time required for electrical energy to travel from one part to
another has to be taken into account. In a single chapter it is, of course, impossible
to attempt to give a theoretical treatment of these devices. What will be done will
be to present some useful formulae, a few physical pictures of the processes which
occur and some results of practical experience with aerials and transmission lines.
(i) Introduction
A transmission line consists of an arrangement of electrical conductors by means
of which electromagnetic energy is conveyed, over distances comparable with the
wavelength of the electromagnetic waves, from one place to another. The theory
of transmission lines provides a link between circuit theory and the field theory of
electromagnetic waves inasmuch as the properties of such lines may be determined
either from the picture of a transmission line as a filter network with an infinite number
of elements, or from the picture of electromagnetic waves guided between (usually)
a pair of conducting surfaces.
Some of the properties of transmission lines will now be given.
890
22.2 THE TRANSMISSION LINE 891
long. The importance of this characteristic impedance lies in the fact that if any
length of line is terminated in an impedance of this value, then all the energy flowing
along the line is absorbed at the termination and none is reflected back along the line.
A result of this is that the input impedance of any length of transmission line terminated
in its characteristic impedance is equal to the characteristic impedance. At radio
frequencies, the characteristic impedance of all normally-used types of transmission
line is almost purely resistive.
The value of the characteristic impedance for a low-loss line is
Zo = v'L/C (I)
where L and C are the distributed inductance and capacitance per unit length of the
line. The velocity of propagation of electromagnetic waves along such a line is
v = I/VLC (2)
With air as the dielectric, v ==0.3 x 108 ntetres per second, which is the velocity of
light* . For other dielectrics
v = 3 X 10 8 /v'K metres per second (3)
where K = dielectric constant.
In cables, with polythene dielectric, for example, K = 2.2 and v is therefore 0.67
of the velocity of light. This means that the wavelength of the waves in the cable
is only 67% of the wavelength in air. .
For a low-loss transmission-line the characteristic impedance may be found if C
and L are determined. Actually it is not necessary to determine both-one is suffici-
ent.
If we combine (1) and (2) we obtain
Zfj = live = vL. ~4)
For a transmission line consisting of a pair of parallel conductors
276 d
Zo = ~ IV 10g1o - ohms (5)
'yK 7
where d is the distance between the centres of the conductors and 7 is the radius of
each conductor.
For a co-axial lii1e
138 71
Zo = . /- 10gio - (6)
vK 72
where 71 is the inside radius of the outer conductor and 72 is the outside radius of the
inner conductor.
(i) Introduction
The function of a receiving aerial is to collect electromagnetic energy which is pass-
ing through the space surrounding the aerial, and to pass this energy into a radio re-
ceiver.
Although this formula applies only when the aerials are situated in free space (or,
as is shown later, when the transmitting and receiving aerials are of the short vertiaiJ.
type, situated close to a flat perfectly conducting earth), the formula is useful iIi illus-
trating a very important fact, whiC1~ is, u'lat in the transfer of power between two
aerials, the number of wave-lengths, rather than the distance, is the signific-
ant parameter. As an illustration of this we may compare the energy available
22.3 AERIALS AND POWER TRANSFER 893
at a receiver when the frequency of the emitted wave is (a) 600 Kc/s and (b) 150 Mc/s.
We assume that the energy radiated in each case is 1000 watts and the distance be-
tween transmitter and receiver is 20 kilometres.
On applying the formula (13) we find that in the medium-frequency case, the power
available at the receiver is 8.8 milliwatts, while in the v-h-f case the power available
is only 0.142 microwatts. .
This means that if both signals are to be amplified to produce, say 1 watt at the de-
tector then the amplification required in the first case is approximately 20 decibels
while in the second, it is nearly 70 decibels.
These figures partly explain why a crystal receiver is very effective for long-wave
reception, whereas a receiver required for v-h-f work usually has a large number of
stages of amplification.
TABLE 1
It will be seen from the table that the effective area for capture of electromagnetic
energy by a short dipole is approximately equal to an area bounded by a circle which is
at a radial distance of ,\/1.67T from the dipole. The physical significance of this is
that such a circle very roughly forms the boundary between the region in which the
local induction field of the aerial predominates and the region in which the radiation
894 (i) EFFECTIVE AREA OF A RECEIVING AERIAL 22.4
field is the major component. Hence we can picture the aerial as capturing the energy
which falls within the region in which the induction field of the aerial is of significant
magnitude.
A broadside array of dipoles with a reflecting curtain can absorb all the energy that
falls on it. Without the reflectors, it absorbs only half the incident energy and radiates
one quarter back towards the transmitter and one quarter in the opposite direction.
A similar effect occurs with a dipole. If it absorbed all the energy available to it
and reradiated none, then its effective area would be double the value given in Table 1.
A reflector is required to achieve this.
(i) Introduction
In the previous section the effect of reflecting surfaces has been disregarded. In
practice, these effects must be taken into account, except in rare cases. The two
"surfaces" to be considered are the earth and the ionosphere. We deal here with
the effect of the earth.
In Fig. 22.1 are shown the effects of the earth on the field pattern of a short vertical
aerial and of a short horizontal dipole. It will be seen that the earth has no effect on
the field pattern of the vertical aerial apart from removing the lower half of the pattern.
With the horizontal aerial, however, there is complete cancellation of the waves in
the horizontal plane and the resultant effect is zero.
The conclusion may be drawn from the diagram that where waves are arriving at
the aerial in directions parallel to the' plane of the earth, then one would expect a
vertical aerial to be very effective while a horizontal aerial would be ineffective. (This
applies to a transmitting as well as to a receiving aerial). It will be seen later that this
conclusion does not fit the facts, in all cases, because the earth is not a perfect con-
ductor. At medium and low radio-frequencies, however, it is in agreement with the
facts--horizontal aerials are of no use in communicating between two points both close
to the earth.
When waves are arriving at the aerial in directions inclined to the horizontal (as,
for example, in the case of short-wave communication via the ionosphere) then either
horizontal or vertical aerials may be used. If the distance between transmitter and
receiver is not great, however, then the waves will be arriving at nearly vertical in-
cidence and the horizontal aerial will be superior, provided that it is placed at a suitable
height above the earth. The height at which the aerial should be placed above the
earth depends on the angle of elevation of the waves which are to be received. The
height is different for horizontal and vertical aerials.
In Fig. 22.1, for an angle of elevation 0, the distance d between the path lengths of
waves to the aerial and to its image should be equal to an even number of half-waves
in the case of a vertical aerial, and an odd number of half-waves in the case of a hori-
zontal aerial. Simple trigonometry shows that this corresponds to a height h given by
h = n>..j(4 sin 0) (20)
where n is an even integer for a vertical aerial and an odd integer for a horizontal aerial.
----
(c) Field Intensity
FIG.22.1
Field Intc~
(D)
Fig. 22.1. Effects of the earth on the field pattern of a short vertical aerial CA) and
of a short horizontal dipole (B). Both (A) and CB) are cross-sectional views, and in (B)
the sign + indicates direction of current into the paper while the sign - indicates the
opposite direction. Polar diagrams of a short vertical aerial and a short horizontal
dipole, both close to earth, are shown in (C) and CD) respectively.
896 (iii) AN IMPERFECTLY-CONDUCTING EARTH 22.5
I-
IIII~
.01
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'" :
I
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2
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i
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3 ~ 5678910 30 40 50 60 708090 100
Diltancc - Mllel FIG. 22.3
Pig. 22.3. Effect of raising the receiving aerial above the earth (1 KW at 45 Mc/s
radiated over earth with conductivity (J = 10-13 e.m.u. and transmitting aerial 30 feet
above the earth). The same curves also apply when the transmitting and receiving
aerials are transposed.
Fig. 22.3 shows the effect of raising the aerial above the earth· for a frequency of
45 Mc/s, and indicates that unless the aerials are close to the earth, horizontal and
vertical polarizations have practically equal effectiveness.
Fig. 22.4 and '22.5 for frequencies of 75 and 150 Mc/s were derived by T. L. Eckers-
ley for vertically polarized waves" but may be used also for horizontally polarized
waves with little error when the aerials are at heights above earth corresponding to
normal practice.
:2 i ~ ~~
~
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8 9 :>
li'-nirMJ Aerial oiMM' Earth • in Feet
0070
FIG. 22 •• B
00
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ro- II1I111
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Is
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i
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.. 567&910 30 40
10
50 60 )108090100
..
Distance -Miles FIG. 22.SA
100
c:
~
.s ...
8 c:
!
I
4 7 8910 20 30 40 o
Hcight of RICcivin9 Acrial abovc Earth ,in Fed
FIG, 22,S a
Fig, 22.5. (A) Attenuation at 150 Mc/s of the radiation from a transmitter (1 KW
radiated O'lJer earth with C1 = 10-13 e.m.u., £ = 5, with receiving aerial at zero height) ;
(B) Multiplyir'.g factor for height of receiving aeT"ial above earth.
22.6 EFFECT OF THE IONOSPHERE 901
(i) Introduction
In the previous sections, the energy ideally available at the receiver terminals has
been calculated. This energy is available, however, only if the receiver is matched
to the aerial, and if there are no resistive losses associated with the aerial or aerial-
earth system.
If the input circuit of a receiver is to be designed to extract the maximum energy
from the radio-waves that are passing the aerial, then a knowledge of the component
parts of the impedance of the aerial. is required.
902 IMPEDANCE OF AN AERIAL-(i) INTRODUCTION 22.7
If we wish to calculate the power that may be extracted from the aerial in the pre-
sence of resistive losses we proceed as follows.
The power P R ideally available at the aerial may be calculated and we can use in-
formation such as that given in Fig. 22.6 to find the radiation resistance R R of the
aerial. By measuring the base resistance and subtracting R R from this we are left
with R L' the equivalent series loss resistance of the aerial-earth system. The equiva-
lent circuit is shown in Fig. 22.7. It may be noted that we have not yet calculated e,
the equivalent e.m.f. induced in the aerial by the radio-v,-ave. This can be done
easily however~ because we know the resistance R R and the power P R th.J!t would be
generated in a load resistance of this value if R L were absent. Across such a load we
would have a voltage of e/2.
22.7 (li) RESISTIVE COMPONENT OF IMPEDANCE 903
a distance of 20 miles from a transmitter? The transmitter has a short aerial (less
than quarter-wave) and radiates 500 watts. The ground between transmitting and
receiving aerials has a conductivity of 7 x 10-14 e.m.u.
(a) Calculation of input impedance
The length of conductor is 80 feet or 24.4 metres, therefore t/ A= 244/300 = 0.0813.
From (28), Xi = - jZo cot 27f1/ A.
We obtain Zo from (29) :
Zi = 138 ;Oglo 1.36 x 105 - 104 = 603 ohms
and 27ft/ A = 29.3°.
Therefore Xi = - j 603 cot 29.3° = - j 1070 ohms.
Next, to obtain RR we use Fig. 22.6. For this aerial the ratio of the horizontal
portion of the aerial to the total length is 0.625. By interpolation between plotted
values we find that R R is approximately 1.0 ohm. The series loss resistance is given
as 20 ohms, hence the total resistance at the base is 21 ohms.
The base impedance of the aerial is then
Zi = 21 - j 1070 ohms.
(b) Calculation of voltage at receiver terminals
From Fig. 22.2 we see that at the given frequency and distance the power flux per
unit area <P is 2.0 X 10- 8 watts/m 2 for a radiated power of 1 KW. Hence <P is
1.0 X 10-8 for 500 watts radiated. The effective area of the aerial is given in Table i
as 3A 2 /167f. Hence the power ideally available is
P R = 1.0 X 10- 8 X 3 X 300 2 /l67f
= 0.535 X 10- 4 watts.
From (25A) we find that the e.m.f. induced in the aerial (referred to the base radia-
tion resistance) is e = 2VP~R = 1.46 X 10- 2 volts or 14.6 millivolts.
+tlO7O ohms
Fig. 22.8. Equivalent circuit of
aerial and t'nput circuit of the
receiver.
FIG. 22.8
The voltage appearing at the aerial terminals will be greater than the induced e.m.f.
because of the highly reactive impedance of the aerial. The equivalent circuit of
the aerial and input circuit of the receiver are shown in Fig. 22.8. We see that the
aerial current is
i = 1.46 x 10- 2 /42 and the voltage at the receiver terminals is approximately
V = i 1070 = 0.373 volt.
(vi) Dipoles
The second type of aerial, the impedance of which we may wish to calculate is the
dipole aerial. Dipole aerials well removed from the earth may be treated in a manner
similar to that of a vertical aerial, because, at least approximately, a vertical aerial
with its image forms a dipole aerial. With the vertical aerial we measure the imped-
ance with respect to the neutral point (earth) of the equivalent dipole, so the impedance
is only half that of the equivalent dipole. Hence in calculating the impedance of a
dipole we can use the results obtained preViously, but multiplied by a factor of two.
Because a dipole aerial (remote from the earth) has no earth loss, it is in general more
efficient than the equivalent vertical aerial with earth return.
The most commonly used variety of dipole aerial is the resonant, or half-wave
variety. When remote from earth it has twice the impedance of a quarter-wave
aerial, i.e. its impedance is resistive and has a magnitude of 73 ohms. When in the
vicinity of the earth, the impedance depends on t.l}e height above e2rth. The v2riation
is shown in Fig. 22.9.
Reflectors are sometimes used with half-wave aerials at very high frequencies.
22.7 (vi) DIPOLES 905
In Fig. 22.10 is shown the effect, on the radiation resistance of a half-wave dipole,
of the spacing between aerial and reflector, when the latter is tuned to provide maxi-
mum forward radiation. (For further information on the effects of reflectors the
reader is referred to Ref. 14).
90
80
70
~ 50
.~
~
,;4
.
.2
.2
"8
0:3
20
10
.5
c
o
.~
III
'8
ct
0'1 0'2 ~3
Spacing in Wovclcngths FIG. 22.10
Fig. 22.10. Radiation resistance of half-wave dipole aerial plotted against spacing
between aerial and reflector (tuned to provide maximum forward radiation).
With a receiver designed to operate with a loop aerial, it is not usual to use a dummy
aerial when testing the receiver. Instead the aerial is left connected to the receiver
and a known e.m.f. is induced in the loop. This is effected by connecting a second
loop to a signal generator, and placing the two loops at a suitable distance from each
other. The e.m.f. induced in the receiving loop can be calculated if, in addition to
the distance, the dimensions of the loops, the number of turns, and the current in
the transmitting loop are known.
(i) Introduction
Only simple types of' aerials, such as are employed in broadca~t reception, will be
described here; no mention will be made of the more complicated aerials used in
point-to-point communication services.
There are three important factors to be considered in the design of an aerial for
reception.
(a) Its effective area for the capture of radio energy and its efficiency should be
sufficiently great to provide a signal that will override the internal noise of the receiver.
(b) It should be placed as far as possible from sources of noise-interference and,
·in particular, it should be situated outside the induction field of such generators.
(c) If the radio signal should arrive at the receiver by two different paths (e.g.
ground-wave and sky-wave) so that distortion of the received signal results, then
the aerial should have sufficient directivity to favour the wanted signal and reject
the unwanted one.
At very-high frequencies, the effective area for capture of radio-energy by an aerial
becomes so small that the first factor is of great importance. In medium-frequency
reception, on the other hand, the second factor is the most important. One reason for
this is that at such wavelengths it is not easy to place the aerial outside the induction
field of noise sources. This may be seen from the following discussion.
At a distance of several wave-lengths from an aerial the power flowing through unit
area falls off as the inverse square of the distance from the aerial. This implies that
the field strength of the signal falls inversely as the distance [see (23)] from the a¢rial.
This field is called the radiation field of the aerial. An aerial has also another' com-
ponent of its field which is the predominating one at points close to the aerial, but
falls off rapidly and becomes negligible compared with the radiation field at a distance
of a few wavelengths from the aerial. This is called the "induction field." At a
distance of approximately one sixth of a wavelength (A/21T) from a short aerial, the
components of the induction and radiation field are equal. At shorter distances the
intensity of the magnetic field of the aerial increases roughly as the inverse square of
the distance from the aerial while the intensity of the electric field increases roughly
as the inverse cube of the distance. It is obviously desirable that a receiving aerial
should be situated outside this zone around a noise source in which the field intensity
increases very rapidly as the distance between receiving aerial ~d the generator is
decreased. This is comparatively easy at very-high frequencies' where one sixth of
a wavelength may be only one or two feet. At medium frequencies, the corresponding
distance is of the order of 50 yards and it may be difficult to place the aerial at such a
distance from sources of electrical interference.
Very small aerials of this type are sometimes used indoors. Such aerials are use..;
ful only when the required signals are of large intensity, because these indoor aerials
do not fulfil any of the three conditions listed above, except when close to broadcast
stations. Besides being inefficient because of their small size, they are also partially
shielded by earthed conductors in the house-wiring. .They are also very liable to
pick up r-fnoise carried along the power mains.
Loop aerials are sometimes used in broadcast receivers. When used indoors
they have the same drawbacks as the indoor capacitance type aerial, except that if
shielded, or balanced with respect to earth, they are less sensitive to inductive inter-
ference from nearby sources of r-f noise. The reason for this is that a balanced or
shielded loop responds to the magnetic component of the field of an aerial, whereas
the capacitance type aerial responds to the electric component. In the radiation
field, these two components are equal.and are mutually dependent. In the im-
mediate vicinity of an aerial they are not equal, and the electric component increases
more rapidly than does the magnetic field as one approaches the aerial. Hence in
the vicinity of a radiation source of r-f noise, a loop aerial will pick up less energy than
will a vertical aerial.
A loop aerial is more sensitive ·to waves arriving at steep angles to the plane of the
earth than is a vertical aerial. Hence it should not be used where interference be-
tween ground and skywaves is experienced. In such conditions a straight vertical
aerial is· normally the best type of aerial that can be used. In special circumstances,
such as occur sometimes in country areas, it is possible to use another type of aerial,
called a wave-antenna, to reduce ground-wave - sky-wave interference.
The wave antenna consists of a horizontal wire several wave lengths long suspended
a few feet from the ground and directed towards the required broadcast station.
It functions because of an effect that has not been mentioned previously, called ~
wave-tilt. This is the production of a radial component of the electromagnetic field, .
when the waves are passing over imperfectly conducting ground. This component
is picked up by the horizontal wire· which, when a wavelength or more long, has
maximum directivity along its axis.
'30'
(a) (c)
(f)
(e)
(d)
FIG. 22. 12
f,........-----~ ------~
FIG. 22 .1211J
22.9 (iv) V-H-F AERIALS 911
(f) Is a modification of (e). The aerial conductors are made in the form of a conical
cage to increase the frequency-range over which the aerial is effective. In this aerial
another method of providing the transformation from the unbalanced transmission
line to the balanced dipole is shown. It consists of splitting the outer conductor of
the co-axial line into halves, for a distance of one quarter-wave. At the top of this
" split" the halves of the dipole are connected directly to the outer conductor, while
the inner conductor of the transmission line is connected to one of them.
One of the most easily constructed aerials is the folded half-wave dipole, which is
shown in Fig. 22.12 (g). Whilst the radiation characteristic is the same as that of a
conventional half-wave dipole, the folding produces an impedance transformation.
When the conductors are of the same diameter throughout, the input impedance of
the aerial is approximately 300 ohms. This enables the aerial to be matched directly
to a 300 ohms moulded transmission line, which is commercially available. The
spacing between the parallel conductors is not critical but, as in the case of a trans-
mission line, it must be very small compared with a wavelength.
SECTION 10 : REFERENCES
1. Southworth, "Certain factors effectiI:J.g the gain of directive antennas" Proc. I.R.E. 18.9 (Sept.
1930) 1502.
2. Burgess, R. E. "Aerial characteristics-relation between transmission and reception," W.E. 21.247
(April 1944) 154.
3. Schelkunoff, S. A. "Theory of antennas of arbitrary shape and size" Proc. I.R.E. 29 (1941) 493.
4. Pistolkors, A. " The radiation resistance of beam antennas" Proc. I.R.E. 17 (1929) 562.
5. Colebrook, F. M. "An experimental and analytical investiption of earthed receiving aerials"
Jour. I.E.E. 71 (1932) 235.
6. Sturley. K. R. "Receiver aerial coupling circuits" W.E. 18.211 (April 1941) 137.
7. Burgess. R. E. "Receiver input circuits-design considerations for optimum signal/noise ratio"
W.E. 20.233 (Feb. 1943) 66.
8. Wells, N. "Shortwave dipole aerials" W.E. 20.236 (May 1943) 219. also letter I. S. McPetrie
20.237 Gune 1943) 303.
9. Stewart, H. E. "Notes on transmission lines-use of general equations in determining line pro-
perties" Q.S.T. (August 1943) 25.
10. Laport. E. A. "Open wire radio frequency transmission lines" Proc. I.R.E. 31.6 Gune 1943) 271.
11. Wheeler. H. A., and V. E. Whitman, "Design of doublet antenna systems" Proc. I.R.E. 24.10
(Oct. 1936) 1257.
12. Carlson, W. L., and V. D. Landon. "New antenna kit design" R.C.A. Rev. 2.1 Guly 1937)60.
13; Carter, P. S. "Circuit relations in radiating systems" Proc. I.R.E. 20.6 Gune 1932) 1004.
14. Brown, G. H. cc Directional antennas" Proc. I.R.E. 25.1 Gan. 1937) 78.
15. Data Sheet 53" Aerial characteristics II-radiation resistance and polar characteristics" Electronic
Eng. 15.188 (Oct. 1943) 197. .
16. King, R. "Coupled antennas and transmission lines" Proc. I.R.E. 31.11 (Nov. 1943) 626.
17. King, R., and C. W. Harrison" The receiving antenna," Proc. I.R.E. 32.1 Gan. 1944) 18.
18. Burgess, R. E. "Reactance and effective height of screened loop aerials" W.E. 21.248 (May 1944)
210. .
19. Burgess, R. E. "The screened loop aerial" W.E. 16.193 (Oct. 1919) 492.
20. Colebrook, F. M. "The application of transmission line theory to closed aerials" Jour. I.E.E. 83
(1938) 403.
21. Burgess, R. E. "Aerial characteristics" W.E. 21 (1944) 154.
22. Kronenberg, M. H. " A multiple antenna coupling system-a method of operating several receivers
on a single antenna" Q.S.T. (Aug. 1944) 9. .
23. "Loops and small doublet antennas for F.M. receivers" A.R.T.S. and P. Bulletin No. 136 (9th
Oct. 1944).
24. Carter, P. S. " Simple television antennas" R.C.A. Rev. 4.2 (Oct. 1939) 168.
25. Sherman, J. B. "Circular loop antennas at u-h-f's," Proc. I.R.E. 32.9 (Sept. 1944) 534.
26. Kendell, E. M. "Receiver loop antenna desi¥p- factors" Comm. 25.11 (Nov. 1945) 62.
Zl. Moody, W. "F-M antennas" Service 14.1 Uan. 1945) 24.
28. Burgess, R. E. "Aerial-ta-line coup1ings-cathode follower and constant-resistance network"
W.E. 23.275 (Aug. 1946) 217.
29. Vladimir, L. O. " Low impedance loop antenna for broadcast receivers" Elect. 19.6 (Sept. 1946)
100.
30. Sturley, K. R. (book) "Radio Receiver Design" Part 1 Chapter 3 (Cliapman and Hall, London
194l).
31. "The A.R.R.L. Antenna Book" (American Radio Relay League, 1949).
32. McPherson, W. L. "Electrical properties of aerials for medium and long-wave broadcasting"
Elect. Comm. 17.1 Guly 1938) 44. ,
33. Bruce, E. "Developments in s.w. directive antennas" Proc. I.R.E. 19.8 (Aug. 1931) 1406.
34. "Capacity aerials for mains receivers" Philips Tec. Com. 3 (March 1947), 24, based on C.A.L.M.
Repon No. 38.
35. Design Data (11) "Aerial coupling in wide-band amplifiers" W.W. 53.2 (Feb. 1947) 50.
36. Browder, J. E .• and V. J. Young" Design values for loop antenna input circuits" Proc. I.R.E.35.5
(May 1947) 519.
37. Kobilsky. M. J. "A note on coupling trilIlSformers for loop antennas" Proc. I.R.E. 35.9 (Sept..
1947) 969.
38. Scroggie, M. G. " Is a big aerial worth while?" W.W. 53.9 (Sept. 1947) 314.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
CHAPTER 23
RADIO FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS
By B. SANDEL, A.S.T.C.
Section Page
1. Introduction 912
2. Aerial stages 915
3. R-F amplifiers 922
4. Image rejection 925
5. Effects of valve input admittance 927
6. Valve and circuit noise 935
7. Instability in r-f amplifiers 942
8. Distortion ... 944
9. Bibliography 945
SECTION 1 : INTRODUCTION
(i) Aerial coupling (ii) Tuning methods (iii) R-F amplifiers (if)) Design con-
siderations.
912
23.1 (i) AERIAL COUPLING 913
and the inductance of the metal parts making up the capacitor. With the ganged
capacitor arrangement considerable trouble is experienced due to coupling from one
circuit to another, because it is not an easy matter to earth the shaft effectively be-
tween sections. The earthing wipers or leads have appreciable reactance and resist-
ance at v-h-f and these factors are no longer negligible in comparison with the tuned
circuit impedances. Insulated rotors and stators are of considerable assistance in
overcoming difficulties due to common shaft coupling.
additional gain is required. Further, a number of tuned r-f stages using ganged
capacitors presents a rather difficult tracking problem, as well as giving rise to the
increased possibility of unstable operation. Normally, only the transformer secondary
is tuned and the overall selectivity characteristic is not as good as can be obtained with
fixed-tuned i-f transformers. The gain and selectivity of the tuned r-f amplifier
varies with the signal frequency, and a fixed intermediate frequency will allow more
constant gain and higher gain per stage, for a given range of signal frequencies. The
higher gain per stage is due to the higher dynamic impedance of the i:f transformer
when the intermediate frequency is lower than the signal frequency. Even for an
intermediate frequency higher than the signal frequency, larger stage gains are pos-
sible because of the better L / C ratio which can generally be obtained.
Even in cases where signal-to-noise ratio and r-f selectivity are not a problem, it is
still sometimes advantageous to include a r-f stage. The r-f stage is used as a buffer
to prevent the radiation of undesired signals from the receiver. A typical case of
radiation occurs with a v.h.f. F-M receiver operated in conjunction with an efficient
aerial system. If no r-f stage is used, radiation can occur at the oscillator frequency
due to voltages at this frequency appearing at the input circuit of the frequency changer.
This is serious because it opens up the possibility of interference between radio
receivers which are operating in close proximity to one another.
It is not proposed, in this chapter, to deal in any great detail with grounded grid
and other special types of r-f voltage amplifiers, as these are rather specialized applica-
tions which are not normally used in the design of narrow-band receivers covering
limited bands of frequencies in the range from say 50 Kc/s to 150 Mc/s. However,
at frequencies in excess of about 50 Mc/s, input stages using a grounded-grid triode
are generally capable of giving better signal-to-noise ratios than circuits using the
conventional grounded-cathode pentode voltage amplifier, but only at the expense
of r-f selectivity. At the lower frequencies the input resistance of the pentode is
much higher than that of the grounded grid triode, and so improved gain in the aerial
coupling circuit can be used to offset the deterioration in signal-to-noise ratio due to
valve noise. Clearly a better input circuit is possible using a pentode having a lower
equivalent noise than with a pentode having the same input resistance but higher
equivalent noise, and valve types should be selected with this in mind.
In cases where a wide range of frequencies has to be covered, and where the pass
band of the receiver must be very wide (e.g. in television or multi-channe1 F-M link
receivers), the grounded-grid triode offers considerable improvement in signal-to-
noise ratio even at frequencies well below 100 Mc/s. Other applications occur in
circuits where neutralization cannot be obtained by normal methods or where the
circuit requirements are such that the grid must be earthed.
A special circuit (Cascode) which is of interest (see Ref. AI0 Chapter 13) uses a
grounded-cathode triode voltage amplifier, which is neutralized, followed by a
grounded-grid triode. This circuit has high input resistance and low equivalent
noise. It offers appreciable improvement in signal-to-noise ratio over the other two
types of circuits, particularly at frequencies in excess of about 70 Mc/s. The com-
bined circuit can be considered as equivalent to a single grounded-cathode triode
having zero plate-grid capacitance, and a mutual conductance and noise resistance
equal to that of the first triode valve (the valves used can be types 6J4 or 6J6 etc.).
Triode circuits of the types mentioned should not be used blindly, particularly
at the lower frequencies, because the plate resistances of triodes are extremely low
when compared with those of pentodes, and so the r-f stage gain may be insufficient,
because the damping of the tuned circuits will be heavy, and also the r-f stage gain
may be insufficient to make the effects of converter noise negligible. Detailed in-
formation on grounded-grid and triode r-f amplifiers can be found in Refs. B8, B18,
AI0 and A4.
ponents (including valves) and because the circuit layout is increasingly iniportant
if satisfactory results are to be obtained. Electron transit time effects in valves be-
come of greater importance as the frequency is raised because of the changes which
occur in the valve input and output admittances·, The valve input admittance must
be considered when designing an aerial or r-f circuit as it will affect the dynamicim-
pedance of the circuit, and consequently the selectivity and gain. Valve sockets
and other components will add further damping to the input circuits. The effects
of valve noise will also be governed by the dynamic impedances of the input circuits
and so the various valve effects must be considered in conjunction with the external
circuits. This becoQles of greater impOrtance as the frequency increases.
A design difficulty with aerial and r-f stages is in obtaining satisfactory perform-
ance over a large tuning range. The three to one frequency coverage normally em-
ployed on dual wave receivers for the medium (540-1600 Kc/s) and shortwave
(e.g. 6-18 Mc/s) bands presents some problems in regard to tracking, and constancy
of gain and selectivity. The L/e ratios obtainable with a variable capacitor giving
an incremental capacitance range of at least 9 : 1 are satisfactory on the medium wave
range but are rather poor on the shortwave band. For these reasons it is common
practice to limit the coverage on shortwave bands, in the better class of receiver, to
enable improved all round performance to be obtained; a frequency ratio of about
1.3: 1 is usual in the region of 10 to 20 Mc/s, with larger ratios at the lower frequen-
cies. An obvious advantage of multi-band receivers is the greatly improved ease of
tuning, apart altogether from other considerations of better performance.
To obtain the reduced frequency coverage witli variable ganged capacitors having
a capacitance range of about 10-400 p.p.F, various arrangements of series and parallel
fixed capacitors are used. If the circuits are arranged to use a combination of series
and pai'allel capacitors for bandspreading, it is possible to make the tuning follow
practically any desired law. Further, if the tuning range is small, the oscillator fre-
quency in a superheterodyne receiver can be above or below the signal frequency
and three point tracking can still be obtained using series padders in both the signal
and oscillator circuits. These matters will receive further consideration in Chapter 25
Sect. 3 on superheterodyne tracking.
Methods for measuring the value 'of k, the coefficient of coupling, are given in
Chapter 26 Sect. 4(ii)E and (iii)B, C. Methods for measuring the primary resonant
frequency of an aerial or r-f transformer are covered in Chapter 37 Sect. 4(ii).
where Z J
Z~
M
23.2 (iii) MUTUAL INDUCTANCE COUPLING 917
Z Al = Z A Zl = R Al + + jX Al
and IZAII =yR AI 2 XAI2. +
It should be noted that the condition for secondary circuit resonance (partial resonance
" S ") is that
w 2M2X A1
X2 = (3)
, Al 12
IZ
and the " reflected " resistance and reactance in the secondary are given respectively by
w 2M2RAl
(4)
IZ A 11 2
-w 2M2X A1
and --:-=-----:-:--=-
2 (5)
IZ A11
If the mutual inductance M is also made variable, the maximum value of secondary
current (and of E21El when the primary circuit Q is low) is obtained when
M IZA I1JR 2 .
(6)
W _ RAI
1
(7a)
(7b)
the reflected reactance may not be very large. It is often sufficient to calculate selec-
tivity at, say, the mid-frequency of the tuning range, although it should be noted that
selectivity is a function of frequency and dependent on the circuit operating conditions.
It is now worth while considering three special cases for the aerial coupling trans-
former:
(1) Where the aerial can be represented by a capacitive reactance in series with a
resistance.
(2) Where the aerial behaves like an inductive reactance in series with a resistance.
(3) Where the aerial is coupled to a transmission line which" looks" like a pure
resistance at the aerial terminals; or the aerial itself, coupled to the receiver, looks like
a pure resistance.
Any aerial can be made to appear resistive if the reactance components are tuned
out by a suitable arrangement of the aerial coupling network; this is a common pro-
cedure with fixed frequency installations.
In case (1) it is usual to make the primary circuit resonate below the lowest tuning
frequency, since this offers a good compromise with regard to constancy of gain,
tracking, etc. This arrangement is also advantageous because the effect of. the aerial
is merely to move the primary resonant frequency still further away from the tuning
range, thereby miniD:rizing the effect of the aerial on the secondary without losing too
much gain. In general the high impedance primary winding is resonated at 0.6 to
0.8 of the lowest tuning frequency, either with the aerial capacitance alone, or with
an added capacitor. In either case the resonant frequency must not be close to the
intermediate frequency in a superheterodyne receiver, and normally a broadcast band
primary is resonated at a lower frequency than the i-f so that no aerial which is likely
to be used win resonate the aerial primary at the intermediate frequency.
Since the gain obtained from an aerial transformer with its primary resonant out-
side the low frequency _d of the tuning range decreases towards the high frequency
end of the range, a small capacitance is often added across the top of the transformer.
This capacitance increases the gain at higher frequencies and allows a substantially
flat gain and noise characteristic to be obtained from the transformer over the desired
range. This type of aerial transformer is fairly representative of those likely to be
encountered on the medium and long wavebands. Practical values for the coefficient
of coupling between primary and secondary are a compromise between various factors
such as gain, tracking error and signal-to-noise ratios; usual values are from 0.15 to
0.3, with most aerial coils using values of about 0.2 (this should include any added top
capacitance coupling). The value for primary Q is of the order of 50, and the second-
ary Q is about 90 to 130 in typical aerial coils using the range of coupling coefficients
stated, although Q values greater than 200 can readily be obtained by using special
iron cores. Values of secondary Q above 100 generally call for smaller values of k
than 0.2 if good tracking is to be achieved.
If for some particular reason it is necessary to use a higher coefficient of coupling
than say 0.4, then the primary inductance should be small and arranged to resonate
with the aerial at about Vf"of the highest signal frequency. This improves the
signal-to-noise ratio but may give rise to tracking difficulties.
Case (2) normally applies with untuned loop aerials but the condition can occur
with some types of aerials on the shortwave bands. In this case it is usual to make
the coefficient of coupling fairly high, of the order of 0.5 or more, and a useful rule is
to make the value of primary inductance approximately equal to 0.4 of the loop (or
aerial) inductance (see Refs. B17 and A2, p. 44).
For use with domestic type receivers operating on the short wave band, the standard
dummy antenna is taken as being 400 ohms resistive, even though the aerial reactance
will not be zero across the tuning range, as this gives an indication of average operating
conditions. The aerial couplirig transformer for this type of receiver can be designed
using the procedure given in Case (3) below.
Tbe untuned loop antenna (which should be balanced to grolLl1d for best results)
finds appli~tion with portable receivers, and in some cases with ordinary A-M broad-
cast receivers. Loops have also been used in F-M receivers operating on the 40-50
23.2 (iii) MUTUAL INDUCTANCE COUPLING 919
Mcls band, but not in receivers for the 88-108 Mc/s band because of the ease with
which a half-wave dipole can be arranged inside the receiver cabinet. With loops it
is necessary to keep stray capacitances to a minimum so as to avoid resonance effects
within or close to the band of frequencies to be received; this also assists in achieving
good tracking because a loop that behaves like a small fixed inductance can be com-
pensated for quite readily in the aerial coil secondary. .
The number of turns used in untuned loop aerials is not very critical, since a loss
in effective height by using fewer turns can be offset by the increased voltage step-up
possible with the coupling transformer. To keep stray capacitances low the fewer
turns used the better. The best compromise for receivers operating on the medium
or short-wave bands is a single turn loop, or perhaps a few turns (say not more than
four) of wire wrapped around the carrying case for medium wave portable receivers
(this wire can be litz or copper braid, and even rubber covered hook-up wire is often
satisfactory). The best type of single turn loop is one made out of copper tubing (or
any other good conductor such as aluminium or one of its alloys) with the tube dia-
meter not less than about 0.25 in. and preferably considerably larger than this; the
loop area should always be as large as possible. If the loop is to be used on the long-
wave band it is preferable to use a few turns (about ten) of litz wire rather than a single
turn loop. This is necessary because of the drop in Q which occurs with the single
turn loop at the lower frequencies. However, satisfactory results have been achieved
with a 0.25 in. diameter copper tube loop at a frequency of 500 Kc/s.
In many cases a two winding transformer is not used and the loop is made part
of the tuned circuit (being in series with the main tuning inductance and earthed at
one side). An alternative arrangement is to tap the loop across part of the main tuning
inductance; this can be made to give very satisfactory resuits.
Because the inductance of loops (of the type being considered) is usually very small,
it is often difficult to measure the Q at the working frequencies. This difficulty
arises with standard types of Q meters because the maximum capacitance is limited
to about 400 fLfLF. A useful method (suggested by J. B. Rudd) is as follows:
Couple the loop fairly tightly to an inductance which is sufficiently large to be tuned
to the working frequency. Measure the Q of the inductance with the loop open cir-
cuited (call this Ql) and then the Q (call this Q') with the loop short circuited at its
terminals. The Q of the loop (QL) is given by
, yQiQ'
QL = Ql(1 - y) - Q'
where Ql = magnification factor for the primary inductance with the loop open
circuited.
Q' = magnification factor for the prim3ry inductance with the loop terminals
short circuited.
y = 1 - (L' ILl)
L' = inductance of primary with loop short circuited.
and Ll = inductance of primary with loop open circuited.
See (vi) below for some discussion of directly tuned loops.
Case (3) permits of a fairly simple solution. Normally k is about 0.2 or less, and
the primary winding reactance (at the geometrical mean frequency of the tuning range)
is made equal to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line or aerial. A
particularly simple solution has been made by Rudd (Ref. B12) to give conditions
for two point matching in the tuning range. The procedure is as follows :
Geometrical mean angular frequency = (t/o =V (t/l (t/2 where (t/l and (t/2 are the
lower and upper angular frequency band limits. The primary inductance = Ll
Zol (t/o where Zo is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line.
The required coefficient of coupling is then determined from
and Q. secondary circuit Q in the absence of the primary. The value for Q.
should include the effect of valve loading, and so
QR
Q. = QWoL2 + R (9)
where Q is for the unloaded secondary
and R is the valve input resistance.
A useful approximate formula for estimating the aerial coil gain under this condition
is
~ = ~JQ.WL2 . (10)
El 2 Zo
This expression gives the maximum possible value of gain and corresponds to eqn. (7a)
given previously.
Although elaborate methods are available for calculating optimum signal-to-noise
ratios etc., the details above should give a fairly close approximation to the required
practical conditions where the aerial coupling circuit is a compromise between the
various conflicting factors discussed previously. These factors of gain, selectivity
etc. should be carefully considered as in nearly every case the performance of a re-
ceiver is largely govemed by the aerial coupling circuit.
~ =JQ,WL 2
(11)
nl Zo
where n: total number of turns
nl number of turns across which aerial is connected
W 21T X operating frequency
Q. magnification factor for complete circuit
and Z0 impedance of the aerial (or the characteristic impedance of a trans-
mission line).
The gain is found from equation (10),
E2 1 /Q.wL 2
E; = 2tV ---z;-
The selectivity is calculated using the same methods as before, from the equivalent
circuit. Whether this equivalent circuit takes the form of a series or parallel tuned
circuit is usually not important, as the results obtained are substantially the same,
and provided the circuit Q exceeds about 10 the Universal Selectivity Curves can be
applied directly in either case.
It should be noted that the treatment is only approximate, as the exact tapping point
is dependent on the coupling between the two sections of the aerial coil winding.
However, for a wide variation in coupling, the correct tapping point is not very differ-
ent from that obtained by the above procedure, which assumes unity coupling, and
the loss in secondary voltage as compared with optimum coupling is quite sm~.
(iv) TAPPED INDUCTANCE 921
Valve input loading is usually a problem at v-h-f and a procedure to minim.iU this
effect is to tap down across L 2 • This will allow a higher value of dynamic impedance
for the tuned circuit with improved selectivity, and under some conditions the in-
crease in impedance can more than offset the loss in voltage gain caused by tapping
down.
FIG. 23.4
This shows a common disadvantage with the circuit of Fig. 23.3 in that the variation
in gain across the tuning range is quite appreciable. The treatment is quite straight-
forward and is left to the reader; a fairly complete analysis is given in the references.
(vi) General summary
From the considerations detailed above, it can be seen that the coupled circuit
arrangement of Fig. 23.2 is generally most satisfactory .since it readily lends itself,
with minor modifications, to applications using balanced or unbalanced aerial systems.
Under some conditions of receiver operation other methods are used because of the
practical consideration of ease of adjustment for best operation, or for use· with a
particular type of aerial system.
Fixed tuned aerial stages are sometimes used with receivers covering a limited range
of frequencies. A typical case would be in the range of 88-108 Mc/s where the loaded
Q of the aerial coil may be less than 20. In such a case a simple arrangement is for
the secondary to be resonated near the centte frequency in the band; this introduces
gain variations of about 2 : 1 across the tuning range. The gain variations can be
offset by resonating the secondary at a point in the band such that the gain variations
offset those ~ ·r-f or mixer stages. The overall gain variations for the band under
consideration can be limited to less than 1.5 : 1 with a superheterodyne receiver using
a tuned r-f stage, and as the loss in gain and signal-to-noise ratio is not very serious,
the saving in the cost of a gang section is often well worth while when weighted against
the other factors. If the aerial circuit loaded Q is above about 20, this method is not
recommended because of the deterioration in circuit performance. In some cases it is
preferable to tune the aerial circuit and use an untuned r-f stage (when this is prac-
ticable).
One type of coupling circuit which has not been mentioned previously is the directly
tuned loop. In this case the loop provides the tuned circuit inductance as well as the
direct signal pick-up. As for any other loop, the area and the Q should be as large as
possible. This loop will probably be used, in most cases, with portable receivers.
If the loop can be placed in such a position that its Q is not materially affected by the
presence of the receiver and batteries, then its performance will usually be superior
to that of the single turn loop (an improvement of about 6 db can be expected). How-
. ever,_ this ammgement is seldom convenient and in many cases better results are
possible with the single tum loop (or one with a few turns as discussed previously)
because any effect on its Q can be offset to a large extent by the use of an aerial coupling
tl'8DIformer having a high Q winding in the tuned circuit. The improvement can
be seen most readily by considering a low Q loop, having a small inductance, connected
directly in series with an aerial coil which has a high Q and whose inductance is
practically the whole of the tuned circuit inductance.
In some cases it is required to use an additional external aerial with the loop to
increase sigDal pick-up. There are many possible arrangements but amongst the
simplest is the use of a small capacitance (say 10 to 20 p.p.F) connected between the
922 (vi) GENERAL SUMMARY 23.2
external aerial and the top of the tuned circuit (i.e. to the grid connection) or alter-
natively a tap on the aerial coil secondary a few turns up from the earthy end. For
a directly tuned loop the aerial is tapped into the loop in the same way as for the other
coil arrangement; alternatively the series capacitor arrangement is satisfactory. The
main disadvantage of both these simple arrangements is the large change in gain which
occurs across the tuning range, but for medium-wave commercial portable receivers
additional circuit complications are seldom justified.
The subject of aerial-to-receiver coupling is a large one and only a few of the more
important design factors have been considered. For more complete information
on particular systems it is necessary to consult the text books and references.
{
ance type it is made to resonate at approxi-
mately 1.2 to 1.5 times the highest tuning
frequency. Under this condition the load
presented to the valve is inductive and
thus will give rise to regeneration by intro-
nll{';nu l:t neeative resistance comnonent
~A.V.C. t
8-t ~h.;;-~o ~p~~itance into the r-f valv~ input
FlG.2~·!> TRANSFORMER COUPLED R-F STAGE.
circuit.
23.3 (ii) MUTUAL-INDUCTANCE-COUPLED STAGE 923
If the winding is of the high impedance type, then it is usual to resonate the primary
at approximately 0.6 to 0.8 of the lowest tuning frequency, but the resonant frequency
should not be close to the -intermediate frequency in superheterodyne receivers.
Under this condition the valve has a capacitive load which causes degeneration by
introducing a positive resistance component plus a capacitance into the r-f valve input
circuit due to the " Miller Effect." It is not usual to resonate the primary winding
within the tuning range because of the very large changes in gain and selectivity which
would be introduced. In addition, the problem of tracking the various tuned circuits
becomes almost hopeless.
When the aerial coil primary is of the low impedance type it is usual, although not
essential, for the' r-f stage to be of this type also and vice-versa.' This simplifies
tracking problems.
The methods to be used for calculating the gain and selectivity of this arrangement
are set out in detail in Chapter 9 Sect. 6(ii) under the heading" Coupled Circuits-
Tuned Secondary." For the usual practical arrangement the stage gain is given
approximately by g mQ2 wM,
where g m mutual conductance of r-f amplifier valve;
w = 21T X operating frequency, .
M = kVL 1L 2 = mutuat' inductan~,
and Q2 = secondary circuit Q including effect of valve input resistance, but not
" reflected" resistance from the primary.
The selectivity can also be calculated, approximately, by the method suggested for
aerial coils.
When designing a stage of this type it is necessary, as in the case of the aerial coil,
to a..rrive at a compro!!'...ise between gain, selectivirj and tracking errors. This usually
leads to a value for the coefficient of coupling of approximately 0.15 to 0.3, with the
lower values preferred for good tracking between aerial, r-f, and, in the case of the
superhet., the oscillator stage.
As with aerial coils, the primary Q is about 50 (or perhaps less) and the secondary
Q from say 90 to 130 in typical coils. using this range of k values. Higher Q generally
calls for the lower values of k.
In the case of receivers working at say 50-400 Kc/s it is often inconvenient to re-
sonate the primary winding in the manner suggested. Under these circumstances
it is sometimes necessary to damp the primary winding heavily so that no pronounced
resonance occurs. It is then permissible to resonate the winding within the tuning
range. This procedure can lead to a severe loss in gain but is sometimes justified
under practical conditions where the loss of gain is outweighed. by other factors.
The addition of top capacitance coupling, i.e. a small capacitance from the plate
connection to the grid connection of the following stage, is often employed to equalize
gain variations across the tuning range. The value of the capacitance is usually of
the order of a few micro-micro-farads and the exact value is best determined experi-
mentally. It should be noted that the presence of this capacitance will alter the co-
efficient of coupling, stage gain, selectivity and the primary resonant frequency, as
well as circuit tracking~ There is always some capacitance coupling present with any
practical transformer and this largely determines the relative physical arrangement of
the primary and' secondary windings, which are connected (in nearly all practical
cases) so that the capacitance coupling adds to the mutual inductance coupling.
(iii) Parallel tuned circuit
A simple parallel tuned circuit is sometimes used in the r-f stage, and can be made
to give higher gains than the transformer coupled arrangement. The difficulties
encountered are that
(1) large gain variations occur across a band of frequencies
(2) the skirt seleCtivity is rather poor
(3) tracking with conventional aerial circuits is difficult
(4) the tuning capacitor has to be isolated from B +.
For these and other reasons this circuit is not in common use in broadcast receivers,
but it might be incorporated in a receiver working at high frequencies covering a
924 (iii) PARALLEL TUNED CIRCUIT 23.3
restricted tuning range with some possible advantage. The gain of the stage is given
by gmQellwL
where gm mutual conductance of r-f amplifier valve,
Qell = Q of r-f coil when loaded by plate resistance of r-f amplifier and input
resistance of following stage,
w = 211' x frequency,
and L = inductance of tuned circuit.
Selectivity is calculated as for any other single tuned stage, using the methods of
Chapter 9 or Chapter 26, Sect. 4(iv)A.
Voltage gain =
rp
+RLR · (p.
.L .
+ 1)
·
R eslstance I ding
oa
. ..
across Input CIrCUIt ~
rp
P. ++ IRL
(loading across output circuit ~ r p).
For p. >-I the optimum load impedance is given by
RL = rpyl + R,g".
. J----R=I--~--~R~I--
NOise factor =N = 2 + RoAI2 + RoAl llAs2
where R L = load impedance connected between plate and B +
r f! = valve plate resistance
p. = valve amplification factor
g m = valve mutual conductance
R. = valve input resistance· at working frequency
RI = equivalent noise resistance of first valve
RI = equivalent noise resistance of second valve
Ro = generator impedance e.g. aerial resistance
Al = voltage gain of input circuit
and AI = voltage gain of first stage, excluding· the voltage gain of the input
circuit.
It should be noted that it is always advisable to operate the heater and cathode of
the valve at the same r-f potential. This is readily achieved by using suitable chokes
in the heater leads. For more detailed information on grounded-grid amplifiers
sec References BB, BIB, AIO and A4.
When one of these frequencies is the desired one (it may be either the lower or the
higher), the other is referred to as its image frequency. Clearly the desired and un-
desired signal frequencies are separated by twice the intermediate frequency. Putting
this statement in symbolic form :
Jimal1e = JOBC + Ji-t when Joac > Jail1
Jimage = JOBC - Ji-t when JOBC < J8ig
where JSig = desired signal frequency.
As an example: On the 540-1600 Kc/s A-M broadcast band the oscillator fre-
quency is normally above the signal frequency. If the reasons for this are not obvious,
consideration of the oscillator tuning range and the values of variable capacitance
required will make it so. The usual i-f is 455 Kc/s and if a signal frequency of 1000
Kc / s is taken,
then Jimag e = (1000 + 455) + 455 = 1910 Kc/s.
Since the converter cannot discriminate between the two signals of 1000 Kc/s and 1910
Kc/s, it is necessary for the aerial circuit, and r-f circuit if this is used, to make the
magnitude of the 1000 Kc/s voltage much greater than the magnitude of the 19'10
Kc/s voltage. Otherwise severe interference can result when signals are being trans-
mitted at both these frequencies.
When making calculations for image rejection the worst conditions are usually
found at the high frequency end of the tuning range, provided that the selectivity of
the tuned circuits does not vary appreciably with change in frequency. This is
because the separation between the two frequencies is a smaller proportion of the fre-
quency to which the receiver is tuned. It should also be clear that higher values
of i-f will materially assist in reducing image effects because of the wider frequency"
separation between the desired and undesired signals; it is for this reason that some
v-h-f receivers use intermediate frequencies of the order of 10.7 Mc/s.
where
Jl Q
+ Q2( 1_l!)2
=
fo f
wL ell / R etl (i.e. loaded value for secondary circuit),
L otl ~ L 2, the secondary circuit inductance,
R ell = total secondary circuit series resistance including that due to re-
flection from primary circuit and valve input resistance (Valve input
admittance is discussed in detail in Chapter 2 Sect. 8, and further
comments are given in Sect. 5 of this chapter),
f = image frequency when oscillator frequency is higher than signal
frequency,
and fo = signal frequency under oscillator conditions as for f.
If the oscillator is lower in frequency than the signal frequency thenf andfo should
be interchanged.
Exactly the same expression and procedure are used to calculate the image protection
afforded by a r-f stage. Since the calculated image rejection is a voltage ratio, the
ratios obtained for the various stages are multiplied together, or the ratios expressed
in decibels can be added to give the total image protection provided by the input cir-
cuits to the converter.
coil is halved, under some conditions of operation, by using two point matching to
an aerial transmission line, the greater part of the image protection may here again
be due to the r-f stage. These considerations are particularly important at the higher
frequencies. On the long and medium wave bands sufficient image protection can
often be obtained from the discrimination afforded by the aerial coil alone, but on the
shortwave bands deterioration in image rejection is serious (and rapid) unless the inter-
mediate frequency is increased above the usual value of about 455 Kc/s.
It is important to note that a good image rejection ratio is desirable since this also
indicates the selectivity of the signal circuits and the degree of rejection against spurious
frequency combinations. A high degree of selectivity preceding the first r-f amplifier
valve has obvious advantages in reducing cross-modulation effects.
ably accurate results are possible using a high frequency Q meter to determine the
capacitive and resistive loading effects. The usual precautions as to length of leads,
earthing etc. must be carefully observed when making these measurements, if the
results are to be of any practical value. Something of this nature is usually required
when considering the effects of the converter valve on its input circuit, since the pub-
lished information is rather meagre. In this regard it is well to remember that some
types of converter valves, such as those using inner grid injection, e.g. types 6A8,
6K8, 6SA7, 6BE6 etc., give negative loading whilst other types such as X6lM, X79,
6J8-G, 6L7, etc. (which use outer grid oscillator injection) give positive loading. In-
creasing the negative bias on the signal grid will reduce the loading effect with all types,
but at very high values of bias the negative loading may reverse its polarity and be-
come positive. [The reasons for these effects are discussed later in this section in
connection with input loading of receiving valves.] To red~ce input conductance
some valve types have more than one cathode connection (see Ref. A8), and typical
examples are types 6AK5 and 6AG5, each having two cathode terminals. Even when
the cathode terminals are directly connected to ground the length of the cathode lead
is still sufficient to provide appreciable inductive reactance at frequencies of the order
of 100 Mc/s. For this reason all plate and screen by-pass capacitors should be re-
turned to one cathode lead and the grid returns to the other. The alternating volt-
ages developed across the cathode lead inductance due to currents from the plate and
screen circuits ate in this way prevented from being direcdy impressed in series with
the grid circtlit, since it is the grid to cathode voltages which are of major importance.
Direct current divides between the two available cathode paths, but this is not import·
ant since the path taken by this current normally does not affect the grid input admit-
tance. To obtain grid bias the " grid" cathode lead employs the usual resistor and
capacitor combination. The r-f by-pass capacitors from the plate and screen circuits
connect directly to the other cathode terminal which is not directly connected to
ground in this arrangement. A typical circuit is shown in Fig. 23.8.
In pentodes wotkingat v-h-f it is advis-
able to connect the suppressor grid terminal
directly to ground, when a separate terminal
is available for this electrode, rather thali
to the cathode, because the suppressor lead
inductance would then be connected in
series with any external cathode lead induc-
tance. If this precaution is not taken the
coupling between control grid and plate is
ihcreased, because of the capacitance from flG.2W R-F AMPLIFIER WITH TWO CATHODE
CONNECTIONS.
control grid to suppressor and from sup-
pressor to plate, the junction of these two
capacitances having an impedance to ground depending on the total lead inductance.
Similar considerations also apply to screen grid circuits, particularly when the valve
has a single cathode lead, and the shielding action of this grid can be seriously affected
if proper precautions are not taken, such as directly earthing by-pass capacitors.
These circuit arrangements are not very important at low frequencies where degenera. .
tive effects may be more serious, necessitating the connection of the suppressor grid
and by~pass capacitors directly to the cathode.
Signal- kc kll
Valve Description Plate Screen Grid Supress- micro micro
Type volts volts bias or -mhos/ -mhos/
volts volts . Mc/s Mc/sl
practically constant for all operating conditions. Also, when the transconductance
of a valve is changed by a change in signal-grid bias, k 11 varies directly with trans-
conductance over a wide range. In the case of converter types, the value of. k 11 de-
pends on oscillator-grid bias and oscillator voltage amplitude. In converter and
mixer types, k A is practically independent of oscil1ator frequency.
In eqn. (1), the term kJis a conductance which exists when the cathode current is
zero. The term k 11/2 is the additional conductance which exists when cathode current
flows. . These two terms can be explained by a simple· analysis of the input circuit
of a valve.
(B) Cold input conductance
The input impedance of a valve when there is no cathode current is referred to as
the cold input impedance. The principal components of this cold impedance are a
resistance due to dielectric hysteresis, and a reactance due to input capacitance and
cathode-lead inductance. Because these components are in a pafaueI cOmbination,
it is convenient to use the terms admittance, the reciprocal of impedance, and sus-
930 (li) INPUT LOADING OF RECEIVING VALVES 23.5
ceptance, the reciprocal of reactance. For most purposes, the effect of cathode-lead
inductimce is negligible when cathode current is very low. The cold input admittance
is, therefore, a conductance in parallel with a capacitive susceptance. The conductance
due to dielectric hysteresis increases linearly with frequency. Hence, the cold input
conductance can be written as k eI, where k e is proportional to the power factor of
grid insulation and is the ke of eqn. (1).
as shown in Fig. 23. 11 (e). This condition corresponds to a shift in phase by an angle
8 of QIl with respect to ell; hence, the grid current lags behind the capacitive current
of Fig. 23.11(d) by an angle 8, as shown in Fig. 23.11(f). Clearly, the angle 8 increases
with frequency and with the time of transit T. Expressed in radians, 8 = WT.
FIG.n·,""
I
~ I ~··ll. ;--~-+-1\.+
(.'I·.
III1I1I1 10'
lal~tt
Ec.. Ee, £CO £ ..
E" FIG.n·ta FIG.n·la
: I •
...
(~) I : ~:!C::T z:.:
"I ~
N Q. 'OR roNITE
l1!TRANSITTIME.
Irl
fIG-,_23·"
I:NJr'"
• FOIl FINITE
TA.aNS1T TIME . FIG.aa·14 +
FIGURES 210·9 TO 210·14 INCLUSIVE
The amplitude of QIl is proportional to the amplitude of the grid voltage; the grid
current, which is the time rate of change QIl' is thus proportional to the time rate of
change of grid voltage. For a sinusoidal grid voltage, ell = Ell sin wt, the time rate
of change of grid voltage is wEll cos wt. Therefore, for a given valve type and opera-
ting point, the amplitude of grid current is
III = KEllw
and the absolute value of grid-cathode admittance due to induced charge on the grid is
Y t = Ig/E ll = Kw (3)
The conductive component (gt) of this ·admittance is
gt = Y t sin 8 = Y t 8 =Kw8 (for small values of 8).
Because 8 = WT, this cond~ctance becomes, for a given operating point,
gt = KW 2 T. (4)
Thus, the conductance due to electron transit time also varies with the square of the
frequency. This conductance and the input conductance,gmw2LCIU due to cathode-
lead inductance, are the principal components of the term khP of eqn. (1).
This explanation of input admittance due to induced grid charge is based on a
space-charge-limited valve, and shows how a positive input admittance can result
from the induced charge. The input admittance due to induced grid charge is nega-
tive in a valve which operates as a temperature-limited valve, that is, as a valve where
cathode emission does not increase when the potential of other electrodes in the valve
is increased. The emission of a valve operating with reduced filament voltage is
temperature limited; a valve with a screen interposed betWeen cathode and grid
acts as a temperature-limited valve when the screen potential is reasonably high; The
existence of a negative input admittance in such a valve can be explained with the aid
of Fig. 23.12.
When the value of E c2 in Fig. 23.12 is sufficiently high, the current drawn from the
cathode divides between g2 and plate; any change in one branch of this current is
accompanied by an opposite change in the other. As a first approximation, there-
fore, it is assumed that the current entering the space between g2 and ga is constant
932 (ii) INPUT LOADING OF RECEIVING VALVES 23.5
and equal to p'V, where p is the density of electrons and v is their velocity. g2 may
now be considered as the source of all electrons· passing to subsequent electrodes.
Suppose now, that a small alternating voltage is connected in series with grid ga,
as shown in Fig. 23.12. During the part of the cycle when ell is increasing, the elec-
trons in the space between g2 and g3 are accelerated and their velocities are increased.
Because the current pv is a constant, the density of electrons (P) must decrease. In
this case, therefore, the charge at g2 is 180 degrees out of phase with the grid voltage,
as shown at a and b of Fig. 23.13. This diminution in charge propagates toward
the plate with finite velocity and induces a decreasing charge on the grid. Because
of the finite velocity of propagation, the maximum decrease in grid charge occurs at
a time later than that corresponding to the maximum positive value of ell' as shown in
Fig. 23.13(c). The current, which is the derivative of QII with respect to time, is
shown in Fig. 23.13(d). If there were no phase displacement (8 = 0), this current
would correspond to a negative capacitance; the existence of a transit angle 8, there-
fore, corresponds to a negative conductance. By reasoning similar to that used in
the derivation of eqns. 3 and 4, it can be shown that the absolute value of negative
admittance due to induced grid charge is proportional to w, and that the negative
conductance is proportional to w 2 • These relations are the same as those shown in
eqns. 3 and 4 for the positive admittance and positive conductance of the space-charge-
limited case.
A negative value of input conductance due to transit time signifies that the input
circuit is receiving energy from the " B "supply. This negative value may increase
the gain and selectivity of a preceding stage. If this negative value becomes too large,
it can cause oscillation. A positive value of input conductance due to transit time
signifies that the signal source is supplying energy to the grid. This energy is used
in accelerating electrons toward the plate and manifests itself as additional heating
of the plate. A positive input conductance can decrease the gain and selectivity of a
preceding stage.
It should be noted that, in this discussion of admittance due to induced grid charge,
no mention has been made of input admittance due to electrons between grid and plate.
The effect of these electrons is similar to that of electrons between grid and cathode.
The admittance due to electrons between grid and plate, therefore, can be considered
as being included in eqn. (3).
Ef .. 6·3 VOLTS
PLATE VOLTS K 250
SUPPRESSOR VOLTS .. 0
SCREEN VOLTS .. ISO
GRID VOLTS .. VARIED
rREQUENCY .40 Mc/I
UNBYPA$SEO CATHODE RESISTOR .. Rk (OHMS)
,/
0/
Vj
0
1/ ....
175
/, ~
/'~
ISO - I'"-- / V
>< ~ ../
I r---.... ........... .,!o
125
/ J
-..... 2·5
J II ~'l2
~~
100
V )
,,
" .
I il .(.
,.'
75
V I "" I
/ ""
J/
- I
V/
/lt l
25
~/
-..... .......
0 ...~C'
o 1&1
.... ~
...
.'
:t!u
1" .........
.~ ...,.... -0·5
-1-0
o 468 10
PLATt MIU,IAMPEAES FIG. 23.15
934 (ii) INPUT LOADING OF RECEIVING VALVES 23.5
23.14. The total hot input admittance of this circuit is made up of a conductance
and a capacitive susceptance C/o Analysis of Fig. 23.14 shows that, if cathode-lead
inductance is neglected, the total hot input capacitance, C/, is approximately
I 1 + K/C c
Ci = Cg + Ce 1 + gmRIt (6)
Inspection of this equation shows that if K is positive and varies in proportion with
gm, the use of the proper value of Rk will make C i independent of gm. In a space-
charge-limited valve, K is positive and is found by experiment to be approximately
proportional to g m' It follows that the proper value of Rk will minimize the detuning
effect of a.v.c. in a space-charge-limited valve. Eqn. (6) is useful for illustrating the
effect of R It but is not sufficiently precise for computation of the proper value of R It
6AB7/18S3
to use in practice. This
TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS value can be determined
by experiment. It will
·£',-6.3 VOLTS
PLATE VOLTS -250
be found that this value,
SUPPRESSOR VOLTS' 0 in addition to minimizing
. SCREEN \'OLTS. 200 capacitance change, also
'GRID VOLTS • VARIED reduces the change in in-
FREOUENCY ·40 Mc,\
UNBYPASSED CATHODE RESISTOR ~ RJ. (OHMS)
put conductance caused
by change in a.v.c. bias.
60
/"
"
The effect of unbypassed
~ V-- ~
~
~~ V
....-
cathode resistance on the
100
........
2-0 I&. change in input capacit-
/'
V ~ .......V S: ance and input conduct-
/ ; rc-...r- fo!O ~ :~e 6~~~~5~Ai?7f~:!
/
/ ----
..... ...... .. -
9.",60
I
'5
~- ... ~
5
~
i,g._ .figs. ~3)5 an~ 23.16.
These curves were taken
at a frequency of 40 mega-
...... I
'0 i5 cycles. The curves for
/ t>c., JO'" ~ the 6AC7/1852 also hold
/ , " ~ good for the 1851.
sv ,
-
.. ""'-- -- -- --. -- -... ..
,,- ~-
60 o-s~
It should be noted that,
o
" ..
...;:,. F--
-~
-- .. ..... ..9£_ because of degeneration
in an unbypassed cathode
- --
-0'5
resistor, the use of the
resistor reduces gain. The
reduced gain is 1/(1 +
g mR It) times the gain with
the same electrode volt-
-1-0
ages but with no unby-
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 passed cathode resistance.
PLATE MILLIAMPERES FIG. 23.16
The hot input conductance of a valve with an unbypassed cathode resistor can be de-
termined by modification of the values of k" in the table. The value of k" in the table
should be multiplied by g m/(1 + g mR k)' The resultant value of k II, when sub-
stituted in eqn. (1), with ke from the table, gives the input conductance of a valve
with an unbypassed cathode resistor. In the factor (1 + g mR k), g m is the grid-
cathode transconductance when R k is by-passed.
When an unbypassed cathode resistor is used, circuit parts should be so arranged
that grid-cathode and plate-cathode capacitances are as small as possible. These
capacitances form a feedback path between plate and grid when there is appreciable
impedance bet'y'l,,'een cathode and ground. To IIlir..i.."11ize plate-cathode capacitance:;
the suppressor and the screen by-pass condenser should be connected to ground rather
than to cathode.
·23.6 (i) THERMAL AGITATION NOISE 935
Referring to Fig. 23.17(a), let us suppose a resistance of 10000 ohms were connecIi:d
to the input of an amplifier with a 5 Kc/s bandwidth, i.e., 5 Kc/s between half power
points or an audio band of 2.5 Kc/s. At room temperature, 20°C or 293°K, the
term 4KT in the expressions for noise simplifies to 1.6 x 10-20, which may be used
in most receiver calculations. The noise in Fig. 23.17(a) is therefore:
e n 2 = 1.6 x 1O- 2 °JFR
en = '\1'1.6 x 10 20 X 5000 X 10000
en = 0.89 microvolt.
The noise bandwidth is generally determined by the narrowest element in the enti.re
9rcuit under consideration. In the example for Fig. 23.17(b) the bandwidth of the
amplifier is narrower than the tuned circuit and therefore its AF is used in the calcu-
lations.
E Cn
-IO,OOOA
(0)
FIG. 23. i7
Fig. 23.17. Sample thermal noise circuits;
Frequency = 1000 Kc/s; . Q = 100;
L = 300 microhenrie~ CRe). B33).
001 A / I
5 ...... /
2~ T i
0-01252525252525
100 lpot' Iq<lOO IOOPOO I MEG IOMEG
RESISTANCE (Ohms) FI~. 23.11
Fig. 23.18. Thermal agItation noise voltage versus resistance and band-width (Ref B33).
(ii) Shot noise
Another important component of the total receiver noise is shot noise. This noise
is generated inside the vacuum tube and is due to the random fluctuations in the plate
current of the tube, or, to state it in another manner, tartdom variations in the rate crt'
23.6 (ii) SHOT NOISE 937
arrival of electrons at the plate. When amplified, this noise sounds as if Qle plate
were being bombarded With pebbles or as if a shower of shQt were falling upon a metal
surface, h~ce the name shot noise.
Although generated essentially in the plate circuit of the tube, which is riot a COll~
vcnient refer~nce point for sensitivity or signal-to-noise ratio calculations, the shot
noise is nearly always referred to as a noise voltage in series with the grid. Since the
following equation is true,
. e§= i ll /g m (3)
where e, = a.c. grid voltage
i" = a.c. plat~ current,
and g", = transconductance~'
by simply dividitlg the noise currerit in the plate circriit by the trans!=onductanc~ of
the tube, the shot noise may be referred to the grid and expressed in te~s of gricl
voltage. '
Another step is taken, however, to simplify the noise nomenclature. Suppose a
given tube has a &hot noise equal to en microvolts in, series with its grid. It is peJ'-
feciJ.y v~d to i.magJne that this volt:;lge could be replaced by a re$istan,ce who~e thermal
e
3gi~tion noi~ is equal to n (the shot noise) and to consider the tub!: to be free of noise.
This imagin,ary resistance, which when placed in the grid of the tube generates a
voltage equal to th~ shot noise of the tube, is known as the shot noise l:quiva1~t
resistance or just as the equivalent noise of the tube. The advantage of this termiD.o-'
logy is that when Jhe equivalent noise resistance of the particular tube is known, the
noise voltage may be cal~ted directly for any given bandwidth by substituting values
iil the following formula :
e~1 = 4KTJFR~q (4)
where R. iz = equivalent noise resistance,
or at room temperature
e,,1 = 1.6 x 10~~IiJFReq . (5)
If the noise Were expressed as a voltage or current its value would be correct only f()r
one pafticular bandwidth.
:Sy lmowing the R ell of
TRIOOE AMPLiFIER
any two given fllbes their
relative shot noise merit i$
~o kllpwn x:egardless of
El<; NTOQE AMPLIFIER what bandwidth they are
to ope1'3te at, while.if the
noise voltages were giVeti
TRIODf; MI)'(ER
alone the operating band-
width :it which the calcu..
larion was inado woUld
alsa have to be noted-if
the relltiv, tnerits of the
MlJLtIQRU)
CONVERTER oft MIXER
R .. f!o Ie (IIC- Ie)
E;Q. b. Gc?
two rubes were to .be
de:fined.
R EQ .. EQUIvALENT SHO T NOISE
Noise-equivalent resist-
RESISTNICE ance values for a nUttiber
of different tube types
(triOdes, pent()des~ and
II)" AVERAGE ~A TE OJRRf;NT I .. =AVERAGE CATHODE CUR.RENT converters) Btld for variotts
FIG :.13.19 circuit apPlications (am-
Fig. 23.19. Approximate calculated equivalent noise plifiers and mixers) can
resiuana of various receifJing-type tubes (Ref! B33). be calculated by applyirig
the expressions presented in the chart, Fig. 23.19*. ,
When the term converter is used it refers to a tube that is used for frequency con-
version where the single tube acts as the local osciI1atoi' and the mixer (6SA7); the
term mixer where two tubes are used, one as the mixer (6SG7),' and one as the local
osciIiator (6C4). .. .
.W, A. Harris .. Fluctuations in vacuum tu~ amplifien ·iQId input systems," RC.A. Review, April
1941.
938 (ii) SHOT NOISE 23.6
After the equivalent noise resistance is known the value of r .m.s. noise voltage at
the grid of this tube can be calculated by applying the same expression that is used for
thermal agitation noise,
eft 2 = 1.6 X 10- 20 LlFR
or, by using the graph of Fig. 23.18.
Fig. 23.20 presents calculated equivalent noise resistance values for a number of
commonly used tubes acting as various types of circuit elements. These are, of
course, approximate figures.
It can be seen from Figs. 23.19 and 23.20 that the noise resistance or voltage is at
a minimum for a triode, increasing for the pentode and the multigrid tube, following
in that order.
Shot noise is unique among the noise sources in the sense that the shot-noise voltage
should be considered to exist in series with the grid inside the tube. The reasori for
this is that nothing can be done to the external grid circuit that will alter the magnitude
of this component. Even though the shot noise must lSe tolerated, its effect can be'
minimized by designing the input circuit for maximum signal at the grid. This
does not reduce the magnitude of the noise but does improve the signal-to-noise-ratio
of the receiver.
23.6 (iii) INDUCED GRID NOISE 939
I I I
i 2 i . fl • = 1.4 x 4KTktJFG.,ect
or when expressed in the form of a
voltage generator,
e2i. g. = 1.4 x 4KT ktJFR el e ct (6)
where: T k = cathode tempera-
ture (degrees Kel-
vin)
.1.
G ct electronic (transit
time) component of
input conductance
and R.I e ct electronic compon-
ent of input resist-
ance.
From eqn. (6) it can be seen that
the induced grid noise is propor-
tional to the electronic or transit
time component of the input resist-
ance. Measurement of the total
input resistance is a comparatively
simple matter with the use of a high
~~-----+--------~----~~~---i frequency Q meter, but the separa-
tion of the electronic and the cathode
inductance components, which are
XQr------+--------~------~-----i essentially two resistances in parallel
between the grid and ground, is a
very difficult matter. Since most
10
20 FREQUENC~O(mcCJCICYCIu)OO 200 high-frequency tubes are con-
FIG. 23.22 strUcted with either two cathode
Fig. 23.22. Approximate electronic input leads or one veryshort lead, as sum-
resistance versus frequency (Ref· B33). ing the total measured input resist-
ance to be electronic would not introduce too great an error. Another factor in favour
of this approximation is that it would be the case for maximum induce<;i grid noise and
any error introduced would more than likely be on the safe side.
*D. O. North" Fluctuations induced in vacuum-tube grids at high frequencies" Proc. I.R.E. Feb.
1941.
940 (iii) INDUCED GRID NOISE 23.8
Cathode temperature in most receiving tubes, which almost exclusively use oxide-
coated cathodes, is approximately 3.6 times the normal room temperature in degrees
K. Eqn. (6) can be rewritten therefore as
e2i.lI. = 5 x 4K.T.dFRe,ect (7)
where T = room temperature (degrees Kelvin),
or, when T == 300 degrees Kelvin,
e2i.lI. = 8 x IO-2°.dFReZ~ct (8)
In circuit calculations this noise is essentially in series with a resistance equal to
Relect located between the grid and ground--Fig. 23.21.
The approximate input resistance for a number of common receiving tubes in the
frequency range of F-M and television is given in Fig. 23.22. This chart can be :used
to find approximate input resistance values for induced grid-noise calculations.
(iv) Total noise calculations
Calculations of total input noise are made by using the grid of the input tube as a
reference point. There are many sources of noise and each must be calculated and
referred to the grid reference point before a summation is made. Since noise is a
random effect and calculated on a power basis, the separate components cannot be
added directly but as the square root of the sum of the squares.
Total Noise = v' e12 + e2~ + e3 2 + etc. (9)
The various noise voltages that must be referred to the first grid are :
(1) Thermal agitation noise of the antenna radiation resistance.
(2) Thermal agitation noise of the tuned grid circuit.
(3) Shot noise of the input tube.
(4) Induced grid noise of the input tube.
(5) Grid circuit noise of the following stages referred back to the first grid.
In Fig. 23.23(a) appears a diagram of a practical input circuit and the location of all
the circuit parameters and noise voltages. Fig. 23.23(b) is essentially the same except
that the antenna circuit is reflected through -the ti'arisform.er and considered to exist
at the grid. This is the diagram that is most useful in calculating the total input
circuit noise.
FIG. 21.23
The steps necessary to find specific
values for each of these factors are shown in
Fig. 23.24. Antenna radiation resistance
varies widely with the type of antenna
chosen, but for F·M and television work
it is generally in the order of 75 to 300
Ca)
ohms. When the noise is known in terms
AOftt- Antenna Radiation RulslanC& of an equivalent resistance, as is the case
Cant. AfttcMa AlSimancc ThcnnaI Ni)lse here for the antenna, tuned circuit, and
Isig • Signal Voltage shot noise, the equivalent voltage can be
Relet. Tuned Circuit I"'~
«-l:let • Tun~ Circuit Thermal NoI.e either calculated or obtained directly
ReIcct-EI«tronll: lI'put Aesl&tonce from Fig. 23.18.
el • Induad Grid Noise
R:a. Equiyalent Shor Noise -RcslstalW:ll
In order to add the antenna, tuned "cir·
cshorw Valve Shot No_
N • Turns Ratio of Goupil", TrQM#ormcr cuit, and induced grid noise to the shot
noise the effective voltage of these three
components at the grid, or between the
points A and B, must be known. Bach
Dlust go through what is essentially a re-
NXEant
sistive divider and may be calculated as
eclet shown in Fig. 23.25.
NJeCsig
(it)- ! .A_fter knowing the magnit--!de of the
Fig. 23.23. Position of varioUs noise separate sources that exist between A-B)
sources in input circuit (Ref. B33). the tOW noise voltage is
23~6 (iv) TOTAL NOISE CALCULATIONS 941
(8) £SHOT- -V 1'6 X 10-20 lJ.F REQ - OR DIRECTLY FROM FIG. 2?s-18
FIG.2 .24
Fig. 23.24. Procedure for calculating various noise voltages (Ref. B33).
etota' = v' (e S hot)2 + (eant at A _B)2 + (ei-tl at A-B)2 + (eekt at A-B)2 (10)
One other factor may affect this total, however. If the total noise of the following
stages, which is calculated similarly, ignoring the antenna of course, is appreciable,
it must be added to the constants of Fig. 23.25. In reflecting it to the first grid the
second stage noise should be divided by the gain of the first tube. When the gain is
about ten or more this factor may usually be neglected.
Effective signal voltage across A-B is calculated in the same way as the antenna
noise in Fig. 23.25. The signal-to-noise ratio is now also known.
Since the signal-to-noise ratio is determined by the signal strength and the total
noise at the grid of the input tube, for a receiver that has a mixer, such as 6SK7, for
the input rube, the signal-to-noise ratio 1I"..ay be considerably improved by the addition
of an r-f tube, such as a 6SG7, whl,ch has considerably less total noise. By adding
additional r-f tubes (6SG7's), however, since the total noise and signal at the grid
will be the same, the signal-to-noise ratio will not be improved.
FIG. 23. H
A
CIA-B
•
Fig. 23.25. Circuit for reflecting various voltages to the grid (Ref. B33). To find
the effective voltage of the antenna, the tuned circuit, and the induced grid noise at
the grid of the tube let Rl equal one of the above noise resistances and e 1 its generated
voltage. If R2 and Rs equal the other two noise resistances the effective voltage at
the grid is
el R2R S
el,d-B = -----=R==-=-J:)-x R + R
Rl + 2'-'-S 2 S
. R2 + Rs
This calculation must be performed for the three components in turn.
(v) Sample circuit calculations
For a sample problem let us calculate the total noise at the grid of an F-M receiver
r-f amplifier stage, assuming the circuit in Fig. 23.26(a) to be under consideration.
As a simplification of procedure the steps in the calculations will be numbered.
(1) N2R ant = 1200 ohms (calculated)
(2) R ehet = 1200 ohms (Figure 23.22)
(3) R c kt = Q wL = 8000 ohms (calculated)
(4) Rl!l = 3100 ohms (Figure 23.20)
At this point it will be convenient to redraw the circuit as shown in Fig. 23.26(b).
(5) Ne ant 2 microvolts (Fig. 23.18)
(6) ei.,. V8 X 10- 20 X 200 X lOS X 1200
4.4 microvolts (equation (8))
942 (v) SAMPLE CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS 23.6
(vi)- Conclusions
Selection of an input tube for a television
or F-M receiver is dependent upon many
varying circuit conditions and individual
requirements. The choice of using bal- B
anced or unbalanced input, permeability or '-IOOMc/I
6fa200Kc/I
capacitor tuning, noisy pentodes or quiet Q-IOO
triodes that possibly require neutralization, (0)
among others, lies entirely with the design
engineer. Considering these reasons and
various engineering and economic compro-
mises no particular tube can ~e chosen and
defined as the input tube. Complete
noise information about the circuits in-
volved is necessary, however, as this is one
FIG. 23.26
of the determining factors for good sensi-
Fig. 23.26. Typical F-M receiver
tivity and signal-to-noh' ~ ratio input circuit (Ref. B33).
Obviously, even for values of CII'P less than those obtained from the abOve expres-
sion, there would be a mar ked effect on the gain and selectivity of the circuits before
oscillation acnially started.
(ill) Summary
Possible sources of feedback giving rise to instability can often be predicted from
the circuit and component layout diagrams of a receiver. An es~te can be made
of the possible magnitudes of many of the undesired voltages involved.
It should be evident that it is far better to avoid possible feedback and instability
by good electrical and mechanical design rather than spend many fruidess hours
tracking down an oscillation which could have been avoided.
A most helpful discussion of instability problems is given in E. E. Zepler's " Tech-
nique of Radio Design " (in particular Chapter 9) and the reader is recommended to
consult this book as an excellent practical guide.
Some further considerations will be given to circuit instability in Chapter 26, in
connection with i-f amplifiers. These ·circuits, being fixed tuned, are usually more
amenable to calculation of possible instability than r-f stages and the results obtained
more closely approximate to the practical set-up.
It is necessary to mention that at very high frequencies (say above 50 Mcls or so)
the inductance of the screen-grid lead in screen-grid tetrodes and pentodes can C8Q8e
an apparent change in plate to control-grid capacitance which is often sufficient to
cause instability. If the screen is earthed by means of a capacitor, it is often possib1e
to select a capacitance value which will be series resonant with the screen lead in-
. ductance, at the working frequency, and so form a low impedance path to ground.
This arrangement is often sufficient to prevent instability from this cause, even over
a range of frequencies. For further discussion see Ref. AB.
It is also important to note that at the higher frequencies a capacitor does not behave
as a pure capacitance, and its effective inductance and resistance become increasingly
important as the frequency increases. With- many typeS of capacitors it is possible
that the inductive reactance will exceed the capacitive reactance even at frequencies
as low as 30 Mc/s (with e1ectrolytics an additional r-f by-pass should always be used).
This effect is sometimes used to make the capacitor series resonant at the workiDg
frequency. Even if the capacitor behaves as a small inductance it will be appreciated
that in some cases the reactance can be very low and effective by-passing is still pos-
sible. In tuned circuits the Q can be materially affected by the increase in r-f resist-
ance of the capacitors and both this and the previous effects should be checked.
The effectiveness of by-pass capacitors and their Q at the working frequency can
be readily checked with the aid of a Q meter by pJaciDa the c:apac:itor in series with
a coil of known inductance and Q. See Ref. B45. FiDally, r-f chokes de aut alWBy9
behave as such, and their resonant frequencies should always be checked (see silo
Chapter 11 Sect. 6).
SECTION 8: DISTORTION
(i) Modulation errvelope distortion (ii) Gross modulation distortion.
distortion because of the selectivity of the tuned circuits. Third order terms (those
containing cubes) do introduce distortion of the modulation envelope.
R..,F amplifier valves are usually designed so that the third order curvature of their
characteristics is minimized as far as possible. This is achieved by using a variable
pitch for the control grid winding and results in the well known variable-mu (or re-
mote cut-off) characteristic. The variable-mu (or more exactly" variable g", U
characteristic) and the resultant shape of the e, - if) curve, have a large beariug on
cross modulation distortion as will be discussed presently.
SEcnON 9: BIBUOGRAPHY
(A) BOOKS DEALING WITH JtADIO FREQ~NCY AMPLIFIERS, AERIAL C01,1PLING,
NOISE. ETC. .
AI. ~nirley, K. R. " Radio Receiver Design .. Parts 1 and 2 (Chapman and Hall, Londop, Part 1, 1943 j
Part 2, 1945).
Al. Zepler, E. E ... The Technique of Radio Design" (Chapman and Hall, London, 1943, John Wiley
and Sons, New York, 1943).
A3. Everitt, W. L. "Communication Engineering" (2nd ecUt., McGraw-Hill, New York and London;
1937).
A,4. Terman, F. E... Radio Engineers' Handbook" (Ist edit. McGraw-Hill, New York and London.
1943). -
AS. Terman. F. E. "Radio Engineering" (2nd edit. McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1937).
A6. Ol~gow. R. S. "Principles of Radio Engineering" (McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1936).
A7. Moullin, E. B. "Spontaneous Fluctuations of Voltage" (Oxford University Press, London, 1938).
AS. Harvey, A. F. "High Frequency Thermionic Tubes" (Chapter 2) John Wiley and Sons, New
York, 1943. < .
A9. Kiver, M. S. " F-M Simplified" (Chapter 12-R. F. Tuners for F-M Rec;eivers). D. Van Nos-
trand Co. Inc., Toronto, New York, London, 1947.
AIO. Valley, G. E •• and H. Wallman, " Vacuum Tube Amplifiers" (McGraw-Hill, New York. Toronto
and London. 1940).
946 REFERENCES 23.9
All. Thomas, H. A., and R. E. Burgess" Survey of existing information and data on radio noise over
the frequency range 1-30 MC (His Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1947).
A12. Moxon, L. A. "Recent Advances in Radio Receivers" (Cambridge University Press, London,
1949).
Al3. Goldman, A. "Frequency Analysis, Modulation and Noise" (McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1948).
A14. "Valve and Circuit Noise-survey of existing knowledge and outstanding problems" Radio
Research Special Report No. 20 (1951)-Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, London.
OSCll..LATORS
By B. SANDEL, A.S.T.C.
Section Page
1. Introduction 947
2. Types of oscillator circuits 949
3. Class " A," "B" and "C" oscillators 954
4. Causes of oscillator frequency variation 955
5. Methods of frequency stabilization 957
6. Unstable oscillation 958
7. Parasitic oscillations 959
8. Methods used in practical design 959
9. Beat-frequency oscillators 960
10. Bibliography 961
SECTION 1 : INTRODUCTION
In this chapter it is proposed to consider, briefly, some of the fundamental types of
oscillator circuits (used in conjunction with valves) which are commonly employed
in radio receivers. Of course there are numerous variations of the fundamental
circuits, but generally these changes are only a practical convenience for obtaining
some required special condition of operation from the basic circuit.
The types of circuits to be considered are :
(a) The tuned-plate oscillator
(b) The tuned-grid oscillator
(c) The Hartley oscillator
(d) The Colpitts oscillator
(e) The electron-coupled oscillator
(f) The negative transconductance oscillator.
For those interested in the general theory of oscillation, and in the many special cir-
cuits available, a list of suitable references is given at the end of the chapter which will
serve as a starting point, at least, for a more complete survey of this field of knowledge.
Crystal oscillator circuits are not discussed here but a number of useful circuits are
given in Refs. 27 (page 164), 26 (page 97) and 31; the latter giving a discussion of
overtone (harmonic mode) crystal oscillators.
Before proceeding to a discussion of particular types of oscillator circuits, a few of
the fundamental principles will be briefly reviewed.
The simplest form of electrical oscillator consists of a combination of inductance
(L) and capacitance (C) connected together (as shown in Fig. 24.1), to which has been
added, initially, electric or magnetic energy. Suppose that the
O
FIC.24·1
lc; . capacitor C has been charged by some means. The energy
stored in the capacitor is then iCE2, where E is the maximum
potential difference between the plates. At this instant, when
E has its maximum value, the current in the circuit is zero.
The presence of the inductor will allow the energy stored
947
948 INTRODUCTION 24.1
in the electric field of the capacitor to be transferred, and to form a magnetic field
around the inductor. The capacitor discharges until finally E becomes zero and the
current I becomes a maximum. At the instant at which I is a maximum the energy
in the magnetic field is tLI2, all the available energy is stored in the magnetic field
and there is no electric field. The process now reverses, the magnetic field collapses
and energy is transferred back to the electric field· of the capacitor. This process
repeats itself indefinitely if there is no loss of energy in the circuit (radiation is not
considered here).
Since the total energy which is stored in each field in turn, is the same, it is per-
missible to write
tCE2 = tLI2 (1)
where E and I have their maximum values.
Also E = 1/ wC (2)
and so 1/ w 2 C = L (3)
or f = 1/2-rrVLC (4)
where f is natural resonant frequency of the oscillations occurring in the circuit.
Since there is always some resistance (R) present with practical circuit elements,
the amplitude of each successive oscillation will decrease until eventually all of the
energy is dissipated-mainly in the form of heat in the resistance-and the oscilla-
tions will cease. (This is discussed further in Chapter 9, Sect. 1). The addition of
extra energy to the circuit from some external source, such that the added energy
equals that being lost, would allow the oscillations to continue indefinitely. In the
circuits to be considered the power supply is the external source of energy, and the
valve is the device controlling the energy which is added to the L C R circuit, in the
correct phase and amplitude, to maintain oscillations.
With any valve oscillator an exact analysis of the method of operation is very difficult,
if not impossible, and it is usual to treat the circuits as being linear (at least for simple
design. procedure) although they depend on conditions of non-linearity for their opera-
tion. This simplification is valuable because the mathematical analysis which can
be carried out yields a great deal of useful information concerning the behaviour of
the circuits. That the circuit operation is non-linear can be readily appreciated by
considering the fact that the amplitude of the oscillations, once started, does not con-
tinue to build up indefinitely. The energy gain of the system reaches a certain am-
plitude and then progressively falls until equilibrium is established. The limits are
usually set by the valve-plate current cut-off occurs beyond some value of the nega-
tive grid voltage swing, and plate current saturation or grid current damping will
limit the amplitude of the grid swing in the positive direction. For a discussion of
the factors governing oscillation amplitude, the reader should consult Refs. 1 and 2.
In the sections to follow, typical circuits applicable to radio receivers will be dis-
cussed. It is not proposed to give a mathematical analysis or detailed physical ex-
planations of the operation of the circuits, as this has been more or less adequately
done in many text books and periodicals. Suitable references are 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 11,
24.
At the outset it may be mentioned that, since high oscillator efficiency is not usually
as important a factor as some other requirements in radio receivers, the design is
generally a combination of empirical and eXperimental techniques. A large number
of the circuit component values are pre-determined by such considerations as tracking
the tuned circuit with signal circuits over a band of frequencies and maintaining
constant oscillator amplitude over the tuning range. Other factors will be discussed
in Sect. 9 of this chapter.
Design procedures such as those used for class "C" power oscillators in trans-
mitters are not carried out in detail for receiver oscillators, although obviously the
basic principles are the same in both cases; this will receive further consideration in
Sect 9.
24.2 (i) TUNED-PLATE OSCILLATOR 949
~},
s+
" (s)
C ec)
rlG.24·2 TUNED-PL.ATE OSCIL.L.ATOR
1~
1=- - 1+-=/0
21T~ r1'
J 1 +-
R
r"
(5)
The important point to observe is that other components, including the valve,
affect the frequency of oscillation. As these components are capable of variation with
voltage or temperature fluctuations they will affect oscillator stability, and their effects
should be minimized as far as possible. Some improvement in stability is possible
by making the grid current small, which agrees with the condition of a low value for
L" but this is also governed by the permissible value of the grid resistor (R g ).
The condition for the maintenance of oscillation is given by
M = - [Lo + GR] (7)
p. gm
where L o, G and R have the same meanings as previously,
M mutual inductance = ky L,Lo (in the absence of additional capacitance
coupling)
k coefficient of coupling
p. amplification factor of valve
and g m mutual conductance of valve.
The negative sign for M indicates that oscillation will only occur for one connection
of the feedback winding.
A suitable factor of merit for an oscillator valve is the product p.g m' which should
be as high as possible. This is also a suitable factor for power output valves, and
explains why types such as the 6V6 beam power valve work well in feedback oscillator
circuits.
The advantages claimed for the tuned-plate oscillator are its relative freedom from
frequency changes due to mains voltage variations and, when the circuit is used with
converter valves, freedom from signal-grid bias voltage changes.
The tuned plate oscillator in its standard form is not very satisfactory for use at
frequencies above about 50 Mc/s. .
where 10
I/2trVL oG = natural resonant frequency of tuned circuit
Lo tuned circuit inductance
rp plate resistance of valve
L, feedback winding inductance
R series r-f resistance (total) in tuned circuit
and G total tuning capacitance.
The minimum value of M required to maintain oscillation is given approximately by
M L- LfA
= - p.(1 + A) + g m
GR-
J (9)
24.2 (ii) TUNED-GRID OSCILLATOR 951
where A = L,R/Lorp
p. amplification factor of valve
gm = mutual conductance of valve
r p = plate resistance of valve
and L f , R and G are as previously.
If r p is large and R is small, frequency variation from the natural resonant frequency
is reduced, as can be seen from an examination of the equation. Also, as a point of
interest, it is seen that I is less thanlo for the tuned-grid oscillator, and greater than/o
for the tuned-plate circuit; so that the tuned circuit acts as an inductive reactance
(neglecting resistance effects) in the first case,and as a capacitive reactance for the
tuned-plate oscillator. These points are further discussed in Ref. 5. The useful
upper frequency limit for the tuned-grid circuit is about 50 Mc/s, as the value of the
feedback-winding inductance and the resonant frequency of the feedback circuit
become troublesome. This applies also to the tuned-plate arrangement.
(iii) Hartley oscillator
Fig. 24.4 shows two possible arrangements for the Hartley oscillator circuit. The
circuit (A) is the conventional series-fed circuit, but is not very convenient for use in
radio receivers for several reasons.
(1) The tuning capacitor G cannot be earthed without using blocking capacitors.
(2) The presence of blocking capacitors presents tracking difficulties.
(3) The coil Lo has H.T. applied which may be awkward when making adjust-
ments, particularly during developmental work.
(4) Untracked stray capacitances are likely to be high.
The alternative arrangement of Fig. 24.4 (B) is the circuit most commonly employed
in receivers. The tuned circuit is connected directly to ground. This arrangement
avoids the difficulties of circuit (A); furthermore it is particularly convenient for use
with converter valves of the 6SA7, 6BE6 pentagrid type.
(A)
flC.24·4 HARTLE Y OS.CILLATOR
The angular frequency of oscillation for the Hartley circuit of Fig. 24.4(A) (see
Ref. 5) is given approximately by .
00 OOo,h + Rdrp (10)
where 000 I/V LoG
000 21T x 10 (/0 is natural resonant frequency of tuned circuit)
RI r-f resistance of LI
rp plate resistance of valve
Lo oscillator coil inductance (= LI + L2 + 2M)
and G = tuning capacitance.
For the maintenance of oscillation
LI + M Gr peRl + R 2)L o
p. -
- L2 + M
+ (LI + M)(L2 + M) (11)
where p. = amplification factor of valve.
LI and L2 are the two sections of Lo coupled by mutual inductance
M and RI and R2 are the r-f resistances of LI and L2 respectively.
The frequency equation shows that the oscillation frequency I is higher than /0'
and to reduce this difference r p should be high and RI small. Also, for the circuit
to oscillate readily, the mutual conductance of the valve should be high.
A Hartley oscillator offers advantages over the tuned-plate and tuned-grid circuits
at frequencies in excess of about 40 Mc/s, the greatest advantage being that the feed-
952 (iii) HARTLEY OSCILLATOR 24.2
back wiDclins, being a part of the tuned circuit, does not offer the same difficulties
as the other cases, in which the natural resonant frequency approaches the operating
frequency.
In the case of the other two types of oscillators mentioned, if the feedback winding
has greater inductance than the tuned winding, the oscillator can easily change over
from one type to the other (i.e. tuned-plate becomes tuned-grid and vice-versa) and
satisfactory tuning is obviously impossible. This trouble is not as unlikely as may be
thought since it is often very difficult to obtain sufficient amplitude of oscillation as
thcfrequency increases.
The Hartley circuit can be made to give satisfactory operation to frequencies at
least as high as 150 Mc/s, even with multi-grid converter valves (depending, of course,
on the valve type used), but its chief disadvantages are
(1) Its liability to parasitic oscillations as the frequency increases,
(2) The possibility of the circuit acting like a modified Colpitts oscillator because
, of stray and valve interelectrode capacitances,
(3) That it is rather awkward to find the optimum tapping point for the best con-
ditions of oscillation, particularly when the frequency becomes fairly high.
This is particularly so with valve types such as the 6BE6 on the F-M broadcast
band since the tapping point on the oscillator coil has a large effect on conversion
gain.
(1) and (2) generally manifest themselves as sudden changes in oscillation frequency
when nming over the working range, or as " dead" spots, or through the oscillator
stopping altogether when the gang capacitance becomes less than a certain value.
It may be mentioned finally that the Hartley circuit has been extensively used on
all broadcast bands including the F-M 88-108 Mc/s band; its application in re-
ceivers has been largely confined to use with pentagrid converters such as types 6SA7,
6BE6, 6SB7-Y and 6BA7.
(Iv) Colpittsoseillator
A circuit for a shunt fed Colpitts oscillator is shown in Fig. 24.5(A). A suitable
arrangement (Ref. 9) for use in radio receivers operating at frequencies of the order
of 100 Mc/s is that of Fig. 24.5(B). In this latter circuit C B is the self-capacitance
(Plus added capacitance if required) of the choke L in the cathode circuit, and C.4
is the grid-ta-cathode capacitance; Lo is the oscillator coil inductance and G the
variable tuning capacitor. The cathode impedance can readily be controlled by
connecting a variable trimmer across L.
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
The circuit of Fig. 24.5(B) has been successfully used with type 6BE6 converters
tuning the 88-108 Mc/s F-M broadcast band and avoids the necessity for tapping the
oscillator coil as in the Hartley circuit.
The angular frequency of oscillation of the Colpitts oscillator, from the solution
of the circuit of Fig. 24.5(A), is given by
where 000 = f 0 (fo is the natural resonant frequency of the tuned circuit alone)
217 X
R r-f resistance of Lo
r" plate resistance of valve
/l. amplification factor of valve
Lo oscillator coil inductance
and C1 and C 2 tune Lo; they also form a capacitive voltage divider across Lo; and
the excitation voltage on the grid is proportional to Cd( C1 + C,).
This circuit is most convenient for use at v-h-f, it is very easy to make oscillate,
and is not so liable to parasitic oscillations as the Hartley circuit. Its use on the
medium and short-wave bands has been rather limited because of difficulties in circuit
arrangement when. covering frequency bands of about 3 : 1, and also because of the
very simple and satisfactory manner in which the tuned-grid and tuned-plate circuits
can be made to operate over these ranges. The Colpitts circuit readily lends itself
to inductance tuning and· with this arrangment has been used satisfactorily on all
of the frequency ranges encountered in normal broadcast receiver design.
(v) Electron-coupled oscillator
Electron-coupled oscillators (Refs. 1, 22) can use a large variety of fundamental
circuits, such as the Hartley or Colpitts, for generating oscillations. The circuit
usually employs a tetrode or pentode valve, or, most often in receivers, is used with a
pentagridconverter . Valves having suppressor grids will generally give better fre-
quency stability.
The fundamental principle is that the actual oscillating circuit is connected to the
load circuit only by means of the electron stream within the valve. In this way changes
in load conditions and high tension voltages have a reduced effect on the actual fre-
quency of oscillation. The improvement in frequency stability with voitage varia-
tions appears to be closely bound up with compensating effects due to simultaneous
voltage changes on the plate and screen. Variation in load conditions would, ideally,
leave the oscillation frequency unchanged since the two circuits are only connected
unilaterally through the electron stream. Actually, of course, interelectrode capacit-
ances and stray coupling prevent this condition from being completely fulfilled.
Those pentagrid converters which com-
monly use the Hartley oscillator circuit
arrangement are typical examples of the
application of electron-coupling. One such
arrangement is shown in Fig. 24.6. It is
often advantageous in this type of circuit to
B+
connect the screen to the rectifier output
through R as this reduces " flutter"; the
FIG.24·S PENTAGRID CONVERTER U51NG ELECTRON- high tension for the plate is obtained from
COUPLED HARTLEY 05CILLATOR the power supply in the usual manner.
With this latter arrangement C 2 generally consists of an electrolytic capacitor and a
mica capacitor (to act as a r-f by-pass) connected in parallel.
Since this oscillator is a two tenninal type it is often a very convenient arrangement ;
one particular example is its use as a beat-frequency oscillator in a radio receiver. A
particular form of the negative transconductance oscillator (Ref. 13)-which employs,
also, the principle of electron coupling-using a pentagrid converter valve (e.g. type
6A8, but not 6SA7, 6BE6 etc.) is shown in Fig. 24.7. The negative transconductance
is brought about as-follows. Electrons moving towards the plate are turned back to
the inner screen (G 3) and the oscillator anode (G 2 ) when the control grid (G.) has a
more negative voltage applied to it. The net effect of an increase of negative voltage
on the signal grid is to increase the current to the oscillator-anode and to grid G 3 •
OUTPUT
i
B+250V
nG.24·7 NEGATIVE TRANSCONOUCTANCE OSCILLATOR
(i) General
Frequency drift in the oscillator section of superheterodyne receivers (F-M or
A-M) is important for a number of reasons~ The most obvious is that as a result
of such drift the actUal intermediate frequency output from the fr~quency changer
will not be that to which the i-f amplifier is tuned, giving a loss in amplification and
the added possibility of considerable frequency distortion in A-M receivers, and non-
linear distortion in F-M receivers. Other special effects will be discussed separately.
Oscillator frequency variations which can be offset in the original design may be
due to changes in
(a) Supply voltage
(b) Temperature
(c) Humidity
(d) A.V.C. bias on the signal grid of multielectrode converter valves. This
will be discussed in Chapter 25 Sect. 2.
Also, it should be noted that a high percentage of oscillator harmonics can lead to
oscillator instability. Mechanical stability of the circuit is a prime requirement.
Detailed discussion regarding oscillator frequency stability can be found in Refs.
1. 4, 5, 10, 11, 15, 19, 20, 21 and 28.
This is minimized by the use of high quality dielectrics such as special grades of por-
celain.
Inductance changes due to temperature rise also cause frequency variation, and
low-loss dielectric formers are essential. If sufficient mechanical stability is possible
air cored coils are often preferable, but not always.
Good circuit layout is an essential requirement and all sources of heat should be
kept away from tuning capacitors and coils.
When all the requirements as to dielectrics, circuit layout etc. have been met as
far as is possible, fittal temperature compensation is made by using capacitors having
negative temperature coefficients. These capacitors are available commercially in a
wide range of capacitance values, and with various negative temperature co-efficients.
The manufacture of this type of capacitor is possible because of the availability of
ceramic materials having dielectric constants which decrease with an increase in
temperature"'. It should be realized that exact compensation by simple capacitance
adjustment is only feasible, in general, at one point in a given tuning range, but a very
appreciable improvement over a band of frequencies is possible without exact com-
pensation at anyone point. A method for obtaining exact compensation at two points
(although here again a compromise adjustment may be preferable) in a given tuning
range, using the principles of superheterodyne tracking, has been given by BUshby
(Ref. 19); it is also shown that a compromise adjustment is possible, although exact
compensation is not practicable, at three points in the tuning range. Methods for
carrying out long period frequency-drift compensation, due to temperature changes,
are outlined in Ref. 19.
Changes in oscillator frequency with humidity can be minimized by using coils,
capacitors and insulating materials which are properly baked to remove moisture
and then impregnated (with suitable waxes or varnishes) to prevent the absorption of
moisture·t
It may be worth noting here that carbon resistors have negative temperature co-
efficients. Wire-wound resistors liave positive or negative temperature co-efficients
depending on the type of resistance wire used. t
this frequency should not coincide with the bass resonant frequency of the loud speaker.
Often it is necessary to mount the capacitor on rubber and provide flexible leads to
the dial, etc.
(C) Microphonics caused by heater-cathode capacitance variations. This effect
is minimized by connecting one side of the heater directly to cathode, where this is
possible, and using a r-f choke in the other heater lead to avoid shunting the tuned
circuit with the heater circuit, e.g. see Fig. 24.6 where the result of omitting a r-f
choke would be to short out part of the tuning inductance.
Microphony in superhet. oscillators is covered in Ref. 32.
above procedure will usually be somewhat greater than is necessary, and it is only
necessary to strip off the exCess turns until the required conditions are approached.
Of course, this does not immediately ensure that the circuit will be satisfactory in
all respects, since the oscillator normally tunes over a band of frequencies. Owing to
the tolerances permitted in the manufacture of all valve types, it is necessary to check
the circuit with a number of valves. These, preferably, should include samples which
fall on the upper and lower limits of the permissible range· of g m allowed by the par-
ticular manufacturer, otherwise satisfactory results may not be obtained in the mass
production of receivers.
Where the available operating data are given for voltages somewhat different from
those required, valve conversion factors (see Chapter 2, Sect. 6) can be applied to
obtain the new conditions.
Occasionally a receiver designer is faced with the problem of using a valve for which
some data are available, but for which conditions for oscillator operation are not given.
Several procedures are available. Exact or approximate methods of analysis can be
used, just as for power oscillators (see Refs. 10, 11 and 24), but often it is possible to
arrive at a suitable set of operating conditions on the basis of past experience (or by
comparison with similar valve types for which the required data are given). The
only important factor, as far as the use of the valve is concerned, is that the maximum
ratings-including the peak plate current-should not be exceeded. Other factors
previously discussed, such as keeping the oscillator grid current as low as possible
and operating the valve so that harmonic generation is not excessive, suggest that
conditions more nearly approaching Class B operation are called for, particularly
as high efficiency with receiving type valves is not often (if ever) a design requirement
in a radio receiver.
Once a suitable set of operating conditions has been obtained, experimental tech-
niques are resorted to, exactly as before. Preliminary calculations other than the
empirical methods suggested, as to tapping points, number of feedback turns etc.,
can be made if so desired, but the extra trouble involved is hardly worth the effort.
Methods for calculating the inductance required for feedback windings have been
suggested (see Ref. 8, page 117) but generally the results give values which are too
low. For this reason the experimental approach is generally the best procedure since
it must be resorted to finally, in any case, before a design is completed.
Section Page
1. The operation of frequency converters and mixers 962
2. Converter applications 987
3. Superheterodyne tracking 1002
4. References 1017
(i) Introduction
The better modem radio receivers are almost universally designed to use the super-
heterodyne circuit. In such a circuit, the received signal frequency is heterodyned
with the frequency of a local oscillator to produce a difference frequency known as the
intermediate frequency. The resultant signal is amplified by a selective, fixed-
tuned amplifier before detection. Since the heterodyne action is usually accomplished
by means of a suitable vacuum tube, it is the purpose of this paper to discuss the chief
similarities and differences among the tubes which might be used, as well as to explain
their behaviour.
The combination of signal and local-oscillator frequencies to produce an inter-
mediate frequency is a process of modulation in which one of the applied frequencies
causes the amplitude of the other to vary. Although this process was originally
called heterodyne detection and, later, first detection, it is now called frequency con-
version. The portion of the radio receiver which produces conversion may, therefore,
be identified as the converter. If conversion is accomplished in a single vacuum tube
which combines the functions of oscillator and modulator, this tube may logically be
termed a converter tube. When separate tubes are used for the oscillator and the
modulator portions of the converter, respectively, the tube for the latter purpose is
conveniently called a modulator or mixer tube. This tenninology will be used in this
paper.
Although in some of the earliest superheterodynes, frequency conversion was
accomplished by a triode oscillator and triode modulator (Ref. 1) other circuits used
a single triode which served as both modulator and oscillator (Ref. 2). A triode used
in the latter way could, therefore, be called a converter tube. The introduction of
two-grid tubes (Le. tetrodes) permitted a wide variety of modulator and converter
arrangements which frequently gave superior performance to that possible with
triodes (Ref. 3-7).
When indirectly heated cathodes became more common, conversion circuits in
which the oscillator voltage was injected in the cathode circuit were used. These
962
25.1 FREQUENCY CONVERTERS-(i) INTRODUCTION 963
circuits reduced considerably the interaction between oscillator and signal circuits
which would otherwise be present. (Ref. 8). When tetrodes and pentodes became
available, the use of the triode was dropped except as the local oscillator. It was not
long, however, before the desirability of more complete separation of oscillator and
signal circuits became evident. . Multigrid converter tubes were, therefore, devised
to permit this separation in a satisfactory manner, at least for the frequ~ncies then
in common use. (Refs. 9-14). In some of these it was also possible to control the
conversion gain by an automatic-volume-control voltage, a decided advantage. The
most satisfactory of the earlier multigrid tubes was known as the pentagrid converter,
a type still widely used. A simi~ar tube having an additional suppressor grid is used
in Europe and is known as the octode.
When it became desirable to add high-frequency bands to superheterodyne receivers
which also had to cover the low broadcast frequencies, the converter problem became
more difficult. The highest practicable intermediate frequency appeared to be about
450 to 460 kilocycles, a value which was only about 2 per cent of the highest frequency
to be received. Its use meant that the oscillator frequency was separated from the
signal frequency by only 2 per cent and the signal circuit, therefore, offered appreci-
able impedance at the oscillator frequency. A phenomenon known as "space-
charge coupling," found in the pentagrid converter, indicated that signal and oscillator
circuits were not separated as completely as would be desirable. (Ref. 15). In ad-
dition, the permissible frequency variations of the oscillator had to be held to less
than the intermediate-frequency bandwidth, namely, 5 to 10 kilocycles; at the highest
frequency to be received, the oscillator frequency was required therefore to remain
stable within 0.05 per cent. In the pentagrid converter, the most serious change in
oscillator frequency occurred when the automatic-volume-control voltage was changed,
and was sometimes as much as 50 kilocycles. Economic considerations have led to
the use of at least a three-to-onefrequertcy coverage for each band in the receiver.
With capacitance tuning, the circuit impedance is very low at the low-frequency end
of the high-frequency band so that failure to oscillate was occasionally observed in
the pentagrid converter.
In Europe, where· converter problems were similar, a tube known as the triode-
hexode (Ref. 16) was developed to overcome some of the disadvantages of the pentagrid
converter. In the pentagrid tube, the oscillator voltage is generated by, and therefore
applied to, the electrodes of the assembly closest to the cathode (i.e., the inner elec-
trodes). In the European form of triode-hexode, the oscillator voltage is generated by
a separate small triode section mounted on a cathode common to a hexode-modulator
section. The triode grid is connected internally to the third grid of the hexode
section. In this way, by the application of the oscillator voltage to an outer grid and
the signal to the inner grid of the modulator, space-charge coupling was greatly re-
duced and automatic-volume-control voltage could be applied to the modulator section
of the tube without seriously changing the oscillator frequency. In some European
types, a suppressor grid has been added so that such tubes should be called triode-
heptodes.
The first American commercial development to provide improved performance
over that of the pentagrid converter also utilized oscillator voltage injection on an
outer grid but required a separate tube for oscillator (Ref. 17). This development,
therefore, resulted in a modulator or mixer tube rather than a converter. There were
many advantages accompanying the use of separate oscillator tube so that such a
solution of the problem appeared to be reasonably satisfactory.
The demand arose shortly, however; for a one-tube converter system with better
performance than the original pentagrid type for use in the standard all-wave receiver.
A tube, the 6K8, in which one side of a rectangular cathode was used for the oscillator
and the other side was used for the mixer section, was developed and made available.
(Ref. 18). This tube used inner-grid oscillator injection, as with the pentagrid con-
verter, but had greatly improved oscillator stability. Another solution, also intro-
duced in the United States, was a triode-heptode which is an adaptation of the Euro-
pean triode-hexode. This type used outer-grid injection of the oscillator voltage
964 FREQUENCY CONVERTERS-(i) INTRODUCTION 25.1
gcn =
e,
Substituting the value of the Fourier coefficient an it is found that
1 f27T
gcn = 27T 0 gm cos nwotd(wot).
When n is set equal to unity, this expression becomes identical with the one previously
derived. (Ref. 17).
Thus, the conversion transconductance is obtained by a simple Fourier analysis of
the signal-electrQde-to-output-electrode transconductance as a function of time.
Such an analysis is readily made from the tube characteristics directly by examination
of the curve of signal-electrode transconductance versus oscillator-electrode voltage.
The calculation of the conversion transconductance at the nth harmonic of the os-
cillator is made from this curve by assuming an applied oscillator voltage and making
a Fourier analysis of the resulting curve of transconductance versus time for its nth
harmonic component. The analysis is exactly similar to the one made of power
output tubes, except that, in the latter case, the plate-current-versus-control-electrode-
voltage curve is used. Fig. 25.1 shows a curve of signal-grid trimsconductance
versus oscillator-electrode voltage for a typical modulator or mixer tube. In the
usual case, the oscillator voltage is applied from a tuned circuit and so is closely
sinusoidal in shape as at A in the figure. The resulting curve of transconductance
versus time is shown at B. Any of the usual Fourier analysis methods may be used
to determine the desired component of curve B. Half of this value is the conversion
transconductance at the harmonic considered. Convenient formulas of sufficient
acq.ll'acy for many purposes follow. Referring to Fig. 25.2a, a sine-wave oscillator
voltage is assumed and a seven-point analysis is made (i.e., 3O-degree intervals).
The conversion trans conductances g en are
1
g cl 12[(g7 - gl) + (g5 - g3) + 1.73 (g6 - g2)]
1 '
gc2 12[2g 4 + ieg3 + g5 -·g6 - g2) - (g7 + gl)]
1
g c3 = i2[(g7 - gl) - 2(g5 - g3)].
The values gu g2' etc., are chosen from the transconductance characteristic as in-
dicated in Fig. 25.2a. The values computed from the above formulas are, of course,
most accurate for g cl and of less accuracy for g c2 while a value computed from the
formula for g c3 is a very rough approximation.
966 (ii) GENERAL ANALYSIS OF OPERATION 25.1
_ _:::::>
--i---j+-:I
sion transconductance.
In practical cases using grid-controlled
tubes of the usual kind, the maximum
c::::---_--.I FIG. 25.2.
fundamental conversion transconductance Fig. 25.2a. Points used for 30-degree
which a given tube will give can quickly analysis of conversion transconductance.
be determined within 10 per cent or so by Fig. 25.2b. Oscillator amplitude and
simply taking 28 per cent of the maximum bias adjusted for high conversion trans-
signal- grid - to - plate transconductance ~onductance at oscillator fundamental,
which can be attained. For conversion at t.e., gl = g2 = ga = O.
second harmonic, optimum oscillator excitation gives a conversion transconductance
of half this value, while for third-harmonic conversion the value is divided by three.
Although the same characteristic of all modulator or mixer tubes is used to determine
the conversion transconductance, the shape of this characteristic varies between
different types of mixers. This variation will be more clearly brought out in the later
sections of the paper.
B. Conversion transconductance of converter tubes
In converter tubes with oscillator sections of the usual kind, the oscillator voltage
is usually present on more than one electrode. Furthermore, the phase of the os-
cillator-control-grid voltage is opposite to that of the oscillator-anode alternating
voltage, so that the two would be expected partially to demodulate each other. The
transconductance curve which should be used in this case is the one in which the
oscillator electrode voltages are simultaneously varied in opposite directions.
Fortunately, with most of the commonly used converter tubes such as the pentagrid,
octode, triode-hexode, etc., the effect of small variations of oscillator-anode voltage
25.1 (ii) GENERAL ANALYSIS OF OPERATION 967
on the electrode currents is so small that usually it may be neglected. Thus, the
conversion transconductance of these converter tubes may be found exactly as if the
tube were a modulator or mixer, only.
With the circuit of Fig. 25.3 (Refs. 19-21) a Hartley oscillator arrangement is used
and oscillator-frequency voltage is present on the cathode. The effect of such a
voltage is also to demodulate the electron stream through the action of the alternating
cathode potential on the screen-to-cathode and signal-grid-to-cathode voltages.
When a relatively high-transconductance signal grid is present, as in the figure, this
demodulation is considerably greater than in the normal cathode-at-ground circuit.
In order to determine the conversion
I.F. OUTPUTtransconductance of a tube to be used in
this circuit, a signal-grid transconduct-
\' ance curve is needed. Such a curve,
however, must be taken with cathode
a
and oscillator-grid potential varied
simultaneously and in their correct ratio
where k = 1.37 x 10- 23, T R is room temperature in degrees Kelvin, and Jj is the
effective over-all bandwidth for noise purposes. Since Jj is invariably associated
with ii_f 2 , the bandwidth cancels in the determination of R e q which is one of the
advantages of the equivalent-resistance concept. For T R = 20 degrees centigrade,
1 ii_f 2
Req = 0.625 X 10 20 - -2 - - .
gCfl Jj
A summary of values of R e q for common types of converter will be found in a pre-
ceding paper. (Ref 23).
The equivalent noise resistance R e q alone does not tell the entire story as
regards signal-to-noise ratio, particularly at high frequencies. For example, if the
converter stage is the first stage of a receiver, and bandwidth is not a consideration,
the signal energy which must be supplied by the antenna to drive it will be inversely
proportional to the converter-stage input resistance. On the other hand, the noise
energy of the converter or mixer tube is proportional to its equivalent noise resistance.
The signal-to-noise ratio therefore, will vary with the ratio of input resistance to
equivalent noise resistance, and this quantity should be as high as possible. When
bandwidth is important, the input resistance should be replaced by the reciprocal
of the input capacitance if it is desired to compare various converter systems for signal-
to-noise ratio.
There are three methods of operation of mixer or modulator tubes. The oscillator
voltage may be put on the same grid as the signal voltage,it maybe put on the inner
grid (the signal applied to an outer grid), or it may be impressed on an outer grid
(with the signal on the inner grid). Each of these modes of operation has charac-
teristics which depend on the mode rather than on the tube used in it. Tubes which
may be used in anyone mode differ from one another mainly in the degree in which
they affect these characteristics. The treatment to follow, therefore, will not neces~
sarily deal with specific tube types: instead, the phenomenon encountered will be
illustrated by the use of data taken on one or more typical tubes for each of the modes
of operation.
A. Tubes with oscillator and signal voltages applied to same grid
Typical tubes used for this type of operation are triodes and pentodes. The
. oscillator voltage may be introduced in series with the signal voltage, coupled to the
signal input circuit inductively, capacitively, and/or conductively, or jt may be
coupled into the cathode circuit. In all but the last case, by operating below the grid-
current point, the oscillator circuit is not loaded directly by the mixer tube. When
cathode injection is used, however, an effective load equal to the mean cathode con-
ductance (slightly greater than the mean transconductance) is imposed on the oscillator
circuit. The cathode injection· circuit has the advantage that oscillator-frequency
voltage between the signal input circuit and ground is minimized, thus reducing
radiation when the converter stage is also the first stage of the receiver.
A typical transconductance-versus-bias curve
for a variable-IL radio-frequency pentode is shown
in Fig. 25.4. The uSe of the Fourier analysis for
conversion transconductance at oscillator funda-
mental indicates that a value of approximately a
quarter of the peak transconductance can be at-
tained. Because of the tailing off of the lower
end of the curve, highest conversion transconduct-
ance requires a large oscillator s\\-"ing. Very nearly
the maximum value is obtained, however, at an op-
erating bias shown by the dotted line, with an os-
cillator peak amplitude approximately equal to
the bias. With lower oscillator amplitudes, and
. the same fixed bias, the fundamental conversion -5 00
transconductance drops in approximate propor- BIAS VOLTS
tion to the oscillator amplitude FIG.2S.4
Fig. 25.4. Transconductance
Strictly speaking, when the cathode injec- characteristic of a typical variable-
tion type of operation is used the effect of IL, radio-frequency pent ode.
the oscillator voltage which is impressed between screen and cathode, and plate
and cathode should be considered. Practically, however, there is little difference
over the simpler circuit in which the oscillator voltage is impressed on the signal grid
only. It is for this "reason that the cathode-injection circuit is placed in the same
category as those in which the oscillator voltage is' actually impressed on the same
electrode as the signal.
In a practical circuit the effective oscillator voltage is, of course, the oscillator voltage
actually existent between grid and cathode of the tube. When the oscillator voltage
is impressed in series with the signal circuit or on the cathode, this effective voltage
is different from the applied oscillator voltage by the drop across the signal circuit.
In the usual case, with the oscillator frequency higher than the signal frequency, the
signal circuit appears capacitive at oscillator frequency. This capacitance and the
grid-to-cathode capacitance, being in series, form a capacitance divider and reduce
the effective oscillator voltage. The reduction would not be a serious matter if it
remained a constant quantity; but in receivers which must be tuned over an appreci-
able frequency range this is not the case. The result is a variation in conversion
gain over the band. A number of neutralizing circuits have been describe<fin the
970 (iv) MIXER SECTION OF CONVERTER STAGE 25.1
patent literature which are designed to reduce the oscillator-frequency voltage across
the signal circuit and thus minimize the variations. (Refs. 27, 28).
Coupling of the oscillator voltage into, or across, the signal circuit is also accom-
panied by changes in effective oscillator voltage when the tuning is varied. These
changes are not so great with pure inductive coupling as with pure capacitance coup-
ling. In many practical cases, both couplings are present.
A method of reducing the variation of conversion gain with effective oscillator
voltage in tubes in which oscillator voltage and signal are' placed on the same grid,
employs automatic bias. Automatic bias may be obtained either by a cathode self-
bias resistor (by-passed to radio frequency) or by a high-resistance grid leak, or both.
An illustration of the improvement which may be obtained in this way is shown in
Fig. 25.5. Three curves of conversion transconductance, at oscillator fundamental,
against effective peak oscillator volts are shown for the typical variable- p. pentode of
Fig. 25.4 used as a mixer. For the curve a, a fixed bias was used at approximately
an optimum point. The curve is stopped at the grid-current point because operation
beyond this point is not practicable in a receiver. Curve b shows the same tube
operated with a cathode self-bias resistor. This curve is also stopped at the grid-
current point. Curve c shows operation with a high-resistance grid leak. It is
evident that, above an oscillator voltage of about 3, curve b is somewhat flatter, and c
is considerably flatter than the fixed-bias curve a. The high-resistance grid lead
used for c may be made a part of the automatic-volume-control filter but care must
be taken that its value is considerably higher than the resistance in the automatic-
volume-control circuit which is common to other tubes in the receiver. If this is
not done, all the tubes will be biased down with large oscillator swings. When a
high-resistance leak is used, the automatic-volume-control action does not begin
in the mixer tube until the automatic-volume-control bias has exceeded the peak
oscillator voltage. Because of the high resistance of the leak, the signal circuit is
not loaded appreciably by the mixer tube. In a practical case, precautions must be
taken that a pentode in the converter stage is not operated at excessive currents when
accidental failure of the oscillator reduces the bias. A series dropping resistor in the
screen-grid supply will prevent such overload. When a series screen resistor is
used, the curve of conversion transconductance versus oscillator voltage is even flatter
than the best of the curves shown in Fig. 25.5. Series screen operation. therefore,
is highly desirable (Ref. 23).
One of the effects of feedback through interelectrode capacitance in vacuum tubes
is a severe loading of the input circuit when an inductance is present in the cathode
circuit. Thus, in mixers using cathode injection, the signal circuit is frequently
heavily damped since the oscillator circuit is inductive at signal frequency in the
usual case. The feedback occurs through the grid-to-cathode capacitance and can
be neutralized to some extent by a split cathode coil with a neutralizing capacitance.
(Ref. 28). Such neutralization also minimizes the voltage drop of oscillator frequency
across the signal circuit. .
Loading of the signal circuit by feedback from the plate circuit of modulators or
mixers may also be serious when the signal-grid-to-plate capacitance is appreciable.
This is especially true when a low capacitance intermediate-frequency circuit, which
presents a comparatively high capacitive reactance at signal frequency, is used, as in
wide-band intermediate-frequency circuits. The grid-plate capacitance of radio-
frequency pentodes is usually small enough so that the effect is negligible in these
tubes. In triodes, however, feedback from the intermediate-frequency circuit may
be serious and the grid-plate capacitance should be minimized in tube and circuit
design. Although neutralization is a possible solution to the plate feedback, a more
promising solution is the use of a specially designed intermediate-frequency circuit
which offers a low impedance at signal frequency by the equivalent of series tuning
and yet causes little or no sacrifice in intermediate-frequency performance.
At high frequencies,_ the converter stage eXt'tibits phenomena not usually observable
at low frequencies. One group of phenomena is caused not by the high operating
frequency, per se, but rather by a high ratio of operating frequency to intermediate
25.1 (iv) MIXER SECTION OF CONVERTER STAGE 971
~
J:
~2000
-=w
U
~1,sOO w
U
;:) 200 ~
~ ~
U
~I.OOO ;:)
o
Z
& 100 8
1-500
Z I-
;:)
Q Il.
=
i 4
PEAK
6 8
OSCILLATOR
10
VOLTS
12
FIG. 25.5
~~~~~--~~--~OO
VOLTS
FIG. 25.6
Fig. 25.5. Conversion transconductance of a typical variable-p., radio-frequency pentode.
Oscillator and signal voltages both applied to grid No. 1.a, fixed-bias operation; b, cathode
resistor used to obtain bias; c, bias obtained by means of a high-resistance grid leak.
Fig. 25.6. Input conductance of a typical variable-p., radio-frequency pentode, at
60 megacycles.
frequency (i.e., a small separation between signal and oscillator frequencies). Among
these phenomena may be listed pull-in and inter-locking between oscillator and signal
circuits and poor image response. In mixers in which oscillator and signal are im-
pressed on the same grid, the first of these effects is usually pronounced because of
the close coupling between the osCillator and signal circuits. It can be reduced by
special coupling from the local oscillator at an increase in the complexity of the circuit.
Other phenomena, which are due to the high operating frequency, occur in mixers
irrespective of the intermediate-frequency. The most important of these are those
caused by transit-time effects in the tube and by :finite inductances and mutual in-
ductances in the leads to the tube. When the oscillator and signal are impressed
on the grid of a mixer, the effects are not dissimilar to those in the same tube used
as an amplifier. So far as the signal is concerned, the operation is similar to that of
an amplifier whose plate current and transconductance are periodically varied at
another frequency (that of the oscillator). The effects at signal frequency must,
therefore, be integrated or averaged over the oscillator cycle. The input conductance
at 60 megacycles of the typical radio-frequency pentode used for Figs. 25.4 and Fig.
25.5 as a function of control-grid bias is shown in Fig. 25.6. The integrated or net
loading as a function of oscillator amplitude, when the tube is used as a mixer at this
frequency, is given in Fig. 25.7, both with fixed-bias operation and with the bias
obtained by a grid leak and condenser. The con-
ductance for all other frequencies may be cal-
culated by remembering that the input con-
ductance increases with the square of the fre-
w
u quency. The data given do not hold for cathode
~200
I- injection because of the loading added by feed-
u
;:) back, as previously discussed.
o
z When automatic volume control is used on the
o
U 100 modulator tube, an important effect in some cir-
I-
;:)
cuits is the change in input capacitance and input
loading with bias. This is especially true when
....
Il.
Z
°0~-----~4------~8~---~1~2
low-capacitance circuits are in use, as with a wide-
PEAK OSCILLATOR VOLTS
band amplifier. With tubes having oscillator
FIG.2S.7 and signal voltages on the same grid, because of
the integrating action of the oscillator voltage, the
Fig. 25.7. Input cimductance of
changes are not so pronounced as with the same
a typical pentode when used as a
tube used as amplifier. A small, unbypassed
mixer at 60 megacycles, a, fixed-
cathode resistor may be used with an amplifier
bias operation; c, bias obtained
tube (Refs. 29, 30) to reduce the variations; it
by means of a high-resistance grid
should give a similar improvement with the
leak.
modulator.
972 (i\") MIXER SECTION OF CONVERTER STAGE 25.1
At Oscillator 2nd
1.5 Eeo
0.25
0.2010 I 0.13 31 [,
Harmonic 1 + oc- go IT +oc g ' lgo- + 220 go, "
~A~tOscillator -:t.. ~
J~UI 4.3 Eco
nu::
I ~.~ oc go I 0.11 10 v.v, I- + 260 2
1'\ ",..
I T+go
"0
JO
T
10
0c
Harmonic I oc go go
25.1 Civ) MIXER SECTION OF CONVERTER STAGE 973
As an example of the use of the table, suppose it is desired to find the equivalent
noise resistance of a particular triode operated as a converter at the oscillator second
harmonic. The local oscillator can be permitted to swing the triode mixer grid to
zero bias. With a plate voltage of 180 volts and zero bias, the tube data sheet shows
a transconductance, go = 2.6 X 10- 3 mho. Thus the equivalent noise resistance is
31/g o or 12000 ohms and the conversion transconductance at second harmonic is
0.13 go, or 340 micromhos. Since, with this plate voltage the tube cuts off at about
8 volts, a peak oscillator voltage of around 12 volts will be required.
The above table may also be used to obtain a rough estimate of the input loading
of pentode or triode mixers, since the high-frequency input conductance is roughly
proportional to the average transconductance g m and to the square of the frequency.
Thus, if the loading at any transconductance and frequency is known, the loading as
a mixer under the conditions of the table may quickly be computed.
2,000
,/
-20
Nol
-10
GRID BIAS
o
VOLTS
+10
FIG.25.S
B. Tubes with oscillator voltage on an inner grid, signal voltage oil an outer
grid
When the oscillator voltage is impressed on the grid nearest the cathode of a mixer
or converter, the cathode current is varied at oscillator frequency. The signal grid,
on the other hand, may be placed later in the electron stream to serve only to change
the distribution of the current between the output anode and the other positive elec-
trodes. When the two control grids are separated by a screen grid, the undesirable
coupling between oscillator and signal circuits is reduced much below the value which
otherwise would be found.
The signal-grid-to-plate transconductance of the inner-grid injection mixer is a
function of the total current reaching the signal grid; this current, and hence the
signal-grid transconductance, will vary at oscillator frequency so that mixing becomes
possible. The signal-grid transconductance as a function of oscillator-grid potential
of a typical modulator of this kind is shown in Fig. 25.8 .. It will be observed that
this characteristic is different in shape from the corresponding curve of Fig.· 25.4
for the tube with oscillator and signal voltages on the same grid. The chief point of
difference is that a definite peak in transconductance is found; The plate current
of the tube shows a saturation at approximately the same bias as that at which the
peak in transconductance occurs, indicating the formation of a partial virtual cathode.
The sigDal grid, over the whole of these curves, is biased negatively and so draws
no current. The oscillator inner grid (No. 1 grid) however, draws Current at positive
values of bias. This separation of signal and osci11ator grids is advantageous, inasmuch
as the signal circuit is not loaded even though the oscillator amplitude is sufficient to
draw grid current. In fact, in the usual circuit, the oscillator grid is self-biased
with a low-resistance leak and condenser and swings sufficiently far positive to attain
the peak signal-grid transconductance.
The conversion transconductance of such a tube has a maximum with an oscillator
swing which exceeds the point of maximum signal-grid transconduct8nce in the one
974 (iv) MIXER SECTION OF CONVERTER STAGE 25.1
direction and which cuts off this transconductance over slightly less than half the
cycle, in the other. Curves of conversion transconductance against peak oscillator
voltage are shown in Fig. 25.9. Curve a is for fixed-bias operation of the oscillator
grid, curve b is with a high-resistance (i.e. several megohms) grid leak and condenser
for bias, and curve c is with the recommended value of grid leak (50000 ohms) for
this type of tube. It is seen that best operation is obtained with the lower resistance
value of grid leak. With this value, the negative bias produced by rectification in the
grid circuit is reduced enough to allow the oscillator grid to swing appreciably positive
over part of the cycle. An incidental advantage to the use of the low-resistance leak
when the tube is self-oscillating (i.e., a convener) is that undesirable relaxation os-
cillations are minimized.
In mixers or conveners in which the oscillator voltage is present on both the cathode
and the oscillator grid in the same phase (e.g. Fig. 25.3) it is usually necessary to
utilize a relatively sharp cut off in the design of the oscillator grid so as to cut off the
cathode current when the signal grid is positive (Ref. 19). By this means, the signal
grid is prevented from drawing current. At the same time, however, the high currents
needed for a high peak value of signal-grid transconductance cannot be obtained
without a greater positive swing of the oscillator grid than with a more open oscillator
grid strUcture. Thus, it is clear that it is desirable to have a negative bias on the
oscillator electrode which is considerably smaller than the peak oscillator voltage.
For this reason, optimum results are obtained on these tubes with very low values of
oscillator grid leak (e.g. 10000 to 20000 ohms).
The effects of feedback through the interelectrode capacitance are small in well-
designed multigrid mixers and conveners of the kind covered in this section. The
signal-grid-to-plate capacitance is usually small enough to play no part in the opera-
tion; even with a high L-to-C ratio in the intermediate-frequency transformer, the
capacitive reactance of the intermediate-frequency circuit at signal frequency is only
a very small fraction of the feedback reactance. The other interelectrode capacitance
which plays some part in determining circuit performance (excluding, of course,
the input and output capacitances) is the capacitance from the oscillator electrode or
electrodes to the signal grid. This capacitance is a source of coupling between these
two circuits. In well-designed convener or modUlator tubes of the type discussed
in this section, however, the coupling through the capacitance may be made small
compared with another form of internal coupling known as " space-charge coupling"
which will be treated later in this discussion.
Coupling between oscillator and signal circuits is of no great consequence except
when an appreciable voltage of oscillator frequency is built up across the signal-grid
circuit. This is not usually possible unless the signal circuit is nearly in tune with
the oscillator as it is when a low ratio of intermediate frequency to signal frequency
is used. The effect of oscillator-frequency voltage induced across the signal circuit
depends on its phase; the effect is usually either to increase or to decrease the relative
modulation of the plate current at oscillator frequency a..'ld so to change the con-
version transconductance. This action is a disadvantage, panicularly when the
amount of induced voltage changes when the tuning is varied, as usually occurs.
25.1 (iv) MIXER SECTION OF CONVERTER STAGE 975
In some cases, another effect is a flow of grid current to the signal grid; this may
-happen when the oscillator-frequency voltage across the signal-grid circuit exceeds
the bias. Grid current caused by this effect can usually be distinguished from grid
current due to other causes. By-passing or short-circuiting the signal-grid circuit
reduces the oscillator-frequency voltage across the signal-grid circuit to zero. Any
remaining grid current must, therefore, be due to other causes.
Current to a negative signal grid of a tube operated with inner-grid oscillator in-
jection is sometimes observed at high frequencies (e.g. over 20 megacycles) even when
no impedance is present in the signal-grid circuit. This current is caused by elec-
trons whose effective initiai velocity has been increased by their finite transit time
in the high-frequency alternating field around the oscillator grid. These electrons
are then able to strike a signal grid which is several volts negative. The magnitude
of the signal-grid current is not usually as great as with tubes applying the oscillator
voltage to an outer grid* although it may prevent the use of an automatic-volume-
control voltage on the tube.
An investigation of coupling effects in the pentagrid converter showed that, the
coupling was much larger than could be explained by interelectrode capacitance.
It was furthermore discovered that the apparent coupling induced a voltage on the
signal circuit in opposite phase to that induced by a capacitance from oscillator to
signal grid. (Ref. 15). The coupling which occurred was due to variations in space
charge in front of the signal grid at oscillator frequency. A qualitative explanation
for the observed behaviour is that, when the oscillator-grid voltage is increased, the
electron charge density adjacent to the signal grid is increased and electrons are re-
pelled from the signal grid. A capacitance between the oscillator grid and the signal
grid would have the opposite effect. The coupling, therefore, may be said to be
approximately equivalent to a negative capacitance from the oscillator grid to the signal
grid. The effect is not reversible because an increase of potential on the signal grid
does not increase the electron charge density around the oscillator grid. If anything,
it decreases the charge density. The equivalence to a negative capacitance must be
restricted to a one-way negative capacitance and, as will be shown later, is restricted
also to low-frequency operation.
In general, the use of an equivalent impedance from oscillator grid to signal grid
to explain the behaviour of "space-charge coupling" is somewhat artificial. A
better point of view is simply that a current is induced in the signal grid which de-
pends on the oscillator-grid voltage. Thus, a transadmittance exists between- the
two electrodes analogous to the transconductance of an ordinary amplifier tube.
Indeed, the effect has been used for amplification in a very similar manner to the use
of the transconductance of the conventional tube. (Ref. 32, 33).
It is found that the transadmittance from the oscillator to the signal electrode
Y mo- B is of the form
Y mO-B = k 1 w 2 + jk 2 w.
At low frequencies (i.e., k 1 w 2 ~ k2W) the transadmittance is mainly a transuscept-
ance but, as the frequency rises, the transconductance component kl w 2 becomes of
more and more importance, eventually exceeding the transusceptance in magnitude.
The early work on "space-charge coupling" indicated that the effect was opposite
to that of a capacitance connected from oscillator to signal grid and could be cancelled
by the connection of such a capacitance of the correct value (Refs. 15, 34). The effect
of such cancellation could be only partial, however, since only the transusceptance
was balanced_out by this arrangement. For complete cancellation it is also necessary
to connect a conductance, the required value of which increases as the square of the
frequency, between the oscillator grid and the signal grid so that the transconductance
term is .also balanced out. (Ref. 35, 36).
The cancellation of "space-charge coupling" may be viewed in another way.
A well-known method of measuring the transadmittance of a vacuum tube is to con-
nect an admittance from control grId to output electrode and to vary this admittance
until no alternating-current output is found with a signal applied to the control grid.
*The next part of this section contains a more detailed discussion of signal-grid current in outer-grid
oscillator injection tubes.
976 (iv) MIXER SECTION OF CONVERTER STAGE 25.1
(Ref. 37). The external admittance is then equal to the transadmittance. In exactly
the same way, the transadmittance which results from the space-charge coupling may
be measured. As a step further, if an admittance can be found which substantially
equals the transadmittance at all frequencies or over the band of frequencies to be
used, this admittance may be permanently connected so as to cancel the effects of
space-charge coupling. As has been previously stated, the admittance which is re-
quired is a capacitance and a conductance whose value varies as the square of the
frequency. Such an admittance is given to a first approximation by the series con-
nection of a capacitance C and a resistance R. Up to an angular frequency w =
O.3jCR the admittance of this combination is substantially as desired. At higher
values of frequency, the conductance and susceptance fail to rise rapidly enough and
the cancellation is less complete. Other circuits are a better approximation to the
desired admittance. For example, the connection of a small inductance, having the
value L = Ij2CR2, gives a good approximation up to an angular frequency w =
0.6jCR. The latter circuit is, therefore, effective to a frequency twice as high as the
simple series arrangement of capacitance and resistance. Inasmuch as in some cases
the value of inductance needed is only a fraction of a microhenry, the inductance may
conveniently be derived from proper proportioning and configuration of the circuit
leads.
-1-'0
+10
Fi~. ~~.10: Signal.grid (grid No.4) admittance of a typical mixer designed for inner-
gnd InJectton of osallator at 31.5 megacycles. Curves taken with no oscillator fIOltage
applied. Data represents electronic admittance only (i.e. " cold U values were subtracted
from measured values before plotting.)
It is of interest to note the order of magnitude of the transadmittanoe which i.
measured in the us~ converter an~ ~ixer tubes. (Refs. 26, 35, 36, 38). In the
formula for Y mO-8 gIven above, kJ IS In the neighborhood of 10- 21 and k2 is around
10- u . Cancellation is effected by a capacitance of the order of one or two micro-
microfarads and a series resistance of 500 to 1000 ohms.
!he correct value of ~e cancelling ~dmittance may be found experimentally by
adjustment so that no OSCIllator voltage IS present across the sipal-grid circuit when
~e latter is ~ed to the ?scillator frequency. Another method which may be used
IS to observe eIther the mIxer or converter plate current or the oscillator grid current
25.1 (iv) MIXER SECTION OF CONVERTER STAGE 977
as the tuning of the signal is varied through the oscillator frequency. With proper
adjustment of the cancelling admittance there will be no reaction of the signal-circuit
tuning on either of these currents.
There are two disadvantages which accompany the cancellation of space-charge
coupling as outlined. In the first place, the signal-grid input admittance is increased
by the cancelling admittance. This point will be brought up again after discussing
the input admittance. The second disadvantage is that the oscillator frequency shift
with voltage changes in converter tubes may be somewhat increased by the use of
this caneellating admittance. When separate oscillator and mixer tubes are used,
the latter effect may be niade less serious.
The next point to be considered is the input admittance of the signal grid. Signal-
grid admittance curves of a typical modulator designed for use with the oscillator
voltage impressed on the first grid are shown under direct-:-current conditions (i.e.,
as a function of oscillator-grid bias for several values of signal-grid bias) in Fig. 25.10.
The admittance is separated into conductive and susceptive components, the latter
being plotted in terms of equivalent capacitance. The admittance components of
the " cold" tube (no electrons present) have been subtracted from the measured value
so that the plotted results represent the admittance due to the presence of electrons
only. The data shown were taken at 31.5 megacycles with a measuring signal which
did not exceed 1.0 volt peak at any til;ne. A modified Boonton Q meter was used
to take the data. It should be noted that the presence of a marked conductive com-
ponent of admittance is to be expected at frequencies as high as those used.
1',0001 1 -I 1- 1
,3.
1&1
U
Z
~
g ~~-----4--~---¥~*-~
Fig. 25.11. Signal-grid (grid No.4)
o
z conductance of a typical mixer
o
u designed for inner-grid injection of
oscillator. Lines are drawn with
slope of 2. Curve a taken with
Eel = 0, E e, = -3 volts. Curve
10~-----4-f'-t-1'------+-~
1&1 b taken with EC I = -6, Eel. =
> -6 volts.
~
~
z
10 100
FREOUENCY (MEGACYCLES)
FIG. 25.11
The most striking feature of the data of Fig. 25.10 is that hothsusceptive and con-
ductive components are negative over a large portion of _the characteristic. The
Appendix discusses this feature in somewhat more detail. The measurements show
that the susceptive component is analogous to a capacitance. The capacitance curves
given are independent of frequency up to the highest frequency used (approximately
50 megacycles). The conductive component, on the other hand, increases as the
square of the frequency also up to this frequencr. The co~ductance is, therefore,
negative even at very low frequencies although its magnitu~e is then very small.
Thus, the conductance curves of Fig. 25.11 are valid for any frequency by multi-
plication of the condUc;:tance axis by the square of the ratio of the frequency considered,
to the frequency used for the data (i.e., 31.5 megacycles). Data taken at various
frequencies for two particular values of grid bias voltage E c4 are plotted in Fig. 25.11.
The square-law relation is shown to check very closely. ,
Fig. 25.10 should be considered remembering that the oscillator voltage is applied
along the aXis .of abscissas. Considering an applied oscillator voltage, the admittance
978 (iv) MIXER SECTION OF CONVERTER STAGE 25.1
curves must be integrated over the oscillator cycle to find the admittance to the signal
frequency. The operation is just as if the tube were an amplifier whose input ad-
mittance is periodically varied over the curve of Fig. 25.10 which corresponds to the
signal-grid bias which is used. Curves of the modulator input conductance at 31.5
megacycles for various applied oscillator voltages are shown in Fig. 25.12. The
oscillator-grid bias is obtained by means of the recommended value of grid leak for
the tube (50000 ohms). Curves are shown for two values of signal-grid bias volt-
age E c4' As before, data for other frequencies are obtained by multiplying the con-
ductance by the square of the frequency ratio.
The practical effect of the negative input admittance in a circuit is due to the con-
ductive portion only, inasmuch as the total input capacitance remains positive in
general *. An improved image ratio, and somewhat greater gain to the converter
signal grid over other types of modulator is to be expected when this type of oscillator
injection is used. At high frequencies, when a comparatively low intermediate fre-
quency is used, it is usually desirable to cancel the space-charge coupling of the tube
in the manner previously discussed. When this cancellation is made reasonably
complete by the use of a condenser and resistor combination connected from the
oscillator grid to the signal grid, the losses in this admittance at signal frequency are
usually sufficient to wipe out the negative input admittance. The net positive input
conductance however is often less than that found with other types of mixer.
The change in signal-grid input capacitance with automatic-volume-control is
small in this type of modulator, particularly with the larger values of oscillator swing
because of the integrating action of the oscillator voltage.
The fluctuation noise which is found in the output of inner-grid oscillator-injection
mixers and converters is not readily evaluated quantitatively. The fluctuation noise
is primarily due to current-distribution fluctuations but is complicated by the possi-
bility of a virtual cathode ahead of the signal grid. Data have been taken, however,
which indicate some degree of proportionality between the mean.,.square noise current
and the plate current. The signal-to-noise ratio for this type of modulator is, there-
fore, approximately proportional to the ratio of conversion transconductance to the
square root of the plate current. It is considerably less than for the pentode modulator
with both signal and oscillator voltages on the control grid.
The noise of the converter or mixer with oscillator on an inner grid may be ex-
pressed in term~ of an equivalent grid resistance as
20I b
R = - . p2
ell gc"
where Ib is the operating plate current, g c is the converSion transconductance, and F2
is a factor which is about 0.5 for tubes with suppressor grids and at full gain. For
tubes without suppressor or for tubes whose gain is reduced by signal-grid bias, p2
is somewhat larger and approaches unity as a maximum. With this mode of opera-
tion there is not so much value in expressions for R. II based on maximum trans-
conductance and maximum plate current because these quantities are neither available
nor are they easily measured. For operation at second or third harmonics of the
oscillator (assuming optimum oscillator excitation) the plate current I~ and the con-
version transconductance g c are roughly! or 1/3, respectively, of their values with
fundamental operation so that the equivalent noise resistance for second-harmonic
and third-harmonic operation is around two and three times, respectively, of its
value for fundamental operation.
periodically alters the current distribution between anode and screen grid. The
connections of signal and oscillator voltages to this type of modulator are just the
reverse, therefore, of the mixer treated in the preceding section. The behaviours
of the two types are also quite different although they both include inteinal separation
of signal and oscillator electrodes through a shielding screen grid.
'iii' VOLTS
~ 30
~
~
w
U
z
e-loo
;:)
o
z
o
u
-200 FIG. 25.12
No 3 GRID 81AS VOLTS
FIG. 25.13
Fig. 2S.12. Signal-grid (grid No.4) conductance of a typical mixer designed for inner-
grid injection of oscillator, at 315 megacycles. Oscillator voltage appl£ed. Oscillator-
grid bias obtained through SO,OOO-ohm grid leak. Electronic portion of conductance, only,
plotted.
Fig. 2S.13. -Signal-grid (grid No.1) transconductance versus oscillator-grid (grid No.3)
voltage of a typical mixer designed for use with outer-grid injection of oscillator. Signal-
o,,:d bias = -3 volts.
The signal-grid transconductance curve as a function of oscillator-grid voltage of
a typical mixer designed for use with the oscillator on an outer grid is shown in Fig.
2S.13. It differs in shape from similar curves for the other two classes of modulator
in that an approximate saturation is reached around zero bias on the oscillator grid.
The conversion transconductance for such a tube is, therefore, more accurately pre-
dicted from normal amplifier transconductance. In fact, in the manufacture of this
type of mixer, a test of signal-grid transconductance at somewhere near the saturation
point (e.g., zero bias) on the oscillator grid has been found to correlate almost exactly
with the conversion transconductance. The cut off point of the curve must remain
approximately fixed, of course, since this point affects the oscillator amplitude which
is necessary. The conversion transconductance of the
tYPical outer-grid injection mixer tube
which was used for Fig. 2S.13 is shown in
Fig. 2S.14. Curve a which is for fixed
--------- bias on the oscillator grid is seen to be
higher than curve b for which bias is ob-
tained by a SO OOO-ohm grid leak and con-
denser. The latter connection is most
widely used, however, because of its con-
venience. A compromise using fixed bias
together with a grid leak is most satisfac-
PEAK OSCILL~~OR VOL~:
5
20 tory of all. (Ref. 40). When this com-
FIG. 25.'. bination is used, the curve of conversion
Fig. 2S.14. Conversion transconduct- transconductance follows curve a of Fig.
ance of a typical mixer designed for 2S.14 to the intersection with curve b and
outer-grid injection of oscillator. Signal- then follows along the flat top of curve b.
grid bias, E C = -3 volts. Curve a In a well-designed mixer with the signal
1 voltage on the grid adjacent to the cathode
corresponds to fixed No. 3 grid bias, and the oscillator voltage on an outer grid,
E C = - 8 volts. Curve b corresponds effects due to feedback through the inter-
3
to bias obtained through a SO OOO-ohm electrode capacitance may usually be ne-
grid leak. glected. The only effect which might be of
980 (iv) MIXER SECTION OF CONVERTER STAGE 25.1
importance in some cases is coupling of the oscillator to the signal circuit through the
signal-grid-to-oscillator-grid capacitance. In many tubes a small amount of space-
charge coupling between these grids is also present and adds to the capacitance coup-
ling (contrary to the space-charge coupling discussed in Section B which opposes
the capacitance coupling in that case). Measurements of the magnitude of the space-
charge coupling for this type of modulator show that it is of the order of 1/5 to 1/10
of that present in inner-grid-injection modulators. Coupling between oscillator and
signal circuits causes a voltage of oscillator frequency to be built up across the signal
input circuit. This oscillator-frequency voltage, depending on its phase, aids or
opposes the effect of the normal oscillator-grid alternating voltage. The action is
additive when the signal circuit has capacitative reactance to the oscillator frequency,
as in the usual case. When the oscillator-frequency voltage across the signal input
circuit exceeds the bias, grid current is drawn to the signal grid, an undesirable oc-
currence. This grid current may be distinguished from signal-grid current due to
other causes by short-circuiting the signal-input circuit and noting the change in grid
current. With the majority of tubes, another cause of signal-grid current far exceeds
this one in importance. This other cause will now be discussed.
The most prominent high-frequency effect which was observed in mixers of the
kind under discussion, was a direct current to the negative signal grid even when no
impedance was present in this grid circuit. This effect was investigated and found
to be due to the finite time of transit of the electrons which pass through the signal
grid and are repelled at the oscillator grid, returning to pass near the signal grid again.
(Refs. 17,41,42). When the oscillator frequency is high, the oscillator-grid potential
varies an appreciable amount during the time that such electrons are in the space
between screen grid and oscillator grid. These electrons may, therefore, be acceler-
ated in their return path more than they were decelerated in their forward path. Thus,
they may arrive at the signal grid with an additional velocity sufficient to allow them
to strike a slightly negative electrode. Some electrons may make many such trips
before being collected; moreover, in each trip their velocity is increased so that·
they may receive a total increase in velocity equivalent to several volts. A rough
estimate of the grid current to be expected from a given tube is given by the semi-
empirical equation
leI = AIkEo,cW72_3€BEci.
Where A and B depend on electrode voltages and configuration, I cl is the signal-grid
current, E 01 is the signal-grid bias, I k is the cathode current, Eo.c is the impressed
oscillator voltage on the oscillator grid, W is the angular frequency of the oscillator,
and 72-3 is the electron transit time in the space between screen grid and oscillator
grid.
Data on the signal-grid current of a typical mixer at 20 megacycles are shown in
Fig. 25.15 where a semi-logarithmic plot is used to indicate the origin of the above
equation.
The reduction of signal-grid current by operation at more negative signal-grid
bias values is an obvious remedy. When this is done, in order to prevent a reduction
in conversion transconductance, the screen voltage must be raised. A better method
of reducing the undesired grid current lies in a change of tube design. It will be
shown in a later part of this discussion that the constant A and/or the transit time
72_3 of the above formula Qlay be reduced considerably by proper electrode con-
figuration.
Another high-frequency phenomenon which is particularly noticed in outer-grid-
injection mixers is the high input conductance due to transit-time effects. The cause
for this was first made evident when the change of signal-grid admittance with os-
cillator-grid potential was observed. Fig. 25.16 gives data on the susceptive and
conductive components of the signal-grid admittance of this type of modulator as a
function of oscillator-grid bias (no oscillator voltage applied). The data were taken
at 31.5 megacycles and, as in the other input admittance curves, show the admittance
components due to the presence of electrons only. It is seen that when the No.3
grid is made sufficiently negative the input admittance is greatly increased. This
25.1 (iv) MIXER SECTION OF CONVERTER STAGE 981
t---+--ti:""-If--F-~-:l-~Io)g :?
-
....
~J
~r . z
~ 1'0
U
§!z if
UIIJ <
U
e~
0::;'
-15 -10 -S 0 +S
~u No 3 GRID BIAS VOLTS
-40 l3x
-tf---;f---+--+---+-t----lIo z ~
.... 0 "200
ox
OU
!< t
U
z
5
0: BY No3 GRID t 100
-j------------------~o ------
-5 U
-e'r---~--I....---_.l..2--.....I0IO
-IS -10 -S 0 +S
Nol GRID VOLTS No 3 GRID BIAS VOLTS
FIG.2S.IS FIG.2S.16
Fig. 25.15. Signal-grid (grid No.1) current in a typical mixer with a 20-megacycle
oscillator voltage applied to grid No.3. Ec = -10 volts, Ee = 100 volts, Eo =
3 2 and 4
250 volts.
Fig. 25.16. Signal-grid (grid No.1) admittance of typical mixer designed for
outer-grid injection of oscillator. Data taken at 31.5 megacycles with no os-
cillatorvoltageappJ£ed. Eel = -3volts,E c2 and 4 = 100 volts, E b . = 250volts.
behaviour coincides, of course, with plate-current cut off. It seems clear that the
electrons which are turned back at the No. 3 grid and which again reach the signal
grid are the cause of the increased admittance. Calculations based on this explana-
tion have been published by M. J. O. Strutt (Ref. 43) and show reasonable quantita-
tive agreement with experiment. As in the other cases above, the upper curve of
Fig. 25.16 is approximately independent of frequency while the lower one may be
converted to any other frequency by multiplying the ordinates by the square of the
frequency ratio.
When an oscillator voltage is applied, the No.3 grid bias is periodically varied at
oscillator frequency. The net input admittance is then the average value over the
oscillator cycle. Such net values of the conductance component are shown in Fig.
25.17. The frequency for these curves is 31.5 megacycles. Values for other fre-
quencies are obtained by multiplying the ordinates by the square of the frequency
ratio. Curve a coincides with the fixed bias condition of curve a of Fig. 25.14 while
curve b corresponds to the grid-Ieak-and-condenser bias as in b of Fig. 25.14. The
conductance is approximately twice as high when the tube is used as a mixer as when
it is used as an amplifier. This is a serious disadvantage, particularly at very high
frequencies. ,/
P~s'~=o:~') q
\ "<:::_/
.----
, ...... ...n..-'
\
\
I
I
~\ ~ (~::ct~)
',----'
~ ~I
,-_-/, .,\ \
(</-----~ \
P
\
(c(Q»
',------
9
/
I
! ,/
p(~-:Q:P) ~
\
-----
'----,
\
_--
\. I \ / \ /
/' \ / "- ....... .Q...-- /'
,
(a)
ORIGINAL
\
"' .......
TWO AUXILIARY
(b)
/'
/
-----
"-
(c)
SIDE ELECTRODES
/
/
(d)
SIDE ELECTRODES
DESIGN SIDE ELECTRODES INCREASED IN SIZE AND BENT AROUND
LOWERED IN POTENTIAL SCREEN GRID
Fig. 25.18. Cross-sectional views of mixer designed for outer-grid-injection of oscillator.
The views show only the portions of the tube inside of and including the oscillator injection
grid.
they travelled in the forward direction*. (Ref. 45). The progressive steps towards
an improvement of this kind are illustrated in Fig. 25.18 where cross-sectional views
of the portion inside the oscillator grid of various developmental modulators are
shown. The drawing (a) shows the original design, data on which have been given
in Figs. 25.15, 25.16 and 25.17. Drawing (b) of Fig. 25.18 shows a tube in which
two side electrodes operated at a high positive potential were added. In a tube of
this kind many of the electrons returned by the No.3 grid (oscillator grid) travel paths
similar to the dotted one shown; they are then collected by the auxiliary electrodes
and thus do not re-enter the signal grid space. Tubes constructed similarly to (b)
showed a considerable improvement in the signal-grid admittance increment due to
returned electrons. Construction (c) shows the next step in which the side electrodes
are increased in size and operated at somewhat lower potential. Because of the un-
desirability of an additional electrode and lead in the tube, the construction shown at
{d) was tried; In this "case the auxiliary electrodes are bent over and connected elec-
trically and mechanically to the screen grid. Curves showing the progressive re-
duction in the signal-grid conductance increment due to returned electrons are shown
in Fig. 25.19. The curves are labelled to correspond with the drawings of Fig. 25.18.
to
11)
o
~
~~IOO
Fig. 25.19. Signal-grid (grid No.1) con-
•
ductance of the outer-grid-injection mixers
g b shown in Fig. 25.18. Data taken at 31.5
megacycles with no oscillator voltage applied.
--~--------------~+======
8
=.s------~I~O------~5----~O~----+~5
No3 GRID BIAS VOLTS
FIG.25.19
It should be noted that the use of the oscillator-grid support rods in the centre of the
electron streams as shown in Fig. 25.18 Cd) was found to improve the performance.
No change in signal-grid conductance with oscillator-grid potential could be observed
with this construction.t The conductance of the tube as a modulator, therefore, was
reduced to less than half of that of construction Ca). At the same time, a check of
signal-grid current with a high-frequency oscillator applied to the No.3 grid showed
that this current was reduced to 1/20 of that of the original construction (a). The
change in construction may be looked upon as dividing the constant A in the grid-
current formula previously given, by a factor of more than 20.
*The same principles have now been applied to inner-grid-injection mixers and converters. See
references 19 and 45.
tIt should be memion.::d that it is also possible to construct tubes in which the signal-grid conductance
decreases somewhat with increasingly negative :t~o. 3 grid bias. This effect is caUSed by the inductaIICe
of the inner screen-grid lead which causes a negative conductance in the input circuit when the inner
screen current is high, as at negative No. 3 grid bias values. This negative conductance cancels part
of the positive conductance of the signal grid.
25.1 (iv) MIXER SECTION OF CONVERTER STAGE 983
/ ..... --- , ,
...... //-u- . . . . ,"--U-, FIG. 25.20
/ $\
/ / "- / '\.
' /-----
/ E---~
ۤ9 \ \ h\ ~6"~<?
/ \ / .........
I \ I __ \ / '\
~\ B~-a ~, [B~g
\
I dJ p : ~ -----
\ qI
\ Col
----
--- I
\,
,, .-
I
/
/
\
\
,
"-
----
.- /
/
I
I
\
, .....
---
,/
/
I "- --- -.-_/
/
Fig. 25.20. Cross-sectional views of improved mixers designed for outer-grid injection
of oscillator. The views show only the portions of the tube inside of and including the
oscillator injection grid.
Another method of reducing the effect of electrons returned by the oscillator grid
is to reduce the effect of electron transit time in the tube. This may be done by
reducing the spacings~ particularly the screen-grid-to-oscillator-grid spacing. This
method of improving modulator performance has two disadvantages compared with
the one discussed in connection with Fig. 25.18. The reduction in spaCing is accom-
panied by a more sloping (i.e. less steep) signal-grid transconductance versus oscillator-
grid voltage curve. This change in construction requires an increase in applied
oscillator voltage to attain the same conversion transconductance. The second dis-
advantage is that such a method reduces the transit time and hence~ the undesirable
high-frequency effects only by an amount bearing some relation' to the reduction
in spacing. Since this reduction is limited in a given size of tube, the method whereby
electron paths are changed is much more effective. The method of reducing spacing,
on the other hand~ is extremely simple to adopt. A combination of both methods
may be most desirable from the point of view of best performance with least com-
plexity in the tube structure. -3
Io
/
Fig. 25.21. Signal-grid (grid No.1) / / V
current of the outer-grid injection
mixers shown in Fig. 25.20. Curve a f 1;1
corresponds to the original design (a)
of Fig. 25.18 and is shown for
I
/
/
II
/
I
comparison. Data taken with a 20-
megacycle oscillator voltage of 12 / / J
-8 -6 -4 -2
/' I
00
-s
is included and is drawn as a. All four of the constructions of Fig. 25.20 were satis-
factory as regards signal-grid conductance; in every case the change in conductance
as the oscillator grid was made negative was a negligible factor. Construction (h)
required approximately 20 per cent more oscillator voltage than (e), (f), or (g) because
of the reduction in slope of the transconductance versus No.3 grid voltage curve
which accompanied the reduced spacing between the screen and the No.3 grid.
Outer-grid-injection mixers have the same or slightly greater signal-grid capacitance
changes with automatic volume control as are found in amplifier tubes. In this
respect they are inferior to inner-grid-injection converters or mixers. The use of a
small unbypassed cathode resistance (Ref. 29, 30) is a help, however.
In closing this section, the subject of fluctuation noise will be considered. Experi-
mental evidence indicates that the major portion of the noise in mixers with oscillator
voltage on an outer grid is due to current-distribution fluctuations. (Ref. 24). The
oscillator voltage changes the current distribution from plate to screen so that the
mixer noise is given by the average of the distribution fluctuations over the oscillator
cycle. In terms of the equivalent noise resistailce the average has been founa to be
(Ref. 23),
20[I b _ Ib~
R = I .. -J
"II g ,2
where I b is the average (i.e. the operating) plate current and I b 2 is the average of the
square of the plate current over an oscillator cycle. I a is the cathode current of the
mixer section and is substantially constant over the oscillator cycle. This relation
is not very useful in the form given. It is usually sufficiently accurate for most pur-
poses to use an expression identical with that which applies to tubes with inner-grid
oscillator injection, namely,
20I b
R. II "= FZ,
--2
gc
where FI is about 0.5 for tubes with suppressor grids and somewhat higher for others.
By assuming a typical tube characteristic, the noise resistance may be expressed in
terms of the cathode current Ia of the mixer section and the maximum signal-grid-
to-plate transconductance g ma:t: as
III
R Bv = 120 -(--)1
gmll:t:
for operation at oscillator fundamental. For operation at second or third harmonic
of the oscillator, the noise resistance will be approximately doubled, or tripled, respec-
tively.
(v) Conclusion
It has been shown that the principle of frequency conversion in all types of tubes
and with all methods of operation may be considered as the same (i.e. as a small-
percentage amplitude modulation). The differences in other characteristics between
various tubes and methods of operation are so marked, however, that each application
must be considered as a separate problem. The type of tube and method of operation
must be intelligently chosen to meet the most important needs of the application.
In making such a choice, it is frequently of assistance to prepare a table comparing
types of tubes and methods of operation on the basis of performance data." An
attempt has been made to draw such a comparison in a qualitative way for general
cases and for a few of the important characteristics. Table 2 is the result. It must
be understood, of course, that the appraisals are largely a matter of opinion based on,
experience and the present state of knowledge. Furthermore, in particular circuits
and with particular tubes, the relative standings may sometimes be quite different.
A study of the fundamentals brought out in the previous sections of this paper shouid
help in evaluating such exceptions.
25.1 (v) CONCLUSION 985
TABLE 2
Approximate Comparative Appraisals of Methods of Frequency Conversion
I I
I
Oscillator
Voltage on
Oscillator and Signal Oscillator Voltage on No.1 Grid
Voltages on No.3 Grid, Signal on Signal on
Desirable No.1 Grid No.1 Grid No.3 Grid
Characteristic
Hexode Hexode
Triode Pentode Pentode or or
Heptode Heptode
(vi) Appendix
Discussion of negative admittance of current-limited grids
In Figs. 25.10, 11 and 12 it was seen that the electronic signal-grid (i.e. input)
admittance components (i.e. the admittance due to the presence of electrons) of a
mixer designed for No.1 grid injection of the oscillator are negative over a considerable
portion of the normal operating range. Figs. 25.10 and 11, however, were taken with
static voltages applied and so indicate that the phenomenon is not caused by an alter-
nating oscillator voltage but is associated with the characteristics of the tube itself.
The Input admittance of negative grids in vacuum tubes is the sum of three factors :
(1) the "cold" admittance, or the admittance of the tube with the electron current
cut off; (2) the admittance due to feedback from other electrodes through tube and
external capacitance,e~c.; and (3) the admittance due to the presence of the electrons
in the tube. The first two factors have been well known for many years although
certain aspects of the second have only recently received attention. (Refs. 29, 30
and 48). The third factor, however is not so well understood although the excellent
work done during the last ten years has paved the way for a complete understanding
of the subject. (Ref. 49). The present discussion is concerned only with this last
point, namely the admittance of negative grids due to the presence of electrons in the
tube.
Early work on transit-time effects in diodes and negative-grid triodes had indicated
that, at very high frequencies, the conductance became negative in certain discrete
bands (i.e., at large transit angles). It was not, at first, appreciated that conditions
were possible with negative-grid triodes in which the input conductance could be-
come negative even at low frequencies (Le., at small transit angles). Data taken
on the input (No.4 grid) conductance of pentagrid converters by W. R. Ferris of this
986 (vi) APPENDIX 25.1
laboratory during 1934 showed that these tubes had a negative input conductance
which varied as the square of the frequency and which remained negative at low fre-
quencies. The conductance appeared, therefore, to behave in the same way as the
positive input conductance of ordinary negative-grid tubes, except for a reversal in
sign. The data on the pentagrid were taken with an external oscillator voltage applied
to the No.1 grid. The work of Bakker and de Vries (Ref. 50) disclosed the possi-
bility of a negative input conductance at small transit angles in a triode operated under
current-limited conditions. They gave an experimental confirmation for a triode
operated at reduced filament temperature. Data taken by the writer during 1936
on a pentagrid converter showed that the negative conductance was present in this
tube even when direct voltages, only, were applied and that it was accompanied by a
reduction in capacitance. A fairly complete theory of the effect was developed in
unpublished work by Bernard Salzberg, formerly of this laboratory, who extended
the theory of Bakker and de Vries to the more general case of multigrid tubes with
negative control grids in a current-limited region. Other experimental work was
done on the effect during 1936 by J. M. Miller and during the first half of 1937 by
the writer. In the meantime, the papers ofR. Rothe (Ref. 51), 1. Runge (Refs. 52,53),
and L. C. Peterson (Ref. 54) showed that independent experimental and theoretical
work had been done on the negative-admittance effect in other laboratories.
In a rough way, the negative admittance found under current-limited conditions
may be explained as follows: The electron current in a tube is equal to the product
of the charge density and the electron velocity, If this current is held constant, a rise
in effective potential of the control electrode raises the velocity and so lowers the
charge density. A reduction in charge density with increase in potential, however,
results in a reduction in capacitance, provided no electrons are caught by the grid.
Thus, the susceptive component of the part of the admittance due to the current
through the grid, is negative. Because of the time lag due to the finite time of transit
of the electrons, there is an additional component of admittance lagging the negative
susceptance by 90 degrees, i.e~, a negative conductance. The value of the negative
conductance will be proportional to both the transit angle and to the value of the
susceptance. Since both of these quantities are proportional to frequency, the
negative conductance is proportional to the square of the frequency.
The general shape of the curves of Fig. 25.10 may be explained as follows: At
a No.1 grid bias of about -20 volts, the cathode current is cut off and the electronic
admittance is zero. At slightly less negative values of No.1 grid bias, the electron
current is too small to build up an appreciable space charge ahead of the signal grid
(No.4 grid). The latter grid, although it exhibits some control of the plate current
does not control the major portion of the current reaching it and is thus in a substanti-
ally current-limited region. Its susceptance and conductance are, therefore, negative.
Higher currents increase the negative admittance until, at some value of No.1 grid
bias, the electron current is increased to the point at which a virtual cathode is formed
in front of some parts of the signal grid. At these parts, the current which reaches
the grid is no longer independent of this grid potential, and as a result, a positive
susceptance and conductance begin to counteract the negative admittance of other
portions of the grid. The admittance curves reach a minimum and for still higher
currents approach and attain a positive value. The current necessary to attain the
minimum admittance point is less when the signal-grid bias is made more negative
so that the minima for increasingly negative No.4 grid-bias values occur at increasingly
negative No. 1 grid-bias val~es.
It may be noted that the signal-grid-to-plate transconductance is at a maximum
in the region just to the right of the admittance minima of Fig. 25.10 (compare Fig.
25.8). The admittance of such a tube used as an amplifier remains negative, there-
fore, at the maximum amplification point.
25.2 (i) BROADCAST FREQUENCIES 987
FIG. 25.22
amount of control for a given a.v.c. voltage. Such a circuit will also minimize cross-
modulation. However in converters without a suppressor grid the screen voltage
must not approach the plate voltage because secondary emission from the plate will
cause a large reduction in plate resistance and lead to damping of the first i-f trans-
former, so that some bleed from screen to ground may be needed. The best com-
promise can readily be determined with resistor boxes.
If maximum a.v.c. control is required from a triode-hexode converter, for example
when it is followed by a reflexed amplifier, and play-through must be reduced to a
minimum, a large screen bleed may be needed.
Maximum a.v.c. control can be obtained in pentagrid converters by reducing the
oscillator plate voltage to a minimum consistent with satisfactory oscillator perform-
ance. For example with 20 volts bias on the signal grid, the conversion transcon-
ductance of a 6A8-G is reduced to less than-one half of the original figure when the
oscillator plate voltage is changed from 200 to 100 volts, although at minimum signal-
grid bias the oscillator plate voltage has little effect on the conversion transconductance.
Final operating conditions should not be decided upon until the tests outlined above
have been repeated with a number of valves, some of which should preferably have
characteristics near the upper and lower acceptance limits for the type.
Whenever there is any doubt as to which is the correct response, the frequencies
should be worked out-conditions will be reversed from the example above if the
oscillator is at a lower frequency than the signal-but a simple rule is that if the re-
ceiver is being tuned and the oscillator is on the high frequency side of the signal"
then the higher frequency signaJ is the correct one.
A similar effect to an image response can also occur during signal-frequency trim-
mer adjustment. With the oscillator on the high.,.frequency side of the signal it may
be found that as" the signal-frequency trimming capacitance is increased, the output,
with rocking, rises to a maximum, falls and rises to a second maximum, which is the
correct one. On the other hand if the receiver is left aligned at the first maximum it
is found" that the adjustment is approximately correct for the image frequency.
This effect has no direct connection with the image response, but is due to the
decrease in sensitivity which can occur when the signal-grid circuit is tuned to the
oscillator frequency-owing to grid damping in a severe case, or out-of-phase os-
cillator injection in other cases. Thus as the signal-circuit tuning initially approaches
the correct setting the gain rises, decreases again when the separation from the os-
cillator frequency is small, and then rises to the correct peak. In a sensitive receiver
the illusion of correct alignment on the wrong peak is heightened by an increase in
the level of the background noise due to the increased receiver sensitivity near the
image frequency.
B. Operating conditions
Converters can be set up for operation on the short-wave band in a manner similar
to that described for the broadcast band. However additional steps are" also worth-
while. Particularly when harmonic mixing-see C(4) below-is being used,
it is advisable to investigate the effects of different values of oscillator-grid resistor.
To avoid varying two quantities at the same time the oscillator voltage should be kept
as constant as possible while the value of the grid leak is altered, and readings should be
taken at least at each end of the short-wave band. After the optimum grid leak
value has been chosen, previously selected operating potentials should be rechecked.
When the converter is a type with inner-grid oscillator voltage injection, improved
sensitivity may be obtained with the oscillator operating at a lower frequency than
the signal instead of under the more usual higher frequency condition.
In Sect. 1 of this chapter it was explained that the space charge in front of the signal
grid develops a voltage at oscillator frequency on the signal grid and that this voltage,
depending upon its phase, increases or decreases the oscillator-frequency modulation
of the electron stream. In a particular case with the oscillator at a higher frequency
than the signal, the tuned circuit connected to the signal grid would present capacitive
reactance to the oscillator voltage. A positive increment of oscillator-grid voltage
increases the current flow and thus increases the space charge in front of the signal
grid, i.e. the space charge becomes more negative. Since there is capacitive reactance
between the space charge and signal grid and between signal grid and ground, a
negative increment of space charge potential results in a (smaller) negative increment
of signal-grid potential. Thus a positive change in potential on the oscillator grid
results in a negative change in potential on the signal grid, so that the effective os-
cillator modulation is reduced with a consequent reduction in sensitivity.
However when the oscillator is operated at a lower frequency than that of the signal,
the signal-grid circuit presents an inductive reactance to the oscillator voltage and the
phase of the oscillator voltage on the signal grid is reversed. Thus the effective
modulation of the electron stream is increased and sensitivity is improved.
In practice, if neutralizing is not used, an improvement in sensitivity of two or three
times is sometimes obtainable by changing from high-frequency to low-frequency
oscillator operation, with an increase of the image ratio in the same proportion. The
improvement in sensitivity and image ratio decreases towards the low-frequency end
of the short-wave band as the separation between signal and oscillator circuits (i.e
the intermediate frequency) becomes a larger fraction of the oscillator frequency
For correct tracking with the oscillator on the low-frequency side of the signal,
the padder is moved from the oscillator to the signal-frequency circuit(s) but this
992 (ii) SHORT WAVES 25.2
does not introduce serious complications. However, a large band coverage is more
difficult with the oscillator on the low side because the oscillator circuit covers a greater
frequency ratio than the signal circuit, whereas on the high side it covers a smaller
ratio.
It is possible for external coupling between oscillator and signal circuits to exceed
that which occurs due to internal coupling in the converter itself and it is advisable
to check that the external coupling is negligible before investigating the effects of
low-side and high-side oscillator operation. A valve voltmeter can be used across
the circuit and the variation of the indication as the signal circuit is tuned through the
oscillator frequency, with the circuit connected to and disconnected from the signal
grid, shows the relative amount of coupling due to internal and external sources.
A further desirable step in the investigation of short-wave performance is the de-
termination of the best sensitivity that can be obtained by adjustment of the magnitude
and phase of the oscillator voltage on the signal grid. This can be done by using a
very small capacitor, variable in order to adjust the amplitude of the oscillator voltage,
and connected between either signal-grid and oscillator grid or signal-grid and os-
cillator plate to vary the phase of the oscillator voltage. In the absence of appreciable
coupling within the receiver, some increase in sensitivity is usually obtained with
a particular value of neutralizing capacitor, because maximum sensitivity is obtained
not when the oscillator voltage on the signal grid is a minimum but when it is the
correctly-phased maximum that can be present without signal-grid current flowing.
Thus, when using a plate tuned triode-hexode converter, it may be found experi-
mentally that sensitivity is improved at 18 Mc/s with a 0.5 p,p,F capacitor connected
between oscillator grid and signal grid. In such a case it is usually possible to obtain
a capacitance of approximately the correct value without using a separate component
by a suitable arrangement of the wave-change switch wiring.
However, when neutralizing is used, a measurement should be made of the effect
of the neutralizing capacitance on the frequency stability of the receiver at 18 Mc/s.
In general, sensitivity improvements due to oscillator voltage on the signal-grid must
be offset against decreased frequency stability. The frequency shift in pentagrid
converters of the 6SA7 type increases so rapidly with increased capacitance between
signal-grid and oscillator grids that a neutralizing capacitance cannot be used in a
normal short-wave receiver if a.v.c. is applied to the control grid.
Unless special precautions are taken, grid current variations over the short-wave
band are greater than desired. The increase at the high-frequency end of the band
occurs because, although the coupling between primary and secondary of the oscillator
coil which is required to maintain oscillation is reduced, the actual coupling remains
unchanged. A small resistor (say 25 ohm :! watt) wired between the tuned circuit
and the oscillator grid is the usual method of obtaining reasonably uniform grid current
over the band. The effective parallel circuit damping of the resistor in series with
the capacitance of the oscillator grid is inversely proportional to the square of the
frequency so that a large reduction in grid current can be obtained at the high-fre-
quency end of the band without noticeably affecting the grid current at the low-
frequency end.
Such a resistor is sometimes also required to prevent squegging of the local oscillator
when the amplitude of oscillation is high and the time constant of the oscillator grid
circui t is much greater than the time required for one cycle of the oscillator frequency.
For further information on squegging see Chapter 35 Sect. 3(vi)C and Ref. 73.
C. Frequency stability
All the problems of frequency stability experienced with a separate oscillator (see
Chapter 24) occur when the oscillator section of a converter is used as the local os-
cillator in a superheterodyne receiver and in addition there are further causes of
instability due to interaction between the oscillator and mixer sections of the valve.
1. Frequency variations due to the local oscillator
Local oscillators are always self-biased triodes so that the only potential applied to
the circuit from external sources is the plate-supply voltage. Two common types
25.2 (ii) SHORT WAVES 993
of frequency instability are due to this link with the rest of the receiver. The first
is " flutter" due to fluctuations in the B supply voltage as a result of the output-valve
current varying at audio frequencies. These fluctuations vary the oscillator frequency
so that the signal is continually detuned, giving a-f signals which make the " flutter"
self-sustaining. The mechanism of" flutter" is more fully described in Chapter 35
Sect. 3(vi)B and methods of overcoming it are given.
The second detuning effect for which the B supply is responsible is due to the ap-
plication of a.v.c. to the controlled stages of a receiver. This reduces the B current,
causes the B voltage to rise, and thus produces detuning which will vary, for instance,
with the instantaneous level of a fading station.
Although in a particular case the detuning may not be sufficient to produce the
symptoms described, it may still give unpleasant tuning at the high-frequency end
of the short-wave band, a typical effect being that the receiver does not tune smoothly
but jumps from one side of a signal to the other.
When testing for these effects, modulated and unmodulated signals of magnitudes
varying from maximum to minimum should be used at the highest tuning frequency
of the receiver and the volume control setting should also be varied. If equipment
for measuring frequency shift is not available a useful test is to tune the receiver as
accurately as possible to a large signal (perhaps 0.1 volt) with the volume control
suitably retarded and then reduce the input to the smallest usable signal and turn
up the volume control. If the signal is still tuned, frequency shift may be considered
satisfactory. The test should be repeated with different signal inputs in case positive
and negative frequency shifts should cancel over the range of inputs first selected-
If flutter occurs on a large unmodulated signal there are circumstances under which
it can be ignored. When the modulation is switched on it may be found that the
output valve is severely overloaded, and that when the volume control is turned down
to give no more than full a-f output the flutter may not occur. In such a case the
flutter would not be noticed in normal use of the receiver and if a cure cannot be
effected cheaply it may not be warranted.
In practice it is found that frequency stability can often be improved by the simple
expedient of increasing the oscillator grid current. In one particular triode-hexode
the 18 Mcl s frequency shift for a given change in control grid bias was reduced to one
tenth by increasing the oscillator grid current from 200 to 600 /LA. Frequency shift due
to other causes, and with other types of converters can be improved in the same way,
although in varying degrees. The improvement may of course have to be offset
against a decrease in sensitivity and an increase in noise.
A third type of oscillator frequency instability due to the B supply is experienced
in F-M receivers. If there is a hum voltage superimposed on the B supply to the
oscillator plate this will produce frequency modulation of the local oscillator, and the
F-M detector will convert the resultant hum modulation of the signal carrier into
a-f hum.
2. Frequency variations due to the mixer
The space charge adjacent to oscillator electrodes in a converter valve can be varied
by altering the potentials on mixer electrodes. This, of course, gives rise to oscillator-
frequency variations. The mixer screen voltage is particularly important because one
of the two grids comprising the screen is adjacent to an oscillator electrode, so that it
is desirable to keep this voltage as constant as possible. This frequently necessitates
a separate decoupling resistor and capacitor for the converter screen because with a
common supply to converter and i-f amplifier screens the application of a.v.c to the
i-f amplifier (even if the converter stage is not controlled) alters the mixer screen
voltage and thus causes frequency shift. On rare occasions this shift may be used to
offset another in the opposite direction due to a different effect.
When frequency shift is troublesome it is desirable to isolate each of the causes
and determine its direction, as cancellation is sometimes possible even if a complete
cure is not.
The effects upon oscillator frequency of varying a.v.c. voltages applied to a signal-
grid electrode are more complex. With either outer-grid or inner-grid oscillator
994 (ii) SHORT WAVES 25.2
injection a space charge adjacent to the oscillator grid can be varied by altering the
direct potential applied to the signal grid. That this is not always the main source
of frequency drift can be seen in some receivers with this type of instability by measur-
ing the frequency shift for a given change in converter a.v.c. voltage with the signal
generator connected firstly to the aerial terminal and then to the converter grid. It
may be found that the frequency shift in the former case is many times that with the
signal generator connected to the converter-grid, and it may even be in the opposite
direction.
This type of instability is due to coupling between oscillator and control-grid
circuits. In Sect. l(iv)B of this chapter it is explained that at high frequencies it is
usual for oscillator voltage to appear at the signal-grid of the converter. Coupling
between signal- and oscillator-grid circuits results in some of this voltage being
returned to the oscillator circuit and, in a manner similar to the operation of a re-
actance-tube modulator, this results in a modification of the effective capacitance at
the oscillator grid. A constant variation of this capacitance would be of no signific-
ance, but any alteration of converter operating conditions which resulted in a variation
of oscillator voltage on the signal grid, e.g. the application of a.v.c. voltages, would
alter the effective reflected capacitance at the oscillator grid and thus cause oscillator
frequency shift. (Ref. 87).
With a given set of conditions the simplest method of curing this type of fre-
quency shift is usually to minimize the coupling between oscillator and signal grid
circuits. In general, coupling is capacitive, partly within the valve and partly ex-
ternal to it. In most modem valves the internal capacitance is not troublesome and
to effect a cure it may be necessary to separate short-wave aerial and oscillator coils
from each other, to separate the wiring from the two grids or from the two sections of
the gang condenser, and to use wave-change switch contacts on the opposite side of
the wafer. In the particular case of the 6BE6, it is desirable to reduce the external
capacitance between the two grids of the valve to 1 p.p.F or less .
. Another possible cure for this type of frequency shift is the use of harmonic mixing,
in which the frequency difference between signal and oscillator circuits is so great
that no significant amount of oscillator frequency voltage appears on the signal grid.
3. Tuned-plate operation
An analysis of tuned-grid and tuned-plate oscillators (Chapter 24 Sect. 2) shows
the differences between the two types of operation. However, it is mainly because
of the structure of some types of converters that tuned-plate operation is preferable.
When the oscillator section of a converter has a common electron stream with the
mixer section, the oscillator-plate electrode is designed to modulate the electron
stream as little as possible since modulation by the oscillator plate cancels that from
the oscillator grid. It is also desirable in equipment design to keep the oscillator
plate alternating voltage as small as possible. With a tuned-grid oscillator, the plate
voltage is smaller than the grid voltage and the reverse is the case with a tuned-plate
oscillator. Accordingly, tuned-grid oscillators are always used for converters having
a common electron stream for the oscillator and mixer sections.
Triode-hexode and triode-heptode converters have a separate triode for use as a
local oscillator, and oscillator injection into the mixer section is carried out by a special
injector grid which is in most cases internally connected to the oscillator grid. The
capacitance and coupling effects of the injector grid are thus introduced into the
oscillator circuit, and if a tuned-grid oscillator is used they appear directly across the
tuned circuit.
However With a tuned plate oscillator these effects are coupled to the tuned circuit
from the oscillator primary winding and their effect is thus minimized. An im-
provement in oscillator frequency stability, with respect to the effect of a.v.c. applica-
tion to the signal grid, of five times has been measured with a typical triode-hexode
on converting from a tuned-grid to a tuned-plate oscillator, while frequency shift
for a given change in B supply voltage was halved under the same conditions.
4. Harmonic m~"':ng
Many of the difficulties experienced in high-frequency applications of converters
are due to the small percentage of frequency difference between the oscillator and
25.2 (ii) SHORT WAVES 995
It is desirable not to apply a.v.c. to the 6J8-G on short waves if this is possible,
but if a.v.C. is used a tuned-plate oscillator circuit will gready improve the frequency
stability.
(2) Types 6AES, X79 and X61M: The electrode arrangements of these triode-
hexodes is similar to that of Fig. 25.23 but there is no suppressor grid adjacent to the
plate. Because of this it is necessary in circuit design to avoid conditions which may
lead to secondary emission from the hexode plate to the screen.
Frequency stability with respect to B voltage variations is good, although it is de-
sirable to use plate tuning of the oscillator if a.v.c. is applied to the hexode section
on short waves. The conversion trans conductances are high (approximately 750
micromhos with 2 volts bias and a screen voltage of 85) and few special precautions
are required to obtain non-critical operation and good performance on the broadcast
and short-wave bands.
g1 ~ I ~ II ~ : ~ g ~ ~
i ~ ~ i ~ : gg§gi~
I
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osc. ____ 0 ~I PLATE ~~~:~II~lgg~
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CATHODE. _ _-3-----'
CATHODE OSC.GRID PLATE
OSC. GRID & INJECTOR
Effect) from the plate circuit to the control grid through the relatively high (0.26 ILILF)
plate-to-grid capacitance. This effect is normally only just noticeable but may be
aggravated by locating the 6A8-G against the back of the signal-frequency section
of the tuning condenser so that appreciable capacitance is present between the plate
of the valve and the stator assembly of the gang. The effect shows up as apparently
poor aerial coil gain so that the cause may not be suspected. It is not of course peculiar
to the 6A8-G but the already high plate-to-grid capacitance, the size of the valve and
the lack of internal or external shielding make the effect more likely to occur with this
type. The effect may be minimized by external shielding of the valve.
Part of the oscillator plate (grid 2) current is due to electrons which have passed
from the cathode through grids 1 and 3 and then been repelled by grid 4 back through
grid 3 to grid 2 again. The oscillator characteristics and thus the oscillator frequency
stability are therefore very dependent on the potentials applied to grids 2, 3 and 4 and,
for short wave operation, a.v.c. should not be applied to the valve. In addition it
may be necessary to decouple the oscillator-plate voltage supply with an electrolytic
capacitor and even to obtain it directly from the rectifier output-suitably decoupled
to eliminate hum-in order to avoid feeding a-f variations from the output valve back
to the oscillator plate apd thus causing flutter.
To obtain consistent Performance it is desirable to keep the oscillator-plate voltage
l-,igher than the screen voltage.
OSC.GRID \ ....l::"'"SCREEN
Osc.~GR'm !:r~REEN
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SHIELD
FIC. 25.~~ FIG. 25.27
Fig. 25.26. Electrode ar- Fi'g. 25.27. Electrode ar-
rangement of the triode- rangement of the pentagrid
hexode type 6K8(G). type 6SA7(GT).
(2) Type 6K8-G: The structure of the inner-grid injection triode-hexode type
6K8-G is shown in Fig. 25.26. It was designed to provide more stable short-wave
performance than the 6A8-G and has a higher oscillator transconductance and operates
with lower oscillator excitation. Its lower conversion 'transconductance (350 mic-
romhos) gives a lower conversion gain than that obtainable from the 6A8-G although
the plate resistance (0.6 megohm) is higher.
A.V.C. can be applied to the 6K8-G on short-waves but the frequency stability
with respect to changes in other electrode voltages is only fair.
(3) Types IBE6 and 6SA7(GT): The main point of interest in the structure
of the pentagrid types 6BE6 and 6SA7(GT), Figs. 25.27, and 25.29 is that there is no
electrode which functions only as an oscillator plate.
By the omission of this electrode, it is possible to obtain a relatively high oscillator
transconductance, without greatly increasing the total cathode current.
The oscillator circuits employed with these types have certain unconventional
features and Fig. 25.28 may be taken as typical. The lack of a separate oscillator
25.2 (iii) TYPES OF CONVERTERS 999
R~
IN::3
~F
IT:PUl
and the oscillating voltage (E 1/) on the No. 1 grid are at their peak positive values.
For maximum conversion transconductance this peak value of plate current should
be as large as possible. The effect on plate current of the positive voltage on the
cathode is approximately the same as would be produced by an equal voltage of
negative sign applied to the signal grid. Hence the amplitude of oscillator. voltage
on the cathode limits the peak plate current. This amplitude should therefore be
.small.
During the negative portion of an oscillation cycle the cathode may swing more
negative than the signal grid. If this occurs, positive signal-grid current will flow
unless the oscillator grid is sufficiently negative to cut-off the cathode current. This
signal-grid current flowing through the signal-grid circuit resistance will develop a
negative bias on the signal grid and may also cause a negative bias to be applied to the
i-f and r-f stages through the a.v.c. system. As a result, sensitivity will be decreased.
In order to prevent signal-grid current, the d.c. bias developed by the oscillator grid
should be not less than its cut-off value.
1000 (iii) TYPES OF CONVERTERS 25.2
Because the peak plate current depends on how far positive the oscillator grid
swings with respect to the cathode, it is desirable that this positive swing be as large
as possible. It follows that the oscillator grid-leak resistance should be low, but
not so low as to cause excessive damping of the tank circuit. It has been found,
for operation in frequency ban~s lower than approximately 6 Mc/s, that all these
requirements are generally best satisfied when the oscillator circuit is adjusted to
provide, with recommended values of plate and screen voltage, a value of E k of ap-
proximately 2 volts peak, and a d.c. oscillator-grid current of 0.5 rnA through a grid-
leak resistance of 20 000 ohms. This will give a peak positive voltage of the oscillator
grid with respect to cathode of about 4 volts
On the normal short-wave band of 6 to 18 Mc/s, minimum grid current occurs
at the low-frequency end of the band and the design procedure consists in adjusting
the oscillator circuit so that sufficient grid current (200 pA minimum) is obtained at
6 Mc/s without developing excessive cathode voltage (approximately 2.5 volts r.m.s.
maximum) at 18 Mc/s. The oscillator-grid bias is then somewhat less than cut-off
at 6 Mc/s, but the signal-grid current should not be so high as to cause trouble.
Oscillation at the high-frequency end of the band however, may be greater than
optimum unless a grid stopper is used, but over-excitation will improve frequency
stability.
If, for manufactUring reasons, the use of a tapped coil is not desirable, a normal
primary winding can be used for the cathode connection, although it will be necessary
to reverse the connections from those for a plate-tickler oscillator. This coil arrange-
ment allows one side of the padder to be grounded.
Another method of connection which is satisfactory for the broadcast band is to use
a plate-tickler oscillator circuit with the screen electrode as the oscillator plate and the
cathode grounded. This connection can also be used on the short-wave band but
the interaction between signal and oscillator circuits causes-severe pulling and other
associated troubles. A neutralizing capacitor between signal and oscillator grids
will minimize these effects-neutralizing is not recommended with a cathode-coupled
oscillator-and an alternative system is the use of harmonic mixing.
Whenever the screen is connected to an oscillator primary winding the oscillator
voltage on this electrode must be kept to a minimum, i.e. primaries must have as few
turns as possible with maximum coupling to secondaries. In addition, it is often
desirable to use a small carbon resistor in series with the oscillator grid electrode to
prevent the oscillator voltage on the screen from rising excessively at the high-fre-
quency end of the band. The reasons are, firstly, that modulation by the oscillator
voltage on the screen is out of phase with the modulation due to the oscillator grid,
which decreases conversion sensitivity and, secondly, that as the signal grid is between
the two electrodes forming the screen a large oscillator voltage on the screen results,
through capacitive coupling, in a comparatively large oscillator voltage on the signal
grid, particularly on short waves. This voltage can be neutralized, but normal
neutralization is effective for only one frequency and set of operating conditions and
when a large amount of neutralization is used and a balance between two large equal
and opposite voltages is obtained, any small change in conditions results in a large
oscillator voltage reappearing on the signal grid.
The arrangement of shields on grid 2 and of the siderods of grid 3 make the oscillator
section of these types much more stable with respect to electrode voltage variations
than the 6A8-G, and it can be used satisfactorily with a.v.c. applied on short waves.
Nevertheless in any short-wave application care must be taken to reduce to a mini-
mum any coupling between signal and oscillator grids if frequency stability is to be
satisfactory. In the case of the 6BE6, the external capacitive coupling between
oscillator and signal grids should be limited to 1 fLfLF for satisfactory short wave per-
formance.
25.2 (iii) TYPES OF CONVERTERS 1001
A+ B+ B+
FIG. 25.31
Fig. 2531. Self-excited IR5 converter Fig. 25.32. Circuit for short-wave oper-
circuit. ation of IR5 converter.
(4) Type lR5: The electrode structure of the IRS is similar to that of the 6BE6
and 6SA7(GT) without the shields on grid 2, and with a filament instead of the heater
and cathode. Circuits for use with the IRS are complicated by the lack of a separate
cathode electrode but this may be overcome by using a choke as shown in Fig. 25.31
Alternatively the choke may be omitted and a filament lead returned to A + through
a separate winding of the same number of turns as, and wound over the tapped section
of, the oscillator coil.
However, neither of these circuits is satisfactory on short waves if the full range-
6 to 18 Mc/s-is to be covered, and even on the broadcast band there may be diffi-
culty in obtaining sufficient grid current. The circuit of Fig. 2532, with or without
the padder feedback shown, is more suitable.
Neutralizing is desirable on short waves if conversion is carried out with the oscillator
fundamental. The neutralizing capacitor should be connected across the short-wave
coils only, because a different value is normally required on the broadcast band, and
oscillator voltage on grid 3 is usually less with no neutralizing than with the capacitance
(from 2i to 5 ftftF) required on short waves.
The purpose of the neutralizing capacitor in a circuit such as Fig. 2532 is not so
much the balancing out of oscillator voltage due to the space charge in front of grid 3,
but the neutralizing of a voltage due to capacitive coupling between grid 3 and grids
2 and 4. Therefore, as previously mentioned, it is essential to reduce the oscillator
voltage on the screen to the lowest practicable value.
If there is a tendency for the IR5 to squeg at the high-frequency end of the short-
wave band it is often possible to save the small carbon resistor in the oscillator grid
lead, which is the usual cure, by reducing the value of oscillator grid leak to say 30 000
ohms or slightly lower. This frequently increases sensitivity, other conditions being
unchanged, and it is worth trying even if there are no signs of squegging. In most
receivers the oscillator grid circuit damping caused by the low value of oscillator
grid leak or by the grid stopper is desirable to reduce the oscillator voltage on the
screen of the converter at the high-frequency end of the band with a consequent im-
provement in sensitivity.
A very satisfactory way to operate the IR5 is to use harmonic mixing as described
previously. The increased freedom in layout, the increased stability in all respects-
which simplifies production alignment-and the removal of the need for neutralizing
more than compensate for the slight disadvantages which in any case are of little
importance if the receiver has a r-f stage. .
1002 TRACKING-(i) GENERAL 25.3
(i) General
The problem of tracking (whether it be in a straight or a superheterodyne receiver)
is to set, simultaneously, to some desired resonant frequency, each of a series of tuned
circuits which are mechanically coupled together and operated from a single control.
In a superheterodyne receiver the problem is one of maintaining a constant fre-
quency difference (equal to the intermediate frequency) between the signal circuits
(such as the aerial and r-f stages) and the oscillator circuit. It is a relatively simple
matter to make the difference between the signal and oscillator frequency equal to
the i-f at two points in the tuning range. This condition is called two point tracking,
and is applied whenever the error in frequency difference between the circuits does not
become a large percentage of the total pass band. Where the tuning error is likely
to become excessive, it can be reduced by the addition of another component, in the
form of a capacitor or inductor, into the oscillator or signal circuits. In this c.ase it is
possible to proportion the circuit components so that zero frequency error exists
between the intermediate frequency and the difference between the signal and os-
cillator circuits at three frequencies in the tuning range, instead of two; furthermore
the error at frequencies between the tracking points is appreciably reduced.
The most usual application of three point tracking has been in receivers covering
the standard long, medium and short wave bands, and where the tuning element is a
variable capacitor. For this reason attention will be confined to this system of tuning
and a suitable design method will be detailed. Those interested in tracking per-
meability tuned circuits are referred to the articles of Refs. 107 and 111. These
give a method of three point tracking Using identical variable inductors in the signal
and oscillator circuits.
5IGN .... L 05CILL .... TOR It is necessary to point out
CD
so far published, of the three
point tracking problem are all
L ,T, ,,"'/ LO TL, idealized in so far that they
ignore in part, or completely,
L __________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .../ the effects of primary wind-
FIG. Z!I' 33 ings on the signal and oscilla-
. . . . ' tor coils. The best approach
Ftg. 25.33. ClrcUlts used for tracking analystS. under these conditions ap-
pears to be to select a method of determining values for circuit components which
(a) Does not involve an excessive number of arithmetical operations and will allow
the use of a slide rule (or four figure logs) for all calculations, except in special cases.
(b) Gives values for the components that fall within a few per cent of those actually
required in the circuits.
(c) Allows the change required in other circuit components to be rapidly estimated,
when the value of one component in the circuit is changed by an amount which falls
within a previously determined range of values.
(d) Lends itself to graphical methods of estimating the component values.
After the component values have been calculated it is usually advisable to build
a pilot model receiver in which the values of all the elements (padder, coils and trim-
mers) can be varied over a small range (say ± 10%). In this way it is a fairly simple
matter to secure tracking at the three points required, and at the same time to de-
termine what tolerances are permissible in the component values before mistracking
becomes excessive. Fixed padders and coils ('.an then be used for further models
of the same receiver; although production difficulties can be reduced by using
4C slug ., inductance variation in the oscillator coils as well as the usual variable parallel
25.3 TRACKING-(i) GENERAL 1003
capacitance trimmers in the oscillator and signal circuits (many receiver manufacturers
also use " slug" tuning of the signal circuits).
A few points which may be of interest are :
(1) The tracking error on the broadcast bands need not exceed a few Kc/s e.g.
the error between tracking points need not exceed about 3 Kc/s on the 540-1600 Kc/s
medium wave band using tracking frequencies of 600, 1000 and 1400 Kc/s. This
error is negligible, in most cases, since the oscillator tuning takes charge and the lack
of alignment affects the aerial and r-f circuits which are relatively unselective.
A typical curve of tracking errors is shown in Fig. 25.34.
(2) High impedance primaries, on the aerial and r-f coils, are practically always
used in modem receivers covering the medium waveband. The coefficient of coup-
ling in aerial and r-f coils, and the location of the primary resonant frequencies have
very important effects on tracking. Suitable values for these factors are discussed
in Chapter 23, Sects. 2 and 3.
(3) When a series capacitance (padder) is used in the oscillator circuit only, the
operating frequency of the oscillator must be higher than the signal frequency if
three point tracking is to be secured.
Three point tracking is obtainable if both the signal and oscillator circuits use
series padders, whether the oscillator frequency is higher or lower than the signal
frequency provided, of course, that the component values are correctly proportioned.
If only the signal circuits are padded the oscillator frequency must be lower than
the signal frequency to obtain three
4
point tracking. m+ 1
"'U-
A typical example of padding of x:
the signal and oscillator circuits oc- ~ Oi--T---
<C
curs in band-spread receivers, where \oJ
quencies, and make the third point either the arithmetical-mean or geometrical-mean
of the outer frequencies. This leads to fairly simple design calculations, and gives
values for the components which are reasonably close to the optimum. The small
differences in component values required to set to the optimum tracking frequencies
(or whatever the designer chooses) can then be made experimentally. It should be
observed that it has been usual to align receivers to tracking points on various bands
which have been established by long practice as giving sufficiently satisfactory results
e.g. on the medium wave band 600, 1000 and 1400 Kc/s are in common use, but
these are a compromise, due partly to a lack of more exact knowledge, and also because
of the frequency allocations of the main broadcasting stations. If a station were to be
located at, say, 540 Kc/s then the loss in receiver sensitivity, due to mistracking,
would be serious if 600 Kc/s were to be taken as the low frequency tracking point.
(7) The feedback winding on the oscillator coil should be as small as possible,
consistent with correct oscillator operation, if good tracking is desired. For minimum
error the oscillator feedback winding should have its natural resonant frequency
well above the highest oscillator tuning frequency; this means that stray capacitances
across the winding should be kept as low as possible. The natural resonant frequency
is important because the coefficient of coupling between the two oscillator coil wind-
ings is usually large, and the amount of reactance reflected into the tuned circuit not
only varies with frequency, but also sets a limit to the maximum possible tuning
range. The limitation in tuning range is a particularly serious factor in receivers
covering the short wave range in one band.
An additional and important reason for making the feedback winding as small as
possible, is that for good oscillator stability the highest possible coefficient of coupling
should be used, consistent with the smallest possible value of mutual inductance
(M = kV' L"L ,).
(8) When tracking a superheterodyne receiver at three points in the tuning range
(we will· assume that the oscillator frequency is higher than the signal frequency)
it often happens that the centre tracking (crossover) frequency does not fall at the
frequency required. The question then arises as to how the oscillator series padder
value should be altered.
First the signal circuit trimmer capacitance (or inductance) is altered so as to give
maximum output. If the capacitance was increased then the oscillator series padder
should be increased. For a decrease in signal trimmer capacitance (or inductance)
the oscillator series padder should be decreased.
Complete re-alignment and re-checking is necessary after the padder value has
been altered and it is important to remember that the oscillator inductance and trim-
mer capacitance values will also require alteration. This is a simple process when the
oscillator coil is "slug" tuned, and the trimmer capacitance is adjustable.
Fig. 25.34 is also helpful in this regard, and the tracking error can be considered
in terms of Lo if so desired. It should be clear that if the value of Lo is increased
the padder value should be decreased (and vice versa) to retain the desired oscillator
frequency coverage.
A good alignment procedure is to set first the signal and oscillator circuits at the
band limits. Tracking is then obtained at the required points by setting the signal
generator to the required tracking frequency and rocking the receiver dial while
altering the oscillator trimmer capacitance (at the high frequency tracking point)
and the oscillator inductance (at the low frequency tracking point) until maximum
signal output is obtained. Tracking at the centre frequency can be checked either
by alteration of the signal circuit trimmers, which have not been altered after the
initial adjustment at the band limits, or, alternatively, by leaving the signal circuit
trimmers untouched and rocking the receiver dial while adjusting the oscillator
inductance (or capacitance) for maximum output. It is preferable to track the os-
cillator to the signal circuits since these give the required tuning law. A complete
re-check is always necessary after the initial alignment procedure is compieted Of
course correct tracking can be obtained by a number of methods, but the procedure
suggested above has proved very satisfactory for receiver development.
25.3 (ii) (A) FORMULAE AND CHARTS 1005
O.61---~.----+---I-----I
1.1 t----t---+---t-""'"
(l(Jrnax
G max
I.OI----+-
0.4 t-----"'<""+--+_~
fJ
yl.= Ot.
O.II'-:-.O--I:.I.:.Z:---....II.4---1.L-6--•..L..S--...J.2.0---=-'2.-=-2---:2"'-:.4--~Z.6-:------:'2.':-S-~3.0
f3
FIG. 25.35
,......
..:::;
~
"'I1
o
·e1::/ ~
H ~
~Cb
~
~
@
~
C/}
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
FIG. 25.36
~ ~
c,.,
Fig. 25.36. Charts giving high values of P min for geometrical-mea1l tracking.
I.Z,
} " > II
~~
\,C 17'
: 1 '~ :
1 ..><-1 ~
~
~I , I I 1/ 1/ 1/ I en
--1
)'1 = (£
,''''''''''''-: I I I I I I I I .....
- - 1,1 1.2 1.3 1.4 I.S I.b 1.7
FIG. 25.37 tJ p §
Fig. 25.37. Chart giving low values of P min for geometrical-mean tracking.
-
g
00
,-...
'-"
~
"I1
~
~il ~!
g: a
~Q:l
E
~
o
()
~
en
f3
FIG. 25.38 II:)
I:rI
Fig. 25.38. Chart giving high values of T Lmazfor geometrical-mean tracking. W
I. Li
I. w
I.
O.
o.
o.
o.
:§
o.
~
!
o.
~
~ y
HI
~ ~
~~ O.
~
~
o.
en
O.
1.0 I2 14 1.6 1.11 2.0 a 2.4 2.6 2.8 ),0
FIG. 25.39 f1
F£g. 25.39. Chart g£v£ng low values of T L
maa:
for geometrical-mean tracking . .
~
1010 (li) (A) FORMULAE AND CHARTS 25.3
1 25330
L = -T 2 (or L Tl./ ftH where T is in ftftF and 1 is in Mc/s)
Wz
Oscillator circuit:
For the tracking points coincident with the band limits.
Gm(J:C
Pm"o: r - 1
1
2(oc - fJ)
- 1)«(X + y) + (fJ
and 2(oc - fJ)
+ (fJ - 1)(1 + y)
For the case of arithmetical-mean tracking
. f 3 -- 11
( I.e. +2 12)
(X2 3 + ex 1 + 3fJ
r = p = p2· 3 + J3 . 1 + 3~
For geometrical-mean tracking (Le. 13 = vld2)
25.3 eli) (A) FORMULAE AND CHARTS 1011
2
r = R =2f3 +
OC (1 + fJ)oc!
20c +
f32 (1 + (3) oc i
(a) General formulae for padding and trimming capacitances.
(1) Tc given.
P = P maz - Te = P min + Te ma'!: - Te
P = P min + TL
Te =:= Tc - TL
ma'!:
error in P is given by ,- P L
(T )2 X 100 per cent.
T 2
error in T c is given by P XL T c x 100 per cent.
(b) Formulae for inductance of oscillator coil
2
L (w + W.)2 = (Pma:.:) • _1_ = PminPma3;.
o 2 • P T Lma:.: Te p2
max
25 330 x P minP maz
or Lo
Te ma:.:p2(fa + li)2
(capacitances in p.p.F, frequencies in Mc/s)
(c) Relations between P mea' P mim Tc max , and T Lmax
P maz = P min + Te
P ma :.: TL ma:.:
nloa:
P min =-r:-
max
(d) Relations between oscillator~circuit components.
The effect of a change in value of one component of the oscillator circuit on the
values required for the other components can be found from the following expressions :
oTe = - oP
oT L = (1 + 2~ L) OP
2Lo
oLo = - p oP
where oLo, etc. means a small change in Lo, etc. These changes must give values
of P, Tc etc. which lie between the limits of the maximum and minimum values
(P maz' P min' etc.) of the components considered.
(e) Auxiliary formulae when the outer tracking frequencies do not coincide with
the band limits
2
OC - 1 . G'
G max _- ( W ' ) 2 • (oc')2
2
W2 _ 1 mao:
~=(W2/)2
T W2
Tc - T e' = T - T'
(B) Worked examples
To illustrate the application of the equations and charts, worked examples are
appended.
A tuning capacitor is available having a capacitance range of 12-432 p.p.F. It is
required to tune over the range of frequencies 530 to 1620 Kc/s, and the i-f of the
receiver is 455 Kc/s. Determine the component values fOl the signal and oscillator
circuits.
1012 (ii) (B) WORKED EXAMPLES 25.3
For ease of working the outer tracking frequencies will be made coincident with
the band limits, and the third tracking frequency (f3) will be taken as the geometrica1-
mean of the outer frequencies (Vfd2 = 926.6 Kc/s).
Signal circuits
G max = 432 - 12 = 420 p.p.F
2 1620)2
a = ( 530 = 9.342
420
50.24 p.p.F (includes 12 p.p.F gang min. cap. so that
T = 9.342 - 1
actual trimmer would be 38.24 p.p.F)
25330
L = 50.24 X 1.622 192.2 p.H
<>scillator circuit
1620)2
1X2 = ( 530 = 9.342; IXt = 1.748;
1620 + 455
~ = 530 + 455 = 2.107; ~2 = 4.440;
(1 + P)lXt = 5.431
_ _ 9.342 [(2 X 2.107) + 5.431J
1.758
r - R - 4.44 (2 x 3.056) + 5.431
432 - 12
P max 1.758 _ 1 = 554 p.p.F
(432 - 12)
Ttl ma:!: (1.758 x 4.44) _ 1 = 61.7 p.p.F
(a) A value for T L (about 8 p.p.F) will be assumed, after preliminary calculation,
as this is the usual case.
As obviously T L < P (Compare 8 p.p.F with P maz)
P min = P maz - T c ma:!: = 492.3 p.p.F
x 61.7
T Lmaz -- 554492.3 942 F
= 6. p.p..
From this it is permissible to estimate T L as 8 p.p.F since this is about the order
of stray capacitances likely to be across Lo. Any small error here is unimportant, as
lo~g as the value chosen for T L is less than T L :", since this is taken up during circuit
ma
alIgnment. ,
Hence P = 492.3 + 8 = 500.3 p.p.F
Tc = 61.7 - 8 53.7 p.p.F (includes gang min. cap. of 12 p.p.F.
Actual trimmer would be 41.7 p.p.F)
25 330 x 492.3 x 554
(b) Lo = 61.7 X 500.32 x (1.62 + 0.455)2 = 103.9 p.H
(c) and Cd)
Suppose now that it is required to make a change in the value of one of the oscillator
components. What should be the new values of the other components?
A good example is the padder; a more suitable value may be 510 I-'I-'F (which lies
between the maximum and minimum values of 554 p.p.F and 492.3 I-'p.F).
Then
STc = -9.7 p.p.F
(
oTL = 1 + 500.32 8)
x
9.7 = 10 p.I-'F
~Lo = - 2 x 103.9 x 9.7 _ 403 H
a 500.3 - -. 1-'.
So that the new values fur the oscillatur components are P = 510 p.p.F
Te = 53.7 - 9.7 = 44 p.p.F
T L = 8 + 10 = 18 p.p.F
25.3 (ii) (B) WORKED EXAMPLES 1013
The design problem is to select values for the padder P and the two trimming capaci-
tances T L and T c such that simultaneously the following conditions are fulfilled :-
(a) The desired frequency ratio is attained.
(b) The scale calibration is linear, or, more generally, corresponds to a desired
form.
(c) The LIC ratio is maintained at a high value in order to achieve adequate gain
in the signal circuits.
To simplify notation the virtual pilot circuit takes the same form as the original
signal circuit shown in Fig. 25.33 and the same notation is retained, for both the padded
signal and oscillator circuits, as was previously used for the oscillator circuit alone.
The design equations are limited to the cases of arithmetical-mean and geometrical-
mean tracking. Charts are available (in Ref. 103) covering the arithmetical-mean
case.
Summary of formulae
Pilot circuit :
G
1)-
Gm(U
Padded circuit:
G maz
P + Tc
r - 1
G maz
T(,
maz rfJ2 - I
G maz
TLma:c r(fJ2 - 1)
P+ Tc P maz = P min + Tc
maJ:
where r is limited to the values given by p and R.
T c specified :
P = P moz - Tc
P
TL = - - Tc
P min maz
where P is first evaluated.
T L specified:
Inductance
I P max
1 P min T G
max
-:-(W-1-+--i) 2 •
W
p2' Tc
+~
G max
. . 25 330 P min(G ma", + P ma",)
or for numerIcal computatIon Lo = (fl + ij)2P2(G ma fl: + Tc )
ma",
using I£H, I£I£F, Mc/s.
in which (WI + Wi) is the known low frequency tracking point of the padded signal
circuit. For a padded oscillator circuit replace (WI + Wi) by (WI + WJ ± Wi)' The
value for P is derived from the appropriate equation according as to whether T c or
T L is specified. '
For an unpadded signal circuit
0(2 - 1
L = 0( 2 WI 2 G ma",
The notation is identical with that given previously, with the addition of
W 21T x any frequency in the tuning range
WI 21T X low frequency tracking point of pilot circuit
W2 21T x high frequency tracking point of pilot circuit
W3 aritlurietical- or geometrical-mean tracking point of pilot circuit
Wi 21T x true intermediate frequency of receiver
Wj 21T x virtual intermediate frequency for the combination of a padded
signal circuit with a virtual pilot circuit
0( = -W2 = -1
12 ••
= frequency ratIO .'.
of pllot CIrCUIt
WI 1
W2 + Wj. =
• "
frequency ratIo of padded SIgnal CIrCUIt
•
WI + Wi .
G = incremental capacitance of each section of the ganged tuning capacitors,
measured from its value at W2
G max = value of G at WI
C = total effective capacitance across Lo
C maz = value of C when G = G ma ",
Q = wLo/R where Lo and R apply to the signal circuit, and this R is the
r-f resistance of the circuit.
(B) Worked example
The method will be applied to the design. of a receiver tuning from 6 to 9 Mc/s,
using an i-f of 455 Kc/s, with a capacitor having a straight line frequency characteristic
and a capacitance range of 12-432 I£I£F. Arithmetical-mean tracking will be used.
Pilot circuit
For the pilot circuit assume that the required scale calibration is given by
0( = 2 (A sufficient range of values for most receiver calibration curves
, is from about 3 to 1.5)
«2 = 4
Signal circuits
[3 = 9/6 = 1.5
[32 2.25
3 + 2
4 1 + (3 x 1.5)
r = p = 2.25
3 + 1.5
---
I + (3 x 2)
1.552
432 - 12
P + T c = 1.552 - 1 = 760.8 I£I£F
P max
432 - 12
Tc
mafl: (1.552 x 2.25) _ 1 = 301.7 I£I£F
432 - 12
T -
l.ma", - 216.5 I£I£F
1.552 (2.25 - 1)
1016 (iii) (B) WORKED EXAMPLE 25.3
T. TL P Lo
50 710.8
100 660.8
150 610.8
200 560.8
250 57.53 510.8 2.024
300 460.8
From thIS It seems that a convement padder value IS 510.8 JLJLF. Then find T L
and Lo to complete the table. If the values so found, using the first selection for P,
are considered as being suitable, only those need be computed
510.8
TL = 459.1 [301.7 - 250] = 57.3 JLJLF
_-\--1---1---50
\
To
564.1
P
P = 518.2[
-2- 1 + J+
Then for the tabulated values of T L we have
1
4TL
518.2
J
These values are listed above.
Taking the padder of 604 JLJLF as being suitable, then T L is 100 JLJLF, and now
find T c and Lo.
518.2)
171.4 - 100 ( 604 = 85.6 JLJLF
25330 x 518.2 (420 + 689.6)
(6 + 0.455)2 X 604 2 (420 + 171.4)
= 1.619 JLH
So that one suitable set of oscillator component values would be
T L = 100 JLJLF, P = 604 JLJLF, Lo = 1.619 JLH
and T c = 85.6 JLJLF (including 12 JLJLF gang min. cap.).
The signal and oscillator circuits should track at 6, 9 and 7.5 Me/s.
References to superheterodyne tracking
Refs. 101-114, 121, 123, 134, 135.
SECTION 4: REFERENCES
1. Armstrong, E. H. "A New System of Short-Wave Amplification" Proc. I.R.E. 9.1 (Feb. 1921) 3.
2. Gennan Patent No. 324, 515.1918.
3. J. Scott-Taggart, Gennan Patent No. 383,449.1919.
4. de Mare, J., R. Barthelemy, H. de Bellescize and L. Levy" Use of double-grid valves in frequency-
changing circuits" VOnde Electrique 5 (April 1926) 150.
5. "A four-electrode valve supersonic circuit" Experimental Wireless, 3.37 (Oct. 1926) 650.
6. Barthelemy, R. " Valve frequency-changers" Rev. Gen. d'Elec. 19 (April 1926) 663.
7. See also: M. Gausner, French Patent No. 639,028: G. Thebault, French Patent 655,738 :
H.J.J.M. de Regauld de Bellescize, United States Patent No. 1,872,634.
8. Whitman, V. E., United States Patent No. 1,893,813: H. A •. Wheeler, United States Patent No.
1,931,338.
9. Llewellyn, F. B., United States Patent No. 1,896,780.
10. Wheeler, H. A. "The hexode vacuum tube" Radio Eng. 13.4 (April 1933) 12.
11. Hassenberg, W. "The hexode " Funk. Tech. Monatshefte, (May 1933} 165.
12. Application Note No. 3 R.C.A. Radiotron Co., Inc.
13. Robinson, E. Y. British Patent No. 408,256.
14. Smith, J. C., Discussion on H. A. Wheeler paper" Image suppression and oscillator-modulators
in superheterodyne receivers" Proc. I.R.E. 23.6 (June 1935) 576.
15. Harris, W. A. "The application of superheterodyne frequency conversion systems to multirange
receivers" Proc. I.R.E. 23.4 (April 1935) 279.
16. Shelton, E. E. "A new frequency changer" W.W. 35.21 (Oct. 5, 1934) 283.
17. Nesslage, C. F., E. W. Herold and W. A. Harris" A new tube for use in superheterodyne frequency
conversion systems" Proc. I.R.E. 24.2 (Feb. 1936) 207.
18. Herol~ E. W., W. A. Harris and T. J. Henry" A new converter tube for all-wave receivers "
R.C.A. Rev. 3.1 (July 1938) 67. .
19. Harris, W. A. " A single-ended pentagrid converter" Presented, Rochester Fall Meeting, Rochester,
N.Y., Nov. 15, 1938. See Application Note No. 100, R.C.A. Manufacturing Co., Inc., Radiotron
Division, Harrison, N.J.
20. Klipsch, P. W ... Suppression of interlocking in fitst detector circuits" Proc. I.R.E. 22.6 (June
1934) 699.
21. "Suppressor grid circuit novelties" Radio World 22.15 (Dec. 24, 1932) 13.
22. Lukacs, E., F. Preisach and Z. Szepcsi .. Noise in frequency changer valves" (Letter to Editor)
W.E. 15.182 (Nov. 1938) 611.
23. Herold, E. W. " Superheterodyne converter system considerations in television receivers" R.C.A.
Rev. 4.3 (Jan. 1940) 324.
24. Thompson, B. J., D. O. North and W. A. Harris "Fluctuations in space-charge-limited currents
at moderately high frequencies" R.C.A. Rev. 4.3 (Jan. 1940) 269; 4.4 (April 1940)441; 5.1
(July 1940) 106; 5.2 (Oct. 1940) 244; 5.3 (Jan. 1941) 371; 5.4 (April 1941) 505; 6.1 (July 1941)
114.
26. Strutt, M. J. o. cc Electron transit-time effects in multigrid valves" W.E. 15.177 (June 1938) 315.
27. de Bellescize, H., United States Patent No. 1,872,634; Gausner, M., French Patent No. 639,028.
28. Whitman, V. E. United States Patent No. 1,893,813.
29. Strutt, M. J. O. and A. van der Zie! " Simple circuit means for improving short-wave performance
of amplifier tubes" Elek. Nach. Tech. 13 (Aug. 1936) 260.
1018 REFERENCES 25.4
87. Dammers, B. G., J. Otte " Comments on interelectrode feedback in frequency changers" Philips
Tec. Com. No.5 (1950) 13; No.6 (1950) 11; reprinted from Philips Electronic Application
Bulletin 11, 3 (March 1950).
101. Green, A. L. " Superheterodyne tracking charts" A.W.A. Tec. Rev. 5.3 (Feb. 1941) 77, Reprinted
W.E. 19.225 (June 1942) 243. (Introductory, gives extensive bibliography).
102. Payne-Scott, Ruby, and Green, A. L. "Superheterodyne tracking charts-II" A.W.A. Tee. Rev.
5.6 (Dee. 1941) 251. Reprinted W.E. 19.226 (July 1942) 290 (Derives general design equations and
arithmetical-mean tracking charts).
103. Green, A. L. "Superheterodyne tracking charts III" A.W.A. Tec. Rev. 6.2 (Feb. 1943) 97 :
Reprinted W.E. 20.243 (Dec. 1943) 581 (Padded signal circuits and design charts).
104. Green, A. L. "Superheterodyne tracking charts-IV" A.W.A. Tec. Rev. 6.7 (July 1945) 423
(additional data on padded signal circuit but mainly confined to tracking R-C oscillators).
105. Green, A. L. "Superheterodyne tracking charts-V" A.W.A. Tec. Rev. 7.3 (April 1947) 295
(Tracking errors lU"1d design charts for geometrical-mean tracking).
106. Ross, H. A. and Miller P. M. "Measurement of Superheterodyne Tracking Errors" A.W.A. Tec.
Rev. 7.3 (April 1947) 323 (Experimental method of checking magnitude and distribution of tracking
errors). .
107. Simon, A. W. "Tracking permeability tuned circuits" Elect. 19.9 (Sept. 1946) 138 (Method of
tracking identical inductors in signal· and oscillator circuits).
108. Sowerby, A. L. " Ganging and tuning controls of a superheterodyne receiver" W.E. 9.101 (Feb.
1932) 70.
109. Cocking, W. T. "Wireless Servicing Manual" Text book (6th edit. 1944) Iliffe and Sons, London
(Gives general information on practical alignment of receivers etc.).
110. Sandel, B. "Tracking" Radiotronics No. 121 Sept.-Oct. 1946 page 101 (Gives practical design
details for typical receiver using arithmetical mean tracking. Method based on that of Payne-
Scott and Green (1941). ,
111. Yu, Y. P. " Superheterodyne tracking charts" Tele. Tech. 6.9 (Sept. 1947) 46. (Tracking Charts
for permeability and capacitively tuned circuits).
112. Simon, A. W. "Tracking the permeability-tuned circuits" Elect. 20.11 (Nov. 1947) 142. (Method
of neutralizing effect of loop antenna reactance on tracking).
113. Simon, A. W. "Three point tracking method" Radio 30.11 (Nov. 1946) 20 (Simplified eqns. for
inductance or capacitance tuning; broadcast band only).
114. Menzies, E. B. " Method of plotting tracking error" Elect. 20.1 (Jan. 1947) 128.
115. StrUtt, M. J. 0." Noise-figure reduction in mixer stages" Proc. I.R.E. 34.12 (Dec. 1946) 942.
116. Stolze, W. J. "Input circuit noise calculations for F-M and television receivers" Comm. 27.2
(Feb. 1947) 12.
117. StrUtt, M. J. O. "Properties of gain and noise figures at v.h.f. and u.h.f." Philips Tec. Com. 3
(March 1947) 3. Precis by E. G. Beard. Philips Tee. CO!!!. 3 (March 1947) 17.
118. Miller, P. H. "Noise spectrum of crystal rectifiers" Proc. I.R.E. 35.3 (March 1947) 252.
119. Roberts, S. " Some considerations governing noise measurements on crystal mixers" Proc. I.R.E.
35.3 (March 1947) 257.
120. Tapp, C. E. "The application of super-regeneration to frequency-modulation receiver design "
Proc. I.R.E. (Australia) 8.4 (April 1947) 4.
121. Fairman, H. E. "Oscillator tracking methods in permeability tuning" Tele-Tech. 6.3 (March
1947) 48.
122. Middleton, D. "Detector noise" (review of article in Journal of Applied Physics, Oct. 1946)
Radio 31.1 (Jan. 1947) 4.
123. Kirkpatrick, C. B. "Three point tracking formulae" Proc. loR.E. (Aust.) 8.7 (July 1947) 18.
124. Mueller, W. P. (extract) "H.F. Conversion with the 7F8" Service 16.5 (May 1947) 28.
125. Edwards, C. F. "Microwave converters" Proc. I.R.E.35.11 (Nov. 1947) 1181.
126. Whitehead, J. W. "Additive and multiplicative mixing" W.W. 53.121 (Dec. 1947) 486.
127. Stockman, H. " Superregenerative circuit applications" Elect. 21.2 (Feb. 1948) 81.
129. Haantjes, J. and B. D. H. Tellegen "The diode as converter and as detector" Philips Research
Reports, 2.6 (Dec. 1947) 401.
130. Bradley, W. E. "Superregerlerative detection theory" Elect. 21.9 (Sept. 1948) 96.
131. Hazeltine, A., D. Richman and B. D. Loughlin " Superregenerator design" Elect. 21.9 (Sept.
1948) 99.
133. "Characteristics of pentodes and triodes in mixer service" R.C.A. Application Note AN-139
(March 15, 1949).
134. Coppin, K. J. "The tracking of superheterodyne receivers" Jour. Brit. I.R.E. 7.6 (Nov.-Dec.
1948) 265.
135. de Koe, H. S. " Tracking of superheterodyne receivers" W.E. 28.337 (Oct. 1951) 305.
136. Dammers, B. G., and L. J. Cock" Comments on frequency changers for 30 Mc/s to 120 Mc/s
for T.V. and F.M. receivers" Philips Tec. Com. Nos. 5,6,7 (1951). Reprinted from Electronic
Application Bulletin June/July 1950, Vol. 11 Nos. 6,7.
CHAPTER 26
1020
26.1 (ii) COMMONLY ACCEPTED INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCIES 1021
properties. Of course, almost any type of coupling can be used in i-f circuits but
transformers other than those using two windings coupled by mutual inductance are
the exception rather than the rule in ordinary broadcast and communications receivers.
:I: .
mf'~~'y~~,.
L:'-~
T
.. :L'M
-:-
I
-:,
B+ A.v.c. B+ A~C.
BIAS
BIAS
rlC.26·1 TYPICAL TRANSFORMER COUPLED FIC.26·2 SHUNT CAPACITANCE COUPLED I.F. CIRCUIT
I. •. STAGE
The type of circuit being considered is discussed also in Chapter 9 Sect. 6(iii),
(iv), (v). Graphical methods of determining selectivity are given in Chapter 9 Sect. 10.
Section 4 below gives detailed design methods and examples for several trans-
formers of this type.
and also permits both transformers to be "slug" tuned without using elaborate
mechanical arrangements. In some cases where the transformers are both mounted
in one can, combinations of " slug" and capacitance adjustment are provided; an
example of this is illustrated in Ref 12.
Many arrangements have been suggested for combined i-f transformers, and some
of these are described in Ref. 22. However, the circuit shown, or modifications of
it, has received fairly wide acceptance as providing quite a good solution to the pro-
blem.
(i) General
The design procedure for i-f transformers tan be greatly simplified by the use of
charts and tables. If certain assumptions are made, which approximate to practical
conditions, the design procedure can be reduced to a few routine operations. Here
we will consider only the two winding transformer using mutual inductance coupling ;
the added capacitance coupling, which is always present, does not seriously affect the
results particularly as its presence is taken into account when setting the coefficient
of coupling (k).
The methods given below can be applied to inductive or capacitive coupling pro-
vided that the coefficient of coupling (k) is suitably interpreted [see appendix (vii)
below for methods of calculating coupling coefficients]. The practical two winding
transformer, as previously mentioned, has mixed coupling but this does not cause any
difficulty when the two forms of coupling assist each other [suitable connections are
given in (vi) below]. However, if the two forms of coupling are in opposition a
rejection frequency is possible which can occur within the pass band of the trans-
former. This effect is well known to receiver designers who have accidentally re-
versed the connections of one of the i-f transformer windings, and found that the i-f
stage gives practically no gain. This fact can also be made the basis of a useful method
for measuring k, the capacitive coupling being increased (using a calibrated capacitor)
until it equals the inductive coupling and zero voltage transfer then occurs at the
working frequency. For further data on mixed coupling see Ref. 4.
The initial assumptions will be that the primary and secondary inductances Ll
and L2 are given by L = V L1L z . Also, it will be assumed that the values of Q do not
alter appreciably over the range in which the selectivity curves are taken. We will
not always take the primary and secondary Q's as being equal, and the advantages
1026 DESIGN METHODS-(i) GENERAL 26.4
(ii)Critically-coupled transformers
CA) Design equations and table
In general the procedure given is similar to that due to Kelly Johnson (Ref. 1) and
Ross (Ref. 2). However, these procedures assume that Q = Ql = Q2; we shall take
o = VO,O?. For most cases it is not advisable to use the equations given below for
QdQ2 oiQ2/Ql greater than about 2, unless some additional adjustment is made from
the universal selectivity and phase shift curves.
26.4 (li) CRITICALLY-COUPLED TRANSFORMERS 1027
Attenuation (P) N= 1 N = 2 N = 3
0· 3 1.41 1.14
I 1.01
2 6 1.86 1.41 1.25
4 12 2.76 1.86 1.57
7 17 3.73 2.21 1.81
10 20 4.46 2.46 1.95
20 26 6.32 2.96 2.26
40 32 8.96 3.54 2.56
70 37 11.9 4.08 2.82
100 40 14.1 4.46 3.02
1000 60 - 7.96 4.46
10000 80 - 14.1 6.66
I
I
1028 (ii) CRITICALLY-COUPLED TRANSFORMERS 26.4
parallel resistance (grid input in our case) shunted across trans. second-
ary
0; Q(QwoL)(Rl + R 2); in all cases it will be taken that L = LI = L2
and f3 2[RIR2 - (QW OL)2].
For our example:
Q 101; Q2 = 1.02 X 10 4 ; RI 0.8 MQ; R2 = 6.8 MQ
Q woL 0.352 MQ (found previously)
0; 101 x 0.352 x 7.6 = 270; 0;2 = 7.29 X 10 4
f3 2[5.44 - 0.124] = 10.63 (MQ)2
270 + V7.29 x 10 4 + 2 x 1.02 X 10 4 x 5.44 x 10.63
Qu - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - = 131
10.63
so that QUI = QU2 = 131.
To check that the transformer, when placed in the receiver, gives the desired value
of Q = vlQIQ2 use
Q = QuR (8)
QuwoL + R
from which
131 x 0.8
Ql = 0.458 + 0.8 = 83.4
1030 (ii) CRITICALLY-COUPLED TRANSFORMERS 26.4
131 X 6.8
Qz 0.458 + 6.8= 123
and so
Q v'QIQ2 = v'83.4 X 123 101, which is the desired value (as
determined previously).
(D) Conclusions
All that is required to design the specified transformer is to go through the simple
steps (a) to (e) and, knowing Rl and R 2 , apply eqn. (7). Overall response and phase
shift are determined from the universal curves, as explained previously.
It should be obvious that eqn. (7) will not hold under all practical conditions, but
it is not limited by the ratio of QdQ2 or Q2/Qu and failing cases can be checked
by the condition for fJ = O. It has been assumed for simplicity that L = Ll = L2
but this is not essential, and the design equation could be extended to the case of
L = V L 1L 2 • In some failing case, if it is essential to fulfil the specified conditions,
Ql and Qz (and if necessary Ll and L 2 ) can be selected to give the desired values of Q
and L; this will be illustrated in the section on the design of variable bandwidth
crystal filters.
(E) k Measurement
The coefficient of coupling, k, for two circuits resonant at the same frequency, can
be set on a Q meter (provided Qb lies within the useful working range) using the
relationship
(9)
1 + QUIQullkll
If QU2 = Qu
Qu
then (9A)
1 + (Q u k)2
where QUI primary Q (sec. olc or detuned by large amount)
Q~!seCondary Q (pri. olc or detuned by large amount)
Q b = Q to be obtained when primary and secondary are coupled and the
secondary tuned to make the primary Q a minimum.
(Usua! precautions as to can and earthy side of secondary winding being grounded
to be observed-it is preferable to use the same order of connections for measurement
as those to be used in the receiver.)
When the transformer has different primary and secondary Q's, it is often advan-
tageous to use the higher Q winding as the primary when setting the coefficient of
coupling ;. this applies particularly when the coupling is very loose.
The actual capacitance values tuning the primary and secondary for Q meter meas-
urements should include the allowance made for stray capacitance otherwise incorrect
slug positions (i.e. incorrect inductance values) will give rise to an error which can be
avoided.
In our example we desire a value for k = 0.0099 (for critical-coupling when Q =
v' QIQI = 101); Qu 131. .
Then from (9A)
131
QII = 1 + (1.297)2 = 48.9.
All that is required is to adjust the spacing between the two resonant circuits until
the Q meter reads 48.9. The desired co-efficient of coupling has then been obtained.
Alternatively, by transposing terms in the equation, k is given for any values of Qb'
Quu and QU2'
so that k =JQul - Qb (9B)
QUIQuzQb
The method applies directly to under-, over-, or critically-coupled transformers
and is useful within the limits set bv the usable ranlle of the 0 meter. For over-
coupled transformers additional methods are someti~~ ~~q~ed, and the procedure
will be indicated in Sect. 5.
26.4 Cii) CRITICALLY-COUPLED TRANSFORMERS 1031
kJl - (Q~)' 2X
(12)
1
8 = tan- 1 _ XZ + (Qk)2 (13)
where Q =viQIQ2 = ·t (in which Ql and Qz are primary and secondary Q's
respectively; k c is coefficient of critical-coupling)
k = any coefficient of coupling equal to or greater than critical
A gain variation from peak to trough (i.e. difference in transmission level)
bandwidth between peaks; y2(2L1fp) is the total bandwidth for two
other points on the resonance curve with the same amplitude as at 10
8 phase shift between the secondary current at resonance and the secondary
current at LifeI s off resonance
X (2L1fllo)Q
and fo = resonant frequency of transformer (i-f).
The universal resonance and phase sl;1ift curves of Figs. 9.17 and 9.18 (Chapter 9
Sect. 10) are directly applicable, using the exact expressions if desired and taking Q
as Q2 for all terms involving a. It is more convenient, and sufficiently accurate, to
use the conditions for Qi = Q2 when QdQ2 or Q2/Ql :;j> 2; in this case b = Qk
(or klk c), D = (2L1flfo)Q and since these expressions do not involve a, the value
Q = vi QIQ2 as determined in the design problem is used. A check will reveal that
it is difficult to read any difference from the curves whichever method is used.
It should be observed that five points on the resonance curve are given directly
from the design equations_
1032 (iii) OVER-COUPLED TRANSFORMERS 26.4
To find the maximum stage gain which occurs at the peaks, the equation (5) as
given for critically-coupled transformers, is applied directly. Generally it is the
average gain in the pass band (0 x 2.:::1f) which is required and this is given by
multiplying eqn. (5) by
(Qk + 1)2
(14)
2[(Qk)2 + 1]
If the gain atfo (i.e. at the trough of the curve) is required, equation (5) is multiplied
by
2Qk
(15)
(Qk)2 +
which is the same as multiplying equation (5) by I/A, since equation (15) is equivalent
to I/A.
Equations (14) and (15) can be evaluated directly from Fig. 26.4 when Qk is known;
the dotted line being for eqn. (14) and the solid line for eqn. (15). Equation 5 is
multiplied by the gain reduction factor so found. The gain reduction indicated by
eqn. (15) can also be read directly from the 1/A column in table 2.
·8
.q:
"
o o·!) I I'!) 2 2·5 :, :"5 4_4·!) 5 5·5 6
Qk
F'lC.26·4 GAIN REDUCTION FACTOR5 FOR COUPLING
OTHER THAN CRITICAL
db
I
Times Down Qk
IJI (Qk)2 I (Qk)2
1
i
!
A
0
0.25
1.00
1.03
1.00
1.27
-I
0.000
0.616
I 1.00
1.61
II.OO
I 0.971
0.50 1.06 1.41 0.707 2.00 I 0.943
1 1.12 1.73 0.817 3.00 0.893
1.9 . 1.25 2.00 0.866 4.00 0.800
2 1.26 2.02 0.869 4.08 0.794
3 1.41 2.41 0.910 5.81 0.709
3.1 1.43 2.45 0.913 6.00 0.670
4 1.59 2.81 0.935 7.90 0.629
4.4 1.67 3.00 0.943 9.00 0.599
5 1.78 3.25 0.952 10.56 0.562
6 2.00 3.72 0.963 13.84 0.500
6.6 2.13 4.00 0.968 16.00 0.469
..,
I 2.24 4.24 0.972 17.98 0.446
26.4 Ciii) OVER-COUPLED TRANSFORMERS 1033
(B) Example
A 455 Kc/s i-f transformer is required to pass a band of frequencies 16 Kc/s wide
(i.e. ± 8 Kc/s). The variation in gain across the pass band is not to exceed 0.5 db.
(a) From Fig. 26.5 it is reasonable to take the total bandwidth as 16 Kc/s and
so the peak separation is 16/y2 = 11.3 Kc/s.
Cb) 2 J l/lo = 11.3/455 = 0.0248.
(c) From Table 2, VI - 1/(Qk)2 = 0.707.
(d) From eqn. (12), k = 0.0248/0.707 = 0.035.
(e) From Table 2, Qk = 1.41
Q = 1.41/0.035 = 40.2.
(f) Assuming a value for C 1 (= C 2 ) of 80 /L/LF (induding strays)
L = 25.33/0.455 2 X 80 = 1.53 mH
and take L = Ll = L2 = 1.53 mHo
(g) To determine the average stage gain in the pass band. From Fig. 26.4
(or eqn. 14), with Qk = 1.41, reading from the dotted curve, gain reduction
factor equals 0.97. Assuming we use a type 6J8-G converter valve having a
conversion conductance of 290 /Lmhos (0.29-mA/volt), then from eqn. (5)
and the gain reduction factor,
Average stage gain = 0.97 x 7T x 0.29 x 40.2 x 0.455 x 1.53
= 24.7 times (or 27.9 db).
(h) Assume that the transformer is connected between a type 6J8-G converter
and a type 6SK7 voltage amplifier and that both valves are working under
a particular set of operating conditions.
For type 6J8-G the conversion plate resistance r p = 4MQ = Rl and for
the type 6SK7 the short circuit input resistance = 6.8 MQ = R2 (as de-
termined from Chapter 23, Sect. 5).
From Equation (7)
ex 40.2 x 0.17 x 10.8' = 73.8; ex 2 = 0.544 X 10 4
{J 2[27.2 - 0.172] = 54.4 approximately
73.8 + V0.544 x 104 + 4.76 X 10 6
Qu '54.4 = 41.4,
so that Qu = QUI = QU2 = 41.4 which is the unloaded value for primary and second-
ary Q's before the transformer i,s connected between the two valves; the additional
refinement in design is hardly necessary here, and it would be sufficient to make
Q = Ql = Q2 = 40 (approx.).
------tJ~GAIN
I~ARIATION
H-----------~~----------_;.---~-
fo
fREQUENCY
fIG.c6·~ IL'LUSTRATION Of TERMS USED FOR OVER-COuPLED TRANSFQRt,!ERS
It can easily be checked, using the procedure set out for critically-coupled trans-
formers, that the geometrical-mean of the loaded values Ql and Q2 is 40.2 as required.
Complete resonance and phase shift curves are plotted as previously explained. The
values for k can be set in exactly the same way as explained in the section on critically-
coupled transformers, if this is convenient. If k is high it is preferable to apply
one of the following methods.
(C) k measurement (when k is high)
When k is high, one of the following methods may be used
The first of these uses the relationship
JC = C 1 k 2 /(1 - k 2)
1034 (iii) OVER-COUPLED TRANSFORMERS 26.4
or k ~J~/~ C,
where C 1 = capacitance required to tune the primary to resonance with the second-
ary open circuited.
k = coefficient of coupling required (say k greater than 0.1 or so)
and LI C = increment in capacitance required to tune the primary to resonance
when the secondary is short circuited.
As an illustration suppose k = 0.2 and C 1 = 200 p.p.F (the exact working frequency
may not always be convenient) then LlC = 8.34 p.p.F. Using a" Q" meter, the spac-
ing between primary and secondary is adjusted until this increment in capacitance is
obtained; this gives the required value of k.
With some transformers, neither of the two methods given previously will be con-
venient, and a third method is required. In this case a " Q " meter is again used,
and the two transformer windings are connected firstly " parallel aiding" and then
"parallel opposing." Any convenient resonance frequency may be selected, and
the two capacitance values (C 1 and C 2 ) required to resonate the coils with the two
different connections are noted. The coefficient of coupling is then given by
k =(1 2a+ )(CCa
2
1
I -
+
C
C
2)
2
where a 2 = L 2 /L 1 • (This result was determined by J. B. Rudd).
For a pre-determined value of k the relationship
4akC2
LlC = 1 + a(a - 2k)
is applied; where LI C = change in capacitance = C 1 - C 2 •·
As an example, suppose Ll = L2 (i.e. a 2 = 1) the capacitance C 2 = 100 p.p.F and
k = 0.1 is required. Then
4 x 1 x 0.1 x 100
LI C = 1 + 1(1' _ 2x 0;-1) =~2.2 fLf'F.
This method should not be used for small values of k (say below about 0.02) as it
does not take into account capacitive coupling. For k equal to 0.02 or less the method
of Sect. (ii)E should always be used. For k greater than about 0.2 the short-circuit/
open-circuit method, given previously, is usually the most convenient. All measure-
ments must be made with the transformer in its can, and the can should be earthed.
In cases where a " Q " meter is not available, the operation of the transformer can
be checked using a single stage amplifier and measuring the selectivity curve with a
signal generator and a valve voltmeter. Alternatively, measurements can be made
in the receiver, and a typical case is illustrated in Chapter 27 Sect. 2(iv) in connection
with measurements on ratio detectors (see also Chapter 14 of Ref. 17).
2111
and =
8 tan- 1 - Q = tan- 1 X (19)
10
where p = attenuation at 111 cis off resonance
N = number of identical tuned circuits. (for a single tuned circuit N = 1)
10 = resonant frequency
and 8 = phase shift between current at resonance and the current at 111 cis off
resonance.
The design of the single tuned circuit presents no difficulty, and it is only necessary
to use Table 3 in conjunction with eqns. (16), (17) and (IS). Selectivity and phase
shift can be found from the universal curves of Figs. 9.17 and 9.1S (Chapter 9 Sect. 10),
or selectivity can be evaluated directly from eqns. (16), (17) and (IS) used in con-
junction with Table 3.
TABLE 3. SINGLE TUNED CIRCUITS
For use with equations (16), (17) and (IS)
N = number of identical tuned circuits
Attenuation (p) N= 1 N = 2 N = 3
(B) Example
Two single tuned circuits are required to give an attenuation of 17 db for a total
bandwidth of 10 Kc/s. The i-f is 455 Kc/s.
(a) From Table 3, X = 2.45 (since N = 2).
(b) Q = 2.45 x 455/10 = 111.5 from eqn. (IS).
(c) Assuming C = 200 /L/LF (including all strays)
L = 25.33/0.455 2 X 200 = 0.611 mHo
(d) The unloaded Q required depends on the combined effects of valve input
and output resistance. Take the loading for the two transformers as being
the same, for simplicity. .
Then suppose Tf) = O.S MoO and grid input resistance = 6.8 MoO the
effective shunt resistance is 0.715 MoO.
From eqn. (6)
Qu = 111.5 X 0.715/(0.715 - 0.194) = 153.
(e) The gain of each stage (twice that for a critically-coupled transformer) is
gmQwoL, so that taking gm = 2 rnA/volt (2000 /Lmhos) in each case, stage
gain = 2'IT X 2 X 111.5 X 0.455 X 0.611 = 390 times (or 51.S db).
(f) Suppose we have the loaded Q given as 111.5 (as in our previous problem
using N = 2), and we require the bandwidth for 6 db attenuation; from
table 3 obtain X = 1.0 and from eqn. (IS) the total bandwidth (211/) is 4.0S
Kc/s. In a similar manner the attenuation can be found when· the band-
width is stated. The resonance curves could also be used to find X (== D in
Chapter 9, in this case) and p.
(C) Under-coupled transformers
If the transformers use very loose coupling, the methods for single tuned circuits
could be applied (N = 2 for each transformer) in conjunction with eqn. (7). This
1036 (iv) UNDER-COUPLED TRANSFORMERS 26.4
approach does not lead to very accurate results since the values of coupling are seldom
less than 0.1 of critical and more often are ofthe order of 0.5 to 0.8 of critical.
General design equations applicable to transformers having any degree of coupling
are given below, but it will be seen that they are not quite as tractable as in previous
cases unless an additional factor such as Q, k, or Qk (i.e. a given proportion of critical-
coupling) is specified. However, this will offer little difficulty.
X = [{(I - ex 2)2 + (p2/N - 1)(1 + ex 2)2}! - (1 - ex 2)]} (20)
[(1
= + ex 2 - X2)2 + 4X2] N/2 (21)
P (1 + ex 2)2
X (2tJflfo)Q (22)
X{X2 + (X2 + 4)(p2/N - I)F - (X2 + p2/N - 1) ] t
Qk = ex = [ (23)
p2'/V - 1
8 = tan- 1 2X/[I - X2 + :x 2 ] (13)
where p = attenuation at tJf cis off resonance
ex = Qk = klke
Q =y'QIQ2 = I/ke (in which Ql and Q2 are the primary and secondary Q's
and k e is critical coupling coefficient)
k = any coefficient of coupling
N number of identical transformers
fo = resonant frequency
and 8 = phase shift between secondary current at and off resonance.
The restriction of QdQ2 or Q2/Ql ::j> 2 is applied, as previously explained.
It may be observed that these equations are the most general ones, e.g. if Qk =
the equations reduce to those for critical-coupling.
Stage gain is given by evaluating eqn. (5) and multiplying by eqn. (15) (or reading
the gain reduction factor from Fig. 26.4).
The coefficient .of cO\lpling .qIllpe secas described for critically-coupled trans~
formers.
(D) Example
A 455 Kc/s i-f transformer is required to give a total bandwidth of 20 Kc/s for an
attenuation of 4 times. The transformer is to be connected between a voltage am-
plifier, having a plate resistance of 0.8 M.Q (e.g. type 6SK7), and a diode detector
having a load resistance of 0.5 M.Q.
In this case other loading effects due to the a.v.c. system etc. will be neglected.
For a typical case where the a.v.c. diode plate is connected by a fixed capacitor to the
i-f transformer primary, there will be appreciable damping of the primary circuit due
to the diode circuit (approx. R d3 when diode is conducting). This damping will
not be constant for all signal input voltages, particularly if delayed a.v.c. is used.
(a) The difficulty first arises in evaluating X. If we select a suitable value for
Q the problem becomes quite straightforward.
To select a value for Q it is necessary to realize that an unloaded value of
150 would be about the absolute maximum with normal types of construction,
and even this figure is well on the high side unless an " iron pot" or a fairly
large can and former are used. Assume Q = 150 for this problem (so far
as the procedure is concerned it is unimportant if a lower value is selected).
The next point is that circuit loading will set a limit to the value of Q woL
(= Q/ woC). Now L will be set, normally, by the minimum permissible
value of C. Suppose C = 85 ILILF including strays, then L = 1.44 mH ;
and we will take L = Ll = L2 and C = C 1 = C 2 for practical convenience.
Better performance would be possible by making Ll > L2 but the improve-
ment is only small, and hardly worthwhile unless the secondary load is very
small.
(b) For our problem
woL 1/ woC = 4120 .Q; also Rl = 0.8 M.Q and
R2 = 0.5/2 = 0.25 M.Q (half the d.c. diode load resistance).
26.4 (iv) UNDER-COUPLED TRANSFORMERS 1037
accuracy 0
I
<IF/J ~ 0.01-0.4
:_an_j_:W_I_Od_th_:_ : :
p
Bandwidth = 22/
_
0.5
:~
24/ I
I:: 1.0
26/
2.0
1:0
28/
3.0
:::
32/
4.0
::~
38/
I
III:: .:;:
5.0
46/
6.0
52/
As an example, for the F-M broadcast band 11P = ± 75 Kc/s and the highest
audio frequency is 15 Kc/s, then 11P// = 75/15 = 5.
Then the required bandwidth is 16 x 15 = 240 Kc/s.
The highest audio frequency is chosen because this imposes the most severe re-
quirements on bandwidth; e.g. suppose we had taken/ = 7.5 Kc/s, then the modula-
tion index would be 10, and the bandwidth = 28/ = 28 x 7.5 = 210 Kc/s.
The bandwidths actually employed in a receiver should also make allowance for
possible drift in the oscillator frequency. A reasonably good oscillator should not
drift by more than about ± 20 Kc/s when operating around 110 Mc/s; so that an
additiona140 Kc/s should be added to the bandwidth. Of course, this is only a rough
approximation, since the oscillator frequency variation is random and would intro-
duce additional frequency modulation; the determination of the true bandwidth
would be quite a difficult problem, unless several simplifying assumptions are made.
From what has been said, it appears that the receiver total bandwidth should be
about 280 Kc/s to fulfil the most severe requirements. However, most practical
receivers limit the total bandwidth to about 200 Kc/s, which is not unreasonable
since the average frequency deviation is about ± 50 Kc/s.
For such large bands of frequencies to be passed through tuned circuits which do
not give transmission (for the bandwidth desired) without attenuation it is necessary
to have some criterion which will allow the permissible amount of attenuation to be
estimated. To eliminate non-linear distortion the circuits should provide a uniform
amplitude and a linear phase characteristic over the operating range. Curvature of
the phase characteristic of the tuned circuits will cause non-linear a-f distortion, while
curvature of the amplitude characteristic may cause additional distortion if the ampli-
tude happens to drop below the operating voltage range of the amplitude limiting
device incorporated in the receiver. A suitable criterion can be determined from the
phase angle/frequency characteristics of the tuned circuits (the phase angle being
that between the secondary current at resonance to that at 11/ cis off resonance).
Inspection of universal phase shift curves will show that the greatest range of linearity
of phase shift versus frequency change, is given by critically-coupled transformers
(Ross, Ref. 2); but slight overcoupling does not lead to excessive non-linearity.
Overcoupling has some advantages, in particular slightly greater adjacent channel
selectivity can be obtained; but there is the disadvantage of more difficult circuit
alignment. As an extension of this work, Ross (Ref. 2) has also shown that for a
critically-coupled transformer a suitable criterion of permissible non-linearity is that
X~2 ~
where we will take
X = (211///o)Q (this is the same X as previously)
211/ = total bandwidth
/0 = central carrier frequency
and Q =V QIQ2 (where Ql and Q2 are the primary and secondary magnification
factors).
The amount of introduced amplitude modulation can be estimated from
26.4 (v) F-M I-F TRANSFORMERS 1039
p - 1
m (25)
p + 1
where m amplitude modulation factor
and p attenuation at a bandwidth of twice the deviation frequency (i.e. 2Jf).
Fig. 26.6 shows directly values of m for various values of X. Values of m are of
importance since they allow an estimate to be made of the amplitude limiting re-
quirements demanded from whatever device is incorporated in the receiver to "iron
width does not exceed about 40 Kc/s for 60 db attenuation relative to the
response at the centre frequency, although many commercial receivers have
bandwidths of less than 30 Kc/s for the same attenuation.
an inductance of about 0.5-2 mH, a two pie winding on a 9/16 in. former (each pie
5/32 in. wide, with 3/32 in. spacing between the pies and using 5/44 A.W.G. Litz
wire) has the factor B = 4.33. Then from eqn. (26)
N = 4.33YI440 = 165 turns per pie;
the two pies each of 165 turns, being connected series aiding. The same method
can be applied in cases where it is convenient, to any type of winding.
Since the presence of the iron" slug" will affect inductance (and r-f resistance)
it is necessary to determine its effect and also to calculate the variation in inductance
which can be made. The turns required are found for the condition with the" slug"
in the winding and in the position giving the mean inductance value. This means
that the value of L used in eqn. (26) will be less than the calculated value by the in-
crease due to the iron.
The value of the inductance (L) using a powdered iron core (e.g. magnetite) can
be found from
L Lo [1 + a(~r (~)(JL eft - 1)] (27)
where Lo inductance of air cored coil
r1 radius of iron core
r2 mean radius of coil
11 length of core
12 length of coil
JL eft = effective permeability of iron core (Refs. 88 and 89 list values for JL
and JL eft for various types of iron powders ; typical values for JL.II are
from 1.5 to 3, depending on the type of iron)
a = 0.8 when 11 < 12
and a = 1 when 12 < 11'
The iron cores in common use are about i in. to i in. in diameter and range in length
from about 1 in. to 1 in. An inductance change of about ± 10% when the" slug"
is moved through the winding, is generallysrifficient for most requirements. The
dimensions required for solving eqn. (27) are available if the experimental procedure
previously suggested has been can-ied out on air cored coils ; or the whole procedure
can be carried out experimentally.
Some manufacturers make up 455 Kc/s i-f transformers completely enclosed in
powdered iron pots. There is often little difficulty with this construction in obtaining
Q's in the order of 150. Stray capacitances are often large, however, and sometimes
lead to very unsymmetrical resonance curves.
At the lower frequencies (up to about 1 or 2 Mc/s) Litz wire is advantageous for
obtaining high Q values and 3,5,7 and 9 strands of about 44 A.W.G. (or near S.W.G.
or A.W.G. gauges) wire are common; Q yalues greater than about 120 will require
some care in the transformer construction, and the size of can selected will materially
affect the value obtainable (see Ref. 91 for illustration),
The required values of Lu L 2 , k, etc. for developmental purposes are conveniently
found using a Q meter. Methods for setting k, using a Q meter, have already been
outlined in this section. For an experimental transformer it is of assistance to place
the windings on strips of gummed paper (sticky side outwards) wrapped around the
former. In this way the windings can be moved quite readily along the former.
It should be noted that some variation in k can be expected when the transformer
is connected in the receiver because of alteration of" slug" position, added top capacit-
ance coupling (this occurs for example because of capacitance between the a.v.c. and
detector diodes) etc. Regeneration is also troublesome as it alters the effective Q
values, and hence the conditions for critical k. To avoid overcoupling it is sometimes
desirable to make the value of k somewhat less than is actually required (often about
0.8 to 0.95 of the critical value depending on the receiver construction and i-f). If
all added coupling is accounted for and the Q values are those specified then no diffi-
culty arises. Some slight inl:tease ill coupiing, in the receiver, is not necessarily
serious, because the loaded primary and secondary Q's are not always equal. In this
26.4 (vi) I;,.F TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION 1043
case a double hump in the secondary voltage does not appear until transitional coupling
has been C!xceeded, and the k required for this to occur is always higher than k critical ;
transitional and critical k are the same, of course, when primary and secondary Q's
are equal.
For the capacitance and mutual inductance coupling to be aiding, the primary and
secondary windings are arranged so that if the plate connects to the start of the prim-
ary, then the grid (or diode plate) of the next stage connects to the finish of the second-
ary winding; both coils being wound in the. same direction. This method of con-
nection also assists in keeping the undesired. capacitance coupling to a minimum.
The order of base connections is also important in reducing capacitance coupling and
the grid and plate connections should be as far from one another as possible.
The cans to be used with i-f transformers should be as large as is practicable. They
are generally made from aluminium, although copper was extensively used at one time.
Cans should preferably be round and seamless. Perfect screening is not obtained,
in general, and care is necessary in the layout of the various stages to ensure that the
transformers are not in close proximity to one another. When mounting the trans-
former into a can, if there is a choice as to the position of the leads (although this is
largely determined by the valve type available) it is always preferable to bring the con-
nections for each winding out to opposite ends, as this reduces stray capacitance
coupling. The effects of the coil shield on inductance and r-f resistance can be cal-
culated (see Chapter 10 and Ref. 4, p. 134) and the results serve as a useful guide, but
direct measurement on the complete transformer is the usual procedure. Mechanical
considerations generally ensure that the can is thick enough to provide adequate
shielding (for considerations of minimum thickness see Ref. 4, p. 135).
~Y1.ethods for deterrn~g gear ratios, winding pitch a...Tld .so en.., for use ,vim ceil
winding machines are discussed in the literature (Refs. 29, 30, 31, 32) ; see also Chapter
11, Sect. 3(iv) in particular.
Finally, the measure of the success of any i-f transformer design will be how closely
the predicted performance approaches the actual results obtained when the transformer
is connected into the receiver.
=
J (LI +
LILz
L m )(L 2 + L m)
MIM2
V(LIL.,. - M I2)(L2 L.,. - M22)
klk2
-"\/(1 -k 1 2 )(1 -k22)
MI M%
where ki = VLILm and k2 = VL L m' 2
kT = k m +ke (approximately).
For the case of the two forms of coupling being in opposition
k m - ke
kT = 1 - kmk e
and if kmk e ~ 1 then
kT = k m - ke (approximately).
The above expressions for k T can be derived quite simply from data given in Ref.
101, or directly using a similar method to that set out below. The results are most
helpful in determining rapidly the effect of additional top capacitance coupling e.g.
an i-f transformer is connected between the last i-f amplifier valve and a diode de-
tector, and the a.v.c. diode is connected to the primary of the transformer in the usual
manner. Then clearly there is top capacitance coupling added across the i-f trans-
former due to the direct capacitance between the two diodes, and a knowledge of the
.value of this capacitance will allow the added coupling to be taken into account when
designing the transformer. If the capacitance value is not known its effect can be
estimated when a response curve is taken.
This method for finding kT can be applied in exactly the same way to a bridged T
coupling network in which the two main series arms are inductances with mutual
inductance coupling between them, the shunt arm is a capacitance and the T is bridged
by a capacitance.
An alternative procedure, and a most important one, for determining k will now
be discussed. This method can be applied quite generally to determining coupling
coefficients for nand T networks which have LI C I = L 2 C 2 • The method is due to
Howe and the reader should consult Refs. 99 and 100 for a more detailed explanation.
This procedure uses the relationship
2 2
w w
k = I 2
WI
2
+ W2
2
where WI is the higher angular frequency of free oscillation in the circuit and W2 is
the lower angular frequency of free oscillation.
m ~
"IG.26.6A
TL.-.~.- - :I~
>-------'
FIG. 26.68
WI is calculated from Fig. 26.6A, which shows a symmetrical T network with mixed
coupling, by considering the capacitors C to be charged as shown. During the dis-
charge of the capacitors it is clear that LmCm have no effect on the resonant frequency
in this case, and
2
W1 = lILC.
W2 is calculated from Fig. 26.6B in which the capacitors C are charged as shown.
In this case, when the capacitors are discharging, it is convenient to consider the
shunt arm as being made up of two equal parts each carrying the primary and second-
ary current alone; the reactances of L m and C m being doubled to allow for the single
current. Then
1
(L + 2L".)( CC ll j 2)
C + C m /2
LmCm - LC
For cases where the sections are unsymmetrical some modification in the procedure
is necessary. Taking the case of a T section using inductance coupling (with Ll C l =
L 2C 2) the shunt arm is replaced by two inductances (Xl and X2) in parallel such that
their combined inductance equals that of the shunt arm (Lm) and such that the values
selected will give equal resonant frequencies for the two circuits
• Ll + Xl C2
I.e. Ls + Xs Ci
The case of capacitance coupling is treated in a similar way. The procedure is then
exactly as before for the synimetrical coupling network. There would be little diffi-
culty in extending this procedure to the case of the unsymmetrical T section using
mixed coupling, but it is worth noting that numerical solutions are much easier to
handle than a general algebraic solution even in the case of simple coupling.
For the two mesh network just considered, using mixed coupling and in which
L1Cl = L 2 C S it is usually simpler to use the relationship
k m ± ke
kT = 1 ± kmk e
as was done for the bridged T network. Taking the example just considered,
Lm
L + Lm
C
C
L + L",
1
L",C", - LC
L",C", + LC + LC",
exactly as before.
It should be carefully noted that in all cases of mixed coupling the sign of L", is
most important. For the example just given .p", was taken as being positive; this
is the case of the two forms of coupling being in opposition, and zero voltage transfer
occurs when the shunt arm is series resonant. With L", negative the two forms of
coupling aid each other and there is no series resonant frequency. The aiding con-
dition, which is the one usually required, is possible only when the coupling between
the two inductances is due to mutual induction, as a physical coupling inductance
would act so as to oppose the capacitive coupling.
The methods given so far, for determining the coupling coefficient, are useful for
the types of circuit considered. However, it should be observed that they can be
applied directly only to the following cases:
(1) Circuits having coupling elements all of the one kind i.e. all capacitances or at
inductances (simple coupling).
(2) Circuits having mixed coupling in which the primary and secondary circuits
are tuned to the same frequency. However, it is only necessary that LlCl = L 2 C 2
and the primary and secondary circuit elements need not be identical.
Determination of k for the cases just stated usually presents little difficulty and is
simplified by choosing one or other of the procedures outlined.; these cases cover
I
most practical requirements. A real difficulty does arise when the primary and
secondary are tuned to different frequencies and the coupling is mixed.
It may now be of interest to consider the procedure given below which makes use
of the result obtained by Howe (Ref. 98) and follows from the definition that the
coupling between two circuits is the relation between the possible rate of transfer of
energy and the stored energy of the circuits; by the possible rate of energy transfer
is meant the rate of energy transfer in the absence of all resistance other than that
utilized for coupling.
26.4 (vii) CALCULATION OF COUPLING COEFFICIENTS 1047
Zm
21
w2Lm -
W2 C m
w2(Lm W22~m)
WI LI + Lm
W2 L2 + Lm
k
1 J ~,~,(Lm - w,~c) (Lm W2!C m)
v' WIW2 eLl + Lm)(L2 + Lm)
~J(Lm 1C ) (Lm
-2-
WI m
- 1)
--2-
W2 C'"
eLl + Lm)(L2 + Lm)
and since
k =. J (LI
eLmC", - LICI)(L",C", - L 2C 2)
+ Lm)(L2 + L m)(Cl + C",)(C2 + C"')
It should be carefully noted that the WI and W2 used here are not the same as found
•
w~Jw" ~ w,'
where WI and W2 are now determined in the same way as for Figs. 26.6A and 26.6B.
, ~
\ TERTIARY
,, \, COIL
,
\
\
, \
\\
\
\
OTHER '.
TYPES Of"'.
cou~
\
\ \
\ \
\
"
fo
rlC.26·7
With any other type of coupling which has no mutual inductance component, one
of the two humps remains at the intermediate frequency. The· mistuning is then
half the frequency bandwidth beLween humps.
The method of switching tertiary coils approximates.far more closely to the curve
for pure mutual inductance (M in Fig. 26.7) than it does to the other curve. The
26.5 VARIABLE SELECTIVITY-(i) GENERAL 1049
tertiary coil may have no more than 5 % of the turns on the main tuning coil and less
than 0.5% ratio of inductance. The symmetry of the overall selectivity _curves is
usually good.
Variable capacitance coupling may be used and the coupling capacitor may be either
a small capacitor linking the top end of the primary to the top end of the secondary
or it may be a common capacitor in series with both primary and secondary circuits.
This latter arrangement is commonly known as "bottom coupling."
For "top coupling" very small capacitances are required and the effect of stray
capacitances is inclined to be serious, particularly in obtaining low minimum coupling.
It may be used, however, with a differential capacitor arrangement whereby con-
tinuously variable selectivity is obtained (Refs. 41, 42). The differential capacitance
in this case adds to or subtracts from the capacitance in the primary and secondary
circuits to give the requisite tuning. The disadvantage of this arrangement is that
sufficiently low minimum coupling is very difficult to obtain and the capacitor is a
non-standard type.
" Bottom coupling" has results similar to " top coupling," but is easier to handle
for switching and also has advantages for low coefficients of coupling. A two or three
step tapping switch may be used to give corresponding degrees of bandwidth pro-
vided that simultaneously other switch contacts insert the necessary capacitances in
the primary and secondary circuits, for each switch position, to give correct tuning.
One such bottom coupling method which requires the minimum of switching for
two degrees of coupling is shown in Fig. 26.7A (Ref. 42a). The two coils Ll and L2
should each be in a separate shield can. With switch S1 in the position shown, the
selectivity is broad; in the lower position the selectivity is normal. Capacitances
as shown are only illustrative. The same principle can be used for three values of
coupling, using seven capacitors.
In most cases, the second i-f transformer is slightly under-coupled and its peak is
used to fill in the " trough" between the peaks of the first transformer in its broad
position.
A wide variety of circuit arrangements for obtaining variable selectivity has been
described in the literature. Design methods and practical constructional details
for many of these can be found in the references listed at the end of this chapter.
Further discussion is also given in Chapter 11, Sect. 3(iii).
when two cIrcuits are coupled together, that there is a back e.m.f. induced in the
primary winding from the secondary which will have a marked effect on the magni-
tude and phase characteristics of the primary current as a function of frequency.
The primary current response curve exhibits a double peak at values of k even less
than critical, because the back e.m.f. represents a voltage drop that decreases rapidly
on either side of the resonant frequency. Double peaking of the primary current is
masked in its effect on the secondary current by the selectivity of the secondary circuit.
When the coupling exceeds critical (actually transitional) coupling the secondary
current exhibits two peaks, but to a lesser extent than the primary current.
CONVERTER I-F VOLTAGE
(M8) AMPLIFIER
VI (6K7)
V2
L I -I·18 ...H
L2- H4T1\H
M-28·7pH
QI-Q2-1I~
LI &l2 WOUND IN
SAME DIRECTION
(BUT CONNECTED
AS SHOWN)
A.V.C.
FlC.26·8 AUTOMATIC SELECTIVITY ARRANGEMENT
If the magnitude of the counter e.m.f. is increased by increasing the mutual in-
ductance, and at the same time a voltage of almost equal magnitude and opposite
phase is added in series with the primary circuit, a single peak of output current can
be obtained in the transformer secondary. The additional series voltage, so intro-
duced, will increase the stage gain and selectivity from the condition which existed
prior to its introduction; in our case the prior condition is that the stage gain is less
and the secondary current has two peaks, i.e. the transformer is initially over-coupled.
In the circuit of Fig. 26.8 the valve V 2 performs the dual functions of amplification
and production of the series voltage to be added to the primary circuit. A resistance
in the cathode of V 2 produces an a.c. voltage drop, which is proportional to the g m
of the valve and the secondary current of the transformer; this voltage drop across
the cathode resistor is the one applied back to the transformer primary. When a
strong signal is being received a.v.c. will increase the bias on the grid of V 2 and so its
g m is reduced. When the g m (and consequently the voltage drop across the cathode
resistor) is sufficiently small, p~ak separation is obtained; the width between the
peaks depending on the value of mutual inductance. Weak signals reverse the pro-
cess and narrow down the overall response curve.
A quantitive analysis (setting out design data and instability conditions) is given
in the Ref. (46). For the circuit of Fig, 26.8 the peak separation is given as 8 Kc/s
f01 an i-f of 450 Kc/s. Other designs are shown for peak separations of 15 Kc/s
and also for obtaining two position automatic· selectivity; the latter arrangement
necessitates the use of a relay.
Other types of automatic selectivity are discussed in the references listed.
In this network suppose we consider that R is zero, then between terminals 1 and 2
there is a reactance
X ~ [WL ~ (:
we 1 ) ] (28)
wCo wL - ~ + Coc
When wL = 1/ wC the reactance is zero and the circuit is series resonant.
When wL =
1(1c +Co
-:;-
1) the reactance is infinitely large, and the circuit is
parallel resonant (anti-resonant).
The difference in frequency between If) and If' is given approximately by
C
~I = 2C If"
o
From the values of the 455 Kc/s crystal constants which are given in (iii)E below,
it will be seen that ~I is about 250 cis in a typical case.
The presence of R will slightly modify the conditions for which parallel resonance
occurs. For our purposes the conditions given are near enough.
It should be clear from the circuit that the parallel resonance frequencY (f'P) will be
higher than the series resonance frequency (fr)' For frequencies above/r the resultant
reactance due to L and C in series is inductive, and this is connected in parallel with a
capacitive reactance due to Co. A typical curve of output voltage versus frequency
change, for this type of circuit, is shown in Fig. 26.10.
If the value of Co could be altered as required, then the position of I'P would be
variable. Suppose by some means we are able to connect a negative capacitance
CN (or a parallel inductance will give somewhat similar results) across Co; then the
value of the capacitance shunted across the series circuit will be
C=~-~ ~
I~CC~
2
..
..,
&oJ
~
I~NL-,~~T ~
....
,1 Co L :>
0..
....:>
°O~--~~~r.~p------
FIG.26.9 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT REPRESENTATION FREQUENCY-
OF QUARTZ CRYSTAL
FIG.26'IO RESPONSE CURVE FOR
CIRCUIT OF FIG. 26·9
From this, it follows that C' can be reduced from its initial value of Co (when CN is
zero) until it becomes zero, and CN has then exactly neutralized Co. The response
curve would now be that for the series circuit (made up from L, R and C) alone, which
behaves as a pure series resistance at/r • If the magnitude of CN is further increased,
then C' becomes negative and the series circuit is shunted by a negative capacitance ;
which is equivalent to shunting an inductance across the series circuit (which be~ves
like a capacitive reactance for frequencies below 11')' This means that the parallel
resonance frequency (f'P) will now be lower than the series resonance frequency (fr)'
Any frequency above or below the series resonance frequency can now be chosen as
the rejection, or parallel resonance, frequency and the current through the circuit,
at this point, will be reduced; the values for I'P and the current depending on the
circuit constants.
To achieve the variation in C' the circuit of Fig 26.9 (i.e. the crystal) is incorporated
in the bt:idge circuit of Fig. 26.11, in which C N is made variable to achieve the results
discussed. In this circuit Z L is the load impedance; Z 8 is the impedance of the
voltage source; Zl and Z!' are any two impedances used to make up the resultant
1052 (i) BEHAVIOUR OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 26.6
,tJ-Ll£f ~JO~
I-F TRANS.
L2'
?:\CN
4.
)
-*-
I
(aJ
FIG. 26·12 PRACTICAL CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS FOR QUARTZ CRYSTAL
FILTERS
operation is confined to an i-f of 455 Kc/s, and to tap down on the circuit when this
is possible. .
Two other points are worth mentioning. The first is that the crystal stage gives
high selectivity around resonance, but the " skirt" selectivity may be quite poor;
for this reason the other stages in the receiver must provide the additional" skirt"
selectivity required. In addition, good " skirt" selectivity is a requirement of the
i-f amplifier to minimize. any possible undesirable effects which may arise because of
crystal subsidiary resonances. The other point is that having CN as a variable control
is not necessarily a great advantage, and simpler operation is obtained when CN can
be pre-set to neutralize Co. This cannot be done with all types of variable bandwidth
circuits, since the conditions for neutralization may be altered as the bandwidth is
ch1mged.
(iii) Design of variable bandwidth i-f crystal filter circuits
(A) Simplifying assumptions
From Fig. 26.11, when a capacitance balance is obtained as far as Co is concerned,
~~~~~. ~
Since Co is generally about 17 f'f'F it is convenient to make Z1 = Z2' Also, C N
must have very low losses if the attenuation at the rejection frequencies is to be high.
The general design will call for all capacitors to be of the low loss type. When the
condition of eqn. (30) is fulfilled, the equivalent circuit reduces to that of Fig. 26.13(A).
~_z'~11
~---oJ-
I, (I\) 4
,t 4 (e) 4
J1
I EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS fOR CRYSTAL fiLTER WHEN CO·CN
2-
e
fIG.26·14 CIRCUIT fOR DETERMINING.ES
R at resonance (i.e. i-f)
and B'g available voltage developed at tap on input i-f transformer secondary.
To compute the complete stage gain we must now consider Fig. 26.14. Here,
since we require maximum gain, a critically-coupled transformer is connected to a
voltage amplifier valve (V1) whose grid to cathode input voltage is E U' Then since
B' B is half the total voltage appearing across C 1 and C 2
B'B = 1(gmB;Qw~)
(32)
1054 (iii) DESIGN OF VARIABLE BANDWIDTH 26.6
Eqn. (33) gives a great deal ofinformation about the circuit. For constancy of gain,
it follows that Z L should be very much greater than (Z'. + Z (1:)' Since Z (or R (I:
(D) Selectivity
Selectivity around reSQnance can be calculated by the methQds to' be Qutlined, but
fQr mQst purPQses it is sufficient to' determine the bandwidth fQr a given attenuatiQn
at the half PQwer PQints (3 db attenuatiQn Qr 1/v'2 Qf the maximum vQltage Qutput)
Qn each Qf the required selectivity curves.
CQnsiderable simplificatiQn in the design prQcedure is PQssible, if the bandwidths
fer 1 db attenuatiQn (Qr less) are knQwn. In this case it WQuld be sufficiently accurate
to' take Z L and Z 8 equal to' their dynamic resistances at resQnance, at least fQr mQst
practical cQnditiQns, withQut intrQducing appreciable errQr. The advantage Qbtained
being that, in what fQllQws, RTI = R'T and RT2 = R'T2 fQr all cQnditiQns. The
1
value Qf Q:t: WQuld be given by Qx = 10/4LJ/fQr 1 db attenuatiQn, and this expressiQn
WQuid be used in place Qf eqn. (38). HQwever, the prQcedure given is mQre general
and there shQuld be little difficulty in applying the simplified prQcedure, if necessary.
Further the methQd given illustrates (in reverse) hQW the bandwidths near reSQnance
can be calculated fQr variQUS amQunts Qf attenuatiQn.
TO' determine the bandwidth at the half PQwer PQints prQceed as fQllQws: first
it may be taken that the equivalent inductive reactance Qf the crystal is very much
greater than the inductive reactance Qf the IQad and SQurce impedances. AlsO', prQ-
vided the variatiQns in gain are nQt allQwed to' becQme excessve, at and near reSQnance
the value Qf Z's is very clQsely R's. FQr very narrQW bandwidths, near reSQnance,
it is alsO' sufficiently clQse to' take Z L = R L; fQr large bandwidths the resistive CQm-
PQnent (R L) Qf Z L at the actual wQrking frequency will have to' be fQund. FrQm these
cQnditiQns, we have
___w_o_L_ _ _ = woL = ___ 1_
(37)
K L -t- ,1(" 8 R' 7'
-t- K WoV.K T
indicated attenuation factors gives the required magnitudes of load impedance IZ'L I.
To find the resistive component, values of () corresponding to the various bandwidths
(and values of IZ'L I) are read from the universal phase-shift curves of Chapt. 9 Sect. 10.
Then
RL = IZ'LI cos (). (39)
The resistive component of Z' s can be found in a similar way from
R's = Z' 8 cos cp
but since the impedance of Z' 8 is generally small, and the circuit relatively unselective,
R's can often be taken as equal to Z's for a limited range of frequencies near resonance.
When Z' 8 is very low, it can be neglected in comparison with R L + R.
Then, since the resistance (R) and the inductance (L) of the crystal are known,
eqn. (37) can be applied to determine the values of Q x corresponding to the various
bandwidths. (Strictly 10 woUld be replaced by the actual operating frequency off
resonance, but this is hardly necessary).
Knowing the different values of Q x, and since the bandwidths corresponding to
each Q x value are known, the various points for the complete selectivity curve can be
found from the universal resonance curve for a single tuned circuit (it is unimportant
that this is for a parallel tuned circuit rather than a series tuned circuit, since the
conditions for parallel and series resonance are practically the same provided the Q
is not less than about 10; there is, however, a reversal in sign of the phase angles
for the two cases). Additional selectivity due to the input transformer can be taken
into account if this degree of accuracy is thought to be necessary.
(E) Crystal constants
Before a complete design can be carried out, some data on the equivalent electrical
constants of the quartz crystal must be available. In most cases details can be ob-
tained from the crystal manufacturer.
Typical values for the electrical constants of 455 Kc/s quartz crystals widely used
in Australian communications receivers are:
R = 1500Q; C = 0.018 fLfLF; Co = 17 fLfLF.
The crystals are a special tYPe of X"cut bar and have no subsidiary resonances for a
range of at least ± 30 Kc/s fromlr • They are approximately 20 mils (0.02 in.) thick,
t in. wide, i- in. long and are mounted between flat electrodes with an air gap not
greater than 1 mil. (0.001 in.).
L C
VTVM
5[ CA
LA
(8)
0
If the required data cannot be obtained, then details of methods for measuring,
firstly, the value of Q for the crystal, can be found in Ref. 65. The experimental
set-up is shown in Fig. 26.15(A) and Q is found from
Q Ir
2(fp - Ir)
JErEp (40)
CA~Co=f~~/~f~ly (41)
26.6 I-F CRYSTAL FILTER CIRCUITS 1057
and (42)
B+ -01
IJF
VI. v2 TYPE 6SK 7 (MICA)
Rv=0-40sn (FOR BANDWIDTHS STATED)
LL~0-586mH OL=140
LI:4-9mH -QI = 140
L2- 0 - 32 mH 02- 140
k c =O'234 R,= 2460n
Cp=25JJjJF (INCLUDING "TRAYS)
'IG_ 26-!6 CRYSTAL fiLTER CIRCUIT DESIGNED FROM ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
which can be varied from 200 cis to 3 Kc/s. The variation in maximum stage gain
should not exceed about 2 db (± 1 db about the average gain) but it is desirable to
1058 (iv) DESIGN EXAMPLE 26.6
keep the stage gain as high as possible, consistent with stable operation with varying
signal input voltages (i.e. large detuning of the i-f circuits should not occur when the
signal voltages vary over a wide range).
To make the problem complete, it will be assumed that the filter is connected be-
tween two type 6SK7 pentode voltage amplifier valves. The complete circuit is
shown in Fig. 26.16.
(1') Since Zl = Z2 and Co ~ 17 p.p.F, let us select a suitable capacitance range
for C N • The smallest residual capacitance for C N will be about 3 p.p.F. From this,
we have to increase C N a further 14 p.p.F to neutralize Co. In addition, it is desired
to move the rejection frequency (f p) below IF' so that it is reasonable to allow C N to
increase at least a further 14 p.p.F. The total increment in CN is thus 28 p.p.F ; which
gives a range of 3 to 31 p.p.F ; for convenience this is made, say, 3 to 35 p.p.F (or what-
ever is the nearest standard capacitance range).
(2') From eqn. (38) :
for 200 cis total bandwidth, and 3 db attenuation,
Q 11:1 = 455/0.2 = 2275;
for 3 Kc/s,
QII:2 = 455/3 = 151.6.
(3') From eqn. (37) (and C = 0.018 p,.p,.F)
10 12
R'T1 = 2275 X 21T x 455 X 10 2 x 0 018 8550 D
8550 x 2275
and R'T z = 151.6 0.128 MD.
So that (since R = 1500 D)
RLl + Z'. = 8550 - 1500 = 7050 D
R La + Z', = 0.128 - 15 x 10- 3 = 0.126 MD.
For narrow bands of frequeneies; R LI ~. Z LI' and we may write
R'T = RTl and ZL + Z', ~ 7050 D.
1 l
(4') To find Z L ' It should be clear, from the values just given (Z', remains
2
unchanged) that for fairly large bandwidths
R Lz > Z'B'
Assume that, for the load eircuit, QL = 140. Then by calculation, or from_ the
universal resonance curves, we have for a single tuned circuit and a frequency of
455 Kc/s,
Z L2 ac resonance
Z'L at 3 Kc/s bandwl'dth = 1.37.
I I
2
Also, the phase shift 8 = 42 0 43'.
Using these factors in conjunction with eqn. (39),
!!:..L _
0.126
IZ' L2 1 cos 8 - 0.735
1.37 x 0.126
and so Z L2 = 0.735 0.235 MD.
(If the maximum bandwidth required is too large it will be found that Z L2 cannot
be obtained with ordinary circuit components).
From this, since ZL 2 = QLwoLv
0.235 x 10 3
L L = 140 X 21T x 0.455 = 0.586 mH
25330
and C L = l\ 11.":":2 v ":Q~ = 208 p.p.F (see below).
v.""%JJ A JUV
(5') If it is possible to make Z L higher than 0.235 megohm then a voltage step-up
-is possible using the arrangement of Fig. 26.17, which also reduces de tuning effects
26.6 (iv) DESIGN EXAMPLE 1059
when C N is varied. Good circuit stability (which requires a large value for C L) is
most important since the circuit bandwidth and gain are very critical to detuning.
The main causes of detuning are capacitance changes at the input of V z due to grid
bias variations, and resetting of CN; this latter capacitance change is offset, to some
extent, in the alternative circuit since it appears across only part of the tuned circuit
capacitance. Any form of tapping down is helpful in reducing detuning variations
due to C N' but this is limited by the impedance required for the filter load circuit.
FIG. 26.17
A.y.c.
Methods of reducing detuning effects are discussed in Sect. 7(ii), and could be
applied here to offset changes in valve input-capacitance. Connecting the grid to a
tap on the tuned load is an obvious means of reducing the effects of valve input-
capacitance variation. This method involves a loss in gain, but this is not necessarily
serious as in some receivers the total gain is more than can usefully be employed.
The actual fixed capacitance for C L is found approximately as follows :
Valve input capacitance = 6.5 p.p.F
Strays across coil + wiring etc. = 8.5 p.p.F
C N + Co = 2Co = 2 x 17 34 p.JLF (when Co is neutralized by
CN)
Total strays 49 p.p.F
Fixed capacitance req. = 208 - 49 159 p.p.F (say 160 p.p.F).
(6') From eqn. (34); and since RT = 8550 Q and
R Tt = 0.237 MQ (approximately; i.e. Z L + R),
t
0.237 (7050)
OCo = 8550 (0.235) = 0.83
306 = 6744 Q, .
series with the capacitive arm of Z L it should be realized that it would actUally be in
1060 (iv) DESIGN EXAMPLE 26.6
series with the fixed capacitance of 160 p.p.F only, and not the total capacitance, so
that new values for the range of R t> would have to be calculated in this case.
(8') The design of the input transformer is the next step. For maximum gain the
transformer will be critically-coupled (this term is hardly a correct one in the design
which follows and for this particular case it might be preferable to use other methods).
Consider first the secondary circuit. The total secondary capacitance, if we select
100 p.p.F capacitors (connected in series) for the ratio arms of the bridge circuit, will be
100/2 + 14.5 = 64.5 p.p.F. The 14.5 p.p.F represents the approximate total for
4C N +-4-
Co
= 2
Co.
(smce C N = Co) = 8.5 p.p.F plus an allowance of 6 p.p.F
for coil and circuit strays.
Then the apparent secondary inductance required is
25.33
Ls = 0.455 2 X 64.5 = 1.9 mHo
From step (6') above, Z, = 1224 Q. Since critical-coupling (see remarks above)
will halve the actual value of Qu we must use an uncoupled value for Z, of 2448 Q.
This allows us to determine the uncoupled secondary magnification factor
2448 2448
Q2 = WOL2 = 5440 = 0.45.
Because of the low value for Q2' the condition of wo 2L 2 C 2 = 1 is no longer suffici-
entlyaccurate. For cases such as this, where Q is less than about 10, proceed exactly
as before but modify the value of L2 by a factor Q2/(1 + Q2). This gives the true
condition for resonance (unity power factor) if Q is assumed constant and L2 is variable
as it will be in most i-f transformers of the type being considered. The actual value
required for L2 is now
0.452 ]
L2 (actual) = 1.9 [ 1 + 0.45 2 = 0.32 mHo
(9') Since the secondary Q is very low, and L2 is fixed by other considerations, it
should be clear that if we require reasonably high stage gain the primary Q (= Ql)
and the primary inductance Ll should be as high as possible; since this will allow
QL =V QIQ2LIL2 to be increased.
As the minimum capacitance across Ll will be about 25 p.p.F (valve output + strays,
which will be fairly high for a large winding), then it is possible to make
25.33
Ll = 0.455 2 X 25 = 4.9 mHo
Of course, it may not be advisable to resonate the primary with stray capacitances
only, but there are practically no detuning effects present (except those due to tem-
perature and humidity variations). The possibility of instability must not be over-
looked, however, when the grid to plate gain is high, and for the case given it would
probably be necessary to neutralize the i-f stage or to reduce the gain by increasing
the capacitance value above 25 p.p.F (and so reducing Ll)' However, Ll will be made
large here to illustrate the design procedure to be adopted in cases such as this, where
Ll is not equal to L2 and also to bring out an additional useful point which could be
overlooked in connection with the design of a.v .c. systems; see Chapter 27 Sect. 3(xv).
(10') Assume that unloaded Q values of 140 for the primary and secondary can be
obtained. The plate resistance (r 'P) for type 6SK7 is 0.8 MQ for a set of typical
operating. conditions. Then the actual value of Ql is
Q Q"r'P 140 x 0.8
1 = Q"WoLl + r'P 1.96 + 0.8 = 40.6.
(11') In order that the actual value of Z. shall be 1224 Q (and so Z'. = 306 Q) the
secondary circuit must be loaded with a resistance R. given by
Q"Q2woL2 140 x 2448
R. = ~{b = 140 _ 0.45 = 2460 Q
2
•
where L2 has the apparent value of 1.9 mH, and not its actual value, so as to make
allowance for the use of approximate expressions which are normally only applicable
I
1
26.6 (iv) DESIGN EXAMPLE 1061
altered, the bias change being due to the a.v.c. voltage altering with different signal
inputs. This alteration in bias also leads to variation in the valve input conductance
which will have to be considered in some circuits, since the conductance increases
by about 2 : 1, from cut-off to normal operating conditions, with typical valve types
operating at 100 Mc/s (see Ref. 68; also Chapter 2 Sect. 8 and Chapter 23, Sect. 5).
If all the factors which cause valve input capacitance and conductance changes
are considered the problem is rather involved as can be seen from the discussions
given in Chapter 2, Sect. 8 and Chapter 23, Sect. 5. We will confine attention here,
mainly, to input capacitance changes which are most troublesome in receiver design.
One of the principal causes of change in valve input capacitance is the variation in
position and density of the space charge distribution between grid and cathode,
brought about by the change in grid bias.
Variation in grid-plate transconductance (g m) is another principal cause of input
capacitance change as will be seen later.
Short-circuit input capacitance changes are not very much affected by frequency,
although the change in capacitance with transconductance is slightly greater at low
frequencies than at high. The slight variation with frequency will not usually be
important when compared with the changes due to alteration of transconductance,
so that the data given in Chapter 2, Sect. 8 can be used directly_ From this data,
it is seen that the short-circuit input capacitance alters by about 1 to 2 p,p,F in typical
cases. It is interesting to compare these changes with that due to grid-to-plate
coupling i.e. Miller effect (see Chapter 2, Sect. 8).
Suppose, for simplicity, that the plate load acts as a pure resistance. Then the input
capacitance change is given by
gmTpRL)
.dC = C g - CliP = Cgp ( Tp + RL (43
Taking a type 6SK7, with a plate load of 0.25 megohm, as a typical example. Then
since CliP = 0.003 p,p,F, T P = 0.8 MQ (this value is not constant, but it has been
assumed so for simplicity) andg m changes from 0-2000 p.mhos, the input capacitance
change is
X1.~~25
3
.dC = 0.003 2 x 0.8 x 10 = 1.14 p,p,F.
If CliP is augmented by stray capacitances, such as those inevitably present due to the
socket, wiring etc., this figure for .d C will be very appreciably increased. The
corresponding change in short-circuit input capacitance is 1.18 p,p,F (see table Chapter
2 Sect. 8).
The effects are additive and cause an increase in input capacitance as the grid bias
voltage becomes more positive.
(li) Reduction of detuning e1Fects
(A) General
There are a number of methods available for reducing the effects of valve input
capacitance variations, and these methods (in most cases) also reduce input conduct-
ance variations. Usually the reduction of these effects will lead to a loss in stage gain
unless additional circuit changes are made.
In the case of the ordinary broadcast receiver special circuits are not often used.
The only precautions taken are :
(1) The total capacitance tuning the i-f transformer secondary, in particular, is
made as large as is practicable consistent with other circuit requirements. Values
of 200 p,p,F, or so, should be used if possible, although values of the order of 100 p,p.F,
are generally used, since it is unlikely that the change in input signal will be such as
to cause the maximum input capacitance change. Large values of tuning capacitance
for the transformer are also helpful in increasing the attenuation at frequencies far
removed from resonance. Also, with some types of converter valves (e.g. 6A8-G)
a large tuning capacitance for the primary of the first i-f transformer can be of assist-
ance in reducing degeneration in the signal input circuit connected to the converter;
this applies particularly to signal frequencies which approach the intermediate fre-
quency.
28.7 (ii) REDUCTION OF DETUNING EFFECTS 1063
(2) The receiver is aligned on small input signal voltages, since detuning effects
will be less serious when the input signal is large.
(3) The circuit layout is such as to minimize stray grid-ta-plate capacitance.
The degree of circuit mistuning in terms of frequency shift can be determined by
comparing the input capacitance change with the total capacitance across the valve
input circuit. A number of helpful practical examples of circuit mistuning are given
in Ref. 69.
There are several additional factors which are of importance.
(I) Detuning will cause sideband asymmetry and so lead to the possibility of in-
creased distortion. This is of particular importance in high fidelity receivers.
When the carrier is received on the side of the i-f selectivity curve, one set of side-
bands is almost completely eliminated (or at least substantially reduced in amplitude),
and the amplitudes of the carrier and low frequency components of the other set of
sideband frequencies are reduced. The tuned circuits will introduce phase and fre-
quency distortion and the diode detector will give rise to non-linear distortion because
of the absence of one set of sidebands. .Experiment has shown that with the usual
type of receiver the amount of detuning that can be tolerated before distortion becomes
noticeable to a critical listener is about ± 1 Kc/s.
(2) Detuning of the r-f and converter input circuits can lead to a reduction in
signal-to-noise ratio. This effect is not often very serious, when compared with the
deterioration in signal-to-noise ratio caused by the reduction in gain of the r-f stages
as the a.v.c. bias is increased; further discussion of this point will be given in con-
nection with the design of a.v.c. systems in Chapter 27.
(3) Detuning can result in considerable loss in adjacent channel selectivity. This
is not particularly serious if the receiver has been aligned on small signal input, since
the deterioration occurs when the desired signal is large.
(4) The i-f stages lend themselves more readily to compensation methods than the
r-f circuits; in the case of the r-f circuits exact compensation can usually be obtained
at one frequency only. Since the r-f stages are often relatively unselective, detuning
is not often a very serious factor and it is usual to compensate only in the i-f circuits.
(5) Even although exact compensation for input capacitance changes can be ob-
tained at the resonant frequency, the compensation is not complete at frequencies
removed from the i-f centre frequency, and there will always be some departure from
symmetry on the " skirts U of the overall response curve. However, since compensa-
tion is required mainly at the centre frequency, this is not serious.
(6) The neutralization methods to be described in Section 8, in connection with
stability, will affect input capacitance variations which are due to grid-to-plate coup-
ling. If the amplifier is neutralized, then the input capacitance changes with grid bias
will be due, mainly, to space charge effects. .
(B) Circuits
Attention will be confined to the circuits of Fig. 26.18 (some discussion of which
has already been given in Chapter 23, Sect. 5), since these allow satisfactory results
to be obtained with ~ small number of components. Other types of compensating
circuits can be found in Refs. 67, 71, 72.
In Figs. 26.18A and B, G b is a by-pass capacitor and may be neglected in the dis-
cussion which follows. It is possible to show that, for complete compensation of
the input capacitance variation, the. condition required is
R,.gk = tJG/C ak (44)
where R 11. unbypassed cathode resistance
=
gk = grid-to-cathode transconductance; which is given by g m(l11./I b) in
which g m is the mutual conductance; lk is the total d.c. cathode cur-
rent (for a pentode this is usually the sum of the plate and screen-grid
cuqents); I b is the d.c. plate current
tJ G = valve input capacitance change
and G ak = grid-to-cathode capacitance.
For a typical case suppose tJG = 3 ,.",."F, G ak = 6 ,.",."F andg k = 2000 (11.8/9.2)
= 2560 ,."mhos, so that
1064 (ii) REDUCTION OF DETUNING EFFECTS 26.7
Because of the presence of the unbypassed cathode resistor there will be a change in
the effective mutual conductance (and consequently a loss in gain) given by
A.V.C.
A.V.C.
'IG.26-18 METHOD F"OR REDUCING VARIATION5 OF INPUT
ADMITTANCE
SECTION 8: STABll..ITY
(i) Design data (ii) Neutralizing circuits.
__ JO.79 gm
(48)
(49)
WOCflP
where g m mutual conductance of amplifier valve
=
Wo = 211 X fo (and fo is operating frequency; i-f in this case)
C U1)= total grid-to-plate capacitance made up from that due to the valve,
wiring and valve socket etc.
Additional data are given in Ref. 75 for cases where the input and output circuits are
not identical. This reference also shows that greater gain is possible when the im-
pedance of the input circuit is less than that of the output circuit; a condition which
is fulfilled only in special cases in practical i-f circuits.
The equations given above, and in the references, are useful in forming an estimate
of the possible maximum gain obtainable and in indicating some of the causes of
instability; but detailed calculations for various circuit possibilities hardly seem to
be justified.
It may be helpful to note that when selecting a particular type of valve for maximum
gain combined with stability, the most suitable is that having the greatest value of
g ml C gp consistent with other "circuit . requirements (and cost). For an i-f valve,
g ml C gp is of considerable importance but for ar-f valve operating at v-h-f it is also
very important to consider the factor g m viR i , as pointed out in Chapter 23, Sect. 5.
A.V.C .. B1'
(A) (8)
fiG. 211-19 I-r NEUTRALIZATION CIRCUIT
f4..V.C. B+ B+
C~"CI~
C9P
(I) (2)
BOTH CIRCUIT S ARE DEGE NERA TlVE. BUT ARE RE-
GENERATIVE WHEN AA', BB' ARE REVERSED
rJ(;.2S·20 METHODS rOR STABILISING R-r AND I-r AMPLIriERS
This circuit requires no additional components and C 3 is set to the value required
for neutralization. It will be noted that the capacitance of C 3 is somewhat larger
than is generally used for a by-pass capacitor. The only disadvantage is that an
additional lug is required on the i-f transformer base and care is necessary to keep
critical leads as short as possible. The advantage of the circuit in a r-f stage should
be apparent.
Receivers which combine the detector diode in the i-f amplifier valve sometimes
require additional neutralization because of feedback (which may be either regenera-
tive or degenerative) caused by the grid-to-diode capacitance. A typical circuit is
shown in Fig. 26.21. This requires two capacitors, CNI and CN2' in addition to the
usual circuit components.
26.8 (ii) NEUTRALIZING CIRCUITS 1067
Analysis of this circuit (Ref. 77) shows that sufficient accuracy can be obtained if
two bridge circuits are used to find the values of C Nl and C N2' Although there is
interaction between the two circuits, which affects the values selected for CN1 and CNZ,
the calculated values are sufficiently close to allow the practical circuit to be satis-
factorily neutralized. The values of CNl and CN2 are adjusted in the circuit until
complete neutralization is obtained. Fixed values can then be selected, since the
circuit is not very critical to small changes in the values of the neutralizing capacitors.
The equations required are (50) above, which is used to determine CNl' just as pre-
viously, and
C N2 = C(Cad/C ak) (52)
where C = a.v.c. by-pass capacitance (as before)
Cad = grid-to-diode capacitance including strays
and Call: = grid to cathode capacitance (as before).
For a typical case :
C a'D 0.007 p.p.F (including strays), Cad = 0.009 p.p.F (including strays),
C 0.01 p.F, C ak = 15 p.p.F (including strays),
C Nl 0.01 X 10- 6 X (0.007/15) = 3.3 p.p.F,
C N2 0.01 x 10-6 x (0.009/15) = 6 p.p.F.
In an actual receiver, using a type 6SF7, the values required were CNl = 4 p.p.F ;
C N2 = 7 p.p.F. With wiring re-arrangement the values required were CNl = 3 p.p.F
and C N2 = 5 p.p.F.
For methods of alignment and a suitable neutralizing procedure see Ref. 77.
SECTION 9: DISTORTION
(i) Amplitude modulation i-f stages Cii) Frequency modulation i-f stages.
H3 =
4A 3
r (1 + A2).t
[3 Q2 k 2 - 4A2 -
(1 + Q2k2)3
IJ • (53)
For a critically-coupled transformer Qk = 1 and so
A3
= P (1 + A2)1(1 - 2A2) (54)
LJF
where A = -Q
10
LJF frequency deviation
10 central carrier frequency
Q magnification factor (Ql = Q2)
f3 modulation index = LJF/.f
I a-f modulating frequency
and k coefficient of coupling (the coupling may be inductive or capacitive
and either shunt or series),
For 1 db attenuation it is known that, for a critically-coupled transformer with
identical primary and secondary circuits, Q = lo/total bandwidth. From this we
26.9 (ii) FREQUENCY MODULATION I-F STAGES 1069
may write A = LlF/total bandwidth. If it is taken that the total frequency deviation
(2LlF) is equal to the total bandwidth for 1 db attenuation, then we obtain
v'5 7
A = t and H3 = 32f1 = {3 %. (55)
The Q required for this condition is given from the previously stated relationship
Q = lo/total bandwidth.
Suppose Q = 71 is obtained, for a critically-coupled transformer, with 10 = 10.7
Mc/s, 2LlF = 150 Kc/s and f1 = 5. Then the third harmonic audio distortion intro-
duced by each transformer is 1.4% (approx.); using either eqns. (54) or (55).
If Q = 80 is obtained from the procedure of Sect. 4, then eqn. (54) gives H3 =
1.57%; eqn. (55) is not applicable in this case.
It should be clear that a simple approximate design procedure can
be developed
from the conditions leading to eqn. (55).
The distortion given in the examples is somewhat higher than that experienced
under normal operating conditions. The third harmonic of 15 Kc/s will hardly
trouble the listener, but harmonics of the lower audio frequencies would be serious
if their amplitudes are appreciable, and the possibility of intermodulation effects
should not be neglected.
Applying eqn. (54) for Q = 71, LlF = 50 Kc/s (more nearly the usual operating
condition) and a modulation frequency of 5 Kc/s, then Ha = 0.074%. (See also
Chapter 27, Sect. 2 under heading" Non-linear distortion ").
It should be carefully noted that eqn. (55) applies only for the special conditions
under which it was derived. Distortion is normally calculated from eqns. (53) and
(54).
Only a few of the significant factors have been mentioned here, and for more de-
tailed information the reader is referred to Refs. 82, 85, 86 and 87.
(62) Booth, C. F. "The application and use of quartz crystals in telecommunications" Jour. I.B.B.
Part 3, 88.2 (June 1941) 97.
(63) Grisdale, G. L., and R. B. Armstrong" Tendencies in the design of the communication type of
receiver" Jour. I.E.E. Part 3, 93.25 (Sept. 1946) 365.
Measurements on Crystals
(64) Builder, G. " A note on the determination of the equivalent electrical constants of a quanz-crystal
resonator" A.W.A. Tee. Rev. 5.1. (April 1940) 41.
(65) Mason, W. P., and I. E. Fair " A new direct crystal-controlled oscillator for ultra-short-wave
frequencies" Proc. I.R.E. 30.10 (Oct. 1942) 464.
(E) STABn.ITY
(73) Chapter 23, Sect. 7 and Ref. B41 for that chapter.
(74) Jaffe, D. L. "Intermediate frequency amplifier stability factors" Radio 30.4 (April 1946) 26.
(75) "Effect of transconductance and grid-plate capacitance on the stability of i-f amplifiers" A.R. T .S.
and P. Bulletin No. 93 (July 8th, 1940) (Reprint of Hazeltine Service Corp. Bulletin).
(76) "I-F neutralization" Radiotronics No. 115 (July 1941) 54.
(77) "Neutralization in circuits employing a valve as a combined i-f amplifier and diode detector"
Radiotronics No. 118 (Mar./April 1946) 33.
(78) Ref. 17 above (Chapter 9). Ref. 13 above (p. 469).
(79) Root, C. S. " Method for stabilising R-F. and I-F amplifiers" G. E. Docket 63495.
(SO) "A neutralisation circuit for I.F. amplifiers" No. 122 (18th May, 1942) A.R.T.S. and P. Bulletin.
(81) Hultberg, C. A. "Neutralization of screen grid tubes to improve the stability of intermediate-
frequency amplifiers" FlOC, LRE. 31,12 (Dec, 1943) 663,
l
/1 o
OIOOE OETECTOR
Distortion V Modulation
L
/ 8/
VV /
~
V ~
~ :::::: ~
~
o -- ----
FIG. 27.1
~ ~ ~ ~
Modulation
~ ~
P«rccntagc
70 80 100
o
LOAD 5000n
0---.--«- '----------'---11 [
+IS.lJf
B+ B+
260V
fIG.27·~ AUDIO AMPLIfiER GIVING LOW A.C. SHUNTING ACROSS DIODE LOAD.
Another useful method of reducing a.c. shunting effects is to use a cathode follower
stage between the detector and the a-f voltage amplifier. This is often conveniently
accomplished by employing a double triode valve, one section serving as the cathode
follower and the other as an a-f voltage amplifier.
Distortion due to the a.v.c. system will be discussed in detail in Sect. 3 below. One
type of distortion often encountered is caused by delayed a.v.c. systems at the point
where the a.v.c. diode just starts to conduct. This form of distortion is called differ-
ential distortion and may be kept to low values by making the delay voltage small.
The conventional arrangement for obtaining a.v.c. voltage from the primary of the
last i-f transformer is generally preferred, as it reduces the a.c. shunting effect across
the detector diode -circuit. - - - - - ---
The a.c. shunting due to the addition of an electron ray tuning indicator to the diode
detector circuit is serious and difficult to avoid. In order to reduce the distortion to a
minimum the resistor feeding the grid of the tuning indicator may be made 2 megohms
and the effect will only then be apparent at high percentages of modulation. If the
tuning indicator is connected to the a.v.c. system it will not operate at low carrier
levels unless the delay voltage is extremely small. One possible method, where the
utmost fidelity is required, is to use the same circuit as for delayed a.v.c. but with a
delay voltage of zero, and to connect the tuning indicator to this a.v.c. circuit. With
this arrangement a.c shunting due to the a.v.c. circuit and the tuning indicator is
IYfi eliminated, while differential
AY.C. loading no longer occurs.
An interesting arrangement
(Ref. 8) for counteracting the
effect of a.c. loading, and so in-
creasing the maximum percent-
age of modulation which can be
handled without excessive dis-
tortion is accomplished by the
use of the circuit of Fig. 27.4.
In this arrangement a positive
bias is applied to the diode plate
in such a way as to be propor-
tional to the carrier input. A
fixed positive bias would not be
satisfactory since it would only
give low distortion at one carrier
COMPENSATED' DIODE DETE:CTOR. level.
27.1 (i) (B) DIODE CURVES 1075
,<,75
.3
t-
z
w
0::
~ 50
U
...«
w
~
25
o
-~O -2.0 -15 -10 -5 o
PLATE VOLTS.
f"lG.2.7· 5 TYPICAL DIODE CHARACTERISTICS.
EfaRiTEO JALUE
-40
" 'Nr-- ..1.
~ Ij / ~~~
o
~ -20 I.....
v-tt-I t--
V
/
L'
,,~~
~~
20
~ /,1 t--- L
v
./
V
~
&/I
Ijll- L V ~~
ro- IS
---
~
o / .-
-
> -10 r--
U
ci
II] tZV V .....- 10
8
II/L V
o ...........
l.--- ~ --- ~
2
5
bias voltage to the diode plate. This arrangement is only satisfactory if the bias can
be changed for each i-finput voltage (Erms) see Ref. 1 (page 348).
For this case
m = (V2Erms + Ebias)
V2E rms
(1 _ 'T}F
Rae
Rde
+ R3/F
) (5)
The circuit of Fig. 27.4 shows a practical arrangement for increasing the critical
modulation ratio by applying positive bias to the diode plate, as mentioned previously
in Sect. (A) above.
~ (c) Equivalent damping across i-f transformer
The secondary circuit damping is found approximately from
_ Rac(yl - 'T}2 - 'T} COS-I'T})
R E- . (6)
'T}(COS-I'T} - 'T}~)
RE/Rac can be read directly from Fig. 27.7 for various values of 'T}.
Suppose Rae = 0.36 MQ and 'T} = 0.793 then, since RE/Rae = 0.7, the equivalent
damping resistance is RE = 0.7 x 0.36 = 0.25 MQ.
It is often taken in practice (as a "rule of thumb ") that the equivalent damping
resistance is half the d.c. diode load r.esistance. This gives an equivalent damping
resistance of Rac/2 = 0.5/2 = 0.25 MQ in this case. However, it should be realized
that if the diode efficiency is taken as unity, the equivalent damping resistance which
appears across the tuned circuit is half the a.c. load resistance; this is indicated by
Fig. 27.7.
I\ I
\
1\ I i
I
I
,
1\1 I I I i
I
t-
tf '\
"
~~ -........
I
-----
I
~
o
0'2. 0·4 0·6 0·8 I
F-tG.27·7 DETECTION EFFICIENCY ('i)
Damping of the i-f transformer primary is serious when the a.v.c. voltage is
derived from a diode detector connected to this voltage source. The usual arrange-
ment is a capacitor (100 ILILF or less) taken from the plate connection of the trans-
former primary to the diode plate. The additional primary damping from this source
is approximately one third of the d.c. load resistance for the a.v.c. diode. This also
follows fairly readily ifit is considered that Rae shunts the primary of the transformer,
and in addition the diode conduction current also adds damping equivalent to a parallel
resistance of approximately Rde/2. From this
Ra c(Rac/2 ) Rae
R - =-.
E - Rae +Rac/2 3
For a typical case, the a.v.c. resistance would be 1 megohm, and so the equivalent
damping resistance would be approximately 0.33 megohm. If the i-f amplifier valve
1078 (i) (C) QUANTITATIVE DESIGN DATA 27.1
has a plate resistance of 0.8 megohm the primary damping resistance would be 0.23
megohm.
This means that, with detector and a.v.C. diodes conducting, both the secondary
and primary circuits of the i-ftransformer are heavily damped and this damping must
be taken into account when the i-f transformer, connected between the last i-f voltage
amplifier valve and the diode detector, is being designed. Delayed a.v.c. will, of
course, affect the primary circuit damping and three conditions arise: the diode not
conducting, the diode just starting to conduct, and the diode conducting when the
applied voltage is reasonably large. When conduction just starts the damping de-
pends very largely on the diode detection efficiency and will vary quite appreciably
for a small range of input voltages. It is usually sufficient, however, to know the
tuned circuit damping for the two conditions, diode not conducting, and diode con-
ducting with a reasonably large input voltage. For the diode not conducting the added
damping is approximately Rae; Rd,e should not be used here. With the diode con-
ducting the added damping can be taken as Rd,e/3 with sufficient accuracy in some
cases since in this case the fact that the diode detection efficiency is not unity offsets
to some extent the increase in damping which is obtained when Rae is used in place
of Rd,e'
Damping of the transformer tuned circuits as determined above assumes linear
diode plate-voltage---plate-current characteristics. For parabolic diode detection
the damping differs by only a small amount from that given by the linear characteristics
and so, in practice, it is seldom necessary to treat the two cases separately. In any
case the order of accuracy to be expected in the final results from the procedures set
out, would hardly justify any additional refinements in the design calculations.
(d) The actual degree of modulation
The degree of modulation applied to the detector is always less than the modulation
of the incoming carrier. The actual value of m which the detector will be required to
handle is given approximately by
Rs(Rd,e + 2Zi>
m m' --------------~----- (7)
Rd,cRs + 2Z L(Rd,e + Rs)
where m' original modulation percentage
Rd,c Rl + R2 (see Fig. 27.2)
Rs grid resistor of following stage (see Fig. 27.2)
and ZL = load impedance presented to the i-f voltage amplifier preceding the
detector stage; including the effects of all damping on the primary
and secondary of the i-f transformer.
In addition, at higher audio frequencies the reduction of side band amplitude by
the selectivity of the earlier stages in the receiver results in a further decrease in depth
of modulation.
(e) Audio frequency output voltage and response (frequency distortion)
The approximate r .m.s. audio frequency output voltage can be determined for a
particular arrangement by using the equivalent circuit of Fig. 27.8. It is often as-
sumed that all capacitive reactances are negligible, for simplicity in carrying out gain
calculations. However, the circuit is readily modified to include C u C z and C s as.
A 1/
1\
1 I c~
I I
I I
I I
-L. -L
CI'T' c2"""'" RZ R:?I EOUT
1 I
1 I
I I
I I
shown by the dotted lines, and any additional capacitances in the circuit can be in-
cluded if necessary. For this diagram.
m = modulation factor
E rm , = i-f input voltage
1J = detection efficiency determined from curves of Fig. 27.6
Z = total load impedance connected between the terminals AB. (This is
equal to Rae over the middle audio frequency range)
R2R 3
Rac = RI + R2 + R3
and R' a = internal equivalent resistance of diode at audio frequencies. This is
given by the inverse slope of the curves of Fig. 27.6.
Ru R2 and R3 are as shown in Fig. 27.2. .
It should be noted that R'1t is not the diode conduction resistance (R a) but is related
to it by
1rRa
R' a -- - --.
COS-I1J
(8)
Also R' a and Ra are not constant for all operating conditions. For our previous·
example we see from the 15 volt (r.m.s.) curve of Fig. 27.6~ and taking the diode load
as being
RI + R2 = 0.5 MQ, for simplicity,
(17 - 16.5) x 106
R'a 31200 D.
(42 - 26)
It will be seen that R'd is determined in a rather similar manner to that used for
firlding the plate resistance of multi-element valves. The diode conduction resistance
in this case- is (approximately) 6500 ohms.
It is sometimes required to find the audio frequency response and this can readily
be determined from the complete circuit of Fig. 27.8. A suitable procedure would
be as for r.c. amplifiers in which the capacitances are ignored over the middle fre-
quency range (say around 400 to 3000 cis), and the audio voltage output is calculated
for the resistance network only. At low frequencies the effects of C 1 and C 2 can
be ignored since they are usually about 50 to 100 p.p.F each, and only the effect of
C 3 would be considered. At high frequencies C 3 would be neglected and the effects
of C 1 and C 2 considered. Often only the maximum output voltage is required plus
the total output variation from say 50 cis to 10 Kc/s, and this simplifies the calcu-
lations. If Fig. 27.8 is inspected it will be seen that it is a simple matter to apply
the generalized low frequency response curves given in Chapter 12. The high fre-
quency curves can also be applied directly if RI can be neglected (this is usually per-
missible) and C 1 and C z are considered as being in parallel.
When using the circuit of Fig. 27.8 it is more convenient to determine the voltage
E A B since this is given directly by
EAB = 1Jm E rms •
It follows that, over the middle frequency range,
Rae -
E out = E AB ( Rac
RI)
E out E out EAB Rae - RI
and E = EAB X E Rac + Ra
If RI can be neglected in comparison with Rz and R3 in parallel, then E out = E AB
over the middle frequency range.
It is more accurate to determine~E AB from the curves of Fig. 27.6, since 1J is not
constant for a modulated carrier voltage and the effects of contact potential are in-
cluded in the measured data. The procedure is to draw the a.c. loadline on the graph
and note the d.c. voltages Eac! and Eac 2 given by the maximum and minimum values
of E rms during modulation. From this
E 'B = __1_ (Eae - EatJ).
n 2 ~ I Z
1080 (i) (C) QUANTITATIVE DESIGN DATA 27.1
The simplified graphical procedure is only suitable when the amplitudes of harmonics
higher than the second are negligible [see also (h) below]. More accurate graphical
methods are required if this is not true.
To compare the results obtained by the two methods, assume E rms = 15 volts
and the percentage modulation is 50% (Le. m = 0.5). As determined previously
'Y/ = 0.793, and it will be taken that Rae = Rde = 0.5 megohIn. Then
E AB = 'Y/ m E rms = 0.793 x 0.5 x 15 = 5.95 volts (r.m.s.).
From Fig. 27.6, E de1 = 26.5 volts and E de2 = 7.5 volts so that
1
E AB = . (;\ (26.5 - 7.5) = 6.7 volts.
2v 2
The discrepancy between these two results is easily explained, as an examination of
typical diode circuits giving the d.c. voltage developed by the diode in the absence
of signal input shows that there is about -0.5 to -1 volt developed across a diode
load of 0.5 megohm. This difference is also illustrated by the curve of Fig. 27.5,
which shows that -1 volt is developed for the conditions being considered. It is
also seen that the variation in detection efficiency ('Y/) over the range of voltage used
does not have a large effect on the final result. The presence of d.c. voltage across
the load resistor, in the absence of signal input voltage, is due to contact potential
in the diode.
(f) Effect of shunt capacitance on detection efficiency
Too Iowa value for C 1 and C 2 will affect the detection efficiency. Provided the
total shunt capacitance across the diode load is not less than ;~.:: p.p.F the ef-
fect can be neglected where
f frequency (expressed in Mc/s)
R2R 3 •
Rae = R1 + R2 +Ra (expressed In MQ).
For our previous example of Rae = 0.36 MQ, and i-f of 455 Kc/s, the capacitance
due to C 1 and C 2 should not be less than about 78 p.p.F ; this includes all stray capacit-
ances. In the circuit of Fig. 27.2 typical values of C 1 and C 2 are 100 p.p.F each and
if R1 is neglected it is seen that the total capacitance is more than twice the value
required even when strays are neglected. It would be feasible to reduce C 1 and C.,
to 50 p.p.F respectively with a reduction in attenuation at the higher audio frequencie~
(g) Non-linear distortion
If the value of total capacitance across the diode load resistance is too large, the
discharge time constant will be too long and the voltage across the diode load
will not follow the modulation envelope. This will give rise to non-linear distortion
and suggests that the rate of discharge of the load circuit should not be less than the
maximum rate of change of the modulation envelope. It can be shown that non-
linear a-f distortion due to this cause can be almost completely avoided provided that
1
- ->
wCtR dc
m• (9)
Suppose we neglect the decoupling resistance (R 1) in Fig. 27.2, as this unnecessarily
c')mplicates calculations when its value is about 1/10 of R2 (the usual case).
What is required, is to determine a value for CtR dc which will allow m = 1, i.e.
the incoming signal to be 100% modulated. However, it should be clear from pre-
vious discussion that the modulation percentage is generally a good deal lower than this
figure, and it seldom happens that 'very high modulation percentages occur at high
audio frequencies.
Take Rde as 0.5 megohm, then 1/ wCt = mRde = 1 x 0.5 X 10 6 •
Assume that the highest audio frequency is 10 Kc/s, then w = 21T X 10' and so
1012
C t = 21T X 10 2 X 0.5 X 102 = 31.8 p.~F.
This is the largest value C t should have if the detector is to be capable of handling
audio frequencies of 10 Kc/s and 100% amplitude modulation.
It will be noticed from (e) above that the detector efficiency will be reduced if C t is
27.1 (i) (c) QUANTITATIVE DESIGN DATA 1081
earthing, or even leaving disconnected, the second diode will often effect an almost
complete cure. Obviously the diode connection nearest the plate of the voltage am-
plifier is the one which should be earthed.
A second effect which is less frequently encountered is residual volume due to
capacitance between a diode and the control grid of a combined detector and a-f
amplifier. Normally this capacitauce is unimportant because with the volume control
turned right down the control grid is grounded through the grid coupling capacitor
(see Fig. 27.2). However if the audio amplifier is grid leak biased it may have a 10
megohm grid leak, and in this case a 0.001 p.F grid coupling capacitor would give
adequate bass response for a small receiver. Under these conditions a voltage of the
order of one thousandth of the i-f input to the diode could appear on the control grid
and with a high gain receiver this is ample to give annoying minimum volume. The
remedy, of course, is to increase the size of the grid coupling capacitor.
(b) In general, diodes do not start to conduct at precisely the point where the plate
voltage exceeds zero. Contact potentials and other effects will sometimes allow
the valve to conduct when the diode plate voltage is slightly negative (this is usual
with valves having indirectly heated cathodes), but in other cases (e.g. some battery
valves) conduction does not occur until the plate voltage is appreciably positive. This
point can be appreciated by an examination of typical diode curves. The effects of
the contact potentials will be further considered in Sect. (3) below when automatic
volume control is being discussed.
For a discussion of the effects of positive and negative start of plate current (which
may be deliberately introduced as mentioned in (C)(b) above) in diode detectors the
reader is referred to Ref. 1, Chapter 8.
Cc) There are distinct advantages in having the a-f volume control as the diode
load. For the usual operating conditions on local signals the setting of the control
is fairly well down, and so the effects of a.c. loading are very much reduced. This
advantage is lost when the control is in the grid circuit of the a-f voltage amplifier.
The disadvantage is that many controls become noisy, usually after a fairly short
period, when they have the diode current passing through them. A compromise
arrangement may be best with the control in the grid circuit (R3 in Fig. 27.2) and
Rl about 0.1 megohm and R2 say 0.5 megohm.
(d) As a summary of the characteristics of the diode detector, it may be stated that
its performance as regards frequency and non-linear distortion is excellent provided
the input voltage is high and the factors discussed above regarding a.c. shunting etc.
are incorporated in the detector design. All forms of detectors suffer from distortion
at low input levels, but the diode has the particular advantage that the input may be
increased to a very high level with consequent reduction of distortion, without any
overloading effect such as occurs with other forms of detectors.
(e) Crystal diodes are described in Section 7.
shown (as ~is usual with the diode) or at the point X is immaterial from the viewpoint
of operation. The diode is directly coupled to the triode and therefore the audio fre-
quency voltages developed in the diode detector are passed on to the triode grid, but at
'the same time this grid is given a d.c. bias through the d.c. voltage developed in a
similar way to that by which a.v.c. is obtained. Consequently the operating point of
the triode varies along the e g-i p curve from zero towards more negative grid bias
voltages as the carrier voltage is increased. This is the same effect as that obtained
when the diode is omitted (Fig. 27.10) since the grid and cathode of the triode act as a
diode and produce the same results. The illustration given was purely to demonstrate
the derivation of the one from the other and not to be a practical form of detector
since no advantage is gained by retaining the diode in the· circuit.
II[
- B +
fIG.27·IO GRID LEAK DETECTOR WITH
TRANSfORMER COUPLING.
It will be seen that the operating point varies along the ej)-ij) characteristic curve
between zero bias and the cut-off point (Fig. 27.11). There will be a certain strength
of carrier at which the detection will be most satisfactory, and at lower or higher
levels detection will not be so satisfactory on account of improper operating conditions.
If with a certain carrier input voltage ule d.c. bias on the grid is OA, then the point
corresponding to peak modulation is B where OB equals twice ~A. If the point
B is on the curved part of the characteristic, or in the extreme case actually beyond
the cut-off, the distortion will be severe. A valve having low IL and low g m is capable
of operating with a higher carrier voltage than a valve with improved characteristics,
but the gain in the detector stage will be less. There is a further difficulty in that
the plate current at no signal, or at very weak signal, may be excessively high. If
transformer coupling is used this may, in extreme cases, damage the valve, or pass too
much direct-current through the transformer, unless the plate supply voltage is re-
duced. If resistance coupling or parallel-feed is used the efficiency of the detector
is decreased. As with diode detection there is distortion at low levels due to the
" diode characteristics " but as distinct
from the diode, the overload point
occurs at quite a low carrier voltage.
This method of detection is therefore
very much limited in application.
With battery type valves used as
cumulative grid detectors it is often
advantageous to connect Rl (Fig. 27.10)
to filament positive; C1 remains as
before. The advantage obtained is
that larger modulation percentages can
be handled and detection will start
with smaller input voltages. The
arrangement is equivalent to supplying
the grid, which is acting as the plate
of a diode, with a positive bias voltage
(see Ref. 1, p. 357) and moving the
~-E, B A 0 position of the start of grid current.
rlG.27-11 TYPICAL E~-Ip CHARACTERISTIC.
1084 (li) (A) GRID DETECTION 27.1
A typical circuit for a grid leak detector as used in radio receivers is shown in
Fig. 27.12.
Damping of the input circuit occurs in the same manner as for a diode but additional
damping occurs because of grid-plate coupling. The arrangement shown in Fig.
27.12 for the grid resistor further increases the loading on the input circuit. Detailed
discussions of this type of circuit can be found in Refs. 2 (p. 414), 1 (p. 377) and 10.
·owr
~
s+
nG.27·12· TYPICAL GRID LEAK DETECTOR
WITH R-C COUPLING.
of 0.95 (E BfR L)' The exact operating point for optimum conditions depends upon
the input voltage.
Pentode valves are particularly valuable as plate detectors since the gain is of such
a high order. If resistance coupling is used the gain is reduced very considerably,
and in order to eliminate this loss it is usual to adopt choke coupling using a very high
inductance choke in the plate circuit, shunted by a resistor to give a more uniform
frequency response. If the shunt resistor were omitted the high frequencies would
be much greater than the low frequencies in relative level.
With all forms of plate detectors the bias is critical and since different valves of the
same type require slightly different values of bias the use of fixed bias is not recom-
mended. A very high value of cathode resistance is usually adopted to bias the valve
very nearly to cut-off, and in such a way that if valves are changed, or vary during life,
the operating point maintains itself near optimum (Fig. 27.13).
PLATE DETECTOR. B +
Screen grid and pentode valves with self-bias have been used as plate detectors
very satisfactorily for a number of years, although the distortion with the usual arrange-
ment is too high for them to be used in any but the cheapest radio receivers at the
present time. Such a detector is) however, permissible for some types of short-wave
reception and for amateur communication work where its high grid input impedance
results in higher sensitivity and selectivity.
With the usual plate detector the cathode bypass capacitor (C 2 , Fig. 27.13) has
customarily been made sufficiently large to by-pass both audio and radio frequencies.
Often C 2 is a 25 fLF electrolytic in parallel with a 500 fLfLF mica capacitor. This
arrangement, although widely used in the past, is not a correct one and leads to dis-
tortion when the modulation factor is at all high. The effect is similar to that de-
scribed in connection with diode detectors having the a.c.loadline appreciably different
in slope from the d.c. loadline. The correct procedure calls for the resistor R2 to be
by-passed for radio frequencies only, and although this results in a very considerable
loss in gain because of negative feedback, the results obtainable are excellent. In a
typical case R2 might be taken as 10 000 to 100000 ohms and C 2 as 500 to 100 fLfLF
respectively, the plate load resistor would be about 0.25 megohm; additional r-f
decoupling is usual in the plate circuit, although this is not shown in Fig. 27.13. This
circuit is often called a reflex detector, although this term is sometimes reserved for
cases where 100% negative feedback is used with a plate detector, and the audio out-
put is then taken from the resistor in the cathode circuit; th~ plate is earthed for
a.c. in this case. The results obtainable from the modified plate detector are ex-
cellent, and are comparable with those given by the diode arrangement. The reflex
detector is further discussed below.
(D) Reflex detector
The reflex detector is essentially a plate detector with negative feedback. Any
amount of feedback may be applied from zero to 100%, and as the feedback increases,
so the distortion decreases and the stage gain decreases until in the final condition
with 100% feedback the gain is less than unity. The reflex detector has an even
higher input impedance than the usual type of plate detector, and is therefore valuable
in certain applications. Under certain conditions the input resistance is negative
and can lead to instability troubles. The increased selectivity can also result in side-
1086 (ii) (D) REFLEX DETECTOR 27.1
band cutting. The degree of feedback may be adjusted to give any required gain
(within reasonable limits) by altering the size of cathode by-pass capacitor and the
relationship between the plate and cathode load resistance, but the distortion increases
with gain and if low distortion is required the maximum gain is limited to about three
or four times even with a pentode valve. With maximum degeneration and stable
operating conditions, the distortion (see Ref. 11) is about the same as for a diode
operating under similar input voltage conditions, while the reflex detector has the
distinct advantage of high input impedance. One application which appears to be
of importance is in high fidelity t.r.f. receivers, but even here the reflex detector has
not shown any very marked improvement over the diode from a consideration of
distortion alone. Input voltages in the order of 10 volts (r.m.s.) are usually most
satisfactory when low distortion is desired and in a typical case using 100% feedback
about 3 % total harmonic distortion can be expected when the modulation depth ap-
proaches 100%. This assumes that the a.c. shunting is high (say 10: 1 or so) com-
pared with the d.c. load. Some useful discussion is given in Refs. 14 (pages 51-55)
and 15. These performance figures can be compared with those stated previously
for the diode detector under similar operating conditions. Reflex detectors do not
provide a.v.c. and so are not used in normal broadcast receivers. They could be used
in combination with amplified a.v.c. to provide a receiver with good characteristics.
Typical circuit component values have been discussed in (C) above in connection
with modified plate detectors. For the case of 100% negative feedback (Le. the load
resistance is in the cathode circuit and the plate is earthed for a.c.) the cathode
resistance is made large compared with 1/g m and a typical value is 25 000 ohms.
The by-pass capacitance across this resistance can be about 500 f-tf-tF. There is
seldom any difficulty with a.c /d.c. ratios as the grid resistance of the following a-f
stage is generally about 0.5 megohm. Additional components required are a blocking
capacitor, to prevent the d.c. cathode voltage from being applied to the grid of the
a-f amplifier, and a series resistor and shunt capacitor to provide additional r-f de-
coupling between the two circuits.
A limitation of the reflex detector is that there is a definite maximum for the input
signal voltage for freedom from grid current. A further increase of input causes
rectification at the grid, with added damping of the grid input circuit, and a steady
increase in distortion. An increase in the supply voltage raises the threshold point
for grid current. Further data are available in Refs. 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15.
R-f CHOKE 'OIJJF
' - - -__- - - ; - - 1 ~ A - f
+-----...,
_~-"--UA
o~------:~
r I
E2
fIG.27·15
':---~-OB
assumed constant for the moment) alters, the phase angle between El and E2 changes
from that at resonance. This leads to a change in the relative magnitudes of E A
and E B •
The vector relationship between the primary and half secondary voltages, for the
phase discriminator, are shown in Fig. 27.16. This assumes constant primary voltage
E 1•
If the primary voltage El has its
A amplitude varied in a suitable man-
ner (e.g. by setting the coupling
between the transformer windings,
for given primary and secondary
Q's, so that two primary voltage
humps of the required amplitude
appear as the frequency is varied)
the linearity and sensitivity of the
discriminator can be very appreci-
ably improved.
This statement, regarding line-
arity and sensitivity, refers, of
course, to the relationship between
voltage output and frequency-devia-
tion from the central reference fre-
quency (Le. the nominal intermedi-
ate frequency).
Analysis of the phase discrimina-
tor for F-M applications has been
FIG.27'16 VOLTAGE RELATIONS~IPS IN PHASE made by K. R. Sturley (Refs. 27
DISCRIMINATOR WITH CONSTANT and 28), and the results' of this
PRIMARY VOLTAGE. ' analysis will be used below It
might be mentioned that a number
of discriminator circuits for a wide variety of applications have been designed using the
data derived by Sturley and very satisfactory results have been obtained in practice.
Before proceeding to set out the design data, the circuit of Fig. 27.17 will be briefly
discussed.
The voltages applied to the plates of the double diode valve V 2 will be E' A and
E' B respectively. The output voltages from the diodes are developed across R3
and R 4 , and the circuit is arranged so that the available output voltage is equal to the
difference between the two separate voltages. This means that when the frequency
of the carrier voltage is exactly equal to the intermediate frequency, no output will be
obtained from the detector. Reference to Fig. 27.16 should help to make this point
quite clear, since the rectified voltages across R3 and R4, in Fig. 27.17 are given by the
peak voltages applied to the diode plates multiplied by the detection efficiency of the
diodes. As the signal deviates from the central reference frequency (i.e. the inter-
mediate frequency), a voltage (EouD will appear between the points P and N (Fig.
27.17), and its polarity will depend on the relative magnitudes of the voltages across
R3 and R 4 ; e.g. point P will be negative with respect to point N when the voltage
across R3 is less than that across R 4 • It follows that it should be possible to calculate
1090 (iii) PHASE DISCRIMINATORS 27.2
DISCRIMINA TOR
p : DE-EMPHASIS
R~
C6
t
Eo
B+ B+
rlC.27-17 TYPICAL PHASE DISCRIMINATOR ARRANGEMENT FOR F-M DETECTION_
El
Q2 k J
From the principles of coupled circuits it is possible to show that
~= L
Ll
2
....
\3
«
~
o
>
'"
~ '8
....J
It:
The two curves shown in Fig. 27.18(A) are calculated from the following equations.
For Qk = 1.5, the relative voltage output is
3.25A
E re1 -- vi
17====:==:::::::::==:===- (22)
(3.25 _ X2)2 + 4X2
and for Qk = 2,
5A
Erel _/ (23)
V (5 - X2)2 + 4X2
Q 2111/1"
X
J( 1- 1 +~2 r + (1 : X2) 1
magnification factor determined from eqn. (14), Equation (14) is the
Q
condition for X = 1
111 = frequency· deviation from I"
and Ir = intermediate frequency.
To illustrate the design procedure, and to bring out additional points, a worked
example is appended.
(C) Design example
A phase discriminator is required for use with a 10.7 Mc/s F-M i-f channel. The
maximum frequency deviation of the carrier is ± 75 Kc/s. To make the problem
1092 (iii) (C) DESIGN EXAMPLE 27.2
complete it will be taken that the highest audio frequency is 15 Kc/s and the de-
emphasis time constant is 75 micro-seconds.
(a) The majority of applications call for reasonable discriminator sensitivity and
so the condition Qk = 1.5 (see eqn. 15) is practically always used. Also, high primary
dynamic impedance will increase the sensitivity of the discriminator. However,
since Q is fixed by other considerations (see eqn. 14) Ll should be large, but Ll is
limited by L2 which in turn is limited by the permissible minimum secondary capacit-
ance C 2 • A value is selected for C 2 and the design can then proceed.
(b) A suitable value for C2 ; including all strays, is 50 J-tJ-tF. Then
25330
L2 = 10.7 2 X 50 = 4.41 J-tH.
From eqn. (18),
L2 4.41
Ll = 1.77 = 1.77 2.5 J-tH.
From this
25330
C1 = = 88.5 J-tJ-tF (including all strays).
10.7 2 x 2.5
(c) If the discriminator frequency-voltage characteristic were exactly linear then
it would be sufficient to make the total frequency !."ange 2fJj = 2 x 75 = 150 Kc/s.
To this would be added an allowance for frequency drift due to the oscillator and the
discriminator tuned circuits. Since the discriminator characteristic is not exactly
linear (it is linear for about 80% of the total curve using the data given as can be seen
from Fig. 27.18) and the frequency drift is not always small it has become common
practice in broadcast F-M circuits (of the type being considered) to make 2fJj from
200 to 400 Kc/s.
As a practical compromise we will take the total bandwidth (2fJf) as 250 Kc/s, but
the design procedure is the same irrespective of what bandwidth is selected.
With 2fJj = 250 Kc/s we have from eqn. (14)
Q = 10.7/0.25 = 42.8.
From eqn. (15), Qk = 1.5
and so k = 1.5/42.8 = 0.035.
(d) Summarizing, for the discriminator transformer (see also Fig. 27.17)
Ll = 2.5 J-tH; L2 = 4.41 J-tH; C 1 = 88.5 J-tJ-tF; C 2 = 50 J-tJ-tF; Q = Ql = Q2 =
42.8; k = 0.035; M = 0.116 J-tH. Secondary winding to be centre-tapped. The
capacitance values include all strays.
14
I
12
.- ~ .....
~ ~
.."
10
Q.8
I
V i
&6 V
E
~4
V
V
250 200 ISO 100 so
~V
1e-7Mc/_ so 100 ISO 200 250
-6,/(cls 11-2 +6'/(c/s I
/ -4
/ -6
/ -8
!
i
./ I -10
~ V
-- ~ I-""""
I
! !
-12
-14
(e) The discriminator sensitivity atfr is given by eqn. (20). Assume Eg = 1 volt
(peak), gm = 5 rnA/volt and TJ = 0.7. Then
S(Qk = 1.5) = 5.465 x 103 X 5 X 10-3 X 42.8 2 X 2.5 X 10- 6 x 0.7 x 1
= 0.0875 volts per kilocycle deviation.
This also allows the vertical scale factor to be determined for the complete dis-
criminator curve as shown on Fig. 27.18(B). The horizontal scale factor is found from
2Af .
X = Q fr = 1 [I.e. eqn. (14)].
Xfr 10.7 x 103
Therefore Af = 2Q = 2 x 42.8 = 125 Kc/s.
The procedure for finding the plotted points on the curve of Fig. 27.18(B) is as
follows. Draw up a table, as shown below, with values of X corresponding to values
of Erel read from the curve of Fig. 27.18(A). Since it has just been determined that
Af = 125 Kc/s when X = 1, the column for Af can be filled in (e.g. when X = 0.8
then Af = 125 x 0.8 = 100 Kc/s, and so on). The sensitivity has been determi~ed
as 0.0875 volts per kilocycle deviation, and so for 25 Kc/s deviation E out = 0.0875 x
25 = 2.19 volts (the lowest deviation frequency in the table should be used to find
E out in this case). It is now seen that the value of E out = 2.19 volts corresponds to
Erel = 0.28, and so the scale factor is 2.19/0.28 = 7.82. If 7.82 is now multiplied
by Erel in each case, the column for E out can be filled in. The complete curve for
E out versus Af can now be plotted.
X Af Erel E out
(f) It now remains to determine suitable values for the other components in the
circuit of Fig. 27.17.
C 3 is for the purpose of connecting the transformer primary to the secondary
centre-tap, and providing isolation of the secondary from the h.t. on the plate of VI'
A suitable value is 100 p.p.F. The capacitor should have high insulation resistance.
C 4 is a by-pass capacitor; a value of about 0.01 p.F is usual.
R3 and R4. are made eqlial, and are generally about 100 000 ohms each.
Cs acts as a by-pass for i-f but must not appreciably affect the audio frequency
response. The usual value is about 100 p.p.F.
The de-emphasis network consists of Rs and e6 • For 75 microsecond de-emphasis
the nominal values would be 75 000 ohms and 0.001 p.F respectively. If an improved
a.c./d.c. ratio is thought to be necessary then suitable values would be say, 0.25 MQ
and 30 p.p.F. The grid resistor in the following a-f stage should not be less than
1 MQ if excessive loss in gain is to be avoided. However, the actUal values used in a
receiver will generally deviate from these nominal figures if the overall audio frequency
response of the receiver is made to follow the 75 microsecond de-emphasis curve to
15 Kc/s, because of the presence of stray capacitances etc. and in some cases to help
compensate for the overall a-f response.
To determine RI :-the transformer primary damping due to a single diode circuit,
connected as shown, is Ra.c/3. For this circuit Ra.c = R3 = R4 = 100 000 ohms.
1094 (iii) (C) DESIGN EXAMPLE 27.2
Also, because of the circuit arrangement, Rs and R, are in parallel. The total damping,
due to diode conduction currents in addition to Ra and R" is then
RdC) 100000
!(3 = - 6 - = 16600 Q.
If Ra is not equal to Ro the damping resistance is given by Rs/3 and R,/3 in parallel
i.e.
RaR,/3(Ra + R4)' (When Ra = R4 = Rdc the value Rdc/6 is obtained as
above).
Take the undamped primary Q (written as Qu) as being 100, and neglect the ad-
ditional damping due to the plate resistance of VI' Then the total damping resistance
CR) required to obtain a primary Q of 42.8 is
QuQWLl 100 X 42.8 X 27T X 10.7 x 2.5
R = Q .. _ Q 100 - 42.8
12,500 Q.
From this
12500 x 16600
Rl = (16600 12500) = 50600 Q.
To determine R 2 : The transformer secondary damping is given by
Ra = R, = RdC = 100000 D.
(This follows because the damping across each half of the secondary is Ra/2 and
R .. /2 respectively, and in each case there is a step up, due to the transformer being
centre tapped, of 4 times. From this, across the whole of the transformer secondary
there are two resistances 4R a/2 and 4R,d2 in parallel, and since R3 = R, = Rdc the
above result is obtained immediately).
The total damping resistance (R') required to make Q2 = Ql = 42.8 is
R' = 12 500 X 1.77 = 22 100 Q.
From this ..,
22 100· x 100000
28400 Q.
RJ = (100 000 - 22 100)
The design of the limiter stage will be discussed in Chapter 29.
(g) Some causes of discriminator unbalance will be mentioned, before leaving this
section, and it is helpful to consider the circuit as a bridge in which unbalance has to be
eliminated. Even when the transformer secondary is centre-tapped accurately, un-
balance can occur because the capacitive coupling between the two halves of the second-
ary winding and the primary winding is not necessarily equal. This calls for care in
the method of arranging the windings. Two methods are in common use. The
first uses a bifilar method with the two halves of the secondary wound side by side.
The second method arranges the secondary into two halves, placed on either side of the
primary winding, and the coupling of both sections, including that due to stray capacit-
ances, is made equal.
Capacitive unbalance will also occur when the input capacitances of the diodes
are not equal. Suitable arrangement of stray capacitances can often be used to help
in offsetting this effect.
The use of a small capacitance connected across one of the diodes is helpful in re-
ducing capacitive unbalance effects.
Balancing of the conduction resistances of the two diode units is largely outside
the control of the receiver designer, but variation in the value of Ra and R, can be
made to assist in cases where a very high degree of balance. is thought to be necessary.
Additional precautions of this nature are seldom carried out in commercial receivers.
It should be noted in Fig. 27.17 that, if the resistors Ra and R, are shunted by
two separate capacitors, an additional series resistor or r-f choke will be required be-
tween the junction of Ra and R4, and the centre tap on L 2 • Connecting the junction
of Ra and R4 through a by-pass capacitor to ground would also effectively short-
circuit the i-f primary voltage to ground, if the additional component is not used.
For most circuits the arrangement shown is applicable, since it requires a minimum
of components consistent WIth satisfactory performance. The alternative arrangement
27.2 (iii) (C) DESIGN EXMv1.PLE 1095
B+
FIG.27·19 ALTERNATIVE ARRANGEMENT FOR PHASE DISCRIMINATOR.
is shown in Fig. 27.19. The design procedure to be used is exactly as before, except
that the primary circuit damping due to the diode circuits (the damping is actually
across the r-f choke) will be approximately Rdc/4 instead of Rdc/6; the secondary
circuit damping is Rdc as previously, where Rdc = R3 = R 4 • If a resistor is sub-
stituted for the r-f choke then the circuit damping is again modified depending on
the value of resistance used in the circuit. Considerations leading to the choice of
a suitable value for the inductance of the r-f choke will be given in detail in Chapter 29
Sect. 2, in connection with the discussion on a.f.c. discriminators.
It is perhaps worth mentioning that hUItl due to heater-cathode leakage is some-
times troublesome in discriminator circuits, particularlrwith miniature diodes, and
a simple and effective cure for this trouble is to make the cathode positive with respect
to the heater. This can be readily effected, for example in Fig. 27.19, by connecting
a 10 000 Q resistor by-passed by, say, a 0.01 /-LF mica capacitor between the earthy
end of R4 and ground; the. junction of R4 and the 10000 Q resistor is then connected
to B+ via a series resistor whose value is selected so that about 10 to 15 volts appears
across the 10000 Q resistor (which now forms one arm of a voltage divider). In a
typical case the series resistor would be about 0.16 MQ for a B+ of 250 volts.
(A)
A-F OUTPUT
+ EI- E 2
=-2-
-I
(B)
FIC.27·20 (A) BASIC CIRCUIT OF RATIO DETECTOR.
~8j TYPiCAL OUTPUT CURVE.
27.2 (iv) RATIO DETECTORS 1097
It is wordl noting that the asoco voltages available from ratio detector drcuits have
values which are not always directly suitable for application to controlled stages.
Some form of voltage divider arrangement is often necessary to obtain suitable volt-
ages for securing the desired a.v.c. characteristic.
(B) Operation
A brief qualitative description of the operation of the ratio detector will be given
here. A complete quantitative analysis has not been made, although many of the
significant factors have been investigated (see Refs. 34, 35 and 36).
Fig. 27.21 shows the same basic circuit as Fig. 27.20(A), rearranged in a more
convenient form for discussion. The main details of operation are also indicated,
and show what happens in the circuit when the amplitude of the signal input voltage
, changes. For the case (A) where the amplitude of the signal input voltage is con-
stant, the stabilizing current is zero and the circuit has essentially the same output
characteristic as a phase discriminator. When the signal amplitude increases (B),
the average diode current also increases, and resultant direct current flows into the
stabilizing voltage source (i.e. the battery is being charged). From this since El + E2
remains constant, it is seen that the effective diode load resistance must decrease
and so the prim~ and secondary circuits are more heavily damped than for the case
(A) where the input voltage has a fixed value. The increased damping on the trans-
former circuits will tend to offset the increase in the amplitude of the input voltage,
and so the output voltage will also tend to be constant.
Similarly, when the signal amplitude decreases-case (C)-the stabilizing voltage
source supplies additional current (i.e. the battery is being discharged) to offset the
reduction in diode current, so as to maintain El + E z constant; the effective diode
load resistance is now increased, and so the circuit damping is reduced.
From this it is seen that stabilizing the rectified voltage results in the equivalent
load resistance varying in such a way as to offset changes in the amplitude of the signal
input voltage. It also follows that there must be optimum circuit conditions which
will allow the undesired amplitude variations to be offset most effectively (although
these conditions are not necessarily the same for all input voltages). The conditions
for obtaining the most satisfactory operation will be summarized below when dis-
cussing the design of the ratio detector.
1098 (iv) RATIO DETECTORS 27.2
microseconds or so) they can be used to derive a bias voltage for the grid of the valve
when the signal exceeds some pre-determined level, and the valve can then be used
to provide a degree of limiting. In. this way the use of an additional valve is still
avoided, since most ratio detectors operate satisfactorily with as little as 10 millivolts
(or less) applied to the grid of the driver valve, but the advantages of additional am-
plitude limiting can be obtained on strong signals. Of course, satisfactory results
are obtainable with a ratio detector alone and the application of a.v.c. bias to the
earlier stages is helpful but improvement is possible with the arrangement suggested,
and with very little additional trouble. With the partial limiter arrangement a.v.c.
is sometimes applied to the first i-fvoltage amplifier, the a.v.c. bias being derived from
the ratio detector circuit as indicated in Figs. 27.22 and 27.23. Some receiver manu-
facturers do not use a.v.c. at all, but use suitable grid resistor-capacitor arrangements
with both i-f valves to provide additional bias when the signal is sufficiently large.
Some care is necessary with the limiter arrangements, since detuning of the i-f trans-
former can have adverse effects particularly with some types of noise interference.
This point received consideration in Chapter 26 when the design of the F-M i-f
transformers was being discussed. I MEAN SIGNAL
......._ _--i-_7S..;./(cls:-- AMPLITUDE
~~. ~+-~==~~-=~~~=
y 13~~~ a
11
FIG. 27.2: t
l'~a ~A"F.
lc + F" -- -so'
-75:
SIGNAL AMPLITUDE-
UnDalanccd" Type of ~ttctor FIG. 27.24 Typ"ol Input-Output Voltage Curvu
for RatiO Detector
value. Smaller values for R will increase the downward modulation handling capa-
bilities of the detector, but will also reduce its sensitivity.
Primary Lie ratio and Q
The primary Lie ratio should be as large as possible to increase the sensitivity.
The limiting factor is the maximum stable gain between the grid and plate of the ratio
detector driver valve (i.e. the last i-f valve preceding the detector). When determin-
ing the maximum gain it should be remembered that the gain may increase during
downward amplitude modulation, particularly on either side of the centre frequency.
If the primary Q is high enough so that the operating Q is determined mainly by
the diode loading, the grid-plate gain will rise during the A-M cycle. This is advan-
tageous since it increases the ability of the detector to reject downward modulation.
The primary Q is made as high as possible consistent with peak separation and stable
gain requirements.
Coupling
The value of coupling used, together with the number of turns in the tertiary wind-
ing, is the principal factor in determining the ratio of the tertiary voltage to the half
secondary voltage. This ratio should always be close to unity. The coupling is
generally adjusted to half critical in the actual circuit, since the degree of coupling is
dependent on the other circuit component values and these are selected before the
coupling is finally set to the desired amount.
Tertiary inductance
The number of turns on the tertiary winding is adjusted so that the required ratio
of tertiary voltage to half secondary voltage is obtained (see under Coupling).
Reducing unbalanced A-M component
There will always be some residual amplitude modulation in the detector output
because of the variation in the effective diode input capacitance during the A-M cycle,
and because of the unbalance introduced by the transformer and other circuit com-
ponents. Several methods are useful in overcoming this effect.. One is to vary the
effective centre-tap on the secondary winding (this method is shown in Fig. 27.26)
and another is to make the resistors Ra and R4 shown in Fig. 27.25 unequal. In
addition a resistor Rs is used in series with the tertiary winding (see Fig. 27.25) to
modify the peak diode currents, which has the effect of appreciably reducing the un-
balanced A-M component particularly at high input voltages. The methods using
resistors to reduce unbalance also reduce the detector sensitivity.
The reduction of unbalance effects is carried out by observing the condition for
minimum A-M output when a signal which is simultaneously amplitude and frequency
modulated is applied to the detector.
Time constant of stabilizing voltage
The discharge time constant of the stabilizing capacitance and the load resistance
should be about 0.2 second. Larger time constants will give better amplitude re-
jection when the undesired modulating frequency is low, but have undesirable effects
on the tuning. The tuning effect is similar to that given by an ordinary A-M receiver
when the a.v.c. time constant is too long.
Experiments with the time constant of this circuit give some interesting effects.
If the stabilizing capacitance is made very large, say 100 JLF or so, and the receiver is
tuned rapidly across a signal, it will be found that the point of maximum output is
very easily determined, and there is no effect from the usual side responses. When
the receiver is detuned the noise level rises, as the capacitor discharges, and the side
responses again become evident until the receiver has been tuned once through the
point of maximum output.
Additional details
It is not particularly easy to achieve a good balance with the ratio detector circuit,
and usually more care is required in this respect than with the conventional phase
discriminator. However, the better the balance obtained the better will be the
rejection of undesired amplitl.lde modulation.
Although the side responses are normally well down on the response at the main
tuning point, with this type of circuit, considerable improvement has been noticed
27.2 (iv) RATIO DETECTORS 1101
C,
when the bandwidth of the discriminator is fairly large (say 300 to 400 Kc/s) and the
i-f response is such as to give steep sides to the overall selectivity curve. With re-
ceivers using two i-f transformers (each critically-coupled and both having primary
and secondary Q's of about 75) the side responses are still sufficiently large to be notice-
able, although they are 12-15 db down on the main tuning position. Receivers using
three transformers (each critically-coupled and having Q's of about 70) give a very
marked improvement, and the two undesired side responses can only be found after
careful searching. If the transformers are made more selective the side responses
are reduced, but the additional non-linear distortion introduced by the tuned circuits
may no longer be negligible, as can be determined from the data given in Chapter 26.
Further, the amount of amplitude modulation on a carrier goes up as the selectiviry
of the transformers is increased, and this undesired A-M has to be removed by the
ratio detector thereby reducing its effectiveness to other undesired external noise.
Even in the case of the receiver with only two i-f transformers, the undesired side
responses are very much less noticeable than with receivers using the usua1limiter
and discriminator combination
(E) Practical circuits
Two circuits which have been constructed and tested under working conditions
are shown in Figs. 27.25 and 27.26. The intermediate frequency is 10.7 Mc/s
Constructional details and performance data can be found in Refs. 34 and 37.
50,OOOSl. AY.C.
8
JlF
4O,OOOSl.
over LI)
1. B+(265V)
FIG. 27.26 Unbalanced RatiO Detector
De-emphasis is obtained in the circuit of Fig. 27.26 by adjusting the value of the
capadtor marked CA' The time constant (0.4 second) of the diode load circuit is
about twice as long as that previously recommended for typical cases, but the per-
formance is quite good, and, as suggested in Ref. 37, the individual designer can set
the constants to suit his own requirements.
The secondary winding for the circuit of Fig. 27.25 is a bifilar arrangement, while
that of Fig. 27.26 has the secondary split into two sections placed on either side of
the primary. In the latter case slug tuning is used for one half of the secondary so
that the effective centre tap can be set to any desired position.
1102 (iv) RATIO DETECTORS 27.2
kcrH -
J§ -
voltage with the secondary detuned and tuned using the relationship
_k__
El
1
•
For example, if the signal voltage at the plate rises 25 per cerit. (i.e. E2 = 1.25 E 1)
when the secondary is detuned, the coupling is 50 per cent of critical.
The ratio between the secondary and tertiary voltages can be measured indirectly
in terms of the. rectified output voltage which is obtained (a) with the secondary tuned
and (b) with the secondary detuned. In both cases the input signal is adjusted so
that the primary voltage remains constant. If the ratio between the voltages read in
(a) and (b) is r, that is if
Rectified voltage (tuned secondary)
r
Rectified voltage (detuned secondary)
S
then - =Vr2 - 1
P
where S half secondary voltage at centre frequency
P ="primary" (i.e. tertiary) voltage effective in the diode circuit at the
centre frequency.
The ratio SIP is usually made equal to unity.
Si~ generator
It is convenient to have available a signal generator of good quality capable of
being simultaneously frequency and amplitude modulated. Undesired amplitude
and frequency modulation should not be present in the generator output.
Alignment procedure
The ratio detector may be aligned by using either an unmodulated signal set to
the centre frequency and a d.c. vacuum-tube voltmeter, or by using a F-M signal
generator and an oscillograph.
If an unmodulated signal generator is used, the procedure is to set the signal to the
intermediate frequency, and with the d.c. vacuum-tube voltmeter connected to measure
the rectified output voltage (this is usually the a.v.c. take-off point), the primary
tuning being adjusted for maximum voltage output.
The procedure used for adjusting the secondary tuning depends upon whether the
centre-tap of the stabilizing voltage is earthed or whether one end is earthed. If
the centre-tap is earthed. the secondary tuninl! is adiusted so that the d.c. voltal!e at
the audio take-off point 'is equal to zeio; the-d.c. v'acuum-tube voltmeter is shlfted
to the audio take-off point for this measurement. If the detector is of the unbalanced
27.2 (iv) RATIO DETECTORS 1103
[ype the secondary tuning is adjusted so that the d.c. voltage at the audio take-off
point is equal to half the total rectified voltage. As an alternative an amplitude
modulated signal can be used, the primary trimmer is adjusted for maximum d.c.
output voltage and the secondary trimmer adjusted to give minimum audio output;
the residual output is measured in the conventional manner. Circuit unbalance is
indicated if the two methods do not give the same secondary trimmer setting.
If sweep alignment is used, the primary can be accurately aligned by using a com-
paratively low deviation, and adjusting the primary trimmer for the maximum am-
plitude of output voltage. The secondary may be adjusted by using a deviation such
that the total frequency swing (twice the deviation) is equal to the peak separation.
This procedure makes it possible to adjust the secondary tuning so that a symmetrical
detector characteristic is obtained.
Peak separation
The separation between the peaks on the F-M output characteristic of a ratio de-
tector may be measured by applying a frequency modulated signal and increasing the
deviation until the response is just observed to flatten at the peaks. When this is
done, the peak separation is equal to twice the deviation.
If an attempt is made to measure the peak separation by plotting the output charac-
teristic point by point, the peak separation obtained will usually be considerably less
than that obtained under dynamic conditions with the output voltage stabilized. The
F-M detector characteristic may be plotted point by point provided a battery of the
proper voltage is connected across the stabilizing capacitor. The voltage of this
battery must be equal to the rectified voltage which exists at the centre frequency.
In practice it is convenient to use a 7.5 volt" C " battery and to adjust the signal
input so that the capacitor-stabilized voltage at the centre frequency is equal to the
battery voltage.
It is worth noting that the peak separation is not constant for all values of input
voltage, and measurements should be made for several representative voltages of the
magnitude likely to be encountered under practical conditions of reception. The
peak separation is wider for larger input voitages, as a result of the increased diode
loading on the tuned circuits. Similarly the peak separation is less for smaller input
voltages because of reduced circuit damping.
Measurement of A-M rejection
The measurement of A-M rejection can be carried out using a signal generator
which can be simultaneously frequency and amplitude mo_dulated.
Ref. 34 shows a number of the typical wedge-shaped patterns which are obtained
when visual methods are used for determining the amplitude modulation present
in the audio output. A pattern of the type to be expected is shown in Fig. 27.27.
The measurement of the A-M rejection
of a ratio detector can be described in terms
of the pattern obtained for a given frequency
deviation and a given percentage of amplitude
modulation.
The measurements should be made for
several different values of input voltage.
Ideally the pattern obtained should be a
diagonal line regardless of the presence of
amplitude modulation. The amount by
which the pattern departs from a straight
line indicates the extent to which the de-
tector fails to reject amplitude modulation.
To measure A-M rejection with a genera-
tor which can only be frequency modulated
the procedure is as follows. A frequency
FIG. 27.27 modulated signal fully deviated (± 75 Kc/s
1104 (iv) RATIO DETECTORS 27.2
in the usual case) is applied, and a battery of which the voltage is equal to the rectified
output is shunted across the stabilizing capacitor. The magnitude of the input
signal is now reduced until the output becomes distorted as a result of the diodes
being biased by the stabilizing voltage, and finally the F-M output drops to zero.
The ratio between the initial input signal and the minimum input signal for which
the F-M output becomes distorted is then a measure of the amount of downward
modulation that the detector can reject. For example if the voltage ratio is r, then the
percentage of downward amplitude modulation which can be handled is 100 (r - 1)/r.
To determine the rejection of the detector for upward amplitude modulation the
same set-up is used and the change in output is noted as the input signal is increased.
Since the amplitude of the input signal is not varied dynamically, this method will
not indicate any unbalanced component which may be present in the output. The
latter is more conveniently measured using simultaneous F-M and A-M as discussed
previously.
Another method which can be applied to measure the amplitude rejection pro-
perties of any type of detector for different signal input voltages may be worth dis-
cussing. The input signal is simultaneo,usly frequency and amplitude modulated.
Any audio modulating frequencies can be selected which are not harmonically related,
and suitable values are say 400 cis for F-M and 30 cis for A-M. The percentage
A-M can b~ taken as 30% (or any value desired) and the deviation as ± 22.5 Kc/s
(or any oth~ value). The ratio of the desired and undesired audio outputs can then
be measured on a frequency selective voltmeter such as a wave analyser. Measure-
ments can be made at the centre frequency to indicate residual A-M, and for various
frequencies off the centre frequency to determine the rejection capabilities of the
detection system under operating conditions; e.g. those which occur when oscillator
and other frequency drift occurs. Low audio frequencies are preferable for this
test (and also for the previous methods), particularly with ratio detectors, since the
amplitude rejection is least for this condition. Tests on a number of ratio detectors
have indicated similar performance when high· audio modulating frequencies are
used, but considerable variation occurs in the amount of amplitude rejection obtained
for the lower audio frequencies using balanced and unbalanced circuits. This is
readily understood when the function of the stabilizing capacitor is considered.
Standard test procedures have been devised for F-M receivers, and standard methods
for evaluating the degree of A-M rejection, downward modulation handling capability,
and the effects ofmistuning are described in Chapter 37.
Non-linear distortion
Distortion measurements are usually quite difficult to carry out with any degree of
accuracy because of the inherent non-linear distortion present in the signal source
and test equipment. Tests on typical F-M receivers using limiter-discriminator
combinations and ratio detectors have been made, using the low power stages of a
F-M broadcast transmitter as the signal source. The non-linear distortion in the
transmitter signal was less than 0.5% for frequencies from 100 cis to 15 Kc/s, and
less than 1 % from 30 to 100 c/s; the frequency deviation was set to ± 75 Kc/s in
all cases.
Both types of receiver indicated a measured overall distortion of the order of 2 to
2.5% in the frequency range 100 cis to 7.5 Kc/s, 3 to 5% at 50 cis and 5% at 15 Kc/s
although this latter case was a visual check only. Above 10 Kc/s the non-linear
distortion with ratio detector receivers is generally somewhat higher than with limiter-
discriminator receivers. The input in all cases was approximately 100 p.V and the
output was adjusted to 0.5 watt. The test frequency was 97.2 Mc/s and the i-f of
all receivers was 10.7 Mc/s. The measured distortion for the a-f amplifier alone was
0.5% for the range 100 cis to 7.5 Kc/s and 2% at 50 c/s; above 7.5 Kc/s, observa-
tion was made using an oscillograph and as there was no visible distortion it was as-
sumed that distortion was less than 3%.
The nun-linear disturtion is increased with ratio detector receivers when the magni-
tude of the input voltage is made very large. With the other type of receiver the input
signal must be sufficiently large to ensure satisfactory limiter operation. Receivers
27.2 (iv) RATIO DETECTORS 1105
using a combination of partial limiting and a ratio detector give excellent results for a
wide range of signal input voltages, and do not require extra valves.
The test conditions used are very severe, as it is unlikely that a 15 Kc/s audio signal
will cause 75 Kc/s deviation; although it should not be overlooked that pre-emphasis
in the transmitter will cause a 15 Kc/s modulating signal to be increased in magnitude
by about 17 db. Listening tests indicate that excellent results are obtainable with
any of the receiver arrangements. It will be appreciated that the possibility of errors
in the distortion measurements are very large, and the results are given to serve as an
indication of the magnitude of the distortion to be expected with typical F-M receivers
which do not include elaborate design features, but conform to good engineering
practice.
(i) Introduction
Automatic volume control is a device which automatically varies the total ampli-
fication of the signal in a radio receiver with changing strength of the received signal
carrier wave. In practice the usual arrangement is to employ valves having" remote
cut-off" or " variable-mu " grids and to apply to them a bias which is a function of
the strength of the carrier.
From the definition given, it would be correctly inferred that a more exact term to
describe the system would be automatic gain contJ:ol (a.g.c.). The older term a.v.c.
has been retained here as the name is not likely to lead to any confusion, and is widely
used throughout the radio industry.
~F.T
resistor takes a finite time to charge
or discharge, the a.v.c. filter circuit
has a "time constant." The time
constant of R 4 and C 4 is equal to
R 4 C 4 • For example, if R4 is 1 meg-
ohm and C 4 is 0.25 microfarad the
TO B+ time constant will be 0.25 second.
CONTROLLED In this circuit the time constant is
GRIDS
also influenced by Rl during charge
and by R2 during discharge, but since
Rl is small compared with R4 it will be
sufficiently close for practical purposes
FIG. 27.28 to regard R 4 C 4 as giving the time
1106 (ii) SIMPLE A.V.C. 27.3
constant during charge, and GiRl. + R 2 ) as the time constant during discharge.
It is seen that the charge time constant is shorter than the discharge time constant.
Time constants in a.v.c. circuits will be discussed in detail in (xii) below.
For 100% rectification efficiency the a.v.c. voltage would equal the peak i-f voltage
applied to the diode. Because of losses the a.v.c. voltage is always somewhat less
than the peak carrier voltage (this is readily seen from Figs. 27.5 and 27.6), and since,
in general, a higher voltage is required for the a.v.c. than for detection, this will be a
limitation to the use of simple a.v.c.
The design of the i-f transformer to couple the i-f voltage into the diode circuit is
quite straightforward. The damping to be expected across the windings due to the
diode circuits has already been discussed in Sect. l(i)Cc of this chapter. Methods
of i-f transformer design are detailed in Chapter 26.
In the circuit of Fig. 27.28 the d.c. diode load consists of Rl and R z in series, Rl
being used in conjunction with capacitors GI and G2 to form a filter to prevent the
major part of the undesired i-f voltages from appearing across R 2 • The volume
control is R2 in this circuit, and the advantages and disadvantages of using the control
in this position were discussed in Sect. 1(i)Dc above. At audio frequencies R2 is
shunted by R, and by Ra when the setting for R2 is at the maximum. It follows that
the diode load for a.c. is considerably different from that for d.c., and, as previously
discussed in Sect. lei), considerable non-linear distortion of the a-f output will result
when the modulation percentage is high. R4 and G4 will substantially remove all
audio frequency variations from the a.v.c. bias applied to the controlled stages, as well
as any residual i-f voltages which may be present across R 2 •
Fig. 27.28 shows R4 connected to the junction of Rl and R 2 , but in some cases R4
is connected to the top of R I • This latter arrangement will give a slightly higher
a.v.c. voltage, the amount depending on the size of Ru but the amount of i-f filtering
for the controlled stages is reduced. With the usual component values it is not very
important which arrangement is used.
Owing to the effects of contact potential in the diode, together with rectification
due to unavoidable noise voltages, there is a voltage developed across R2 even with
no carrier input. Even with a weak carrier input this voltage is increased. Conse-
quently it will be seen that with the weakest carrier likely to be received there is an
appreciable negative voltage applied to the controlled grids. If no means were taken
to compensate for this, the overall sensitivity of the receiver would be decreased.
Compensation for the initial standing bias, before a carrier is received, can be carried
out by applying a lower minimum negative bias to the controlled stages. However,
a very real disadvantage of simple a.v.c. is now apparent in that the sensitivity of the
receiver may decrease as soon as a carrier is received. To overcome the loss in sensi-
tivity on weak signals a delayed a.v.c. system is used and this gives very much improved
control.
A special case of the effects of contact potential with zero bias valves is worth noting
before leaving this section. Suppose a negative bias voltage exists between the grids
and cathodes of the controlled valves due to positive grid current. This current can
be sufficiently large to cause an appreciable negative bias voltage to appear across the
resistance common to the controlled stages and the detector, and so give rise to a
negative bias voltage between plate and cathode of the diode. Under this condition,
if simple a.v.c. is being used, there will be no output from the receiver until the signal
is sufficiently large to overcome this delay bias on the detector. If a separate diode is
used for a.v.c. the effect will be to increase the delay bias. Typical examples of the
effect have occurred in practice with type IPS-GT voltage amplifiers used in con-
junction with the diode section of a type IHS-GT. An obvious remedy is to apply a
small positive bias voltage to the diode plate, but the grid current can often be ap-
preciably reduced by increasing the screen voltage.
carrier strength reaches a pre-determined level. The result is that no a.v.c. voltage
is applied to the grids of the controlled stages until a certain carrier strength is reached,
and the receiver will have its maximum sensitivity for signals with an amplitude below
this pre-determined level.
The circuit used for delayed a.v.c. also makes possible improved rectification
efficiency in the a.v.c. circuit, thus producing slightly greater a.v.c. voltage for the
same peak diode voltage. This is due to the higher value ofa.v.c. diode load resistance
(R 7 in Fig. 27.29) permissible in this circuit. With the a.v.c. arrangement shown the
a.C. loading on the detector circuit is reduced when compared with the arrangement of
Fig. 27.28 and this reduces the distortion of the audio output voltage. Some non-
linear distortion of the modulation envelope does occur at the primary of the trans-
former but this is considerably less than that introduced when the a.v.c. voltage is
oBtained from the secondary circuit. In addition, the overall selectivity up to the
primary of the i-f transformer is less than that at the secondary, and the a.v.c. will
start to operate further from the carrier frequency than if fed from the secondary.
The advantage here is that the tendency to give shrill reproduction is reduced as the
receiver is detuned from a carrier.
g~
~Ot"
J t-ll-'~
TO B+
CONTROLLED
GRIDS
+C 4
R7~
FIG. 27.29 -Eo
Differential distortion, caused by variable damping of the a.v.c. diode input circuit,
is frequently mentioned as an inherent disadvantage of delayed a_v.c. because of the
distortion which is introduced when the diode bias line cuts the modulation envelope.
Careful measurements have shown that the additional distortion occurring just as
the a.v.c. diode starts to conduct is quite small provided that the delay voltage is
small and the average depth of modulation is not large (say 50% or so). With a delay
voltage (ED' Fig. 27.29) of 3 volts the total harmonic distortion was found to increase
from an average level of about 2.5% to a peak of 4%. Not only is the amount of
distortion fairly smail, with the usual depth of modulation, but it only occurs over a
limited range of input signals, which, with a small delay voltage such as 3 volts or
less, occurs at such weak signal strengths as to be relatively unimportant. However
with 100% modulation this type of distortion will always occur. Of course, when the
input voltage is too small for the a.v.c. diode to condu~ there is no distortion. From
the evidence available, it appears that the effect of differential distortion is a com-
paratively minor one when the circuit is correctly designed, and a small delay voltage
is used. Detailed discussion of the distortion produced by delayed a.v.c. can be
found in Refs. 44 (p. 189) and 46.
If it is desired to apply full a.v.c. voltage to certain controlled stages and a fractional
part only to another stage, this may be done by tapping R7 at a suitable point and by
adding a filter circuit similar to that made up from R4 and C 4 •
Staggering* of the a.v.c. is sometimes advantageous, as a considerable improvement
in signal-to-noise ratio is often possible by controlling mainly the i-f amplifier valves.
*By staggering of the a. v .c. is meant the application of different values of a.v.c. voltage to various stages.
1108 (iii) DELAYED A.V.C. 27.3
However, in some cases this leads to difficulties with cross modulation. When cross
modulation is a serious problem it is preferable to control the r-f amplifier valves
fully. Often no great care is taken with broadcast receivers in the method of applying
a.v.c. With high quality communications receivers precautions are necessary, and
it is helpful if the r-f and i-f valves to be controlled by a.v.c. can be selected by the
operator. In this way optimum performance can be obtained under all conditions.
The usual arrangement, however, is to design an a.v.c. system with compromise
characteristics and fit manual switching for the selection of suitable time constants.
The signal-to-noise ratio of the receiver should be measured when the a.v.c. charac-
teristic is being determined, to ensure that the performance of the receiver is not
seriously impaired when the signal input voltage is increased. Cross modulation
tests are also necessary when the receiver performance is being determined. Further
discussion of these problems can be found in Ref. 43 (pages 169 and 179). A dual
a.v.c. system which has interesting possibilities is described in Ref. 50. Further dis-
cussion on a.v.c. and noise is given in Chapter 35 Sect. 3(i).
When a duo-diode triode (or pentode) valve is used with cathode bias, the vallie of
the bias is usually between 2 and 3 volts. Such a voltage is suitable for use as a.v.c.
delay bias; a very simple arrangement is possible by returning R7 to earth as shown
in Fig. 27.34. Alteration of the delay bias because of the presence of contact potentials
must be considered, and this effect has already been discussed in (ii) above.
A circuit which eliminates differential distortion, even with large delay voltages
and high modulation levels, is shown in Fig. 27.38B. Signal detection and a.v.c.
detection are carried out as before, but a diode, D a, and the three resistors R s, Rg
and R lO are also used. Rs and R lO form a voltage divider from B+ to ground, the
junction of these resistors and Rs having a potential of, say, +50 volts. Typical
values for R4 and Rs could be 1 megohm and 5 megohms respectively, and it will be
seen that R4 and Rs form a voltage divider between +50 volts and the source of
a.v.c. potential.
The operation of the circuit can be explained most simply if the diode D3 is ignored
initially. Under these conditions, with no signal input to the receiver, point X will
be practically at ground potential since there will be no i-f input to the diode D2 and
the voltage at Y will be approximately
R4
+ 50 X R4 + Rs = + 8-1/3 volts.
Now as an increasing signal is applied to the input of the receiver, the available a.v.c.
voltage at X will increase, and when this voltage reaches -10 volts, the potential across
the voltage divider R4RS will be 50 - (-10) volts, and the potential at Y will be
R4
-10 + (50 + 10) - - , - - - = 0 volts.
R4 I Rs
A still larger voltage of -40 volts at X will give at Y
R4
-40 + (50 + 40) R4 + -R = -25 volts
s
Thus in the absence of the diode D a, point Y would have a potential with respect
to ground which was positive in the absence of a signal and became less positive, zero
and then more negative progressively as the signal input increased.
However the diode D3 modifies this voltage variation by conducting whenever
point Y tends to become positive. The result is that under no signal and small signal
conditions point Y, from which a.v.c. is applied, is substantially at ground potential
but as the signal input increases above some critical value, Y becomes progressively
more negative. Thus the requirements of delayed a.v.c. have been met, although
the loading of the diode D2 on the primary tuned circuit is near enough to being con-
stant whether a.V.c. is being applied or not.
After the delay has been overcome, the increase in negative potential at Y is not so
rapid as the increase at X, the ratio being the same as that ofthe voltage divider formed
27.3 (iii) DELAYED A.V.C. 1109
by R4 and R g • However by using a large value of resistance for Rs and a high positive
voltage the ratio can be made as close to unity as required by any practical considera-
tions.
The cost of the resistors R9 and RIO can often be avoided by using a source such
as the screen of a valve which has no a.v.c. applied, or a voltage divider used for some
other purpose, for the positive potential. To save the cost of a valve having an ad-
ditional diode for D3 it is quite possible to use the signal diode Dl as the source of
a.v.c. voltages, and D2 as the" sinking" diode. Alternatively Dl and D2 can be used
as in Fig. 27.38B and the suppressor grid of say the i-f amplifier can be used as D 3 ,
although in this case with no signal applied the a.v.c. line will take up the potential
of the cathode of the i-f valve.
This method of providing delay either to the first stages or to all controlled stages
of a receiver is of course equally applicable whether manual or automatic volume
control is used
~----------~~----------~---..~ ~
FIG. 27.30
(a) Series feed
One arrangement of series feed is shown in Fig. 27.30. It will be seen that in
each r-f tuned circuit a blocking capacitor (Cs, C 6 ) is used so that the rotor of the
ganged tuning capacitors may be ~arthed and the a.v.c. voltage fed to the lower ends
of the coils. In the r-f stages the use of this blocking capacitor will reduce the fre-
quency coverage, and may also affect the tracking of the tuned circuits. To reduce
these effects the same capacitance value should be used in each of the I-f stages, and the
value selected should be fairly large consistent with other considerations. Also, if the
capacitors are not to affect the Q of the tuned circuits adversely, they must be of a
low loss type. A disadvantage of a high capacitance is that it increases the time con-
stant of the a.v.c. circuit.
For typical cases C5 and C s would be about 0.05 p.F if the maximum capacitance
of the tuning capacitor is about 400 p.p.F. The effect on J:he tuning range is easily
1110 (iv) METHODS OF FEED 27.3
'--FI-=G-.-:-27=-.-=-3-:-1--------------<l>--~_TO R4
With the r .f. stages an alternative arrangement is to insulate the rotor of the ganged
capacitors, and to by-pass it to earth by a single capacitor (GG' Fig. 27.31). This
enables the a.v.c. voltage to be applied without using any blocking capacitors in the
r-f tuned circuits, and has the further advantage that the time constant of the a.v.c.
,.;1 circuit may be made small. The arrangement also has obvious disadvantages and is
little used.
(b) Parallel feed
The" parallel (or shunt) feed" circuit is shown in Fig. 27.32. In this arrangement
a blocking capacitor is necessary to prevent a low resistance d.c. path being formed
from grid to earth by the tuning inductor. The resistors R s , R9 and R 10 provide part
of the d.c. path from the valve grids back to the cathodes. Since the individual resis-
tors are shunted across their corresponding tuned circuits, the values selected must not
be too low as otherwise appreciable damping occurs. A 0.5 megohm resistance in
parallel with a typical r-f tuned circuit generally is not serious, but could appreciably
reduce the dynamic resistance of an i-f circuit. For these reasons" parallel feed"
is sometimes used with r-f stages, but it is seldom applied to i-f stages, and receivers
are often designed to use both systems of a.v.c. feed.
FIG. 27.32
" Parallel feed" for the r-f stages is sometimes more convenient than " series feed,"
and appears to be satisfactory in most respects, although it has been found that grid
blocking is more likely to occur with " parallel feed" than with " series feed."
With any method of feed it is important that the total resistance in the grid circuit
should not exceed the maximum for which the valves are rated. Depending on the
characteristics of the particular valve type and the effects on electrode dissipations
and total cathode current, as determined by equation (6) on page 82, the
following maximum values of grid resistor may be used as a general guide.
For one controlled stage 3 megohms
For two controlled stages 2.5 megohms
For three controlled stages 2 megohms
27.3 (iv) METHODS OF FEED llll
These resistances are to be measured between the grid of any valve and its cathode.
The values above assume that the receiver is normally tuned to a station and that
the controlled valve or valves are operating at reduced cathode currents and trans-
conductance, as determined by the a.v.c. bias.
The circuit values shown are typical for an intermediate frequency of 455 Kc/s.
An a.v.c. resistor of 1.25 megohms is used so that the total resistance to earth from
any grid does not exceed 2 megohms. If there were only two controlled stages this
could be increased to about 1.75 megohms with a consequent decrease in the a.c.
shunting.
A typical delayed a.v.c. circuit is shown in Figs. 27.34. Cathode biasing is used
for the pentode section of the duo-diode pentode valve, and since the bias will usually
be about two or three volts this also provides a suitable a.v.c. delay voltage without
any further complication. With circuits using delay voltages on the a.v.c. diode the
bias due to automatic volume control on the controlled valves is zero until the peak
voltage on the diode exceeds the delay voltage. The controlled stages are arranged
to have a self-bias voltage equal to the recommended minimum grid-bias voltage.
See also Fig. 27.43 and the description given in Sect. 4(ii) later in this chapter.
(viii) Audio a.v.c.
Audio a.v.c. is sometimes used in radio receivers in conjunction with a.v.c. applied
to the r-f and i-f stages to flatten out the overall a.v.c. characteristic. Whole or part
of the a.v.c. bias voltage is applied to an audio frequency voltage amplifier valve
having a grid with a variable-mu characteristic.
It should be clear that conventional a.v.c. systems cannot give a perfectly constant
a-f output with a varying input voltage, because conventional a.v.c. is a " back';'acting "
device in which the effect on the controlled stages must follow the change occurring
at a later stage in the receiver. Audio a.v.c. is "forward-acting» and so a constant
or even a drooping characteristic is possible for increasing signal input voltages.
Simple audio a.v.c. systems tend to introduce a considerable amount of non-linear
distortion into the audio outPut voltage when the signal input voltage is large. This
is due to the curvature of the g m - eg characteristic of the controlled valve.
The amount of distortion can be reduced to negligible proportions by the use of
elaborate circuits, but as these systems generally require an additional a-f amplifier
valve they are not used to any extent in commercial radio receiver$.
If it is decided that audio a.v.c. is desirable; the usual procedure is to obtain the
best possible a.v.c. characteristic, apart from the a-f amplifier, and then to add just
+2or-~~~m-~~~~--~~~r~L-rTnTm--~-n~~~~~m
~~++~~-+-rt*~--~~I,~I'-+-rH+~--~~Hffr-~rr~~
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o , I'5
I
8-3 0015
Y II I III1111I I lJiJ
+20dbl-+-++i-i-H#---+--f:/~I+tili;jojO'I""'-==+-~C,- AUDIO A.V.C. DELAYa-3V H-Ittb:...l-ooH'=t-'t+tti
Ii: ,/'. ...... ' ·-i...,:.,.,rrr---- ....~ ----,.. 'i - '1
!' /L....... II 'I I I I
ilL!-
i. I
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6 .... -: I ';'-1-l-~-""'~""IIf:......1++i'1-~H-\+H-\I-+++Htl-tt-++tiitffi---tTttt>-tt\
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-IOdb - -
'
-H r-- --1--N',w.
r r--i #--+--+++t
-20db l - 1 - - t
: II ~ ~ LW--I+lI----j-++H+++f-+-++++++tI--+-t-t-I-Vt1
,.;..-.. '"""
- Jl
IcS
1·0 '0 10' 10· 10'
INPUT - MICROVOLTS
FIG. 27.37
enough a.v.c. bias voltage to the a-f amplifier to give the required overall results.
The improvement in the overall a.v.c. characteristics, when audio a.v.c. is used, can
be seen from Figs. 27.36 and 27.37.
An example of combined a.v.c. occurs in receivers using a reflexed voltage amplifier
stage (see Chapter 28). In this case the a.v.c. bias voltage applied to the valve control
grid is effective in controlling both the i-f and a-f gain, and if properly used the system
can be made to assist very materially in obtaining good a.v.c. characteristics from a
receiver having only one other controlled stage, namely the converter stage in the usual
receiver. Another example of a circuit using audio a.v.c. is shown in Fig. 27.45.
a.v.c. and its return is taken to filament negative. The diode at the negative end of
the filament is used for detection and its return is taken to filament positive.
It sometimes happens that the filaments of battery valves are operated in series or
series-parallel arrangements. Under these conditions it becomes more difficult to
design an efficient a.v.c. system than when parallel filament operation is used. In
the usual type of a.v.c. circuit the grid returns from the several controlled stages are
brought to a common point, and the zero signal grid voltage on these stages is the same.
With series or sedes-parallel operation, however, the filament voltages differ with
the result that the zero signal bias on one or more stages may differ from zero by a
multiple of the filament voltage. Circuit arrangements which allow the bias on the
grids to be zero for no signal input generally allow only a reduced proportion of the
a.v.c. voltage developed by the diode to be applied to some of the controlled stages;
full av.c. bias can only be applied to one or two stages in most cases. Fig. 27.38A
shows a typical circuit arrangement for the case where the filaments are connected
in series and operated from the H.T. supply. The a.v.c. voltage divider is made up
from the resistors R g, R 9 , RIo and Ru. A value of about 2 megohms is usual for
RIo while Ru is made about 2 megohms per 1.3 volt drop, in the case of 1.4 volt valves
(which are operated with 1.3 volts as a recommended value for the series filament
connection). In the circuit shown a higher proportion of the a.v.c. control voltage is
applied to valve V 2 than to valve Vs. The purpose of the resistors R" R 2, R s, R4
and R" is to allow the correct filament voltage to be applied to each of the valves, since
it should be obvious that the valve VI' at the negative end of the chain, carries the
total cathode current for all the valves, and each of the other valves carries the cathode
currents for all the other valves which are nearer to the positive end of the chain than
the valve being considered. This statement is modified when Rr. is used. because
this provides an alternative path for the cathode currents. From this it follows that
no shunting resistor is required for V"
(IQS-GT) (IH5-GT)
~across the a,v.C. diode load from being applied back to the grids of the controlled stages.
If r-f or i-f voltages are applied back to the grids then instability troubles are certain
to arise. A-F applied to the grids can lead to a reduction in the percentage of modu-
lation present on the carrier. Inter-stage filtering is also necessary because undesired
coupling can lead to instability and spurious whistle responses. From this it can be
seen that the prime function of the filter circuits is to allow only the d.c. voltage de-
veloped across the diode load to be applied as additional bias on the controlled valves.
The components making up the filter also serve the necessary function of completing
the r-f and i-f circuits through low impedance paths and, furthermore, the resistors
serve to complete the d.c. return path between grid and cathode of each controlled
valve SO that the correct negative bias voltage can be applied.
It is not permissible to choose values of resistance and capacitance at random if
satisfactory circuit operation is to be obtained. Several conflicting factors must be
considered when the component values are being selected, The time constant (de-
fined below) of the filter network, must be low enough so that the a.v.c. bias voltage
can follow the changes in signal input voltage with sufficient rapidity to offset the
effects of fading. Limiting values for the total circuit resistance have been stated in
(iv) above, and the choice of suitable values for R and C will be discussed as we pro-
ceed, but first the expression "time constant" will be defined.
The" time constant" of a resistance-capacitance network is the time in seconds
required for the capacitor to acquire sufficient charge for the voltage between its plates
to be equal to 63.2% of the total voltage applied to the circuit. Alternatively, it is
the time taken for a charged capacitor to lose sufficient charge for the voltage across
its plates to fall to 36.8% of the initial voltage existing between the plates in the fully
charged condition. It is a simple matter to show that, for the conditions stated, the
time constant (T) is given by
T RC seconds
where R = circuit resistance in ohms
and C = circuit capacitance in farads.
(It is usually more convenient to write
T = resistance in megohms x capacitance in microfarads = seconds).
If the total resistance in the circuit is altered in any way from its value during the
charging operation to a different value during the discharge of the capacitor, then it is
helpful to use the terms" charge time constant" and " discharge time constant.'"
In a.v.c. circuits there is always a difference between the charge and discharge time
constants, because during charge the diode is conducting and its conduction resistance
effectively short-circuits the d.c. diode load resistor. This also means that the " charge
time constant" is always more rapid than the " discharge time constant" in these
circuits.
Suitable values for " charge time constants " are
Broadcast good fidelity receivers 0.25 to 0.5 second
Broadcast receivers 0.1 to 0.3 second
Dual wave or multi-band receivers 0.1 to 0.2 second
For the reception of telegraphy longer time constants are often required to ensure
silence between signals, and a value of about 1 second is often used. In any good
quality communications receiver it is usual to provide facilities for selecting anyone
of a number of a.v.c. time constants. This enables the operator to select the most
suitable condition to offset the particular type of fading being encountered. Too
rapid a time constant is not selected for high quality broadcast reception as rapid
fading would cause bass-frequency anti-modulation and so reduce the audio frequency
bass response. See also Chapter 35 Sect. 3(i)B2, page 1233.
In broadcast receivers the charge and discharge time constants are often very nearly
equal, However, for some types of reception it may be preferable for the charge time
constant to be rapid to prevent the beginning of a signal from being unduly loud,
but the discharge time constant is made comparatively slow to prevent a rapid rise
in noise output during intervals between signals (see also Ref. 43, p. 181).
27.3 (xii) THE A.V.C. FILTER AND ITS TIME CONSTANTS 1117
The procedure for calculating charge and discharge time constants is as follows.
Consider Fig. 27.30 in conjunction with Fig. 27.28, then
For 2 stages
Charge time constant =
R I (C 2 + C" + C 5 ) + R 4(C 4 + Cs) + RsCs
Discharge time constant =
Co(Rs + R~ + R 2 ) + CiR 4 + R 2 ) + CI(R I + R z) + CzR z.
These follow readily when it is considered that the diode is conducting during
charge, and RI ~ R z ; the diode is non-conducting during discharge.
For 3 stages
• Charge time constant =
R I (C 2 + C 4 + C s + C s) + RiC4 + C s + C 6 ) + R"C5 + R S C 6 •
Discharge time constant =
CS (R 6 + R4 + R 2 ) + C 5 (R 5 + R4 + R 2 ) + C 4 (R 4 + R 2 ) + CI(R I + R 2 ) + C 2R 2 •
If the circuit of Fig. 27.28 were considered alone the charge time constant would be
R I (C 2 + C 4 ) + R 4 C 4 (assuming R'l. ~ R I ), and the discharge time constant
CI(R I + R 2 ) + C 2R 2 + CiR 4 + R 2 ). The way in which the total time constant
is built up for the more complicated cases will be readily seen, and the addition of
extra controlled stages should offer little difficulty when the new time constants are
to be determined.
For a more detailed discussion of time constants in a.v.c. circuits the reader is
referred particularly to Ref. 47.
Fig. 27.36 shows several a.v.c. curves, each corresponding to a particular condition.
In taking these curves two separate diodes were used to maintain constant transformer
loading and other conditions. Contact potential in the diode results in a slight in-
crease in the standing bias voltage on the controlled stages; this effect has been dis-
cussed in (ii) above.
Curve A is the " no control" characteristic and is the curve which would be fol-
lowed, with the a.v.c. removed from the receiver, up to the point at which overloading
commences. This characteristic is a straight line and the slope is such that an increase
of ten times in the input voltage gives a 20 db increase in output.
Curve B is the a.v.c. characteristic for a delay of -9 volts. For inputs of 3 to
18 /LV the experimental curve follows the no control line exactly, and then deviates
sharply for inputs above 18 /LV. From 18 to 500000 /LV the slope of the curve is
fairly constant, the output increasing by about 3.25 db for each 10 times increase in
the input voltage. Above 500000 /LV (i.e. 0.5 V) input the curve tends sharply up-
ward, indicating severe modulation rise.
Curve C is the a.v.c. characteristic for a delay of -3 volts. The a.v.c. comes into
operation at a lower input voltage, as would be expected, and the average slope is
steeper than for the higher delay voltage. In both cases, however, the " knee" of
the curve as it leaves the no control line is very clearly defined.
Curve D is the a.v.c. characteristic for a delay of zero voltage, with due compensa-
tion for the effect of contact potential on the standing bias of the controlled valves.
Curve E is typical of the characteristics obtained when audio a.v.c. is added to a
receiver. Over the range of inputs from 100 to 500000 /LV the total rise in output
is only 3 db.
Curve B has been drawn according to the conventional method whereby the output
is adjusted to half the maximum undistorted output of the receiver for an input signal
of 1 volt. Curves C and D were then taken directly, without any further adjustment
to the volume control. Owing to a slight effect on the gain of the receiver when the
delay voltage is varied, Curves C and D fall slightly below the datum line at an input
of 1 volt. Curve E has been drawn to correspond to Curve C, since both have the
same delay voltage. The volume control, however, was advanced considerably for
Curve E. It should be noted that no conclusions should be drawn from the relative
vertical positions of a.v.c. characteristics drawn according to the conventional method
since the volume control settings are unknown.
3. The power output corresponding to any selected input voltage and any position
of the volume control may be obtained. For example, with a delay of -3 volts
(curve Bl) the delay voltage is overcome at an output level of slightly less than 2 watts
with the volume control set at maximum. As a further example (again assuming
400 cis and 30% modulation) take the same curve at an input of 1000 fLV, where the
output is shown as approximately 10 watts with the volume control at maximum.
The setting of the volume control to give 4 watts output and using 100% modulation
instead of 30 % is
V(30jl00) 2 x (4/10) = 0.11
of the maximum resistance of the control. The actual amount of rotation will depend
on whether the volume control resistance is related to rotation by a linear or a logarith-
mic law.
4. The voltage at the detector may be calculated from a knowledge of the a-f gain
and the detection efficiency. The a.v.c. bias voltage can also be determined in-
directly by calculation from the data obtained.
5. The slope of the initial part of the curve can show up an under-biased valve in
the receiver. Cheap receivers frequently use a common source of bias for two or
more valves, and under these conditions it can happen that one of the valves has too
little bias and gives less than its maximum gain when there is no signal input to the
receiver. As the input is increased, a.v.c. is applied to each controlled valve and this
gives a comparatively rapid increase in gain from the under-biased valve. Such an
increase shows up as an early section of the a.v.c. curve with a slope more vertical
than it would otherwise be-usually with a slope in excess of 6 db per octave-and
with a noticeable bend towards the horizontal at the point at which the valve receives
the bias required for maximum sensitivity.
To operate a valve under these conditions is of course undesirable, and in use the
receiver will emphasize the fading of any signals which fade through the range of
signal inputs over which the effect operates.
6. The signal-to-noise ratio for any input can be read directly from the graph, as
mentioned previously. In addition, the increments of signal-to-noise ratio with
increasing input can be checked. An ideal receiver would give a 20 db improvement
of signal-to-noise ratio for each 20 db increase in input, and it is possible for a normal
receiver to approach this value, at least over the first decades of the a.v.c. graph.
Any significant departure from the ideal can usually be traced to the application of
a.v.c. to the first valve in the receiver [see Chapter 35 Sect. 3(i)] and care should be
taken to keep the signal-to-noise ratio improving as rapidly as possible until it has
reached a value of at least 45 db.
Scroggie's method makes possible the measurement of ratios as great as this, or
much greater, because although one reading, the power output, may be beyond the
range of the output meter used, the volume control of the receiver is in effect used as
a multiplier.
7. The noise curve of the receiver might be expected to decrease indefinitely with
increasing a.v.c. voltage, but there are two reasons why it may not do so. The first is
that although the object of the test is to measure the signal-to-noise ratio of the re-
ceiver, in practice the signal-to-noise ratio of both the signal generator and the re-
ceiver are being measured. A 50 db ratio between 30% modulation and residual
noise with no modulation is a representative figure for a signal generator of reasonable
quality, and it is generator noise which causes the noise curve in Fig. 27.37 to become
approximately horizontal shortly after 1000 f-LV input.
The second reason for the noise curve not decreasing indefinitely is that in most
receivers in which power supply filtering has been kept to a minimum, for reasons
of economy, there is some modulation hum with high inputs. This hum shows up
as an increase in the level of the noise curve, and by plotting the curve over the full
range of inputs expected to be applied to the receiver the designer can assure himself
that the level of modulation hum does not become objectionable. An increase in
modulation hum can be seen in Fig. 27.37 as the input approaches I volt.
1120 (xiv) IMPROVED FORM OF A.V.C. CHARACTERISTIC 27.3
The a.v.c. characteristics in Fig. 27.37 can be taken as typical of curves taken by
this method. BI and B2 show the signal and noise curves respectively for a 5 valve
receiver without audio a.v.c. and C I and C 2 show the results for the same receiver
with audio a.v.c. It will be seen that the delay is overcome at about 15 JLV input
and that at say 0.1 volt input there is 8! db of audio control by the a.v.c. The noise
ratio (BI - B 2) should be identical with the ratio (C I - C 2 ) since the only difference
between the B curve and the C curves is that due to modified audio gain. Thus
the curve C 2 would become approximately horizontal at 2000 JLV input and at - 25 db.
This method enables greater accuracy to be obtained for very small input signals
since the power output reading will be well up on the scale of a typical output meter.
With the conventional method the output is too small to measure accurately with a
standard type of output meter.
At extremely low input voltage levels the noise fluctuations make accurate output
measurements very difficult to carry out.
bias required if the detector output voltage is not to change by more than 6 db for a
change in signal input to the aerial stage of 50 db.
Assume first that the a.v.c. and signal detectors are linear, that equal signal voltages
are applied to the detector and a.v.c. diodes, and that the detection efficiency (1]) is
unity. Since stage gain varies with change in mutual conductance (g m) it can be taken,
with typical voltage amplifier valves, that the gain alters by about 1.5 db for each ad-
ditional volt of negative grid bias (this can be determined with greater accuracy from
similar methods to those given later). Since there are three controlled stages using
similar valves, the total gain decrease is 4.5 db per volt of bias. (Suppose similar
valves are not used, one valve giving a gain change of 2 db per volt of bias and two
others giving 1.5 db per volt, then obviously 1 volt of a.v.c. bias change alters the re-
ceiver gain by 5 db).
The total decrease in receiver gain which is required equals 50-6 = 44 db. To
achieve this the additional a.v.c. bias needed is 44/4.5 = 9.8 volts. That this is also
equal to the delay bias required for the stated conditions, can be appreciated because,
at the threshold of a.v.c. operation, the voltage on the detector diode will be 9.8 volts
peak, and for a further 9.8 volts (peak) increase in signal input the total voltage applied
to the detector is 19.6 volts giving an increase in a.,-f output voltage of 6 db. The
effect of 19.6 volts (peak) signal applied to the a;v.c. diode is to produce the required
9.8 volts d.c, bias since half the peak input voltage is required to overcome the delay
voltage.
To illustrate a further point, suppose it had been taken that an 80 db input change
should only give 6 db output voltage change. Then the delay bias required would be
(80-6)/4.5 = 16.4 volts. This also means that the stage preceding the detector
must deliver 32,8 volts peak when the c~rrier is const~llt. During modulation of the
carrier the peak voltage delivered by the last i-f stage caJ;l reach 65.6 volts, and if
distortion is to be avoided the valve preceding the detector must be capable of de-
livering this amount of output voltage when the total bias is 16.4 volts plus the stand-
ing bias. Whether this is possible can be determined from curves of the signal
handling capability of the valve in question, or by direct measurements using a mod-
u1ated carrier. It will be found, usually, that the maximum output voltage which can
be handled without severe distortion is very much reduced when the grid bias voltage
is large. This then sugge~ts that reducing the a.v.c. bias on the last i-f amplifier
valve will allow the permissible plate voltage swing to be increased. Reducing the
bias voltage also results in the stage gain being increased, and so the same a.v.c. bias
voltage is produced with a smaller signal input voltage. However, the amount of
total control is reduced, and so partial or zero a.v.c. bias on the last i-f valve is not
necessarily a satisfactory solution in every case.
It should be observed that the last i-f stage is not necessarily the one in which over-
loading will occur first. In Chapter 26, when discussing the crystal filter stage,
it was pointed out that the grid to plate gain of the valve preceding the filter was very
high with the arrangement shown. Suppose the grid to plate gain of the first valve
is 400 times, but the gain from the grid of the first to the grid of the second valve
(into which the filter feeds) is 5 times, then if the grid to plate gain of the second valve
is less than 80 times it becomes immediately apparent that the first i-f valve will be
'«
overloaded before the second one. Extreme cases this type are not likely to occur..
but they present possibilities which shou1d not be overlooked.
(2) A detailed design for a single controlled stage is to be carried out from valve
data. Simple a.v.c. is to be used.
The valve type selected for this example is the 6SK7 remote cut-off pentode.
The average characteristics are shown in Fig. 27.39. The standing bias is -3 volts
and the mutual conductance (g m) for this condition is 2000 micromhos. For a
total grid bias of -35 volts the g m is 10 micromhos. If cathode bias were used some
additional error would be introduced, although this is usually neglected.
The first step is to convert the g m - E g curve of Fig. 27.39 to a curve showing the
change in gain of the controlled stage with variation in grid bias. The actual value
of stage gain' is not required since it is assumed to be directly proportional to g M'
1122 (xv) DESIGN METHODS 27.3
The change in g in is expressed in decibels, taking as the reference level (0 db) the
value of g m for maximum gain, i.e. the g m with only the standing bias ( -3 V) applied
to the grid. In this case the g m used for zero reference level is 2000 micromhos.
Then using
gm(E tl = -3 V) 2000
Change in gain (db) = -20 10glO _.- -- = -2010g1o- -
gm gm
the following values are obtained (the values for g m are taken from Fig. 27.39).
III 2500
1 I a:a.
III
III
Total Grid
Bias*
Change in
Gain (db)
gm
-
Ef-6·3VOLTS
SUPPRESSO~ VOLTS-O
~
<
j
I
PLATE VOLTS - 250 -3 2000 0
i
~
SCREEN VOLTS.-IOO
-4 I 1750 - 1.15
-5 1438 - 2.86
~ 2000
u fJ'I
-6 I 1200 - 4.44
0
III
0: 1: -7 925 - 6.69
~
C
~II: -8 700 - 9.13
U -9 520 -11.7
i -10 I 383 -14.4 I
--12.5 225 -19
9m tl -23.2
- I 5 1500 -15 138
z
~ -17.5 90 -26.9
u::)
Ib o
-20 70 -29.1
z -22.5 50 -32
o
~ -25 40 --34
-27.5 30 -36.5
....~ -38
I01000
-30 25
-32.5 18 -41
-35 10 -46
*= - (3 + a.v.c. bias).
These results are plotted in Fig. 27.40 as
II 5 500 curve 1. It might be noted that the aver-
I age slope is 1.4 to 1.5 db per volt.
j I
It is next required to determine the
amount of a.v.c. bias voltage developed by
IV fezl
the diode circuit, for various input voltages
~ )' applied to the diode. In a typical case the
-
-so -40 -30 -20 -10
~ ~ ~ -I
CONTROL-GRID VOLTS
0
0
0
d.c. diode load resistance would be 1 meg-
ohm, and the d.c. voltage developed for
various signal input voltages can be taken
fiG. 'n.39 6SK7 Mutual Chor«rcristiCJ
directly from Fig. 27.6. The developed
d.c. voltages are tabulated in column (2) below against r.m.s. signal (Erma) applied
to the diode.
2 2.2 - 5.2 0
5 6.2 - 9.2 8
8 9.1 -12.1 12
10 -U.8 -14.8 14
15 -17.8 -20.8 17.5
20 -23.9 -26.9 20
30 -35.6 -38.6 23.5
27.3 (xv) DESIGN METHODS 1123
o
f
.,..
.E 20 30 .:
f
u
c:
o
.c:
U
:: 10 -40::
®
50
-30 -20 -10 o
Total Grid Bios Voltage
Curves of <DVariation in Stage Gain and
® Diode Input with Changing
FIG. 27.40 Grid Bios
It is now necessary to relate the total bias (a.v.c. + standing bias) to the change
in diode input voltage; the change is conveniently expressed in decibels. Any signal
voltage applied to the diode may be taken as zero reference level (0 db), and in our
case Erms = 2 volts will be convenient. Then the change in diode input voltage is
given by,
db change in diode input = 20 loglo E
rms
(fi
or tot
~m~.las =
-5.2 V)
E rms
= 20 loglo 2--
The results are tabulated in column (4) of the table given above, and the total bias
versus diode signal input change is plotted as curve (2) in Fig. 27.40.
Finally, it is required to find the way in which the output changes with changes in
signal input to the amplifier. If we assume various values for the change in signal
voltage applied to the diode, it is a simple matter to determine the total grid bias, and
from this the change in stage gain, by using curves (2) and (1) Fig. 27.40. Also from
the curves, it is seen that, with zero change in diode input (0 db), the_ amplifier stage
gain is 3 db down on the maximum possible gain. (This is because we selected
E rms = 2 volts as being the zero reference level). .If now we assume, say, 2 db change
in diode input, the actual change in stage gain is -4.3 - ( - 3) = -1.3 db. Because
voltage input applied to the diode has increased 2 db, and the amplifier stage gain has
decreased 1.3 db, it follows that the signal voltage applied to the amplifier grid must
have increased 2 + 1.3 = 3.3 db.
The direct output voltage change across the detector load, for 3.3 db change in sig-
nalinput, is from -2.2-volts to -2.9 (i.e. from curve (1), Fig. 27.40, the total bias vol-
tage change is from -5.2 to -5.9 volts, which correspond respectively to -2.2 volts
and -2.9 volts across the diode load, when the standing bias is -3 volts). Ex-
pressing the direct output voltage change in decibels, we have
a.v.c. bias
Output change (db) = 20log1o b' fi E
a.v.c. las or rms-
- 2 V
a.v.c. hias
= 20 loglo -2.2
1124 (xv) DESIGN METHODS 27.3
From this we have for 3.3 db change in signal input voltage (2 db change in diode
input) a corresponding output change of 2.4 db. The complete a.v.c. characteristic
is tabulated below and plotted in Fig. 27.41.
0 - 2.2 0 0
2 2.9 3.3 2.4
4 3.5 6.5 4.0
6 4.5 10.6 6.2
8 6 16.8 8.7
10 7.5 22 10.6
12 9.1 27.2 12.3
14 -11.8 33.9 14.6
16 -15 40 16.7
18 -18.5 46 18.5
20 -23.9 52.8 20.7
22 -29.5 60 22.5
22.8 -32 65.8 23.2
.....
j
U
...
A
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
db Change In Si9nol Input (falculaftd for M,lnlmwa
FIG. 27.41 Diode Inp~ E."s _2Volts)
Fig. 27.41. Calculated a.'D.c. characteristic/ora single controlled stage using type 6SK7.
The a.v.c. characteristic for diode input voltages smaller than E rfru = 2 volts can
be readily plotted, but as the useful range of signal input voitages, where control is
mairJy required, is usually greater than this value in a reasonabl)F sensitive receiver
(and because of the limitations of the diode curves) this value has been taken as afford-
ing a satisfactory example.
27.3 (xv) DESIGN METHODS 1125
The varlation in gain given by simple a.v·c. is limited, and for very strong signals
a local-distance switch or some other method to prevent overloading of the receiver
is required.
(3) The voltage amplifier and diode detector used for the previous exampie are to
be used in a delayed a.v.C. circuit, in which the delay bias applied to the diode is
-10 volts.
If they are not available, the diode characteristics relating r .m.s. input voltage to
d.c. output voltage, for various delay bias voltages, can be measured directly. The
rectified voltage, used for a.v.c. bias, is not completely independent of modulation
when a delay bias is used, and there is an increase in the available d.c. when the per-
centage modulation is increased. Usually the a.v.c. comes into operation for lower
carrier input voltages than would normally be expected, particularly when the per-
centage of modulation approaches 100%.
The complete design procedure now follows that given previously for simple a.v.c.
using the data derived by the method given in the last paragraph. It should be clear
that curve (1) in Fig. 27.40 remains unchanged, but curve (2) must be replotted. The
resultant data are then available for plotting the a.v.c. characteristic. For signal
input voltages of which the peak value does not exceed the diode delay bias, the re-
ceiver operation is the same as for one which does not incorporate a.v.c. (this is clearly
shown in Fig. 27.36).
The slope of the no control line is readily determined since it is taken that the output
is directly proportional to the input.
It should be apparent that there will be a range of signal input voltages around the
threshold point over which the audio distortion will be severe.
~A.F.
A more elaborate muting system, giving improved results over the simple system
of Fig. 27.42 has been described by K. R. Sturley (Ref. 44). This uses a negatively
biased diode and at the same time the circuit is arranged to provide d.c. amplified
delayed a.v.c. The operation of this circuit can be readily understood from Fig. 27.43.
The diode marked D3 acts as the automatic volume control detector, and the d.c.
voltage developed across the load resistor R2 is applied to the grid of the triode section
of V 3 and amplified. The diode D" will only come into operation when the cathode
of V3 becomes negative with respect to the diode plate, and the a.v.c. bias is delayed
until this condition occurs. Considering now the double diode V 2, it is seen that DI
acts as the detection diode, but it can only detect when the signal input voltage exceeds
the negative bias voltage developed across the cathode circuit R ", G ". This negative
To
.... F. "'mplifier
FIG:27.43 Biased Octtctor Muting SyJtcm
wit!!
DC "'mplifled & Oelayed ....V.c.
bias voltage only exists when the diode D2 is conducting, which occurs when the
cathode of Va is positive. As soon as the cathode of V 3 becomes negative, the a.v.c.
comes into operation, the diode D2 no longer conducts, and the negative bias is re-
moved from the plate of the detection diode DI which then begins to function in the
usual manner. Part of the detected voltage output will appear across R k' G" but
this is not serious if the value of R k is very much less than the resistance of RI (say
about one tenth or less). It is recommended that C ~ k be made equal to GIRl'
(b) Inoperative audio amplifier
A typical arrangement of this type (Ref. 57) is shown in Fig. 27.44. VI is any double
diode, such as type 6H6, and V 2 is a pentagrid mixer, such as the type 6L7, in which
27.4 MUTING-(ii) TI[PICAL CIRCUITS 1127
grid 1 has a remote cut-off and grid 3 a sharp cut-off characteristic. Some systems
use two valves in place of V 2 to effect muting and audio frequency amplification.
Improved systems are also available (Ref. 54) which use a duo-diode pentode to elimin-
ate the separate double diode valve, the pentode section being used as the in~ermediate
frequency voltage amplifier. Audio a.v.c. is readily applied in this latter case.
From Fig. 27.44 it is readily seen that the diode detector and simple a.v.c. arrange-
ments are quite conventional. The audio output from the detector is applied to grid 1
of the valve V 2. Only part of the cathode bias is applied to grid 1 by using a tap on
the cathode resistor. In the absence of conduction through the diode D2 there is a
large negative bias applied to grid 3 due to the total cathode bias voltage developed
across R7 and Rs in series. The d.c. path to grid 3 is via R 6 , Rs and R 9 • Rs has a
high value of resistance to prevent the plate of D2 from being connected to ground
through the comparatively low impedance of the cathode circuit of Vz (which includes
the muting control as shown). The circuit made up from R 9 , C 6 and C 7 is merely
a filter to allow the application of direct bias voltage only to the muting grid (3) of
V z ; however, R9 also performs the.useful function of stabilizing the voltage applied
to grid 3 in the event of the anti-muting bias being sufficiently large to cause grid
current. Rs is the diode load resistor for D 2 , and C s allows the application of i-f
voltage to the plate of the diode D 2 • When a signal is received the voltage developed
across Rs is sufficiently large, and of the correct polarity, to reduce the total negative
bias on grid 3 and so allow the valve V 2 to perform the function of voltage amplifier
for a-f voltages applied to grid 1.
An interesting arrangement (Ref. 54) is shown in Fig. 27.45, in which a duplex-
diode pentode and its associated circuit combine the functions of muting, detection,
conventional and audio a.v.c., and audio frequency amplification. The valve VI is
a duo-diode pentode in which grid 1 has a remote cut-off characteristic (the circuit
was developed around the Australian-made type 6G8-G). The operation of this
circuit is somewhat different from those previously discussed. The maximum gain
obtainable from a resistance-capacitance coupled audio frequency amplifier occurs
when the negative grid bias has a particular value. For a negative bias less than the
optimum value (and for a particular screen voltage, which is generally made fairly
low), g m will drop and the stage will effectively be muted. When the negative bias
is made larger than the optimum value the gain of the stage will decrease at a com-
paratively slow rate. This principle is used in the circuit of Fig. 27.45 and the signal,
muting, and audio a.v.c. vo)tages are all applied simultaneously to the control grid.
The cathode resistors RIO and Rn are used to set the bias voltage to give the optimum
value for maximum gain. Rll is then adjusted to a lower value to reduce the total
bias voltage, and to cause the gain to drop to such a low value that muting has effec-
tiyelyoccurred. It is necessary to select the values of bias and screen voltage so that
the maximum screen dissipation is not exceeded. When a signal voltage is applied
to the a.v.c. diode, the rectified voltage developed across R7 increases the grid bias
1128 MUTING-(ii) TYPICAL CIRCUITS 27.4
in a negative direction which increases g m (and so the stage gain) and the valve un-
mutes. For further increases in signal voltage the a.v.c. comes into operation, and
the gain of the audio stage (and also the other controlled stages) begins to fall off
in the usual manner. It is seen that only part of the total a.v.c. bias is applied to the
grid of VI'
R.
R, 4,700 n
47,OOOSl
A B
R,
IO,ooon
()OOOlpF~
loooon
'R, +- OOOIy.F 47,OOOn:
8+
FIG. 27.46(A) 8+
Mutin9 System for F-M R£c~iver
27.4 (iii) CIRCUITS USED WITH F-M RECEIVERS 1129
When a signal voltage is impressed on the limiter V 2 the plate current is reduced,
and so the positive voltage applied to the cathode of triode (1) (V 4 ) is increased. When
the signal input is sufficiently large the positive cathode voltage will exceed the positive
voltage on grid (1) by an amount which is sufficient to cut off the plate current. This
puts the points A and B at the same potential and so removes the negative bias from
the grid (2). Triode (2) of V 4 then acts as an ordinary a-f voltage amplifier, and its
normal bias is obtained from the voltage drop across the cathode resistor Rs.
L,miUr Dlscnmlnator 1st Llmitu 2nd lIm.tu
I 0,000 n
150V
B+
IS,OOOn
Muting
I,ooon
Fig. 27.46(B) shows a simple but effective arrangement for muting. Noise voltages,
in the abscene of a signal, which appear in the screen circuit of the second limiter
valve, are applied to the control: . - of the triode section of the muting valve (e.g.
type 6AV6) and the amplified no:.u': voltage is applied to the diode detector circuit.
The d.c. voltage across the diode load is applied as additional negative bias to the grid
of the a-f voltage amplifier valve and cuts off this stage. When a signal is received
the noise voltages are reduced and so the additional bias on the a-f valve falls and the
stage begins to function in the normal manner.
Another useful arrangement is shown in Fig. 27.46(C). In this circuit noise
. voltages from the screen circuit of the second limiter are applied to the grid of the
muting valve (which could be a type 12AT7) via the high pass filter C I C 2 R I • Triode
section (1) operates as an anode bend detector and the direct voltage developed across
R2 cuts off triode section (2); the relay is then in the unoperated condition. When
a signal is received the noise voltages are reduced due to the receiver quieting, and
at the same time additional bias is applied to triode (1) by the rectified voltage appearing
at the first limiter grid. The voltage across R2 is now insufficient to cut off triode (2)
and the relay is operated by the plate current. The relay can operate a contact to
short the grid of the output valve to earth: additional contacts can also be utilized
should the receiver be used for special purposes. The circuit can readily be re-
arranged so that the relay is not required, and an additional control bias is made
available to cut off the a-f voltage amplifier by increasing the voltage in the cathode
circuit in the absence of a signal. The coupling network R3 R4 R5 C 3 has a suitably
selected time constant, and the circuit arrangement is such as to prevent amplitude
modulation or over deviation of the frequency modulated signal from muting the
receiver.
Both of the circuits of Fig. 27.46(B) and (C), or variations of them, have been widely
used in f-m mobile and V.H.F. link receivers. In some cases additional negative
bias is applied to both the a-f voltage amplifier valve and the a-f output valve; this
has the advantage in the case of mobile receivers that the battery drain is reduced very
appreciably during stand-by periods since a large proportion of the battery drain is
due to the H.T. current drawn by the output valve.
1130 (iii) CIRCUITS USED WITH F-M RECEIVERS 27.4
(i) General
The purpose of a noise (or crash) limiter in a radio receiver is to assist in the reduction
of noise pulses, such as those due to ignition interference and crashes of static, so that
their effects may be minimized at the receiver output. The difference between muting
systems and noise limiters should be carefully distinguished, as they perform quite
different functions in connection with the type of noise which they are meant to
eliminate.
Noise limiters in general follow two trends. One group" punches a hole" in the
signal so that the receiver output is momentarily cut off. The other main group
functions by limiting the maximum output to a value which is not appreciably greater
than some pre-determined level.
It can be shown fairly readily (Ref. 63) that the best results for noise reduction can
be obtained by placing the limiter in the receiver at a point of low selectivity. The
Lamb silencer (Ref. 65) for example, is usually placed after the first i-f stage and its
operation is such as to cut off the plate current in the second i-f amplifier valve,
momentarily.
For many purposes elaborate noise limiting circuits (Refs. 65, 71) are not essential,
and the tendency in the usual communications receiver is to use simple diode limiting
to remove noise peaks. For amateur work sufficiently good results are often possible
using audio output limiters (see Refs. 66, 67, 68). With the A-M receivers used in
mobile communications systems a very elaborate noise limiter may be incorporated.
27.5 NOISE LIMITING-(i) GENERAL 1131
See also Chapter 16 Sect. 6 for speech clippers and Sect. 7 for noise peak and output
limiters.
The threshold of operation for noise limiters can be arranged for either automatic
or manual setting for different signal input voltages. Good results are possible using
automatic setting, but the more elaborate circuits practically always make some pro-
vision for manual control.
eli) Typical circuit arrangements
The Lamb silencer can be made to give excellent results, but because it is rather
elaborate it is not extensively used in commercial communications receivers. For
a description of its operation, together with complete circuit data, the reader should
consult Ref. 65.
Fig. 27.47 shows a typical example of the " shunt" type
of diode limiter. It is seen that the circuit to the left of
the dotted line AB is the usual diode detector circuit and
the component values are identical with those normally
selected. The negative direct bias voltage is set to prevent
I
the diode D2 from conducting until the peak input voltage
I 8- exceeds the bias. When. this occurs the diode D2 acts as
I
I ~~::'Id a virtual short circuit, and there is practically no output
I
I + from the detector circuit.
I
I.-.-r-i-:::-+-..... A " series" type of diode limiter is shown in Fig. 27.48.
~F. ':' 18 The diode Di is used for detection in the usual manner
FIG. 27.4"
·Sbunt"'Diodc Noise limiter Diode D2 is biased to be conducting with no!'!!'.a!
signai voltages applied to the detector circuit. For bursts of noise there is an in-
stantaneous negative voltage applied to the plate of D 2, and when this negative voltage
exceeds the positive bias the diode stops conducting and so opens the audio output
circuit. A large amount of audio gain is required when this type of circuit is used,
because of the low audio voltage available.
These simple circuits have several disadvantages. Firstly they are both susceptible
to hum because of heater-cathode leakage when the cathode of D2 is above earth.
For example this limits the size of the resistor R which can be used in the circuit
of Fig. 27.48, and so results in a loss in audio output. (An increase on the value shown
would be permissible however). A further disadvantage is that stray capacitances will
allow some of the high frequency noise components to appear in the receiver output,
even though the diodes are operating in the prescribed manner; this can be largely
overcome with care in layout and wiring to minimize stray capacitances.
Automatic threshold control may be arranged with simple " series" and " shunt"
limiters. Suitable methods are given in the references (particularlY Refs. 62A, 64 and
70). However, a much more satisfactory circuit (Ref. 44) is shown in Fig. 'lt1.49. The
diode Dl is incorporated in the usual detector arrangement and this circuit prf;}vides a
variable bias voltage for the noise limiting diodes D2 and Da. A short bmt pf noise
voltage having a positive polarity will cause the diode Ds to conduct an,d, §O flatten
out the audio waveform. A noise voltage having negative polarity causes IJ" to con-
duct which then flattens out the negative peak of the audio output. In ~ absence
of noise the positive and negative half cycles are equally damped and so &ijstortion
is reduced.
Additional methods used for noise limiting in radio receivers are given in Chapter 16
Sect. 7; methods of noise reduction for use with reproduction from records are
described in Chapter 17 Sect. 7.
(i) Miscellaneous
A tuning indicator is a device which indicates, usually by means of a maximum
or minimum deflection, when a receiver is correctly tuned. These indicators have
taken a number of forms, particularly before the advent of the Electron Ray tuning
indicator, originally called the " Magic Eye," and a few of these will be briefly dis-
cussed before considering the Electron Ray Tube in detail.
A further tIfiilngement is to use a neon tube in which the length of the illuminated
column is ptoponional to the d.c. voltage obtained from a resistance connected in
series with the plate of an amplifier valve controlled by a.v.c.
The cathode of the Electron Ray tube should be, as closely as possible, at the same
potential as the cathode of the diode. If its cathode is more negative than that of
the diode, grid current may occur thereby increasing the initial bias on the controlled
stages and reducing the sensitivity of the receiver. Consequently if the diode cathode
is earthed, the indicator tube cathode should also be earthed, but if the diode cathode
is positive then the indicator tube cathode should also be positive by an approxi-
mately equal amount. One satisfactory method of obtaining this positive voltage,
which however may only be used with a Class A power valve, is to connect the cathode
of the Magic Eye to a tapping on the cathode bias resistor of the power valve. With
this arrangement it is advisable for the tapping to be adjusted to make the cathode
of the Electron Ray tube about 0.5 volt less positive than that of the diode in order to
allow for contact potential in the indicator tube, the " delay" due to this small voltage
being negligible.
Alternatively, the cathode return of the Magic Eye may be taken to a suitable tap-
ping point on a voltage divider across the " B " supply. Due to the fairly heavy and
variable cathode currents drawn by the older types of indicator valves it is essential
that the voltage obtained from any voltage divider, or other source of voltage, should
not be affected appreciably by a current drain of from 0 to 8 mAo It is for this reason
that it is not satisfactory to tie the cathode of the indicator tube to that of the diode.
With the newer" space charge grid" construction the cathode currents remain more
nearly constant throughout life, and this allowance for change of current need not be
made. However, it is not advisable to base calculations for cathode bias resistors
on the published values of cathode currents since in some cases with valves of the newer
construction, these are higher than the average currents.
IMn
+250V
R,+R2 - 16.700n
FIG. 27.52 Circuit for Wld«-Anqlc Tunin9
Overlapping of the two images is possible on very strong signals, whatever type
of indicator tube is selected, but it is generally found with a remote cut-off type (such
as the 6U5j6G5) that this is not often experienced under field conditions. Certain
arrangements have been devised to reduce the tendency to overlapping, but none is
free from criticism. Desensitization of the tuning indicator is readily applied, but
affects indications on weak signals. The use of two separate tuning indicators, or
a single type 6AF6-G with two separate amplifiers, one for weak and one for strong
signals, is excellent but expensive. If the grid of the indicator tube is excited from
the moving contact of the volume control the deflection will depend upon the setting
of the control, and "silent tuning" will not be possible.
Wide Angle Tuning with a maximum angle of 180 is practicable if an external
0
triode amplifier is added (see Ref. 73). With this circuit (Fig. 27.52) the edges of
the pattern are sharp from 0 0 to about 150° to 180°.
applied between grid and a cathode. Any suitable pre-amplifying stage may be used
to increase the sensitivity of the device if desired. When an a.c. voltage is applied
the sharp image will change to a blurred half-tone and as the null point is reached the
image will again become sharp. A heavy overload may cause overlapping of the
pattern, but this is not detrimental to the tube.
I02J&F
~ ~ B+~
FIG. 27.S3 Simple Tuning Indicator Arru,.mcnt
for F-M Rccciwr
+
B+2SOV
This latter feature is not available with similar arrangements operating from the dis-
criminator output alone.
Tuning aids are sometimes used in receivers with ratio detectors. The simplest
arrangement in this case is to take the control bias voltage from the a.v.c. take-off
point, or to use whatever fraction of this total voltage that is thought to be necessary
for operating the tuning indicator.
u
!
VOltagt +
TYPICAL GERMANIUM I. FIG. 27.55
RECTIFIER CHARACTERISTIC
There is little change in rectifier characteristics from 15°C to 50°C, but above this
temperature up to 100°C, both forward and back slope resistances decrease slowly.
The characteristics of germanium crystal diodes vary considerably, depending on
the application and the manufacturer, but the following data are representative of
the majority of types.
Allowable direct current 20 to 60 mAo
Allowable surge current 100 to 600 mAo
Allowable reverse voltage 25 to 250 volts
Turnover voltage (reverse voltage for zero dynamic resistance) 40 to 275 volts
Minimum current with + 1 volt 2.5 to 15 mA
(some are less than
2.5 mA).
Reverse current with -50 volts applied 40 to 1660 /LA
(this only applies to types having an allowable reverse
voltage of 50 volts)
Capacitance 0.8 to 3.0 /L/LF.
Maximum ambient temperature +70 0 to +85°C.
Minimum ambient temperature -40° to -55°C
Maximum frequency up to several hundred
Mc/s.
References to germanium detectors : 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 8SA, 8SB.
(v) Transistors
Transistors are crystal devices with three or more electrodes, which are capable
of amplifying. A good introductory article is Ref. 86. See also Refs. 87,88,89,90,
91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96.
SECTION 8 : REFERENCES
(A) A-M DETECTORS
(1) Sturley, K. R. (book) " Radio Receiver Design" Part 1 (Chapter 8), Chapman and Hall, London,
1943; Wiley and Sons, New York, 1943.
(2) Everitt, W. L. (book) "Communication Engineering" (Chapters 13 and 14) McGraw-Hill, New
York and London, 1937.
(3) Zepler, E. E. (book) "Technique of Radio Design" (Chapters 4 and 11) Chapman and Hall,
London, 1943; Wiley and Sons, New York, 1943.
(4) Preisman, A. (book) "Graphical Construction for Vacuum Tube Circuits" (Chapter 6) McGraw-
Hill, New York and London, 1943.
(5) Terman, F. E. "Radio Engineer's Handbook" (Section 7) McGraw-Hill, New York and London,
1943.
(6) "Radiotron Receiver RC52 " Radiotronics No. 117 Jan.!Feb. 1946.
(7) "Radiotron Receivers RC41 and RC42 " Radiotronics No. 118 Mar./AprilI946.
(8) "Distortion in diode detectors" Radiotronics No. 73 (24th Feb. 1937) 11; Radiotronics No. 74
(31st March 1937) 20.
(9) Varrell, J. E. "Distortionless detection" W.W. 45.5 (3rd Aug., 1939) 94.
(10) Amos, S. W. "The mechanism of leaky grid detection" Electronic Eng. (1) 17.198 (Aug. 1944)
104; (2) 17.199 (Sept. 1944) 158.
(11) "New linear detector with high input impedance" A.R.T.S. and P. Bulletin No. 30 (22nd July
1936).
(12) " Reflex detector application" A.R.T.S. and P. Bulletin No. 32 (21st Sept. 1936).
(13) Healey, C. P., and H. A. Ross, " The linear reflex detector" A.W.A. Tee. Rev. 3.1 (July 1937) 1.
(14) Corfield, D. N. and R. V. Cundy" Valve Technique" Incorporated Radio Society of Great Britain,
London, April 1948.
(15) Weeden, W. N. " New detector circuit" W.W. 40.1 (Ist Jan. 1937) 6.
(Hi) Robinson. H. A. "Regenerative detectors" Q.S.T. 17.2 (Feb. 1933) 26.
(17) "Reaction circuits" W.W. 46.2 (Dec. 1939) 40.
(18) Alder, L. S. B. "Threshold howl in reaction receivers" Exp. Wireless and Wireless Engineer
7.79 (April 1930) 197.
(19) Zepler, E. E. " Oscillation hysteresis in grid detectors" W.E. 23.275 (Aug. 1946) 222.
(20) "Radio Amateur's Handbook" (Chapter 7, p. 146) 1947 Edition, A.R.R.L., Connecticut.
(21) "Cathode Ray," "Super-regenerative receivers" W.W. 52.6 (June 1946) 176.
(22) Stockman, H. " Superregenerative circuit applications" Elect. 21.2 (Feb. 1948) 81.
(23) itnk, F. W. "The basic principles of superr.egenerative reception" Proc. I.R.E. 26.1 (Jan. 1938)
(24) Easton, A. " Superregenerative detector selectivity" Elect. 19.3 (March 1946) 154.
(25) Bradley, W. E. " Superregenerative detection theory" Elect. 21.9 (Sept. 1948) 96.
(26) Hazeltine, Richman and Loughlin" Superregenerator design" Elect. 21.9 (Sept. 1948) 99
(B) F-M DETECTORS
See also bibliography covering A.F.C. given in Chapter 29 for further discriminator circuit data.
(27) Sturley, K. R. .. The Phase Discriminator-its use as a frequency-amplitude converter for F-M
reception" W.E. 21.245 (Feb. 1944) 72.
(28) Sturley, K. R. (book) " Radio Receiver Design" Part 2, Chapters 13 and 15, Chapman and Hall,
London, 1945; Wiley and Sons, New York, 1945.
(29) Hund, A. (book) "Frequency Modulation" Chapters 2 and 4, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York
and London, 1942.
(30) Lampitt, R. A. "The frequency discriminator" Elec. Eng. 17.200 (Oct. 1944) 196.
(31) Tibbs, C. "Frequency Modulation 5-demodulation: theory of the discriminator" W.W. 49.5
(May 1943) 140.
(32) Maynard, J. E. "Coupled circuit design" (covers phase discriminator circuit) Comm. 25.1 (Jan.
1945) 38.
(33) Arguimbau, L. B. "Discriminator linearity" Elect. 18.3 (March 1945) 142.
(34) Seeley, S. W., and J. Avins, "The Ratio Detector" R.C.A. Rev. 8.2 (June 1947) 201.
(35) "Ratio Detectors for F-M receivers" Radiotronics No. 120 (July/Aug. 1946) 79.
(36) "Balanced phase shift discriminators" Radiotronics No. 120 (July/Aug. 1946) 83.
(37) Sandel, B. "F-M receiver for the 88-108 Mc/s Band" Radiotronics 125 (May/June 1947) 39;
Radiotronics 127 (Sept./Oct. 1947) 79. (Correction, Radiotronics 132 (July/Aug. 1948).)
(38) Maurice, D. and R. J. H. Slaughter" F.M. reception-comparison tests between phase discriminator
and ratio detectors" W.W. 54.3 (March 1948) 103.
(39) Kiver, M. S. (book) "F-M Simplified" Chapters 7 and 13, D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc., Toronto,
New York and London, 1947.
(40) Bradley, W. E. " Single-stage F-M detector" Elect. 19.10 (Oct. 1946) 88.
(41) Loughlin, B. D. "Performance characteristics of F-M detector systems" Tele-Tech, 7.1 (Jan.
1948) 30.
(42) "F-M d~tector systems " A_F_.T_S~ and P; Bulletin No. 139 (F.eprint Hazeltine Bu!1eti..T'l and covers
practically the same data as Ref. 41.)
(42A) Loughlin, B. D. «The theory of amplitude - modulation rejection in the ratio detector" Proc.
I.R.E. 40.3 (March 1952) 289.
27.8 REFERENCES 1139
(H) TRANSISTORS
(86) Scott, T. R. "Crystal triodes" Proc.I.E.E. Part III 98 (May 1951) 169; reprinted in Elect.
Comm.28.3 (Sept. 1951) 195. Gives extensive bibliography.
(87) James, E. G., and G. M. Wells "Crystal triodes" Jour. Brit. I.R.E. 12.5 (May 1952) 285.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
CHAPTER 28
REFLEX AMPLIFIERS
By F. LANGFORD-SMITH, B.SC., B.E.
Section Page
1. General description 1140
2. Some characteristics of reflex superhet. receivers 1142
3. Design of plate reflex superhet. receivers 1143
4. Design of screen reflex superhet. receivers 1145
5. Design of T.R.F. reflex receivers 1146
6. References 1146
(i) Description
A reflex amplifier is one which is used to amplify at two frequencies-usually
intermediate and audio frequencies.
Reflex radio and audio frequency stages have also been used in very small T .R.F.
receivers (see Sect. 5).
Reflex receivers were fairly common in U.S.A. and Australia in the period 1934
to 1937, but suffered from serious distortion and high play-through. These re-
ceivers usually had high a-f plate load resistors giving comparatively high a-f gain,
low i-f gain and low operating plate voltages and currents. A.V.C. was not applied
to the reflex stage which was frequently a sharp-cut-off valve such as the 6B7 or
6B8. A considerable advance was made in Australia by the use of the remote cut-off
type 6G8-G with a.v.c., and a further advance was made in the adoption of a com-
paratively low a-f plate load resistor. The latter enabled nearly full i-f gain to be
obtained with normal voltages on the electrodes, thus increasing the maximum plate
voltage swing for a limited distortion. The most common application of a reflex
amplifier in Australia· at the present time is in a 3/4 valve receiver comprising con-
verter, reflex stage, power amplifier and rectifier. The reflex stage in such a re-
ceiver amplifies at intermediate frequency, provides detection and a.v.c. from its
diode or diodes, and then amplifies at audio frequency. It may be compared with
a straight receiver in which the second valve is used as i-f amplifier and detector,
the output from the detector being used to excite the power stage. Using the same
valves and components in both cases, the reflex receiver may have a sensitivity up
to 10 times that of the straight set.
1140
28.1 (ii) ~VANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF REFLEX RECEIVERS 1141
• A 3/4 valve receiver is one having three amplifying valves and a rectifier.
tFor 50 milliwatts output.
1142 (i) PLAY-THROUGH 28.2
(li) Overloading
It is practicable to design a reflex receiver to handle input voltages up to 1 volt
without serious distortion (of the order of 10% at 100% modulation).
FlG.2II.1
To Heoters. Dial Lamp
Fig. 28.1. Reflex superhet. receiver with plate reflexing and fractional a.v.c. 07' both
controlled stage~ (A. W.A. Radiola M04el 517-M).
"
"
""
"
,-----
FIG. 28.2
Fig. 28.2. Refiex superhet. receiver with plate reflexing, full a.v.c. on converter and
fractional a.v.c. on reflex stage (Ref. 1).
28.3 DESIGN OF PLATE REFLEX SUPERHET. RECEIVERS 1145
resistor was selected to provide optimum operation together with minimum hum ;
a certain amount of hum neutralization is possible between the reflex (a-f) and power
amplifier stages. Feedback in the reflex stage is neutralized by the very small fixed
capacitances Cs) and C.\'2' while a small degree of negative feedback is provided on
the output stage.
Considerably improved performance is obtainable by the use of type 6AR7-GT
in the reflex stage, together with high Q i-f transformers. This avoids the necessity
for neutralization and gi ves higher gain. Still higher gain is obtainable with a high-
slope output valve, although the play-through is increased thereby. This circuit
arrangement has considerable merits and there are prospects that, by suitable choice
of valve types and a.v.c. design, the play-through may be reduced to a low level.
A possible alternative form of the circuit would be to use type 6BE6 converter,
6BA6 reflex amplifier and a duo-diode-output pentode.
IW.WW.
.25MA
FIG. 28.3
Fig. 28.3. Reflex superhet. receiver with screen reflexing (Ref. 4).
1146 (i) SCREEN REFLEX RECEIVERS 28.4
through. The aerial sensitivity is approximately 5 fLV for 50 m W output, and the
signal to noise ratio is 10 to 13.5 db at 5 fLV input. The distortion is 6.9% with an
input of 1 volt, 30% modulated, but 12% with an input of 0.5 volt, 100% modulated.
An output of 0.5 watt is obtained with 20 /LV input, 30% modulated. With an input
of 1 millivolt to the aerial terminal, 30% modulated at 400 cis, an output of 2 watts
is obtained with 10% overall distortion.
Feedback is applied by returning the lower end of the volume control to the voice
coil. Maximum bass boosting is provided when the volume control is at the tap,
which is adjusted for the lowest listening level. The high frequency peak and bass
boosting are reduced as the volume control setting is increased towards maximum.
The response above 5000 cis is cut sharply by a combination of shunt capacitances
together with negative feedback. The overall result is an automatic high frequency
tone control which gives a "mellow" tone with weak signals and a normal radio
tone on strong stations. The gain reduction due to feedback is 14 db with 1 mV
signal input and with the volume control at its minimum position. The gain re-
duction decreases as the volume control is advanced.
The conventional i-f filter in a reflex circuit is a series resistor from the volume con-
trol slider, connected to a by-pass capacitor at the cold end of the first i-f transformer
secondary. These two components give phase shift at some high frequency with
the volume control at its minimum setting, additional to the phase shifts already in
the circuit and may thus cause oscillation when heavy feedback is applied with the
volume control at zero. However if the resistor is wired in series with the hot end
of the volume control, as in Fig. 28.3, with the volume control at its zero setting there
is no series resistor in the feedback path, phase shift is reduced and high frequency
peaks (or oscillation) are avoided.
Resistance-capacitance filtering is used here for economy. The plate supply
voltage is 185 volts. One ninth of the a.v.c. voltage is applied to the reflex stage.
The play-through is as low as in some commercial receivers that do not use reflexing.
By B. SANDEL, A.S.T.C.
Section Page
1. Limiters 1147
2. Automatic Frequency Control (A.F.C.) 1150
3. References 1160
SECTION 1 : LIMITERS
(i) General (ii) Typical circuits for F-M receivers (a) Single stage limiter (b) Cas-
caded limiters.
(i) General
In this section it is proposed to discuss only the conventional type of amplitude
limiter using a pentode valve operating as a saturated amplifier. Other circuits,
which combine the dual functions of detection and the removal of 8...mplimde variations,
such as the ratio detector and locked oscillator, will not be treated here. The ratio
detector has been discussed in detail in Chapter 27 Sect. 2. Details of several other
alternative systems can be found in Refs, 2, 5, 6, 7 and those at the end of Chapter 27.
The need for some form of amplitude limiting was stressed in Chapter 27 Sect. 2>
when the phase discriminator was being discussed. It was pointed out that the diodes
in a phase discriminator are amplitude modulation detectors, and if undesired ampli-
tude variations are not to appear in the receiver output the amplitude of the voltage ap-
plied to the discriminator should be constant. This was emphasised by reference to
eqns. (20) and (21), where it was seen that the productgmE g should be held constant
if the discriminator sensitivity is to remain fixed for a given frequency deviation.
Circuit arrangements for limiters in F-M broadcast receivers have become quite
stereotyped. Sharp cut-off pentodes having fairly high val1,1es of g m are the usual
choice, and typical of these are types 6SJ7, 6SH7 and 6AU6. The limiting action
is brought about by a combination of grid-leak bias and low values of plate and screen
voltage. Grid-bias limiting is obtained by adding a resistor and capacitor, of suit-
able value, to the grid circuit and using zero or very small values of cathode bias.
The grid circuit arrangement is the same as for a grid-leak detector, and the operation
is almost identical since the average negative bias on the grid is determined by the
e g - i g characteristics of the valve in conjunction with the associated circuit. The
value of the average grid bias, together with the low screen voltage, determine the
condition for which plate current cut-off occurs. Any signal input voltage whose
amplitude is sufficiently large will cause the average negative bias to increase and so
tend to hold the output voltage constant. Because of the low values of plate and
screen voltage the plate voltage swing is limited to a comparatively small value and,
for an input signal of sufficient magnitude, there will be practically no corresponding
increase in output voltage when the signal input voltage is increased.
The added damping on the i-f transformer secondary, which connects to the limiter
grid, is given approximately by R g /2 or R g /3, depending on the circuit arrangement,
in exactly the same way as discussed previously for a diode detector; R g being the
value of resistance selected for the grid leak. This should be taken into account (as
1147
1148 LIMITERS-(i) GENERAL 29.1
well as circuit detuning caused by changes in the valve input capacitance) when the
i-f transformer is being designed.
The necessity for high gain in the receiver stages preceding the limiter stage will
be appreciated when it is realized that a minimum of about 2 volts peak is required
at the limiter grid to obtain satisfactory operation with a typical circuit arrangement;
it is preferable to have voltages of the order of 10 to 20 volts peak for best results
under adverse condition of reception. Since this limiter input voltage must be
obtained with the smallest signal input voltage likely to be met in the field, the gain
of the preceding stages in the receiver should be sufficient to give satisfactory limiter
operation with signal voltages as low as 2 or 3 /LV; in F-M mobile communications
applications the limiter should saturate with signals ofless than 1 /LV. Also, because
the conversion from F-M to A-M in the discriminator usually results in a low equival-
ent value of percentage amplitude modulation, it is necessary for the limiter output
voltage to be large if the detected audio voltage is to be sufficient to drive the audio
amplifier to full output; this means that something in excess of 10 volts peak is
desirable at the plate circuit of the limiter.
For completely satisfactory amplitude limitation two limiter stages are necessary.
However, because of the cost factor, commercial domestic type receivers seldom use
more than one limiter stage. When two stages of limiting are used, it is essential
that the coupling circuit between them should not introduce any appreciable ampli-
tude modulation due to its selectivity characteristic. The selectivity should be suffici-
ent to attenuate harmonics of the intermediate frequency generated by the limiter,
although this is also accomplished by the primary of the discriminator transformer ;
with single stage limiters the discriminator transformer is relied upon to give the
necessary attenuation of the i-f harmonics. Transformer coupling between the two
limiter valves is the most satisfactory arrangement, but single tuned circuits are often
used.
The choice of the time constant for the grid resistance-capacitance combination
is important. It must be sufficiently short for the grid bias to be ·proportional to
changes in amplitude, but not so short as to prevent the bias change from being suffici-
ently large to control the amplification of the limiter stage, so as to offset any change
in signal input voltage. For a single stage, limiter time constants of 2.5 microseconds
are usual, although 10 to 20 microseconds and even higher have been used in some
receivers. For two stages the first limiter grid circuit uses a time constant of 1.25
to 5 microseconds and 2.5 to 10 microseconds or longer in the second stage, in typical
cases. The longer time constants of 10 to 20 microseconds are suitable for most
types of noise impulses, but some forms of motor car ignition noise are more com-
pletely suppressed when the shorter time constants are used. A careful choice of
the time constants is necessary if the noise is not to be heard in the receiver output
because the bias on the limiter valve must be able to follow the changes in the ampli-
tude of the input voltage.
No matter how effective the amplitude limiters may be and how carefully their
time constants are chosen it will often be found that the F-M receiver will not effec-
tively suppress bursts of noise such as those emitted by car ignition systems. To
obtain the best results it is most important that the pass band of the receiver be sym-
metrical and that the centre frequency of the i-f amplifier coincides exactly with the
centre frequency of the discriminator. A useful test is to align the receiver on an
unmodulated carrier at the signal frequency and then to switch off the carrier; if
the alignment is correct, and the circuits symmetrical, a d.c. vacuum' tube voltmeter
connected across the discriminator output will give a reading of approximately zero
(of course the usual noise will be heard from the receiver output). Small inaccuracies
often arise when the receiver is aligned so as to give maximum grid current at the
limiter stage, or stages, even though the signal (unmodulated carrier) frequency is
such that zero d.c. output voltage is obtained from the discriminator. The grid
current reading is usually rather broad, and it will be found that the i-f and limiter
circuits, in particular, can often be realigned to give zero d.c. output voltage at the
discriminator on noise without reducing the limiter grid current on signals. As a
29.1 LIMITERS-(i) GENERAL 1149
further check on alignment and symmetry the receiver is tuned very carefully to an
unmodulated carrier so that the a.c. voltage at the output transformer is a minimum
(i.e. for maximum quieting) and for this condition the reading of the d.c. voltmeter
at the discriminator is noted; then it will usually be found that this latter reading is
the same as that obtained from noise alone. (A casual reading of the text may not
bring out the full significance of this test, but a practical trial will lead to a better
appreciation of its possibilities). If minimum noise output, zero d.c. discriminator
output voltage, and maximum limiter grid current do not all occur at the same carrier
frequency, then in general the optimum conditions for impulse noise rejection have
not been obtained.
. For applications other than domestic receivers the above factors require very care-
ful attention.
The operation of both circuits is identical, but the damping of the i-f transformer
due to grid current is less with the arrangement of Fig. 29.1, being approximately
50 000/2 = 25 000 ohms. The damping in the alternative arrangement is 50 000/3
= 16600 ohms. Whichever circuit is used will depend, largely, on the additional
damping required on the transformer to achieve the required bandwidth or, perhaps,
upon considerations of practical convenience. The general method of operation
has been discussed in (i) above.
If complete valve characteristics are available then a preliminary design can be
made, but the work involved is hardly worth the effort because of the ease with which
the practical circuit can be made to give satisfactory results using experimental pro-
cedures. For a calculation of gain, or overall discriminator sensitivity, it is
necessary to determine the mutual conductance under the actual operating conditions.
This can usually be determined, with sufficient accuracy for a preliminary design,
from the valve data sheets by ignoring the change in plate voltage (provided the
change in plate current with plate voltage does not fall too far down on the knee 9f
.the plate characteristics). For example, a type 6AU6 is to be operated with 50 volts
on the plate and screen, and zero .grid bias. From the average characteristics relating
grid No. 1 vol~ to transconductance, the g m is 4000 micromhos for zero bias, 50 volts
on the screen and 250 volts on the plate. For typical cases of the type being con-
sidered, the g m so found is usually about 10% high, and so 3600 micromhos would be
a closer approximation. Alternatively, the valve can be set up as a straight amplifier
with the appropriate d.c. voltages applied, and a 1000 ohm resistor connected as the
plate load. Then with 1 volt of a-f input (from a source of low d.c. resistance) the
output voltage will equal the g m in mA/volt; the actual input voltage is selected so
that the stage just starts to saturate. However, overall measurements of actual cir-
cuit performance are preferable.
1150 (li) TYPICAL CIRCUITS FOR F-M RECEIVERS 29.1
The most useful application of the system in broadcast receivers is with those re-
ceivers having autom.atic tuning e.g. push-button station selection, and cam or motor
driven variable capacitors. In cases of this type the tuning may not be accurate
over extended periods of time, and a.f.c. may be used effectively to carry out the final
adjustment when the respective capacitances and/or inductances have been selected
by the automatic tuning system.
There are two devices necessary for any a.f.c. system. These are : -
(1) A frequency discriminator, which must be capable of changing a frequency
variation into a suitable direct voltage change which can be used for control purposes.
(2) A variable reactance, whose value can be controlled by the direct voltage changes
•due to the frequency discriminator. The variable reactance is connected to the
oscillator circuit in such a way as to control i!s frequency.
The complete arrangement can be visualized with the aid of the block schematic
of Fig. 29.4. It is seen that the additional elements to those normally found in a
superheterodyne receiver are the frequency discriminator and the variable reactance.
The variable reactance in the discussion to follow will be of the electronic type con-
sisting of a valve (which can be a pentode, a hexode or a heptode) and its associated
circuits. It will also be inferred from Fig. 29.4 that the frequency discriminator
can be used for normal detection, since there are suitable audio voltages developed
in this circuit by the applied modulated i.f. voltage.
Suitable voltages for a.v.c. are also available from the discriminator output, but
in this regard it is necessary to point out that a very efficient a.v.c. system is helpful
in obtaining satisfactory operation from the a.f.c. system. If reasonably constant
input voltage to the discriminator is not maintained, there will be a variation in the
"pull-in" and "throw-out" frequencies. Because of the stringent a.v.c. require-
ments it is fairly common practice to employ a separate diode coupled to the trans-
former primary, in the usual manner, to provide the a.v.c. bias voltage. There is
also a disadvantage in taking the a-f voltage from the discriminator output as the
distortion tends to be fairly high. However, in most commercial receivers the cost
factor leads to some arrangement such as that of Fig. 29.8.
Signal
Voltage
FIG.29.S
The polarity of the output voltage with frequency change is all important, and, as
the electronic reactance is practically always inductive in a.f.c. systems used in tunable
broadcast radio receivers, the polarities of the direct output voltage with frequency
change as indicated on Fig. 29.6 will be correct. One pU~'pose in making the re-
actance inductive is so as not to limit the frequency coverage of the receiver. This
follows because it is often difficult to keep the minimum capacitance of the tuning
unit to a sufficiently low value, and it is hardly wise to deliberately increase this capacit-
ance unnecessarily. However, if carefully designed, the undesired added capacitance
due to the capacitive reactance unit can be made very small.
The effect of the added parallel inductance can usually be offset fairly readily by
increasing the inductance of the oscillator coil. With receivers using push-button
tuning where the circuits are of the preset type either the inductive or capacitive form
of electronic reactance is satisfactory. For receivers with inductance tuning a capaci-
tive electronic reactance is usually preferable. The degree of frequency correction
is not constant over a band of frequencies, and this again suggests an inductive elec-
tronic reactance when the circuits are tuned by a variable capacitor, since the least
error is obtained at the low frequency end of the tuning range where the receiver is
most selective.
It may be helpful to follow through the steps leading to the polarities shown for
the direct voltage with frequency change. Suppose the receiver is tuned to a signal
of 1500 Kc/s. Then the oscillator will be set at 1955 Kc/s to give an i-f of 455 Kc/s,
and there will be no direct voltage output from the discriminator. If now the oscillator
drifts to 1957 Kc/s the i-f produced will be 457 K.~/s, and a direct voltage of negative
polarity wlll be produced by the discriminaior and appiied io the reaC[CUlCe valve.
The equivalent inductance of the electronic reactance is inversely proportional to
mutual conductance (g m) and so, as a more negative bias voltage reduces g m' the
29.2 Cii) DISCRIMINATORS FOR A.F.C. 1153
shunt inductance across the oscillator coil is increased, the total inductance in the
oscillator circuit is now increased, thus lowering the oscillator frequency as required.
The two most commonly used types of discriminator circuits are shown in Figs.
29.7 and 29.8. The first is generally known as the Round-Travis circuit (see Ref.
10), and is a typical example of an amplitude discriminator. The secondary circuits
A and B are so tuned that A has its resonant frequency slightly above the intermediate
frequency and B is set slightly below the i-f (say +5 Kc/s in one case and -5 Kc/s
in the other). Each secondary circuit has its own diode detector and the diode loads
are connected in d.c. opposition, so that when the i-f is greater than the required value
of 455 Kc/s (and since the voltages developed across Rl and R2 have the polarities
shown) the voltage across Rl is greater than that across R z and the a.f.c. bias voltage
is negative as is required for correction of the oscillator frequency. For example,
the voltage across Rl may be 4 volts when that across R2 is 3 volts, then the available
a.f.c. bias is -1 volt.
~, t
+ A.F.C.
:·r
,
A_V.C.
f
B+
The design procedure for an amplitude discriminator for a.f.c. is set out in detail
in Ref. 8. Since this type of cirCuit is seldom used in modem a.f.c. systems the details
of its operation will not be discussed further. There are a number of alternative
arrangements for the amplitude discriminator, and some of these are discussed in
Refs. 8, 9, 11, 15 and ~3. It will be appreciated that a circuit of this type could be
used for F-M detection as an alternative to the phase discriminator, and several manu-
facturers have produced F-M receivers using modified amplitude discriminators
(see Ref. 39 given at end of Chapter 27, for typical examples).
Rs A.F.C
BiOs
B+
A.V.c.
Fig. 29.8 shows the most commonly used circuit, the phase (or Foster-Seeley)
discriminator. In this circuit both primary and secondary circuits are tuned to the
intermediate frequency. It will be seen that the circuit arrangement is identical
with that of the F-M phase discriminator shown in Fig. 27.19, and the general dis-
cussion of its operation and the loading effects on the transformer apply equally well
here. The de-emphasis circuit is not required here, of course, but the same general
arrangements can be retained to provide r-f and a-f filtering, since only a direct control
voltage is required. Suitable values for the filter circuit are R,. equal to 0.5 - 2 MoO,
and C6 is, say,0.05 - 0.1 p.F. The considerations governing the choice of the com-
ponent values can be compared with those for selecting filter components for auto-
1154 (ii) DISCRIMINATORS FOR A.F.C. 29.2
matic volume control circuits" and a time constant for R5CS of about 0.1 second is
usual. The circuit arrangement of Fig. 27.17 could also be used here, and, if the
primary circuit is too heavily damped" an additional series resistor can be inserted
between the transformer centre-tap and the junction of the diode load resistors R3
and R 4 ; however" this will lead to some loss in available output voltage, depending
on the value of series resistance selected. The difference in the by-pass capacitor
arrangements (i.e. Cs and C7 ) for Figs. 27.17 and 27.19 (or Fig. 29.8) should be ob-
served, and the discussion in Chapter 27 Sect. 2, in connection with Fig. 27.19 will
be helpful, if the reasons for the arrangements are not immediately obvious. The
considerations leading to the choice of actual circuit values will differ because the
a.f.c. discriminator is usually designed for high sensitivity rather than for a very high
degree of linearity.
The theory of the circuit for a.f.c. use has been discussed by Roder (Ref. 14) and
design procedures have been treated in detail in Ref. 8. A brief discussion, which is
quite helpful" is given in Ref. 13.
The method of obtaining a-f output and a.v.c. bias from the a.f.c. discriminator
circuit is also shown in Fig. 29.8. To retain the same degree of selectivity as that
obtained with a similar receiver not incorporating a.f.c. one extra tuned circuit is
required. This is necessary because the discriminator provides very little selectivity
as a result of the heavy loading effects produced by the diodes. There is some in-
crease in gain over the usual arrangement where the a-f detector is connected across
the i-f transformer secondary only.
The frequency at which the a.f.c. will come into operation when tuning a signal is
called the "pull-in frequency." When tuning away from a carrier the frequency
at which the a.f.c. loses control is called the" throw-out frequency," and it is always
greater than the " pull-in frequency." It is desirable to make these two frequencies
as close as possible" because stations which are received when tuning-in may be passed
over when tuning-out. Many receivers incorporate arrangements for disconnecting
the a.f.c. until a carrier has been approximately tuned-in (see Refs. 8" 15).
Some of the general details oithe discriminator design will be set out here" and the
reader is referred to Refs. 8, 9 and 14, in particular, for further information. Con-
sider Fig. 29.8. Typical values for Rs and R4 are 0.5 MQ. Capacitors Cs and C 7
must give adequate by-passing at the intermediate frequency of 455 Kc/s, and suit-
able values would be 100 to 200 p.p.F. C s is usually 100 p.p.F. Values for Rs and C s
have been discussed previously. The valve VI is any of the usual voltage amplifier
pentodes such as type 6SK7 etc., and V 2 is a double diode such as the types 6H6 or
6AL5. The next step is to select a suitable value for the inductance of the r-f choke.
'meg"-
FIG. 29.9
As the inductance and capacitance of the choke will affect the resonant frequency
of the transformer primary (L1 C 1) and its Q, care is necessary. The choke, in associa-
tion with the transformer primary circuit, can be represented by the equivalent circuit
of Fig. 29.9 in which gmeg represents the equivalent constant current generator for
the pentode voltage amplifier; r" is the plate resistance; C1 is the total primary
capacitance including strays; L1 is the primary inductance and R1 its r-f resistance;
C s is the capacitor connecting the plate circuit to the choke Lo (whose r-f resistance is
Ro); Co represents any distributed or stray capacitances across Lo; R de = Rs = R4,
the diode load resistance. It should be apparent that three cases can arise with the
choke (Ref. 14) : -
(1) The capacitance Co negligibly small.
(2) The capacitance Co small enough to still allow the choke to be self resonant
well above the intermediate frequency, but the value of Co to be such as to
appreciably affect the resonant frequency of the complete primary circuit.
29.2 (ii) DISCRIMINATORS FOR A.F.C. 1155
XL XL
X" = X ~;. (8)
Ll La
The reciprocal of the equivalent loaded primary circuit Q is
1 [1 1 1 Il
~ = X" QoXL o + QIX L1 + r" + RdC/4J . (9)
and is expressed in direct volts output per Kc/s off tune, for each 1 volt (peak) input
to the i-f amplifier valve VI (Fig. 29.8).
The symbols are the same as those used previously, with the addition of gm the
mutual conductance of Vu and T} is the detection efficiency of the diodes V 2•
It is necessary to estimate the peak separation for the discriminator characteristic
of Fig. 29.6. This can be found (Ref. 8) from,
2t1f = f.~ tan cp (12)
Q,
where cp = cos- [16 +
1
(Q~k)2L,/LJ
t,
For many practical cases it will be found sufficiently accurate to take tan cp = 1 in
e9-n. (12).
(2) Miller effect circuits. These circuits (Fig. 29.11) rely on the change of
input capacitance which occurs when the gain is varied. If the plate load can be
tuned so that it behaves as a pure resistance, then the valve input resistance can be
made very large. For the circuit shown there will be a resistive input component
due to Miller effect because of stray capacitance across the load resistor. The applica-
tion of the circuit is largely confined to use with fixed tuned oscillator circuits.
Reactance 8ias from
I Valve Di,criminator
IA
----1 "IM
~
'~:Cc':--- gkL __ ____ J
o 0 ~
• Bios from
FIG, 29,!! Discriminator FIG. 29.,2
(3) Quadrature circuits (Figs. 29.12,29.13). The grid is fed from a resistance
reactance network connected between plate and cathode. This provides a voltage
between the grid and cathode which is almost 90° out of phase with the plate to
cathode voltage. The source of the alternating plate to cathode voltage is the voltage
developed across the tank circuit of the oscillator (see Fig. 29.12). Since the plate
current is in phase with the grid voltage (for valves having high plate resistance) the
plate voltage and plate current will be approximately 90° out of phase. To the
external circuit (oscillator tank circuit in this case) connected between plate and cathode
of the reactance valve the behaviour is as though an additional reactance and re-
sistance had been connected in parallel. Whether the valve circuit behaves like
an inductive, or a capacitive reactance depends on the resistance-reactance network ar-
rangement, as can be seen from Fig. 29.13.
The value of the apparent reactance and resistance, due to the electronic reactance
(more correctly electronic impedance) depends on the mutual conductance (g m)
of the valve, and as the g m can be controlled by alteration of the grid voltage the
equivalent reactance and resistance can also be varied (the resistance variation is
usually undesirable). The required grid voltage variation is obtained by utilizing
the direct voltage changes at the discriminator output, when the reactance valve is
used in a.f.c. circuits. Frequency modulation, using this method, is obtained by
applying the audio frequency modulating voltage to· the grid of the reactance valve,
in the same way as the direct voltage changes are applied for obtaining a.f.c. The
magnitude of the a-f voltage determines the change in the equivalent reactance shunted
across the oscillator tank circuit, and so determines the frequency deviation from the
nominal oscillator centre frequency. The number of times the frequency deviates
around the central reference frequency will be determined by the frequency of the a-f
modulating voltage. Variation in the value of the shunt resistance, due to the elec-
tronic reactance, across the oscillator circuit causes undesired amplitude modulation.
The quadrature circuits are the most widely used for a.f.c. and other purposes,
and attention will be confined to discussing some of the possible arrangements.
Fig. 29.12 shows the general circuit arrangement using a pentode valve. A hexode
or heptode valve can also be used, with the phase shifting network connected to the
signal grid and the control voltage to the oscillator grid. The impedances Zl and Z2
1158 (iii) ELECTRONIC REACTANCES 29.2
A A
9m C ,R a 9rn. R,La
Cl,.- Ci-
1+ (wC,R 21 R~+c..A~
1+ (wC,R 2't R:+W2L\
Ri,.'" Ri.-
9m(WC,R;Y 9mu..2L~
For Ra «Xc, ForXLfiCR,
9m La
Ci.~ 9m C,R a C;.~ "R;""""
Ri.~
1
Ri.~
~
~ 9m(wC,R~ -:' 9mw2L~
A
L;._
A
L;._ R~+cah:
,, .... ), V,
, I
9mcAlL,R a
R~+C&h~
L~i
Ri--
9m Ri. •
~
For Xct<R, For Ra «XL.
I I L'~ £i.&. Li.~
L,
, '
I ,,,-.1
... 9m 9mRa
Ri.:::: (w Ca R,)2 R. ~ ('Ai'L~
8
~ (c) 9m -:' ... 9mRi
FIG. 29.13
in Fig. 29.12 comprise the phase shifting network. Depending on the form these
impedances take it will be clear that an additional blocking capacitor may be required
between plate and grid of the reactance valve, and also, since there must be a d.c.
path between grid and cathode, an additional grid resistor may be necessary. The
values for these additional components. should be . such as .to. have negligible effect
on the performance of the circuit. Fig. 29.13 shows four possible arrangements for
quadrature circuits, together with the equations for the additional resistance (R t )
and inductance (L i ), or capacitance (Ct ), connected in parallel with the oscillator tuned
circuit. Exact and approximate equations are given, but in most practical circuits
the approximate conditions will hold. The equations apply equally well to quad-
rature circuits using pentode, hexode or heptode valves. The angular frequency
w is that at which the oscillator circuit is meant to operate e.g, 217 X 1455 Kc/s etc.
(in the case of F-M this would be the nominal reference frequency). The circuit
of Fig. 29.13(c) is the one most commonly used in practical a.f.c. circuits in which
the oscillator is tuned by a variable capacitor. Care is necessary when using circuits
(b) and (d) as self resonance effects, due to stray capacitances across the inductances
Lz and L 1 , often lead to difficulties. Further, the r-f resistances of Lz and Ll must
be low if the circuits are to behave as relatively pure reactances. Stray capacitances
across Rl and R'I. can also affect performance, and should be kept small.
To carry out the design for an electronic reactance circuit it is necessary to know
the manner in which g m varies with grid bias. This information is generally available
on valve data sheets, for a given set of operating conditions. If other operating
conditions are required, then direct measurement of the g m - eg characteristic is the
usual procedure.
It is helpful when designing reactance valve circuits to be able to determine, directly,
values for C1R z, Lz/R u R 1 C 2 and LdR2 in terms of the operating frequency, the
frequency change required, and the oscillator tank circuit component values. The
necessary conditions have been determined (Ref. 18) for the circuits (b) and (c) of
Fig. 29.13, using the approximate relationships for C t and Li and assuming that the
frequency variation is linear (or very nearly so). For circuit (b) the approximate
expression is
L2
(13)
Rl
29.2 (iii) ELECTRONIC REACTANCES 1159
our example the minimum bias is - 3 volts and so the peak r-f grid voltage should not
exceed about 2 volts if grid current is to be avoided. The proportion of the r-f voltage
developed across the oscillator tank circuit (and applied ~etween plate and cathode
of the reactance valve) which appears between grid and cathode of the reactance
valve is for Fig. 29.13(c) Xc 2 /v'X2c 2 + R12. For our example, the voltage step
down is 0.0104, and so no possibility of grid current exists, as 2 volts peak r-f at the
grid corresponds to 196 volts peak across the oscillator tank circuit. This is con-
siderably in excess of the voltage likely to be encountered in a receiver oscillator
circuit, where 60 volts peak is about the maximum to be expected with any of the
usual arrangements (it is usually considerably less than this value, depending on the
type of circuit used).
Further details of the design of reactance valve circuits for a.f.c. can be found
in Refs. 8, 9 and 10. A graphical method for determining the "throw-out" and
" pull-in" frequencies of an a.f.c. system is given in Ref. 8 (p. 260). The difference
in these two frequencies is reduced by using an electronic reactance which gives
correction for a limited range of discriminator voltages only; outside the correction
range the added reactance should remain practically constant.
SECTION 3: REFERENCES
(A) LIMITERS
See also Refs. 40, 41, 42 Chapter 27.
1. Tibbs, C. E. "Frequency Modulation 3-Interference suppression, the limiter, and the capture
effect" W.W. 49.3 (March 1943) 82 (also gives bibliography).
2. Carnahan, C. W., and H. P. Kalmus" Synchronized oSI:U1ators as F.M. receiver limiters" Elect.
17.8 (Aug. 1944) 108 (extensive bibliography).
3. Tibbs, C. E. (book) "Frequency Modulation Engineering" Chapman and Hall, London, 1947.
4. Hund, A. (book) .. Frequency Modulation" Chapter 2, p. 209, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New
York and London, 1942.
5. Sturley, K. R. (book) " Radio Receiver Design" Pan 2 Chapter 15, p. 328 Chapman and Hall,
London, 1945.
6. Kiver, M. S. (book) .. F-M Simplified" Chapter 6 D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc., Toronto, New York
and London, 1947.
7. "Cascade dynamic limiter in F-M detector systems" A.R.T.S. and P. Bulletin No. 143 (Reprint
Hazeltine Electronics Corp. Bulletin).
RECTIFICATION
By R. J. RAWLINGS, Grad. I.E.E., Associate Brit. I.R.E.
and F. LANGFORD-SMITH, B.Sc., B.E.
Section Page
1. Introduction to rectification 1161
2. Rectification with condenser input filter 1170
3. Rectification with choke input filter ... 1182
4. Transformer heating 1185
5. Voltage multiplying rectifiers 1186
6. Shunt diode bias supplies 1188
7. References 1191
1161
1162 (i) PRINCIPLES OF RECTIFICATION 30.1
p p'
- -- -- - -;.r-~,~ ----EpEAK
IAVGE
FIG. lO.1
The mean level of ABA'B' is the effective direct voltage. The shaded area above
the curve AQB represents the voltage by which the transformer voltage exceeds that
of Ct. The current through the plate circuit of the rectifier only flows for the interval
between A and B and between A' and B' because at other parts of the cycle the trans-
former voltage is below the voltage of Ct. The current through the rectifier, shown
in Fig. 30.IC, is similar in form to the difference in voltage between the curves APB
and AQB in Fig. 30.IB.
The ripple voltage may be determined from the ABA'B' curve, and the values of
the fundamental and harmonics may be determined by a Fourier analysis.
As the load resistance (R L in Fig. 30.IF) is increased, BA' becomes more nearly
horizontal and the area APB becomes smaller until in the extreme (theoretical) case
when the load resistance is infinite the direct voltage is equal to the peak voltage.
This graphical method may be applied to any rectifier with a condenser input filter
followed by a high inductance choke. The assumption is made that the current
through the inductance remains constant, that is to say that the lines BA', B'A" etc.
are straight.
With a (full wave) choke input filter* the conditions are as shown in Fig. 30.ID
assuming a very high inductance choke (LI in Fig. 30.IG), although with practical
chokes there will necessarily be a certain 2-1!1ount of ripple in the load current.
• The term "choke input" is used for convenience in this Handbook to indicate a series inductance
followed by a capacitance shunted across the load resistance.
30.1 (i) PRINCIPLES OF RECTIFICATION 1163
Maximum ratings
Rectifier valves are usually rated for maximum direct-current per plate, maximum
peak current per plate, maximum peak inverse plate voltage and maximum r.m.S.
supply voltage per plate. In some cases a maximum rated hot-switching transient
(or surge) plate current per plate (for a specified maximum time, e.g. 0.2 second) is
also given. It is important to ensure that no one of these ratings is exceeded under
the conditions of operation. If the ratings are design centre values-see pages 77
and 78:-they apply to nominal mains voltages.
direct plate current is reduced below its maximum rating and that the total effective
plate supply impedance per plate is increased for the higher voltage conditions (e.g.
Fig. 30.2A). With a choke input to the filter, the maximum r.m.s. supply voltage
per plate is sometimes only permissible provided that the direct plate current is
reduced below its maximum rating (e.g. Fig. 3O.2C). With a choke input to the filter,
it is essential to have a choke inductance not less than the critical value for the
particular operating condition in question. The critical inductance is a function of
the load resistance and the frequency of the supply, as given by eqns. (1), (2) and (3)
in Sect. 3.
For any value of inductance, with constant r.m.s. supply voltage, there is a value
of current below which operation is not permitted. This is shown in Fig. 30.2C
where boundary lines for choke sizes are included.
for the higher voltage curves (6 to 8). It is always permissible to adopt a higher value
of total effective plate supply voltage per plate than that shown on the curves, but the
direct voltage output will thereby be decreased somewhat. Operation is only per-
missible on, and below, the line formed by the highest curve and the "current and
voltage boundary line" ADK. These curves only apply to one specified value of
capacitance input to the filter, in this case 10 p,F.
700
I I I I
:-8 i Ef· SO VOLTS
~
CAPACITOR (C) INPUT TO FILTER C. 10,..F
f-
--3", TOTAL EFFECTIVE PLATE-SUPPLY IMPEDANCE
OHMS FOR CURVES 1-5 {50
PER PLATE 140 OHMS FOR CURVES 6-8
600 - 7
""" ......... SUPPLY FREQUENCY· 60 cp.s.
..........
~~ ........... I I I J 1
,,~ -\ CURRENT & VOLTAGE
80UNDARY LINE
..... j'...~ \
IS INDICATED 8Y ADK
t-- 6
. . . 1'--.
500
1'....9co ........
............
'\
"'- ~ ~
0:
III
I-
..J f-
5
~~
j'..... r-.... i\ I
r--...... ............. \
-
j;:
0
l-
"- ........... .......... 1\
I- 400 ~ ~
~
....... j'.....
---.- .
G-
~ 4~<b .......... I
\
~ ~(l\
~~ "I- ~
r- \ 0
1&1 ~~~1i \
~~("t~
--
CI
~ 1--3
~~...... .....................
~
0
> 300
I \
~ ...... r-- t-- I--J\
....................
,
----
2
f- NOo I"-.... ........
200
I~o_
'" ........
I'--.
..... ~
I
.........
!"-....
---r-- -\\
\
............. :-- r- \
.............
...........
........... --""'" -
............
i\
100 t......
-- r-- r- \
"\
\
, K
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
D.C. LOAD (MILLIAMPERES)
FIG. 30.2,\
Fig. 30.2A. Operation characteristics for a typical full-wcrve rectifier (5Y3-Gn with
condenser input filter.
30.1 (iii) THE USE OF PUBLISHED CURVES 1167
The effect of change in the value of capacitance input to the filter is indicated
typically by Fig. 30.2B, where curves for 3 values of capacitance are drawn. A
higher capacitance gives better regulation and a higher output voltage, but increase
in capacitance beyond a certain value (here about 16 fLF) has only a very slight effect.
If curves are only drawn for one specified value of input capacitance, operation with
a higher value is not permissible unless this has been demonstrated by measurement
or calculation to be within the peak current rating of the rectifier.
Curves for a typical full wave rectifier with choke input are given in Fig. 30.2C.
Operation is only permissible in the area to the right of the boundary line corres-
ponding to the proposed choke size, to the left of the current and voltage boundary
line CEK, and below the highest curve for a choke of infinite inductance. If the
direct current varies between two limits, it is important to select a value of inductance
at least equal to, or preferably higher than, the value required for the lower limit of
direct current; the inductance should be measured at the lower limit of direct current.
The constant current curves (of which an example is given in Fig. 30.3) are very
helpful for deriving certain information. If it is requu-ed to :find the input voltage
700
E, • 5~0 VOL~S A.c.1
L .20 HENRYS ~
TOTAL EFFECTIVE PLATE SUPPLY
IMPEDANCE PER PLATE - 150.0.
II:::~$O
~~R·.\f.s.
600
PE
~~rE
~~
-............:: r-==:::
---..:::r-.- ::1 -~
C·'6 70 40 F
=
500
~ 8/1 I - -
.........
~~ ~
o
I
............... -...
I I -r---r-- - -
r:=::::: --..!!.TO 4O,.,F
~
8jiJ!
I- 400 ~ _300
~
-
I-
~ ::=::::-
:::I
a.
~
~ 300
"--r- ---~ ~ ~
---~
.oJ
o
>
200
j
100
I
I
I
I
I
50 100 ISO 200 250
D.C. LOAD (MILLIAMPERES)
FIG. 30. 2B
Fig. 3O.2B. Operation characteristics for a typical full-wave rectifier (ST4) with
condenser input jilter, showing effect of input capacitance (C).
1168 (iii) THE USE OF PUBLISHED CURVES 30.1
to give 250 volts 100 rnA direct current, a vertical is drawn upwards from an output
voltage of 250 volts to point P on the 100 rnA curve. From here a horizontal line is
drawn which intersects the vertical axis at 277 volts, which is the desired value.
The line OD is for equal input and output voltages. Above and to the left of this
line the output voltage is less than the input voltage; below and to the right of this
line the output voltage is greater than the input voltage.
Each of the points A, B, C etc. at which the several current lines cut the vertical
axis indicates the combined effective voltage drop in the valve and the transformer ;
700
s-o
VOLTS A.c. SUPPLY FREQUENCY· 60 C.P.S.
~
Ef •
SOLID-LINE CURVES - CHOKES OF INFINITE
\\ LONG-DASH
INDUCTANCE
LINES • BOUNDARY LINES FOR
CHOKE SIZES AS SHOWN
600 "
ll~i\ , '\
\ 1\ \ ," ,
,
\'
, '\
,
SMALL-DASH
CuRRENT
CURVES -
LINE
: ~:L t,.,
'\
I
" I'
, '1\
\ \
'\
'\ "'"
\ I
\\
I
.. ,
, '\
"
500 ' \
\. '\
\
\ \
'\ .... <~
\ \ \ .... ~'\r
\ , ,, ..., ,
I
I,
\ \
\
r,.\'&
'oS'
II
" .., "
~ \ \i""
~0.l. \ I 7.......
00
~
I ..
10;'
'&
\0
~-
, \ r\ft.::.~l
\ '\
-- \ \( If
,- -- -- .--
'
I--
I--
~L
-I-
I
500
.....
.......
",L
"7
'/
r\
~o
'\
'\ ~ / "' /
,d:r., ~\1 N ""- I-..
I
~
I'
r\ ~"
/
,' "00
~s /~
, ,rr
.. '1-\ .. } J T .!
r---!~!ER
--
,
PLATE
,0
3sJ
~\
r-..
/
/ /'
-\
I
1 •
,, ,1
\
" --
~J -- I,....
/ -7r--
.'
L/ \.
-E
200
.-
,0
\ ~~ - - -r- /
V- r-!,OO
/'
/ v/ I i
!
i
,
I
I
\01 ~ N
~
\
J
201
~r,L_
/ /
V- --
1"
/.
i
11; ~
~ ~oi
/ I
~
/~
~ L- r--
V - /
,
.....
~ ...
j
-
100 "'1
r--
,I VJ
/ ' / ' "r/
L~
Ir-
~
-
........
I--
1
!
. ..... . . . .".\~
I ..........
,~ ~ r !i
~,,/ !
jK
0
o 20 40 60 100 80120 I~ 160
D.C. LOAD (MILLIAMPERES)
FIG. 30.2C
Fig. 30.2C. Operation characteristics for a typical full wave rectifier (5Y3-GT) with
choke input filter.
30.1 (iii) THE USE OF PUBLISHED CURVES 1169
2n--------------______~
r:-
&II
~
-5
11.1
Cl200
~
~
W
--.[2------
I-
::;)
Q.
~
o
...
&II
G
100 200 300 400
OUTPUT VOLTAGE (O.C)
FIG. 30.3
Fig. 30.3. CorlSiani current curves for a 5Y3-GT reciifier; condenser-input filter with
capitance 8p,F and effective plate supply impedance 80 ohms per plate.
in other words it is the input voltage required to maintam the specified load current
with the load terminals short-circuited.
The line OE is the theoretical limit of output voltage with no load-current, and is
drawn to correspond to an output voltage of 1.414 times the r.m.s. input voltage.
The regulation of the output voltage with varying load currents is indicated by Fig.
30.3. If the input voltage IS 250 volts, a horizontal1ine may be drawn as in XY and
vertical lines may be drawn at each intersection, :with the constant current curves.
Line FG is for no load-current, while LM IS for 100 mA load current. For this
example the output voltage will be seen to drop from 354 volts at no load-current
to 213 volts at 100 rnA load-current.
It should be noted that the results given by any form of valve curves are only correct
for the set of conditions for w4ich the curves were derived.
rd = 0.88 = 0.931 r dl
rd
is correct within 5% for all circuits of this type and from the following graphs it is
possible to assess the characteristics of a condenser input rectifier system.
Fig. 30.4 gives curves for a num.ber of high vacuum rectifiers from which values
1\
of their peak resistance r d can be found. Figs. 30.5-30.7 (based on Schade, Ref. 6)
30.2 (ii) RECTIFICATION WITH CONDENSER INPUT FILTER 1171
o~ I
Z
'~"
o
o
I
I 10 100 400
DIODE ANODE VOLTAGE FIG. 30.4
Fig. 30.4. Average anode characteristics of some rectifier valves (based on Ref. 6, with
additions). The value of r d for any rectifier at any diode current may be determined by
dividing the diode anode voltage by the diode current.
~·5
:1
mil
I
_2
-'"
70
II· _11
----
:It;
%RyR
I
I ••
I ~
Fig. 305, Rario of rect£fied (direct) output 'voltage to peak a.c. rectifier input 'Voltage
expressed as a percentage, as a function of wCR L for a half-wave rectifier with a condenser
input filter (Ref. 6).
30.2 (li) RECTIFICATION WITH CONDENSER INPUT FILTER 1173
1\
are curves from which can be found the relationship between Ed c and E;.., for half-
wave, full-wave and full-wave voltage doubler circuits in terms of other circuit para-
1\
meters. Curves of the ratios of effective lidl and peak id diode currents to the direct
current per anode fa are given in Fig. 30.8; Fig. 30.9 gives details of the ripple factor
and Fig. 30.10, the peak inverse voltage (all based on Ref. 6).
The design considerations to be borne in mind when using these curves are :-
(1) The value of the capacitance C is usually chosen with regard to the maximum
permissible ripple in the output (see below) but if IE _I is limited to a: certain value
and the maximum E ac is to be achieved, C may be increased above this value. In
doing this due regard must be given to the maximum permissible peak current of the
rectifier and, if necessary, limiting resistors placed in series with the anodes of the
rectifier.
(2) In order that the direct voltage should not be closely dependent upon the value
of C, the value of wCR L must be on or to the right of the knee of the appropriate
curve in Fig. 30.5, 30.6 or 30.7 as required by the type of rectification.
IC
"12-S
I
I~
~2~
60
.3C
It,,;
30
.1 10 X> 1,000
wCI\.(C IN FARADS. RL IN OHMS) FIG. 30.6
Fig. 30.6. Ratio 0/ rectified (direct) output voltage to peak a.c. rectifier input voltage,
expressed as a percentage, as a/unction 0/ wCRL/or afull-wave rectifier with a condenser
input filter (Ref. 6).
1174 (iii) TO DETERMINE PEAK AND AVERAGE DIODE CURRENTS 30.2
~'~'1
~~ t...
'-----_
1i' •
•
~-c~'l
,.
......... c-c.c
. ~
I 10
10
uCRL (c IN FARADS RL IN OHMS) FIG. 30.7
Fig. 30.7. Ratio of reciified (direct) output voltage to peak a.c. rectifier input voltage,
expressed as a percentage, as a function of wGR L for a condenser-input voltage doubler
(Ref. 6).
30.2 (iii) TO DETERMINE PEAK AND AVERAGE DIODE CURRENTS 1175
10
·1 .2 '5 2 50 100 200 soo rpoo
7
6 0()2
5 -os
4 :~at
-55
!2
l
3
81 ill I ..
2.$
soSl
10°
30
100
I I I "II. J jJ I"" I I 11
! 11 i -.11 I 11111 I I I I
t§t=
91=
o~ {I FOR HALF-WAVE SINGLE-PHASE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
60t;::::: "fI- 2 FOR FULL-WAVE SINGLE-PHASE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
50 r- !of
FOR VOLTAGE-DOUBLING CIRCUITS
40f=: C IN FARADS '
r- Rl IN OHMS ~
30
== "" =21Tf WHEREf=lINE FREQUENCY
i== JRsl = R.MS. EQUIVALENT
~
20 ,.-- "r·~ + Rs
~
/.~
...... 2 ...
Ill:
I "I ~ ,,- 5..e.
10 lLlol~ I~
X 2a-9
7
-
6 5
5 Io
~ 30
4
-:0"., I00
1 3
...~2
I
'1 50 100 200
FIG. 30.B
Fig. 30.8 (above). Ratio of r.m.s. diode current to average diode current for one anode,
expressed as a function of wGR L; (below) Ratio of peak diode current to average diode
current for one anode, expressed as a function of weR L (Ref. 6).
1176 (iii) TO DETERMINE PEAK AND AVERAGE DIODE CURRENTS 30.2
A
Rs 338
Step 6. R% = 2800 x 100 = 12.1%.
L
Step 7. Knowing that n = 2 for full wave rectification,
A
R8 12.1
nRL = 2 % = 6.05%.
Step 8. From Fig. 30.8 (lower) where nwCR L = 21.2 we may obtain
A
id
-=- = 6.
id
Step 9. The average diode current id :
id = I L for half-wave circuits and full-wave voltage doubler circuits,
fd = tIL for full-wave circuits.
In this example ~ = 125/2 = 62.5 mAo
Step 10. The peak diode current, is obtained by substituting the value of i d
given by Step 9 in the result of Step 8. In the example
1\
id = 6 id = 6 x 62.5 = 375 mAo
(N.B. the maximum rating is 400 mA).
100
I
to=o.
80 ':IRCUIT PARAMETER
0
.......~
~ A %IR'YRL
0
I;::
1:=: ... ~~
HALF-WAVE ! ~ ~:::.::••.0·1
~~
I.O
~--.~ ... ····10
..... ······30
0
~~ \IOLTAGE-OOUSLE~ ,1'- .....
~ , .... "0'1 f-
·'·10
~ ~i': r-
'~::···.O'I
~~r,
~
FULL-WAVE
' [ \ ·····1·0
0
1\'.
····10
·······30 f-
8
A
6
" I i I
A
,,'\
I\.."\.~
"
~'
~
."~
!
2
I
'~ ~ ~:~~
!
't\ ~~~
I
~
r\f\.~ ~ ~
8
I\.'\.
",,,,- "''\.'\.'\.
.'\.~~
'~ ~~~ ~
I
4 0 8 4 6 8 20 40 6080 200
10 100
"'CPL (c IN FARADS. RL IN OHMS)
..
Fig. 30.9. Curves for the determinati'on of the ripple factor oj condenser input fileer
rectifier circuits (Ref. 6).
30.2 (iv) TO DETERMINE RIPPLE PERCENTAGE 1177
Fig. 30.10. Ratio of operating peak inverse voltage to peak applied a.c. fOT rectifiers
used in condenser input filter circuits.
1178 (vi) PROCEDURE WHEN COMPLETE DATA NOT AVAILABLE 30.2
A A
Step 4. Calculate Rs ra + Rs.
1\
Step 5. Using Fig. 30.8 (lower curves), and knowing nwCR L , Rs and nRp
A -
determine i ali a. If this differs appreciably from the assumed value, repeat steps
3, 4 and 5.
A
Step 6. Calculate Ir al = r alO 93.
Step 7. Calculate IRsl = Rs + Iral.
Step 8. Calculate the percentage IRslIRL and apply to Fig. 30.9 to determine
the ripple percentage.
Step 9. Calculate IR81/nRL and apply to Fig. 30.8 (upper curves) to determine
lialjia, and thence lidl which is the transformer secondary r.m.s. CUlrent.
~ 1\
Step 10. Calculate r d = r 410.88.
Step 11. Calculate R, = R, + ;:-a.
24
J
20
J
I
I
I
/
~ I V
:.
..
c 8
I J
~ /
U
V
V
V
.. ,..... -I-- I--
I-'"
o
20 40 60 80 100
OfoVolta e Ratio = Direct Output Voltage (Ed.e.)
9 n x Peak A.C. Voltage per Plate (£',J
FIG. 30. lOA
Fig. 30.10A. This curve is for full-wave, half-wave and voltage-doubler rectifiers with
condenser-input filters. It applies for any size of condenser so long as the condenser is
large enough to give maximum output voltage for the given output current and r.m.s.
voltage input. For half-wave and voltage-doubler rectifiers the direct current per anode
~ = I I.; for full wave rectifiers = tI L' fa
- n = 1 for full-wave and half-wave rectifiers.
n = 2 for voltage doubler rectifiers.
30.2 (vi) PROCEDURE WHEN COMPLETE DATA NOT AVAILABLE 1179
gives id/ia = 5.8, which differs so slightly from the assumed value of 6 that the cal-
culated values of effective diode resistance may be taken as sufficiently accurate.
/I. _
If the value of i d/i d, as calculated above, differed appreciably from the assumed value,
it would be necessary to repeat steps 3, 4 and 5.
/I.
Peak current iii = 5.8 X 62.5 = 362 mAo
/I.
Step 6. lTd I = Td/0.93 = 328/0.93 = 352 ohms.
Step 7. IRsl = Rs + ITal = 50 + 352 = 402 ohms.
Step 8. (IRsl/RL) X 100 = 402 X 100/2800 = 14.4%.
Applying to Fig. 30.9 with wCR L = 10.6 gives ripple percentage = 5.5%.
Step 9. (IRsl/nRL) X 100 = 7.2%. Applying this to Fig. 30.8 (upper curves)
gives lidl/i~ = 2.2.
Therefore transformer secondary r.m.s. current = 2.2 X 62.5 = 138 mAo
._ /I.
alternating voltage per p~ate is 3500, and the peak hot-switching transient current
is not to exceed 2.2 amperes, then
A
Rs + r ds = 350 X 1.41/2.2 = 225 ohms.
A
But r dB = 182 ohms.
Therefore R s = 43 ohms minimum.
10 p.F 140 rnA 120 rnA 86% 150 rnA 130 rnA 86%
20 p.F 180 rnA 154 rnA 85% 180 rnA 150 rnA 83%
30 p.F 200 rnA 168 rnA 84% 200 rnA 168 rnA 84%
Based on English T.C.C. condensers, 450 volt (d.c.) working, ambient temperature
40°C, (RsIRL) = 10% and 50 cis full wave rectification we have:
In the cases listed above, the load current is approximately 85% of the maximum
ripple current; this only applies for (RBIR L ) = 10%. Values for three conditions
are given below:
load current
73% 85% 102% approx.
ripple current
In practice, in radio receivers and a-f amplifiers, (R.I R L) is usually well within the
extreme limits 1 % and 30%.
If the ripple current for any desired condition is greater than the permissible limit,
the capacitance of a single unit condenser may be increased andlor the value of R,
may be increased either by selecting a different valve type or adding resistance in
series with each plate. Either method of increasing R B will require a higher trans-
former voltage. Alternatively two condensers may be connected in parallel, with the
total capacitance unchanged, each of which will carry part of the ripple current ;
however, equal sharing of current cannot be guaranteed and a large safety margin is
desirable. The parallel arrangement confers no appreciable benefits with the T.C.C.
ratings, as compared with an increase in capacitance of a single unit.
In general, load currents up to 120 rnA may safely be employed with plain foil or
70 rnA with etched foil without any investigation.
(5)
1\
If Ll = Lc = Rd61Tj, then ia F::::i 2IL " (6)
1\
If Ll = 2L c = R d31Tj,then i d. F::::i 1.5 I L' (7)
The approximation in equation (4) is due to the neglect of ripple frequencies higher
than twice the supply frequency.
If the rectifier valve has a peak current rating equal to or greater than twice the
maximum direct load current rating, and if the value of Ll never falls below L c' it
is not necessary to calculate peak diode currents. The same holds when the peak
current rating is equal to or greater than twice the maximum direct current to be
drawn from the rectifier. Owing to the desire to limit the rectifier peak current, it is
preferable to make the inductance at least 2L e at the highest load current. The drop
in inductance at maximum load current will result in a reduction of filtering, but this
is not likely to cause any trouble. As the choke will normally be followed by a filter
capacitance (C1 in Fig. 30.1G), any reduction in the inductance of Ll below Lc at
any value of load will cause the rectifier system to take on the characteristics of a con-
denser input filter and the output voltage will rise.
It is important to remember, when measurements are being made on a filter choke
to determine its suitability for use in choke input circuits, that due consideration
should be given to the large value of a.c. potential which will exist across it under
working conditions. This potential will increase the inductance at low values of
d.c. polarization provided that the sum of the a.c. and d.c. fluxes does not cause
saturation of the core.
For the accurate calculation of voltage output and regulation of a choke input type
filter, the voltage drop due to the resistance of the choke, rectifier and supply must
be taken into consideration. The choke resistance can be easily ascertained and the
rectifier resistance may be derived from the curves of Fig. 30.4 using the method
outlined below. The supply resistance in series with the anode, in a.c. operated
equipments, will be equal to the transformer winding resistance [for calculation see
pages 99 and 100] plus any added series resistance. In a.c./d.c. equipment it will
be equal to the value of the limiting resistor in series with the anode. It is assumed
that the rectifier will be operating, under conditions of continuous current flow; it
1\ _
can be shown (Ref. 6) that r d. F::::i r a F::::i Ir al also that the average anode current (one
anode) ia = I L/2. The procedure is best illustrated by an example.
Example :-It is desired to design a power supply with choke input filter to deliver
o to 200 mA at 350 volts using a 5U4-G rectifier at 50 cis. The choke is assumed
to have 100 ohms resistance and the effective supply resistance per anode is 75 ohms.
In order to reduce the initial value of Ll:J a bleeder to take 20 mA is assumed.
At 20 mA: RL 350/0.02 = 17500 ohms
Ll = Lc = 17500/940 = 18.6 H (minimum).
ia = 20/2 = 10 mAo
1\
ia = 2
X 20 = 40 mAo
Average anode current during conduction = 20 mAo
. Referring to Fig. 30.4 (curve 10): anode voltage corresponding to 20 mA is 11.7
volts.
rd = 11.7/0.02 = 585 ohms.
At 220 mA: RL = 350/0.22 = 1590 ohms.
1184 (i) RECTIFICATION WITH CHOKE INPUT FILTER 30.3
I III 11111
I I I IIII III i I I'
~r- I I III ii III I ~ i I! 1 iii
00 '0-.1 1°, 0,
1-'"
I I I I I '\V
Fig. 30.11. Curves for the determination of th:J ripple factor of choke input rectifier
circuits (based on Ref. 27), applying to the circuit of Fig. 30.1G for full wave rectification
on a 50 cis supply. The curves may be applied to any other supply frequency by multi-
plying values of inductance and capacitance by 2 for 25 cis, 1.25 for 40 cis, or 0.83 for
60 cis. The ripple curves may be used independently of the K curves and load resistance
curves to derive the ripple factor (i.e. ripple voltage E Rl expressed as a percentage of the
direct load voltage). The operating point at any value of load resistance which occurs
in practice should be above (preferably well above) the corresponding load resistance
curve, thus determining the inductance L 1 • In order to limit the initial (startiflg) transient
current to the maximum peak current rating of the rectifier valve, the operating point
should be above and to the left of the corresiJOndinJ! K curve. where
r.m.s. voltage per anode IE -I· - -
K=
1110 X peak plate current rating of diode
30.3 (i) RECTIFICATION WITH CHOKE INPUT FILTER 1185
Ll at ill
Lc 1 0.87 IL
2Lc 0.5 0.75 IL
4Lc 0.25 0.72 IL
= infinity 0 0.707 IL
(i) General
Where it is required to obtain a higher direct voltage from a given a.c. input than is
possible with normal rectifier cjrcuits and where for reasons of weight; economy or
other factors it is not desired to use a transformer, voltage multiplying rectifier circuits
may be used.
These circuits involv,e the principle of. charging condensers ·-in·· parallel from· the
input and adding them in series for the output, the switching being accomplished
by the rectifier valves.
FIG. 30. 13
FIG. 30.12
In both circuits, the larger the capacitance of the condensers the nearer the output
It.
voltage will be to 2E _ and the better the voltage regulation, but care must be taken
that the peak current ratings of the rectifiers are not exceeded.
It can be shown (Ref. 10) that at values of wCR L greater than 10, the values of
It. _ It. .
i (1ji d, Ed c/E _, ripple etc. for a half-wave voltage doubler are for all practical pur-
poses the same as the values for the full-wave voltage doubler and calculations of both
types can therefore be made by means of the graphs in Sect. 2.
From these graphs it can be seen that if a voltage multiplication of 1.6 or greater
is required, the value of wCR L should not be less than 100, also that R8/RL should not
be greater than 1.5%. This means that if a voltage doubler is to give a high output
and to be of good regulation, the maximum output current is strictly limited.
FIG. 30.14
6'3v
6·3Y FIG. 30. 17
Fig. 30.16. Shunt diode bias supply suitable for the bias of r-f; i-f ana a-f amplifier
f}alf}es.
Fig. 30.17. Voltage doubler bias supply suitable for the bias of output stages.
J.... FIG.30.la
30.6 SHUNT DIODE BIAS SUPPLIES 1189
600
R•• CO....;.
--- R. -"
R.-25pOOn RewIS} -:»0
R•• IO,OOOfi
Ed.c.
It..~
3_
--
I- ., •i~·
'-"
-.
~I -OS ·1 . to
C IN lJF • 5 FIG. 30. 19
Fig. 30.19. Output 'Voltage of the circuit of Fig. 30.18 for 'Various 'Values of C I and R I •
2SO
II I
R,.SpOO.c
....-
R.. 1OpOO~
ISO
R.-25,CXX> n.
I
.,..
Rrso,axJ n.
50
0
·01 ·OS·I·25 oS (00
C, IN JIF FIG. 30.20
Fig. 30.20. Rectifier peak current 'Values for the circuit of Fig. 30.18 for 'Various 'Values
ofG I and R I •
1190 SHUNT DIODE BIAS SUPPLIES 30 ••
50
for bias. In such a case power would be wasted in voltage dividers. The shunt
diode system allows the use of a 6H6 type rectifier since the cathode is at earth potential.
It is often possible to use a spare diode in one of the valves already in the equipment,
thUS' doing away with the need for an extra valve.
Two versions of the circuit are shown in Figs. 30.16 and 30.17, Fig. 30.16 being
suitable for the bias on r-f, i-f and a-f voltage amplifier valves. Fig. 30.17 is a voltage
doubling circuit useful for the bias voltage of output stages. It has a maximum out-
put voltage of 18 volts when supplied from a 6.3 volt heater line.
1r..1-<IoOJR,
fOR R.-o-IMA, ;t. ...
IOIR,
FlG.30.22
fOR R.-ICpX)A;t;I- 5 IR,
400
300
Ed.c.
Ii --
200
I j
100
,·,Ii t
H- :l-r tit IW I I HI
t
o
·01 ·05 ·1 ·25 '5 "0
C IN }IF FIG. 30. 23
F£g. 30.23. Output voltage of the circuit of Fig. 30.22 for various values of C 1 and R 1•
SECTION 7: REFERENCES
1. Cockcroft, J. D., and E. T. S. Walton, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) 136.619 (1932).
2. Dellenbauch, F. S., Jr., and R. S. Quimby, " The important first choke in high voltage rectifier
circuits," Q.S.T. 16.2 (Feb. 32) 15.
3. Dellenbauch, S. F., Jr., and R. S. Quimby" The first filter choke-its effect on regulation and
smoothing," Q.S.T. 16.3 (March 1932) 26.
4. Dellenbauch, F. S. Jr., and R. S. Quimby, "The economical design of smoothing filters," Q.S.T.
16.4 (April 1932) 33.
Reich, H. J. (book)
5. 564. . "Theory and Applications of Electron Tubes" (McGraw-Hill, 2nd Edit. 1944)
6. Schade, O. H. " Analysis of rectifier operation," Proc. I.R.E. 31.7 (July 1943) 341.
7. Waidelich, D. L. "Voltage multiplier circuits," Elect. 14.5 (May 1941) 28.
8. Waidelich, D. L. "Full-wave voltage doubling rectifier circuit" Proc. loR.E. 29.10 (Oct. 1941) 554.
9. Waidelich, D. L., and C. H. Gleason" The half-wave voltage doubling rectifier circuit" Proc.
1.R.E. 30.12 (Dec. 1942) 535.
10. Waidelich, D. L., and C. L. Shackelford, " Characteristics of voltage multiplying rectifiers" Proc.
loR.E. 32.8 (Aug. 1944) 470.
11. Waidelich, D. L., and H. A. K. Taskin "Analysis of the voltage tripling and quadrupling rectifier
circuits," Proc. I.R.E. 33.7 (July 1945) 449.
12. "Use of the shunt diode for supplying bias voltage" Elect. 18.9 (Sept. 1945) 218.
13. Chadwick, E. W. " Voltage multiplier circuits with selenium rectifiers" Comm. 27.1 (Jan. 1947) 14.
14. "Selenium rectifiers in home receivers" Tele-Tech 6.1 (Jan. 1947) 73.
15. Kauzmann, A. P. "Determination of current and dissipation .values for high-vacuum rectifier
tubes" R.C.A. Rev. 8.1 (March 1947) 82.
16. 1947) 120. D. L. "Analysis of full-wave rectifier and capacitive-input filter " Elect. 20.9 (Sept.
Waidelich,
17. Berkman, R. "Using selenium rectifiers" Q.S.T. 31.10 (Oct. 1947) 50.
18. Tucker, D. G. " Rectifier resistance laws" W.E. 25.295 (April 1948) 117.
19. Rowe, E. G., R. E. B. Wyke and W. Macrae" Power diodes" Part 1 " The design of high-vacuum
oxide-coated rectifiers" Electronic Eng. 20.245 (July 1948) 214.
20. Dishington, R. H. "Diode circuit analysis" E.E. 67.11 (Nov. 1948) 1043.
21. "The copper oxide rectifier" E.E. 67.11 (Nov. 1948) 1051.
22. Ramsay, H. T. "The rating of small- and medium-power thermionic rectifiers" Jour. I.E.E. 94.
Part III 30 (July 1947) 260. .
23. Clarke, C. A. " Selenium rectifier characteristics" Elect. Comm. 20.1 (1941) 47.
24. Tarmack, J. E. " Selenium rectifiers and their design" Trans. A.LE.E. 61 (July 1942) 488.
25. " Selenium rectifiers for closely regulated voltages" Elect. Comm. 20.2 (1941) 124.
26. Richards, E. A. "The characteristics and applications of the selenium rectifier" Jour. I.E.E. 88
Part III (Dec. 1941) 238; 89 Part III (March 1942) 73.
27. "Air Cooled Transmitting Tubes" Technical Manual TT3, Radio Corporation of America (1938).
28. Terman, F. E. (book) "Radio Engineers' Handbook" (McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1st Edit.
1943) p. 601.
29. Lee, R. "Choke-input filter chart" Elect. (Sept. 1949) 112.
30. Lee, R. " Additional uses for rectifier filter chart" Elect. 22.9 (Sept. 1949) 174.
31. Builder, G. "A note on full wave rectifiers" (unpublished paper).
32. Dunham, C. R. " Some considerations in the design of hot-cathode mercury-vapour rectifier cir-
cuits" 75.453 (Sept. 1934) 278.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
CHAPTER 31
It can easily be shown that for a given total value of LC, maximum filtering is ob-
tained when all the filter sections are similar. Increasing the number of sections for
a given total value of LC also increases the filtering, but there is little gained in break-
ing up the filter into more sections than that number which makes XL = lOX c'
This is only appropriate if there is a definite limitation in the maximum value of
LC. In general, better economy will be achieved by using not more than two sections,
and increasing the value of C to give the required filtering.
The filter factor ~ = ERIERl = (w R2LC - 1)"
where n is the number of similar sections .
LC is the value of LC for one section (henrys and farads)
and WR = 27TfR
where fR = ripple frequency.
This can be expressed as :-
LC = ("~ + 1)1 w R 2 = 0.0254 ("V;- + 1)lfR 2 •
The formula above assumes that X L ~ 20X c' the usual practical case.
For quick reference, a graph has been prepared (Fig. 31.1B) for a single section
filter to give the relationships betvleen the \~ues of E R' E Rl a:ud L 1 C 2 based on the
1192
31.1 INDUcrANCE-CAPACITANCE FILTERS 1193
2 ......
"L~ f'IioL I
r"t...N~ iJlo. I .1
I' ~ .ililill 1111 111111 1 1·1 i L
1 " ~~ ;1111 1111 III
~~
"I.
....
"""
i'
f"
I' l"-
f"
I
'"... ...
~
t'"
I'
•-
!"o
'" '"
---'
l"~
'-::
-..g
~
1'...1 I' "
i i
·01
1 "" I t;'~ i"'- ,I
-10 20 40 60 80 100
L. (HENRIES) X c. (MICROFARADS) FIG. 31.1 B
Fig. 31.1B. Approximate relationships between ER, ERI and L 2 C2 for 50 cis full-wave
rectification (i.e. 100 cis ripple frequency) and single section filter. For other ripple
frequencies, the 'Value of the LC scale should be multiplied by the appropriate factor
as follows.
40 cis ripple-6.25; 50 cis ripple-4; 60 cis ripple-2.78; 80 cis ripple-1.56;
120 cis ripple-O.695.
approximate formula ~ = tJJ R 2LC which is sufficiently accurate for most applications.
The values of L 2 C 2 in Fig. 31.1B only hold for full-wave 50.c/s, but may be adapted
to other conditions by multiplying by a factor (see title).
With either a condenser-input (Fig. 3O.1F) or choke-input filter having a second
filter section (Fig. 31.1A) it is important to avoid resonance between the choke L
(or L 2) and condensers C 1 and C 2 in series. The inductance should be sufficiently
large to avoid resonance, with a comfortable margin, over the whole frequency range
of the amplifier and at least down to the ripple frequency (e.g. 100 cis for 50 cis
mains and full wave rectification). This may be accomplished by ensuring that in
Fig. 31.1A
C 1 + C z 25000
L" ~ C1Ca • henrys r
where f = minimum rated frequency of amplifier in cis,
and C 1 and C 2 are in microfarads.
C 1 + Cz
When f = 100 cis, Ls ~ C C x 3.5.
1 s
1194 INDUCTANCE-CAPACITANCE FILTERS 31.1
C 1 + Cz
When f = 50 cis, L'I, ~ C C: x 14.
1
1,000
I1
,• /
5
4
:/
I ~/ 1I~
:t
// r/
oL·e
•
ICIO
I VA ~
,•
• '/
v/ ~'"
:I
h ~
10 ~ ~
•
.,• L.
L
~ r':
:I V...--:::: P
i...oIor:'
:::::::::::~ V
100 • • •lpoo 4 , •
10,000
• ••
100,000
:I 4 ••
1,000,000
R (OHMS)X c u.F) FIG. 31.2
When the parallel T network is used for power supply filtering, the value of K to be
used depends upon a number of considerations : -
31.3 PARALLEL T FILTER NETWORKS 1195
FIG. 11.;1
1/2 R2 = 8R I 1/(-1TR 2 C l )
l/y2 R2 = 4Rl C2 == C1 1/(Y~R2Cl)
1 R2 = 2Rl C 2 = 2C1 1/(2rrR 2 C 1 )
V2 R2 = Rl C 2 = 4C1 1/(2V2rrR2 C 1 )
Table 2: Showmg the total capaCItance values reqwred for varIOUS values of K
with feo 100 c/s, R2 = 200 ohms.
Capacitance in f'F
K
C1 C2 2C1 + C s
"
~I' r"-
I'. r"- ~ o R___
, __ <, :
~~
f"I
~
I
10
a:
~
~
u
.i
'"~%
"",1\1\ f"I
r-..
,J}'
~~ ~I
r"-
o
I ~
10
I I
u-
....
a:
I I
""," ! !
"'
I I
I i " ,
I
II
I I
!' !I~
Ii, ;~ ~i' i I
.1:
I i
10
10 d d ~ ~
INFINITE ATTENUATION FREQUENCY (cIS) FIC. 31. 4
Fig. 31.4. Values of R 2 C1 required for various values of K to obtain infinite attenuation
at frequency f eo .
1196 PARALLEL T FILTER NETWORKS 31.3
By reference to Fig. 31.4, it will be seen that the minimum value of R 2 C I will be
required for K = vi Whenfoo = 100 this gives a value of R 2 C 1 not easily obtain-
able with standard values of components, and K = 1 will give more easily obtained
values. Also when K = 1, the total capacitance required is a minimum. Where use
is made of this filter, some attenuation must be provided for the ripple frequency
harmonics, and this may be accomplished by means of a resistance-capacitance filter
(see Sect. 2). A typical complete circuit is shown in Fig. 31.5.
For the theory of parallel T filter networks reference should be made to Chapter 4,
Sect. 8(iii). See also Ref. 1.
SECTION 4: HUM-GENERAL
(i) Hum due to conditions within the valves (ii) Hum due to circuit design and
layout (Ii,) Hum levels in receivers and amplifiers.
Hum in the output of an a.c. operated receiver or amplifier may be due to many
causes. These may be sub-divided into two main groups, hum due to conditions
within the valves, and hum due to circuit design and layout.
ated from one heater pin only by one other pin, the latter should preferably be earthed
directly, or else by-passed to earth by a large condenser. In other cases the heater
terminal to be earthed should be chosen to provide minimum hum with regard to the
position of un-earthed or unbypassed terminals.
Valves with the grid connection brought out to a top cap have less capacitance
coupling between heater and grid circuits, but there may be appreciable electro-
magnetic coupling into the loop formed by the cathode-to-grid path and the return
path through the valve. For this reason it is sometimes found that a double-ended
valve gives more hum in a low level amplifier than a well designed single-ended stage.
When single-ended valves are used, the all-glass (e.g. miniature) construction gives
less capacitance coupling from heater to grid or plate thaIi an equivalent single-ended
valve with a "pinch" (stem press) construction.
Reduction of the grid resistor value will also reduce the hum due to capacitive
coupling, as the grid resistor and the heater-to-grid capacitance form a potential
divider which determines the proportion of the heater voltage fed to the grid, unless
there is a large grid coupling condenser and a low impedance to earth from the other
side of it.
Diode-heater capacitance can also cause high hum levels in diode-triodes and diode-
pentodes as the diode is effectively coupled to the control grid. For this reason it is
recommended that the diode used for signal detection should, in the case of double-
diode valves, be the diode further from the heater pins on the valve base.
(2) Conduction from heater to cathode will cause a current to flow from the heater
to the cathode, thence through the impedance· between cathode and earth. The
resultant hum may be· minimized by reducing the effective voltage applied to the
circuit, and by reducing the impedance bet-ween cathode and ea........h. The voltage may
be reduced by a potentiometer connected across the heater supply, with the slider
earthed and its position adjusted for minimum hum output-as for hum due to capaci-
tive coupling. The impedance between cathode and earth may be reduced by the use
of a large capacitance by-pass condenser across the cathode bias resistor, or may be
made zero by earthing the cathode and obtaining negative bias from some .hum-free
source.
See also Ref. 7.
(3) Emission from heater to cathode is caused by impurities in the heater insulation
material or from the deposit, during valve manufacture, of cathode material on to the
heater. To overcome this fault the heater should be biased positively with respect
to the cathode. As the voltage required may be of the order of 50 volts, the minimum
required to give satisfactory hum reduction should be used to avoid exceeding the
maximum permissible heater-cathode voltage.
Cathode-to-heater emission can also take place and cause hum, although it is not
common. The cure for this is the biasing of the heater negatively with respect to
cathode.
In the general case hum may be due to two or more causes, and minimum hum may
be obtained in any particular case by connecting the moving arm of the potentiometer
to a point of positive (or sometimes negative) voltage of the order of 5 to 50 volts and
by experimentally obtaining optimum adjustment of both potentiometer and voltage.
(4) Modulation of the electron stream by the magnetic field will depend on the type
of heater and the electrode construction. If the centre-point of the heater circuit is
earthed, the double helix gives noticeably less hum than the folded heater, but when
one side of the heater is earthed the reverse may occur, depending on the electrode
arrangement-see Ref. 6, Fig. 47.
Heater-induced hum in a-f amplifiers-summary*
The amplifier designer has to make allowance for the total hum, effective at the grid
of the valve, due to the use of a.c. supply to the heater. There are very few valve
types for which information is available in this regard--see Chapter 18 Sect. 2(v)
for hum data on types 12AY7 and 5879. Tables have been published (Ref. 10) giving
values of the 60 cis component of the hum voltage of a fairly wide range of types with
*Contributed by the Editor.
1198 (i) HUM DUE TO CONDITIONS WITHIN THE VALVES 31.4
cathode by-passed and unbypassed, grid resistor zero and 0.5 megohm, and with
different heater earthing arrangements but this does not give any indication of the total
hum and is likely to be misleading since the ratio of total hum to 60 c/s component
varies widely from type to type.
By the choice of a suitable valve type (e.g. 5879, triode operation) it is possible to
achieve a median hum voltage effective on the grid of less than 4 microvolts under
optimum conditions, with only a small percentage exceeding 10 microvolts, with grid
resistor 0.1 megohm. On the other hand, with other types of valves and with other
than optimum conditions, the hum may exceed 500 microvolts.
See also Chapter 12, Sect. 10(vi) and Chapter 18, Sect. 2(iii).
Refs. 5, 6, 7, 9, 10.
When tracing hum it may be found that the reduction of hum in one part of the
circuit may increase the overall hum level as, when the hum is due to more than one
cause, a certain amount of cancellation may be taking place.
See also Chapter 18, Sect. 2(iii) on pre-amplifiers.
Hum caused by heater-cathode leakage with an unbypassed cathode resistor is
dealt with in Chapter 7, Sect. 2(ix)B.
The effect of the output valve on bum originating in the plate supply
voltage*
(See Chapter 7, Sect. 2(ix) for the effect of feedback).
Case (1)-Triode with transformer-coupled output
The hum output voltage across the primary of the output transformer is
E hO = EhRd(RL + rj»)
where Eh = hum voltage in plate supply
RL = load resistance reflected on to primary of outPut transformer
and rj) plate resistance of valve.
If RL = 2r j) (as is typical)
then E hO = 0.67 E h'
Case (2)-Triode with parallel-feed (series inductor)
This is an excellent circuit for low hum provided that the choke Ll has a reactance
at the hum frequency at least several times the impedance of rJ) and R L in parallel.
See Chapter 7, Sect. 2 equation (55).
E hO = cos (J. Eh
where (J = tan-l LdR
and R = r~d(rj) + R L )·
Case (3)-Pentude with transformer-coupled output
See Chapter 7, Sect. 2, equation (53).
EhO = Eh[Rd(R L + rj») + RL /L{l21>I(R L + Tj»)]'
The screen and plate effects are additive. The second term would become zero
if the screen were perfectly filtered.
Case (4)-Pentode with parallel-feed (series indu~or)
The hum due to the plate circuit is low, but that due to the screen is high. Screen
filtering is required for low total hum.
See Chapter 7, Sect. 2, equation (57).
E hO ~ Eh cos (J - RL /L{l2pl(R L + Tp)
where (J and R are as in Case (2).
References: Chapter 7 Refs. B3, B4, B5, B7.
Typical values (all cases)
Typical values for types 2A3 and 6V6 are given in Chapter 13, Sect. 10(v).
loudspeaker, then the limit of aUdibility is about -35 dbm for an average listener,
and -45 dbm for a very critical listener . A good quality receiver or amplifier should
therefore have a hum level less than -35 dbm for 3% loudspeaker efficiency at the
hum frequency. This quoted loudspeaker efficiency of 3% is a fairly typical average
value over the a-f frequency band, but the effective efficiency at the hum frequency
may be higher or lower than the average value. The efficiency at the hum frequency
will be higher than the average value if bass boosting is used, or if the cabinet/loud-
speaker combination accentuates the hum frequency. The efficiency at the hum
frequency will be lower than the average value if the hum frequency is lower than the
loudspeaker bass resonance or if the cabinet attenuates the hum frequency. In
cases where the loudspeaker efficiency is higher or lower than 3%, the permissible
hum level should be adjusted accordingly .
This calculation for hum is somewhat unrealistic since it is based on the supposition .
that the hum is predominandya single frequency. Any higher frequency components
will give a higher acoustical hum level without appreciably affecting the measured
value.
Summing up
For critical home listening with low room noise and with loudspeakers of normal
sensitivity, the hum level should not be above -40 dbm, with -50 dbm as a pre-
ferred limit.
Under other conditions, with higher background noise or a less critical audience,
a somewhat higher hum level may not be found objectionable.
6AU6
Triode
t ConnIcWl
LOAD
t
E
R~ OUTPuT
AC·R,,+ Rf
EOUTPUT .. E INPUT - ~(IA+IL)
FIG. 31.7
Fig. 31.6. Valve hum Fig. 31.7. Practical valve hum neu-
neutralizing circuit. tralizing circuit.
A typical circuit is shown in Fig. 31.7 and the value of ripple reduction Gt obtained
together with the values of Re are plotted in Fig. 31.S as a function of R ,.
The lowest ripple frequency which this circuit will suppress depends upon the time
constant of R IIC 11 which for this circuit is given by T = R,C 11/(1 - R ,/R,) pro-
>-
vided ,.,. 1, and the internal resistance Ro = R. ,.,./(,.,. + 1).
As the condition for neutralization does not involve the load impedance, the re-
12tively high impeti~nce of the reg111~tor can be reduced to a low \"alue for a.c. voltages
by shunting the output by a large condenser.
31.5 HUM NEUTRALIZING 1201
4,800
~
1,000
~V 4,000
I ./
V
f V I
.2 800 ./ ~ ~
't.ot'~
3,200
./
V o
V ~~t-
./ ~\~~
lL
r"" ~~ '0
lLV ..". ~
.
V V ',600 ~>
lL i-"
L...--' V ""'- I---' I
800
VI V v
~
~oo ',200 1.000 2,000 21'00 2,800 3,200 3,600 4,000 4,400 4,800 0
Value 01 R. In Ohms FIG. 31.8
Fig. 31.8. Values oj ct and Rc as aJunction oj RsJor the circuit oj Fig. 31.7.
In this way coupling between stages due· to a high common impedance can be re-
duced.
Care must be taken that the value of input ripple to the circuit does not swing the
valve bejtond the linear position of its &~~cteristics.
(C) Another form of neutralization, which is limited to pentode voltage amplifiers,
is described in Chapter 12 Sect. 10(vi)D and Fig. 12.57.
CD) A form of neutralization suitable for use with multistage amplifiers is described
in Ref. 4. Another form is described in Ref. II.
(E) Various types of neutralizing are commonly used in radio receivers, for example,
hum from the back bias supply may be neutralized at the grid of an output valve by
hum from the B supply, with a suitable choice of output valve grid leak and plate load
resistor for the a-f amplifier. In other cases the balance of these hum components
may be adjusted so that the resultant neutrali.tes hum in the plate circuit of the output
valve. More complicated neutralizing circuits even include hum components from
the control and screen grids of the a-famplifier in the balance at the grid of the output
valve.
SECTION 6: REFERENCES
1. "Applications of a parallel' T ' network" A.R.T.S. and P. Bulletin No. 118 Gan. 1942).
2. Reich, H. J. "Theory and Applications of Electron tubes" (McGraw-Hill, 2nd Edit. 1944).
3. Sowerby, J. McG. "Shunt voltage stabilizer" W.W. 54.6 (June 1948) 200.
4. Wen-Yuan Pan "Circuit for neutralizing low-frequency regeneration and power-supply hum"
Proc. I.R.E. 30.9 (Sept. 1942) 411.
5. Dickerson, A. F ... Hum reduction" Elect. 21.12 (Dec. 1948) 112.
6. Benjarrrin, M., C. W. Cosgrove and G. W. Warren" Modern receiving valves: design and manu-
facture" Jour. I.E.E. 80.484 (April 1937) 401.
7... Heater-cathode leakage as a source of hum" Elect. 13.2 (Feb. 1940) 48.
8. Terman, F. E., and S. B. Pickles" Note on a cause of residual hum in rectifier-filter systems"
Proc. I.R.E. 22.8 (Aug. 1934) 1040.
9. Fleming, L. T. "Controlling hum in audio amplifiers" Radio and TV News 4.5 (Nov. 1950) 55.
10. "Heater-induced hum in audio amplifiers" Tele-Tech 10.11 (Nov. 1951) 58.
11. Hammond, A. L. ''Neutralizing hum and regeneration" Audio Eng. 36.5 (May 1952) 22.
CHAPTER 32
Section Page
1. Vibrators-general principles ... 1202
2. Vibrator transformer design 1205
3. Timing capacitance 1207
4. Elimination of vibrator interference 1210
5. 12, 24 and 32 volt vibrator supplies 1211
6. References 1212
(i) Operation
The vibrator consists essentially of a vibrating reed upon which are mounted
switching contacts. By the method of connection in a battery circuit, these contacts
enable the direct battery voltage to be converted into an approximate square wave.
This can then be transformed and rectified to obtain a plate voltage supply. The
standard type vibrators operate at a frequency between 100 and 120 cis. High fre-
quency types operating about 250 cis are available for special applications.
1202
32.1 (n) VIBRATOR TYPES 1203
+
~--------------~ BATTERY
these two positions enables the correct output polarity to be obtained from either
positive or negative earthed supplies.
In the self-rectifying type, the elimination of the rectifier valve reduces the overall
size, power consumption* and heating of the equipment, although at the expense of
increased difficulty in hash elimination and, perhaps, of some of the reliability of the
non-synchronous type.
The use of split-reed synchronous vibrators allows greater circuit flexibility, par-
ticularly in cases in which one model of radio receiver is to be used with dry-battery
or vibrator-operated power supplies.
f'IG.32·"
\ \
,
\
\
,
\
I
I
I
I I
I I
I I
/
----.",
,; " ...... -----.".,,; '" "
+
nC.l2·S
Fig. 32.5. Two alternative methods of shunt coil energizing; (A) with separate
starting contacts (B) conventional shunt energizing.
The advantage claimed for the separate driver system energizing and also for the
arrangement shown in Fig. 32.SA, is that as the coil current is not switched by the
power contacts, good starting will be obtained even towards the end of life or at low
battery voltages. This is not the case in Fig. 32.5B in which the starting performance
is dependent upon the condition of the power contacts.
*If a cold-cathode rectifier is used the power consumption of synchronous and non-synchronous
types should be the same.
32.1 (v) WAVEFORM AND TIME EFFICIENCY 1205
fiG. 32·6
1
~
I
~ ~
~ ~
~
~~ ~
~ ~~
~ ~ ~~ tORE ~
~
r--
I~ -- -
~
~ ~ --
fIC.~·7
The secondary insulation should be good enough to prevent the risk of a voltage
breakdown caused by any irregularity occurring in the vibrator during life which
may cause high transient voltages to be developed.
As the magnetizing current of a vibrator transformer has to be supplied by the
battery, this represents a power loss and it should be reduced to the minimum possible
value--for further details see Sect. 3(iv). This can be done by keeping the flux
density B at a low value. The value of B will depend upon the primary voltage, all
other quantities being fixed. This value of primary voltage is subject to considerable
variations; e.g. from 5.5 to 7.5 volts on a car radio input when a voltage regulator
is fitted to the battery charging system, and this may rise to·9.0 volts without the
regulator. In the general case the transformer may be designed to have satisfactory
characteristics at a maximum of 8 volts.
A high value of magnetizing current also limits the maximum output available
from the vibrator. This is because the magnetizing current has to be handled by the
primary contacts whose current carrying capacity is limited, thus reducing the current
rating available for the load.
Ir-tl --4zr-
I
~"CYCLE
I \
I \
I \
o~------~++--~-.-4~--~/_-~~~~~
\ / T1Mf
' .....
F1G.3z·a
value should not be decided, until after examination of the voltage waveform obtained.
This test should be carried out with a number of samples of the vibrator which it is
intended to use.
o
TIME
fIG.3Z·9
As the effect of overclosure is to produce high transient voltages, and as during life
the tendency is for tl and ta to become shorter, the vibrator will rapidly deteriorate.
By aiming at slight under-closure the effect during life is for conditions to approach
100% closure.
For this reason a value of approximately 65% closure is chosen for an average case,
as shown in Fig. 32.10A-this means a larger value of timing capacitance than indicated
by eqn. (5).
rtr1t~r
~
I I
~
I I
I I I I
I I I I
o I I I 0~----~----~~----1-~ __
I I TIME
I I
I I
L/i
l.,J..L FIG. 32.10 FIG. 32.IOA
90
::J-- _
-1..1
C
80 c'
-'-, ,
I
i
u
A
~10 A
adI
t:
a: , .J
.J
ILl
0- X x
60
dI
ILl
Z
B
...J B B'
0
:::!50
~
I
....>-
~40 .,
ILl
0
X
::J
~~
I
II)
ZO f-'
10
o
o 0'5 1'0 1'5 Z·O 2'5 ~·o 4·0
H - AMPERE TURNS PER INCH.
FIC.32·U
1210 ELIMINATION OF VIBRATOR INTERFERENCE 32.4
x 0() IlJf
--- .... ,
• urCA
" "\
~
.o~
~
loon RI
100 ·R Z
·05 I
)JF /
+ 200
BATTERY "+IJJJf UICA
-1·I-.---J
flG.32·12
~------ __ HEATERS
TYPICAL VIBRATOR POWER SUPPLY SHOWINC INTERfERENCE
SUPPRESSION COUPONENTS
are not for hash elimination but to protect the vibrator transformer in the event of a
timing capacitance short-circuiting. RFC1 and RFC z are low resistance r-f chokes
made of heavy gauge wire. RFC 1 prevents interference being fed back along the
battery leads which could result in these leads radiating interference to the aerial.
RllCz prevents interference entering the r-f section of the receiver through the heater
wiring. RFC3 , a standard receiver r-f choke, is to eliminate interference frequencies
in the plate voltage supply. The resistor R3 is useful in eliminating the strong im-
pulse interference which usually exists, although at the expense of some battery
current. Alternatively, two separate resistors in series may be used across the primary
contacts, the centre point of these being earthed.
In 12, 24 and 32 volt systems where part of. the timing capacitance is usually
placed across the primary circuit to aid starting, this capacitance has been found
to be effective in reducing interference. This method can be used for 6 volt systems
to reduce the interference, but if the transformer has considerable leakage inductance
increased trouble may be experienced with spurious resonances-see Sect. 2(i).
more readily take place. This condition is particularly serious on starting where the
correct condition8 for the vibrator have not. stabilized and heavy currents may flow.
Fig. 32.13 shows a method of overcoming this difficulty, a three position switch
being used to introduce some resistance into the battery lead for the starting con-
dition.
Condensers across the contacts to suppress the arc are not to be recommended
unless the minimum value that just suppresses the arc is used. By splitting the timing
capacitance and placing part of it across the primary, arcing can be reduced. If this
is done, consideration should be given to possible resonances with the primary
leakage inductance due to imperfect addition of the split timing capacitance-see
~ect. 2(i).
We wish to give acknowledgment to P. R. Mallory and Co., Inc., for much of the
information and some of the diagrams in this Chapter, which have been adapted from
their publication "Fundamental Principles of Vibrator Power Supply Design."
SECTION 6: REFERENCES
1. "Fundamental Principles of Vibrator Power Supply Design" P. R. Mallory and Co.
2 ... RMA Standard vibrator power transformers" REC-U9 Sept. 1948 (U.S.A.).
3. Williams, M. R. "Heavy duty vibrator type power supplies" Radio News 35.6 (June 1946) 46.
4. Bell, D. A. "Vibrator power packs" W.W. 54.8 (Aug. 1948) 272.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
CHAPTER 33
(i) Barretters
In a.c./d.c. receivers, the valve heaters are wired in series and connected across the
mains supply. If the total of the heater voltages is less than the mains voltage a cur-
rent-limiting fixed resistor or a barretter is used in series with the heater circuit to
absorb the extra voltage.
The disadv-antage of the fixed resistor is that the ~..L.,.ent variations th...-."ugh the
heater circuit are greater than if the circuit consisted of valve heaters alone.
See Chapter 35 Sect. 6 for the application of series resistors and barretters to a.c./d.c.
receivers.
To maintain a constant current through the series heater circuit, with widely varying
mains voltages, a barretter is generally employed. This consists of a hydrogen-filled
tube containing an iron filament and has the property of nearly constant current flow
for wide variations in voltage across it. The actual voltage limits between which
satisfactory current regulation is obtained are stated by the manufacturers, and the
barretters should be chosen with regard to these values.
I I
r--
I
---- ---- ---- ---- ----r--- --00- --, I
7 '~~~----+----r~~---+----~~~---~~~----+----r---~-r+----r-~
= I ~io""""'"
1213
1214 (i) BARRETTERS 33.1
where L,Bin , L,I L' L,It are the small increments in Bin, I L' It. The range of regu-
lation is obtained by inserting in these equations the maximum value of L,!t.
TABLE 1
Regulator Approximate Approximate Minimum
Tube Operating Starting Supply
Type Voltage Voltage Voltage
OA2 (miniature) 150 160 185
OA3 75 100 105
OB2 (miniature) I 108 115 133
OC3 105 115 133
OD3 I 150 160 185
Operation about the midpoint of the type OD3 characteristic gives L,It (max.) =
(40 - 5) /2 = 17.5 rnA. Consider the regulator subject to small changes in load.
If for example I L = 175 rnA, from eqn. (3) the range of reguJation /::,. I d I L· = 17.5/175
= 10%. Equation (2) shows that a large range of regulations with variable Bin is
obtained when Rl is large, i.e. when a large part of Bin appears across R I •
When small load currents are required and variations in Bin and R L are small,
satisfactory regulation can be obtained by operating the regulator tube at low average
current.
Regulation is frequently desired when R L varies over the very large range from no
load to full load. In this case RI is adjusted so that at no load the maximum tube
current at maximum input voltage does not exceed the tube's ratiP..g; i.e.; 40 rnA for
type ODJ. Load voltage regulation is then obtained from zero load current to nearly
35 rnA if changes in Bin are small.
The tube voltage of types OD3, OC3 can change over their op~rating range by
approximately 3 % and this represents their limit of regulation under wide range
conditions.
If higher regulated voltages are required two or more tubes can be connected in
series as in Fig. 33.3. Additional stabilized voltages may be taken off the individual
tubes as shown. Tapping points may be provided on R L2 to give lower voltages,
however if the load varies, good regulation will be obtained only if the current drawn
from the tapping point is very small compared with the current through R L2' Grid
bias supplies for class A amplifiers may be effectively stabilized by the circuit of
Fig. 33.2 with tappings as required-see chapter 13 Sect. 10Cii).
The use of gaseous regulator tubes in parallel is not to be recommended as resistors
must be put in series with each tube so that all tubes will start and share current
equally. These resistors impair voltage regulation. Therefore when large currents
have to be handled, grid controlled valve voltage regulators must be used.
-+
i REGULATED
RL
t_
ER D.C.OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
Fig. 33.2. Simplest form of gaseous Fig. 33.3. Higher regulated voltage
tube voltage regulator. provided by two gaseous tubes in series.
eli) Valve voltage regulators
A typical valve voltage regulator is shown in Fig. 33.4. The valve VI acts as a
variable resistance whose value is varied by a change in bias. When the output voltage
tends to decrease, the grid voltage ofV2 becomes less positive. As the cathode voltage
of V2 is kept constant with respect to earth by the gaseous voltage regulator tube V 3'
1216 eii) VALVB VOLTAGE REGULATORS 33.2
and positive with respect to the grid, the fall in the positive value of the grid will in-
crease the negative bias on the valve, and III will decrease. This decrease of plate
current will cause an increase in the voltage at the plate of V 2' The plate of V2 being
directly connected to the grid of VI will cause a drop in the negative bias on VI and
the plate-cathode voltage will decrease, tending to restore the original voltage drop
across E R •
The complete mathematical analysis of voltage regulator performance is fairly
complex and for detailed information reference should be made to the biblio&nlphy
at the end of this chapter.
For practical purposes of voltage regulator design, the following method may be
used.
IL
~
R.
L
FIG. 33. 4
Valve VI
Point Output
Plate Voltage Plate Current
Each of these four points has its particular limitations as regards the operation of
the valve to maintain the correct operating conditions without exceeding the maximum
ratings. Reference should be made to Fig. 33.5 in which these four points are plotted
for a triode-connected type 807 valve.
Point I-this point must be kept in the negative grid-bias region of the curve and
a bias of not less than - 3 volts mav be taken as the desim minimum. This point
must also be kept below the maxim~ plate or screen dis;ipation curve (whichever
is first reached), and below the recommended value of current for a steady d.c.oper-
33.2 (ll) VALVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS 1217
ting condition. It is important that point 1 be kept above a certain minimum value of
plate voltage if linear characteristics are to be obtained from VH a value of not less than
125 volts on the plate being recommended.
Point 2-In order that this point should not come in the non-linear portion of the
plate characteristics, a bleed should be arranged across the supply to limit the minimum
current. This also aids power supply regulation (see Chapter 30 Sect. 3).
Point 3-This point should be kept below the maximum dissipation curve and
below the maximum rated plate voltage for the valve being used.
Point 4-This point should be kept above the non-linear portion of the charac-
teristics by means of a bleed as in (2) and also kept below the maximum plate voltage
value for the valve being used.
The maximum recommended usable section of the valve characteristic for type 807
is shown enclosed by ABCD in Fig. 33.5.
While it is possible to use higher plate current values at low plate voltages than
appear in the diagram before the plate dissipation is exceeded, this is not to be recom-
mended as reduced valve life may result.
From the graphical construction can be seen the effect of large variations of input
voltage to the regulator with varying output currents (i.e. poor regulation of the power
supply). This will cause the point 2 to move along the plate voltage axis, which
results in a reduction of the maximum variation of output voltage obtainable. When
the power supply has good regulation and the input voltage is substantiaTIy constant,
an output variation of ± 125 volts is obtainable about a nominal value. With a con-
stant output voltage the same tolerances may be allowed in the input voltage i.e.
± 125 volts. In each case it is assumed that the circuit conditions are set so that the
valve is operating at its centre point for the nominal input or output voltage.
It will be seen from this description that a choke input power supply is advisable.
Reference should be made to Chapter 30 Sect. 3 for further information on choke
input power supply design.
For minimum voltage loss across VIa valve with a high g m should be uSed. If the
load current required from the regulated supply is greater than that obtainable with
one series valve, then two or more valves may be placed in parallel.
1218 (ii) VALVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS 33.2
TABLE 3
Valves suitable for use as series regulators.
6F6-G* 45
6V6-GT* 50
6L6-G* 80
6Y6-G* 80
807* 80
6AS7-G 250
FIG. 33.6
The connection o.f the gaseous voltage regulator tube V3 also requires some con-
sideration. It has been mentio.ned in Sect. 2(i) that changing the current thro.ugh a
voltage regulator tube will produce a small change of voltage across it. As this tube is
used as the reference voltage for the regulator, any change in potential across it will
have an adverse effect upo.n the regulator performance. For this reason, if a co.nstant
o.utput voltage regulator is being designed, the series feed resistor for this tube sho.uld
be supplied from the o.utput side of the regulato.r, the extra current drawn by this tube
being taken into account when considering the current rating for VI' In cases where
the regulator has to. supply varying output voltages, V 3 may be supplied from the input
if this is sufficiently constant; preferably, V 3 should be supplied from a separate
source.
33.2 (ii) VALVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS 1219
CURVE R. VARIA81E I~
I-- -{"25Mn
2Mn
HEATER AND D.C. INPUT VOLTAGE SOmA
D.C. INPUT VOLTAGE ONLY SOmA
--- 2Mn HEATER AND D.C. INPUT VOLT~E SOmA
300
-1--- - - - - - - -
Fig. 33.7. Operation characteristics of circuit Fig. 33.6-0utput versus input voltage.
Circuits of typical voltage regulators and their performance figures are given in
Figs. 33.6 to 33.14.
In Fig. 33.6 is shown the simplest form of series valve voltage regulator, which, how-
ever, with the circuit components and values shown, is capable of good performance.
The results obtained with this regulator are shown HI Figs. 33.7 and 33.8, from which
several points should be noted. The variation of heater voltage as well as the input
30I
R.-2MA
o.C.INPUT \'OLTAGE· 600
i""""- .......
i"""""- ......... ~
10 20 30 «) so 60 70
LOAD CURMNT (IL)u FIG. 33.1
Fig. 33.8. Operation characteristics of circuit Fig. 33.6-output voltage versus load
current.
direct voltage, the usual practical caSe, results in better regulation ~an that obtained
with only direct voltage changes. This is due to a slight change of plate current in
VII together with other minor circuit changes caused by the variation of cathode
temperature in the valves. For rapid input voltage changes the regulation charac-
teristic will be as for direct input voltage changes only since the cathode temperature
cannot change rapidly. A value of 250000 ohms for Rl will be found to be sufficient
for most purposes as little increase in gain is obtained by increasing RL above this value.
FIG. 33.9
1220 (ii) VALVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS 33.2
Such a value will allow this resistor as well as all others to be wire wound if particularly
stable operation is required.
No advantage is gained in the circuit of Fig. 33.6 in stabilizing the screen supply,
this already being supplied from a substantially constant source. However screen
stabilization is necessary when the screen is used to correct for input direct voltage
changes A circuit of this type is shown in Fig. 33.9 and a constant or overcorrected
output is obtainable.
The circuit of Fig. 33.10 is useful where a controllable output voltage is,,required
and is suitable for output voltages from 50 to 300. Regulation characteristics for this
regulator are shown in Figs. 33.11 and 33.12.
~
IL • SOmA R, • 2MA
NOMINAL OUT PUT. 100 'JOLTS
r--r--
\oJ
\
i§299-8 I-'"
i\.
I-- f-"'
- ...'"
u
~
input voltage.
~ -i
~
- , SO
~
!;
...
Q.
\ U
lL-SOmA R,-2MA 0
NOMINAL OUTPUT-SO 'JOLTS
120 410 440 4SO 0460 470 480 490
R,.2MA D.C.INPUT VOLTAGE .4SO
I I-- D.C. INPUT VOLTAGE FIG. :n ..11
NOMINAL OUTPUT- 300 VOLTS
I III
U
-r-....l~
"\ '"
~
o
i' >
.P,
-~.
To draw a constant value of bleed current from the variable voltage supply, in
order to prevent soaring of the output voltage on no load, some form of constant cur-
rent device must be used. Refer to explanation of points 2 and 4 under Table 2.
A s~table circuit is shown in Fig. 33.13 in which a 6V6-GT type valve is used as a
constant current pentode; with plate voltages from 50 to 300 the plate current will
only vary from 18.5 to 19.0 mAo
FIG. 33.13
Fig. 33.13. Valve voltage regulator with a controllable output voltage as Fig. 33.10
but including constant current pentode to draw constant bleed current for varyint,
output voltages.
The condenser C 1 in all circuits assists in the reduction of ripple from the regulated
supply as the grid of V2 then obtains the full ripple voltage from the supply instead
of the fraction determined by the values R s, R4 and R5 (Fig. 33.4). This condenser
should have a value not greater than that required for satisfactory ripple suppression
as large values will cause a time lag in the operation of the output voltage control, a
value of .01 to .1 /LF being satisfactory for most purposes.
The need for negative voltage supplies for several of the given circuits need not
require the addition of a separate power supply; reference should be made to Chapter
30 Sect. 6 which gives details of shunt diode bias supplies which would be suitable
for this purpose. The regulator tube current in typical circuits, except Fig. 33.14,
+
REGULATED SUPPl.Y
VOLTAGE TO LOAD
R7 2S0 VOLTS
0-22SmA
FIG. 33.1~
Fig. 33.14. Voltage regulator utilizing a special voltage referelICe tube (type 5651) to
give extremely good wltage regulation.
1222 REFERENCES 33.3
may be adjusted to have a value of approx. 10 rnA at the normal operating point of
the regulator.
For most applications these circuits will give adequate regulation but for details on
compensated and the more complicated regulators reference should be made to the
bibliography at the end of this chapter.
The main limitation of all these regulators is the difficulty of obtaining a completely
stable reference voltage, as gaseous voltage regulator tubes may stabilize at slightly
different voltages when the unit is switched off and on again. This means that,
although nearly perfect voltage regulation may be obtained, the voltage about which
this regulation takes place is not always a constant value.
This defect may be minimized by the use of a special voltage reference tube such as
R.C.A. type 5651 as, for example, in the circuit of Fig. 33.14. The unregulated
input is approximately 375 volts at zero load current and 325 volts at 225 rnA load
current. The variation of output voltage is less than 0.1 volt for a variation of ± 10%
in input voltage when operated at maximum load current. When adjusted to an out-
put of 250 volts, the variation in output voltage is less than 0.2 volt over the current
range from 0 to 225 rnA.
SECTION 3 : REFERENCES
1. Anthony, A. " Basic theory and design of electronically regulated power supplies" Proc. I.R.E. 33.7
(July 1945) 478. .
2. Ashworth, J. A., and J. C. Mouzon, " A voltage stabilizer circuit" 8.4 Rev. Sci. Inst. 127.
3. Bereskin, A.B." Voltage: regulated power supplies" Proc. I.R.E. 31.2 (Feb. 1943) 47.
4. Bousquet, A. -G. " Improving regulator performance" Elect. 11.7 (July 1938) 26.
5. Cherry, L. B., and R. F. Wild, " Electronic alternating current power regulator" Proc. I.R.E. 33.4
(April 1945) 262.
6. Hamilton, G. E., and J. Maiman, "Voltage-regulated power supplies" Comm. 25.11 (Nov. 1945)
44; 25.12 (Dec. 1945) 70; 26.1 (Jan. 1946) 48.
7. Hogg, F. L. "Electronic voltage regulators" W.W. 49.11 (Nov. 1942) 327; 49.12 (Dec. 1943) 371.
8. Harris, E. J. " A note on stabilizing power supplies" Electronic Eng. 20.241 (March 1948) 96.
9. Hill, W. R. Jnr. " Analysis of voltage regulator operation" Proc. I.R.E. 33.1 (Jan. 1945) 38.
10. Hoyle, W. G. "Circuit design for gas-discharge regulator tubes" Tele-Tech. (Feb. 1948) 46.
11. Hunt, F. W., and R. W. Hickman" On electronic voltage stabilizers" Rev. Sci. Inst. 10.1 (Jan.
1939) 6.
12. Ledward, T. A. "A.C. voltage stabilizer" W.W. 49.6 (June 1943) 166.
13. Miller, S. E. "Resistance coupled d.c. amplifier with a.c. operation" Elect. 14.11 (Nov. 1941) 27.
14. Neher, H. V., and W. H. Pickering" Two voltage regulators" Rev. Sci. Inst. 10.2 (Feb. 1939) 53.
15. Sowerby, J. M. "Shunt voltage stabilizer" W.W. (June 1948) 200.
16. Penners, B. A., and W. Davis" Design of electronically regulated power supplies" Radio 31.2
(Feb.-March 1947) 9.
17. Helterline, L. "Diode-controlled voltage regulators" Elect. 20.6 (June 1947) 96.
18. Koontz, P., and E. Dilatush "Voltage regulated power supplies" Elect. 20.7 (July 1947) 119.
19. Helterline, L. L. "Design of regulated power source" Tele-Tech. 6.7 (July 1947) 63.
20; Hughes, J. W. "Stabilizing direct-voltage supplies" W.E. 24.287 (Aug. 1947) 224.
21. Berg, W. R. "Optimum parameter for gas tube voltage regulators" Elect. 20.10 (Oct. 1947) 136.
22. Helterline, L. L. "A-C voltage stabilizers" Audio Eng. 31.8 (Sept. 1947) 23.
23. "High potential voltage regulator" (Review of patent No. 2416922 by A. J. Irish and D. G. Lindsay)
Audio Eng. 31.6 (July 1947) 44.
24. Luo, P. "A negative-current voltage-stabilization circuit" Proc. I.R.E. 36.5 (May 1948) 583.
25. Miller, W. B. "Versatile power supply" Elect. 21.6 (June 1948) 126.
26. Scroggie, M. G. "Stabilized power supplies" (1) W.W. 54.10 (Oct. 1948) 373; '(2) 54.11 (Nov.
1948) 415; (3) 54.12 (Dec. 1948) 453.
27. Scroggie, M. G. " Low-impedance variable-voltage tappings" W.W. 55.1 (Jan. 1949) 2.
28. Benson, F. A. "Voltage stabilisers" Electronic Eng. (1) 21.255 (May 1949) 155; (2) 21.256 (June
1949) 200; (3) 21.257 (July 1949) 243; (4) 21.258 (Aug. 1949) 300.
29. Yu, Y. P. "Novel regulator circuit" Elect. 22.5 (May 1949) 370. .
30. Engineering Dept., Aerovox Corp. "Regulated Power Supply Design" Aerovox Research Worker
20.9 (Sept. 1950).
31. Houle, J. (letter) " Wide-range voltage regulators" Elect. 24.8 (Aug. 1951) 202.
32. Baruch, J. J. "Zero-impedance power supply termination" Elect. 24.8 (Aug. 1951) 240.
33. Benson, F. A. (book) "Voltage Stabilizers" Electronic Engineering, London, 1950.
34. Patchett, G. N. "Precision a.c. voltage stabilizers" Electronic Eng. 22.271 (Sept. 1950) 371 ; 22.272
(Oct. 1950) 424; 22.273 (Nov. 1950) 470; 22.274 (Dec. 1950) 499; letters 23.276 (Feb. 1951) 70.
35. Willtuun:, A. P. "The cathode foHower as a voitage regulator" Electronic Eng. 22.271 (Sept. 1950)
399.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
CHAPTER 34
1223
1224 (iv) SUPERREGENERATIVE RECEIVERS 34.1
In wide band and communication receivers, two or more stages are commonly used.
The intermediate frequency in general use is 455 Kc/s. Earlier receivers used 175
Kc/s but with the appearance of powdered ir!ln cores and the development of high
slope amplifier valves, the previous objection to the use of higher intermediate fre-
quencies, i.e. lower gain, was nullified.
The higher i-f now in use considerably reduces the incidence of" double-spotting "
i.e. the reception of the same station at two points on the receiving dial, one removed
from the other by twice the intermediate frequency. Thus with an intermediate
frequency of 455 Kc/s the first " double-spot" would be at 1460 Kc/s, which is
near the upper limit of the broadcast band if this is taken as from 550 to 1600 Kc/s.
As most of the receiver amplification occurs at the intermediate frequency, which is
fixed in frequency, the overall gain does not change appreciably with signal tuning.
Similarly the selectivity remains approximately constant as this is largely predeter-
mined by the i-f channel.
From the i-f amplifier the signal passes into a second detector stage where the
audio frequency modulation is separated from the carrier and then amplified in the
normal manner by a conventional a-f amplifier. If, as is usual, a diode detector is
employed, the rectified carrier provides a direct voltage which can be used for
various control purposes. The principal use is for automatic volume control, or, more
exactly, automatic gain control. In this circuit the negative direct voltage, which
increases with an increase in signal, is applied through suitable decoupling networks
to the r-f, i-f and first detector grids as required. This overcomes, to a considerable
degree, the effect known as "fading."
For the reception of continuous wave code signals another oscillator is necessary.
The output from this is fed into the second detector and adjusted to give a suitable
audio difference frequency, say 1000 cis, when beating with the incoming code signals.
The advantages of the superheterodyne over the tuned-radio-frequency receiver
are:-
(a) more uniform sensitivity and selectlvity over the tuning range,
(b) stability is greater, as the major part of the amplification takes place at a
low radio frequency,
(c) the i-f amplifier can be designed' for minimum sideband cutting, while pre-
serving reasonable gain,
(d) greater selectivity.
It should be noted that the superheterodyne contains more tuned circuits than the
t.r.f. receiver, but fewer tuned circuits are continuously variable.
See References (B).
"
FIG. 34.5
The selectivity of the synchrodyne depends upon the oscillator circuit and a re-
striction of the frequency band there does not affect the a-f response.
To avoid beats in the output signal the local oscllator must be synchronized or
" locked" with the wanted carrier. One advantage of this receiver is that it is either
correctly tuned or not tuned at all. Distorted output due to mistuning is thus im-
possible. The only effect of altering the oscillator tuning within the synchronizing
range is to change the volume level.
If necessary, a broad-band r-f amplifier can precede· the detector to avoid strong
stations overloading the receiver. As in the typical superhet, a.v c. voltage derived
from the detector output can be used for gain control.
The main disadvantage of this receiver is that loud heterodyne whistles are heard
when tuning in a station. This defect can be readily overcome by the use of push-
button tuning, and hence the synchrodyne is likely to be most popular for high-
quality local-station reception. - - - -
See References (C).
SECTION 4 : REFERENCES
(A) GE~"ERAL
Van Dyck, A., and D. E. Foster, "Characteristics of American Broadcast receivers as related to the
power and frequency of transmitters" Proc. loR.E. 25.4 (April 1937) 387.
Foster, D. E. "Receiver characteristics of special significance to broadcasters" Comm. 19.5 (May
1939) 9.
Dean, C. E. "Receiving Systems" Chapter 17 of " Radio Engineering Handbook" by K. Henney
(McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. N.Y. 4th ed. 1950).
Jordon, E. C. and others (book) "Fundamentals of Radio " (prentice-Hall, Inc. N.Y. 1943) Chapter
13.
(B) SUPERREGENERATIVE -RECEIVERS
Riebman, L. "Theory of the superregenerative amplifier" Proc. loR.E. 37.1 (Jan. 1949) 29.
Cathode Ray" Super-regenerative receivers" W.W. 52.6 (June 1946) 182.
Fox, L. S. "Super-regeneration-its theory of operation" Q.S.T. (Dec. 1943) 17.
Grimes, D., and W. S. Barden, " Super-regeneration and its application to high frequency recep-
tion " Report, R.C.A. Laboratories Industry Service Division.
Russell, O. J. "Super regeneration" W.W. 50.12 (Dec. 1944) 361 (good bibliography).
Easton, A. "Superregenerative detector selectivity" Elect. 19.3 (Mar. 1946) 154.
Riebman, L. "Theory of the superregenerative amplifier" Proc. loR.E. 37.1 (Jan. 1949) 29.
Hazeltine, A., D. Richman and B. D. Loughlin" Superregenerator design" Elect. 21.9 (Sept.
1948) 99.
Bradley, W. E. "Superregenerative detection theory" Elect. 21.9 (Sept. 1948) 96.
Stockman, H. "Superregenerative circuit applications" Elect. 21.2 (Feb. 1948) 81.
Tapp, C. E. "The Application of super-regeneration to frequency-modulation receiver design "
Proc. loR.E. (Aust.) 8.4 (April 1947) 4.
Whitehead, J. R. (book) "Super-Regenerative Receivers" (Cambridge University Press, London
and U.S.A. 1950). .
(C) SYNCHRODYNE RECEIVERS
Tucker, D. G. "The Synchrodyne-a new: type of radio receiver for A.M. Signals," Electronic
Eng. 19.229 (March 1947) 75.
Tucker, D. G. "The design of a synchrodyne receiver" Electronic Eng. Part I-Design Principles
19.234 (Aug. 1947) 241 ; Part 2-Some suitable designs 19.235 (Sept. 1947) 276.
Tucker, D. G. "The Synchrodyne-further notes," Electronic Eng. 19.237 (Nov. 1947) 366.
The Synchrodyne-correspondence; Electronic Eng. 19.233 (July 1947); 19.237 (Nov. 1947) 368.
Tucker, D. G., and J. Garlick, "The synchrodyne: refinements and extensions," Electronic Eng.
20.240 (Feb. 1948) 49.
Bumup, J. E. (letter) "The synchrodyne " (simpler oscillator) Electronic Eng. 20.240 (Feb. 1948)
63. Correction April 1948 p. 132.
Langberg, E. "The Synchrodyne " (letter) Electronic Eng. 20.242 (April 1948) 132.
"Cathode Ray" "The synchrodyne" W.W. 54.8 (Aug. 1948) 277.
Additional references will be found in the Supplement commencing on page 1475.
CHAPTER 35
DESIGN OF SUPERHETERODYNE A-M RECEIVERS
Section Page
1. Introduction 1228
2. Specifications and requirements ... 1229
3. General design 1229
4. Frequency ranges ... 1250
5. A.C. operated receivers 1256
6. A.C./D.C. receivers 1264
7. Battery operated receivers 1268
8. Car radio ... 1275
9. Miscellaneous features 1278
10. References 1285
SECTION 1 : INTRODUCTION
The design of A-M receivers as discussed in this chapter is taken as design "for
quantity production, since it is normally only under these conditions that a signal
generator, a wave analyzer, a low-distortion beat frequency oscillator and suitable
valve voltmeter and other meters are available.
The design of the individual stages in a receiver has been covered in the earlier
chapters of this Handbook. It is assumed here that the receiver designer has already
studied these earlier chapters or has equivalent knowledge. The present chapter
covers the design procedure and certain general features which affect more than a
single stage.
The first stage in -a design is the drawing of the circuit of the receiver. This state-
ment contrasts with the views of those who believe the circuit to be the last stage,
but whereas most engineers can readily draw a usable circuit for any normal type
of receiver, there are few conscientious engineers who could build such a receiver and
not find that after alignment and adjustment they did not wish to make some modi-
fications to remove faults or to improve the performance in some way. Accordingly
the circuit is the first stage, modifications to layout and perhaps to the circuit as a
result of measurements and operating tests are the second stage, the measurement of
all performance figures and checking of all ratings and tolerances the third stage and
the making of a final sample the last stage.
The fact that after the final sample is finished it frequently becomes necessary to
revert to stage two again, should not be taken as a reflection on the design engineer
but rather as an illustration that there is far more to a receiver than the circuit (Ref. 29).
What are (apparently) minor changes in layout may introduce unforeseen difficulties
with, say, the symmetry of the i-f amplifier, a tendency to instability due to feedback
from the i-f amplifier to the aerial terminal or anyone of a dozen other possible sources
of trouble.
In a good design preliminary calculation will have been carried far enough to ensure
that the circuit as first drawn will be such as to allow the specifications to be met with
a minimum of components and the model will have been built with an adequate know-
edge of the practical troubles Ii kely to be encountered so that they may be a minimum.
1228
35.2 SPECIFICATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS 1229
Before the curves are studied in detail it is proposed to discuss briefly the way in
which overall receiver noise may vary with the application of a.v.c. bias to different
valves in a receiver. Shot noise is generated essentially in the plate circuit of a valve.
The expression connecting noise current in the anode circuit, and direct anode current
is
I fI AyIdJF (1)
where I n noise component of anode current,
Id direct anode current
JF bandwidth
and A a factor which varies with different valve types, triodes having the lowest
values, and converters or mixers the highest.
Since the multiplication by g m of the signal at the grid of a valve gives the plate
current due to the signal, so the division of a plate current component by g m gives the
magnitude of an equivalent signal at the grid. Thus the equivalent shot noise at the
grid is
AyldJF
E"'ot = gm (2)
from which it can be seen that for an equivalent valve type the lower the ratio of
VI:, to g m the lower will be the shot noise of the valve.
It will be found with remote cut-off valves that as the grid bias is increased above
the value used to obtain maximum gain the shot noise is also progressively increased.
A convenient demonstration of this can be found in Fig. 27.39 which gives characteris-
tics of the 6SK7, a type frequently used as a r-f amplifier. With 5 volts bias the
numerical value of the factor v'I dig m is 1.6 whilst with 10 volts bias the value is 3.5.
Thus the shot noise of the valve has more than doubled when the bias is increased
from 5 to 10 volts.
In addition, the gain of the stage is of course also decreased, and if the following
stage is contributing to the total noise of the receiver it will add a larger amount to the
total equivalent noise as increased negative bias is applied. This is because the noise
voltage of the second stage is divided by the gain of the first stage to refer it to the
grid of the first valve.
It is worth noting that, if noise calculations are carried out in terms of noise re-
sistance, then the noise resistance of the second stage will be divided by the square
of the voltage gain when being referred to the first stage. This follows from eqn. (2)
in Chapter 23 Sect. 6 which expresses thermal agitation as a voltage e fI in series with
a resistor R where
en! = 4KTJFR.
Thus as noise voltages are directly multiplied, or divided, by stage gains, noise re-
sistances must be multiplied, or divided, by the square of the stage gain to give the
same result.
With an ideal receiver a ten times increase of signal input would give a ten times
increase of signal-to-noise ratio. In addition the output of the receiver would be
unchanged (because of the ideal a.v.c. curve) so that the gain of the receiver must
decrease ten times and the noise must also decrease ten times. This could be accom-
plished by decreasing the a-f gain ten times, or by decreasing the gain of any stage
which made no contribution to the equivalent noise at the first grid. Such a stage
would be one with a large amount of gain between its own grid and the grid of the
first stage. If however the gain of the input stage were decreased by a.v.c. bias, even
in conjunction with a reduction in gain of other stages, then the noise of the input
stage could increase and the improvement in signal to noise ratio be less than the maxi-
mum possible.
This applies particularly when the input valve is a converter. From Fig. 23.20
it will be seen that the noise resistance of a 6SA7 is 240 000 ohms whereas the im-
pedance of an aerial coil secondary of 200 microhenries and with an effective Q of 50
is approximately 60 000 ohms when resonated at 1000 Kc/s. With such an input
valve and coil, receiver noise would be determined by the input valve noise alone--
35.3 (i) A.V.C. AND NOISE 1231
see Chapter 23 Sect. 6(iv) for method of adding noise voltages-so that any increase
in valve noise would decrease the signal-to-noise ratio.
However if the input valve were a 6SK7 r-f amplifier its noise resistance of 1 t 000
ohms would be appreciably less than the tuned circuit impedance (at 1000 Kc/s) and
an increase in valve noise resistance of 14 db due to a.v.c. application would make less
than 3 db difference to the receiver's signal-to-noise ratio. At the low frequency end
of the band the tuned circuit impedance would be only about 30 000 ohms and a
correspondingly smaller increase in valve noise resistance would be permissible.
On the short wave band, where tuned circuit impedances are of the order of 5000
ohms in the middle of the tuning range, noise from valves must always be considered.
Thus from the point of view of signal-to-noise ratio, the best point of a. v .c. applica-
tion is the last i-fvalve. However with a.v.c. applied to the last i-fvalve alone, severe
overloading of this valve would occur with quite small inputs. The result therefore
must be a compromise and a solution is to delay the application of a.v.c. to the first
stage of a receiver until the desired signal-to-noise ratio has been achieved for the
smallest possible input, and to apply as much a.v.c. as possible to the stage as the input
increases above this point.
The importance of this is not always realized, but money and time spent on im-
proving aerial coils to obtain chiefly a good signal-to-noise ratio at, say, 5 p.V input,
can be largely wasted by poor a.v.c. circuit design which at larger inputs wastes the
advantage gained. Consider two receivers, A and B. A has a good aerial coil giving
a 1000 Kc/s signal-to-noise ratio of 15 db at 5 p.V input and its a.v.c. characteristic
is such that a 20 db increase in input gives a 14 db increase in signal-to-noise ratio.
B has a poorer input circuit giving a 9 db signal-to-noise ratio at 5 p.V and an a.v.c.
characteristic giving 19 db increase in signal-to:-noise ratio for each 20 db increase
in input. The signal-to-noise ratios of the two receivers for various inputs are tabu-
lated below.
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO (db) .
5 15 9
50 29 28
500 43 47
1000 47 53
It will be seen that although the noise ratio of A is twice as good (6 db difference)
as that of Bat 5 p.V, yet for an input of 1000 p.VB is twice as good as A. Far more
use is made of a receiver with inputs above 80 p.V-where B is superior-than with
inputs below 80 p.V where A is superior. In receivers with average a-f characteristics
the signal-to-noise ratio cannot be ignored until it is in excess of 40, and preferably
45 db. .
A typical a.v.c. design problem is illustrated in Fig. 35.1 where curves Al and Bl
represent the output of a receiver with an input modulated 30% at 400 cis, and curves
A2 and B2 represent the noise output with unmodulated input.
Curves Al and A2 could be taken on a receiver with high i-f gain, low a-f gain and
with a.v.c. obtained from the primary of the 2nd i-f transformer and applied to the
converter and i-f amplifier w~thout any delay. The curves show the following faults
in the receiver.
(a) The sensitivity of the receiver (for 50 mWoutput) could readily be improved.
As the output is 6 db below 50 mW for 1 p.V input, it could be increased to 50 mW by
doubling the input, if tlJ.e effects of noise were neglected. As some of the output
from the 1 p.V input is noise, somewhat more than 2 p.V input would be needed, but
the existing sensitivity of the receiver (6.5 p.V) could at least be doubled.
(b) An output of even two watts cannot be obtained from the receiver for a 30%
modulated signal less than 1000 p.V. Although all normal signals have a maximum
1232 (i) A.V.C. AND NOISE 35.3
500W fO 11'
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ourl I
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FIG. 35.1
6
10
modulation depth greater than this, experience shows that if the impression of in-
sufficient output on a weak signal is to be avoided, a receiver should deliver its full
a-f output from a 30% modulated signal.
(c) The signal-to-noise ratio of the receiver could be improved at any input between
S p.V and 1000 p.V with the greatest improvement at the higher inputs.
Faults (a) and (b) could be removed by increased a-f gain, perhaps by reduction
of negative feedback, or by substituting a pentode a-f amplifier for a triode. For
instance the curve Al shows that with another 6 db of a-f gain the receiver would have
a sensitivity of I p.V and would give a power output of 2 watts with 80 p.V input.
A-F gain is specified since additional i-f gain would alter the a.v.c. characteristic.
However a different modification to the receiver \\ould simultaneously correct
faults (a) (b) and Cc). Fault (c) is due to the fact that at all inputs above I p.V, a.v.c.
is applied to input valve of the receiver. This is known because the rate of increase
of signal-to-noise ratio is appreciably worse than the ideal. Accordingly an obvious
remedy is to use ddayed a.v.c., and with the object of obtaining the maximum possible
signal-to-noise ratio up to 100 p.V, the delay might be removed at this figure, with
results as shown in Bl and B2. From these curves the following information is
obtained.
(a) The sensitivity of the receiver (for SO mW output) is now slightly better than
3 p.V.
(b) An input of 20 p.V will give an output of 2 watts.
(c) The noise ratios of the receiver before and after modification are as tabulated
below.
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (db)
3. Unpleasant tuning effects are usually due to the a-f frequency characteristics
of a receiver, the a.v.c. system or a combination of the two (assuming that the receiver
is stable under all conditions). So far as the a.v.c. is concerned it can be appreciated
that with the a.v.c. voltage derived from the signal diode it is quite possible to over-
load the first valve in a receiver while a strong station is being tuned in. Signals of
0.5 volt are quite frequently met, and as a receiver having a resonant aerial coil gain
of 10 is tuned towards such a station the signal voltage on the grid of the first valve
where the selectivity is very poor compared with the selectivity of the i-f channel
might reach 4 volts before any appreciable a.v.c. voltage is developed. Since the
first valve might be operating with only 3, or even 2, volts of standing bias severe
overloading and distortion would occur, although with the receiver tuned in correctly
the valve would probably receive enough bias to allow it to handle the signal without
distortion. To minimize this trouble a.v.c. is best developed from a less selective
source, the primary of the last i-f transformer, even at the expense of another few
components. Some advantage in smoothness of tuning is obtained on all stations,
apart from extreme cases such as mentioned above, since whenever the receiver is
detuned from a station, a larger a.v.c. voltage is obtainable from the less selective
source, so that the volume of sound distorted by the mistuning of the receiver is re-
duced.
4. Although the ideal often aimed at is a fiat a.v.c. curve, it must be realised that too
close an approach to such an ideal has disadvantages, and is in fact undesirable for
a normal A-M commercial receiver. Many receivers are used in situations with high
noise levels, although in most cases the noise is of lower amplitude than the local
stations. Under these conditions an a.v.c. curve fiat from say 10 p.V to 1 volt input
will be responsible for the receiver making far more noise than is necessary when being
tuned between stations.
For the purpose of providing minimum noise between stations, an a. v .c. curve would
be designed to be reasonably flat over the range of inputs covering most of the .local
stations, and at lower inputs would decrease as rapidly as possible. Of course the
minimum tuning noise requirement for an a.v.c. curve is not the only one, or even
the main one, but it should not be overlooked.
It will be found that the flattest a.v.c. curve that is desirable is one which rises per-
haps 20 db between 1 p.V and say 250 p.V input and increases between 250 JLV and the
maximum input at the rate of 2 or 3 db for each 10 times increase in input. The
noise and static heard on stations below 250 JLV give the illusion of a curve much
flatter than is actually the case.
or negative feedback can be used as in Fig. 35.3. In each case the values of com-
ponents shown are typical, but final sizes are governed by the acoustical qualities of
the cabinet and loudspeaker, and-the response of the remainder of the receiver. See
also Chapter 15 Sects. 3 and 10.
There is a limit both in frequency and amplitude to the
amount of bass boosting that can be used. Considering
frequency first, if the response is too high in the region of
150 cis, reproduction becomes boomy and is very annoying
to listen to for a period of time. Even worse is excessive
gain at frequencies lower than the bass resonant frequency
of the loudspeaker. These frequencies cannot be repro-
duced as fundamentals and any output is due to frequency
doubling.
In addition the primary impedance of the output trans-
former falls to such a low value, due to insufficient primary
inductance in a normal cheap transformer, that the output ~ '":"
valve can only provide a small fraction of its mid-frequency Fig. 35.2. Bass
undistorted output before distortion becomes serious at boost varied with
frequencies appreciably below 100 cis. volume control set-
Even if these objections are overcome it is found that a ting.
good response below 50 cis in the great majority of radio receivers is a liability rather
than an asset, as hum, turntable rumble, wow and extraneous noises from broadcasting
stations become objectionable. Within the receiver itself microphonic and hum
troubles are increas.ed.
From the aspect of the amplitude of the bass boost it must be remembered that a
receiver, with say 4 watts maximum undistorted output and a 12 db bass boost at
some frequency below 100 cis will overload very readily at the bass boost frequency.
Assuming power output at low frequencies equal to that at mid-frequencies [which
is certainly not the case in an average radio receiver owing to the reduced load im-
pedance and the elliptical load line of the output valve (see Chapter 2 Sect. 4)] then
an input which will give 300 milliwatts of output at the mid-frequency will overload
the amplifier at the bass boost frequency. Although the overloading is due to low
frequency excitation, intermodulation products will occur th!oughout the a-f spectrum
when music is bejng reproduced. .
On the other hand excessive high frequency response cali. also have undesirable
effects. The frequency range from 2500 cis to 3500 cis is very unpleasant if over-
Fig. 35.3. A-F end of receiver with compensated negative feedback and feedback tone
control.
1236 (ii) AUDIO-FREQUENCY RESPONSE 35.3
A
~ Battery B+
p-
8ias
Where frequency compensation is used in a receiver, the speaker resonances are
chosen with a different object in view. The electrical response can, owing to the
compensation, be raised to any desired level at any frequency within reason, but the
loudspeaker will not reproduce satisfactorily frequencies below its main resonance.
35.3 Cii) AUDIO-FREQUENCY RESPONSE 1237
it provides a progressively lower impedance path between the source of the feedback
voltage and the tap on the volume control. Above the useful range of frequencies
it becomes the main feedback path.
To prevent instability at very high frequencies where the fraction of the output
voltage fed back to the input is very high owing to the small reactance of C a, the gain
of the amplifier itself is made to decrease rapidly at frequencies above the desired
a-f range. This is the purpose of the 33 ",,,,F capacitor C 4' and it has the added ad-
vantage of giving a sharper overall cut-off than could be provided by C a alone.
The resistor RI has been mentioned as one element of the bass boosting voltage
divider, but its size is governed by another consideration, the adjusting of the volume
at which maximum bass and treble boost are provided. The feedback current
flowing into the tap on the volume control returns to ground by two main paths, the
volume control and the resistors R z and Ra in parallel providing one, and the volume
control, the decoupling resistor R8 and the diode-cathode path of VI being the other.
Thus as the slider of the control is turned up from its minimum setting the amount
of frequency-compensated feedback applied to the amplifier is increased until the
slider reaches the tap and thereafter decreases. With the slider at the tap, the
volume should therefore be the lowest normal listening level so that as the volume is
increased, the amount of compensation is reduced. The normal type of tapped
volume control has its tap at about 50 000 ohms for a 0.5 megohm control and this
gives too much volume for maximum compensation, so the value of Rl is chosen to
reduce it to the required level.
The operation of the tone control is comparatively straightforward. With the
slider at the earthed end of the resistance element, R7 and C 2 remove most of the
high frequencies from the feedback path to provide a treble boost. However as the
slider is turned away from the earthed end the resistance in the capacitive arm of the
voltage divider is increased and its frequency discriminating properties are reduced.
For example when the resistance between slider and ground is 5000 ohms the amount
of feedback used varies only between 10/11 and 11/11 of the total amount as the
frequency is increased from zero to infinity. Thus the treble boost is removed over
the first part of the rotation.
When the control is set to the other extreme, C 2 is in parallel with R6 and the sizes
of these components are adjusted so that their impedances are the same in the lower
mid-frequency range. Under these conditions C 2 offers an increasingly lower im-
pedance path for feedback currents as the frequency increases above say 400 c/s, and
the larger amount of feedback results in a falling high frequency response for the am-
plifier as a whole.
It must be realised that while the foregoing explanation of the feedback circuit is
correct as far as it goes, a complete picture of its operation cannot be obtained without
a knowledge of the phase shifts introduced by the various coupling elements both in
the feedback circuit and in the main amplifier circuit. Feedback which is 180 0
out of phase with the input at the mid-frequency is no longer negative when a phase
shift of 90° has taken place. In Fig. 35.3 at low frequencies the coupling condensers
to the grids of V I and V 2' and the primary of the output transformer will each give a
maximum phase shift of 90° while capacitors C 2, C u the screen by-pass of Vu the
cathode by-pass ofV2 and the decoupling by-pass in the B supply of VI will each give
a phase shift with a maximum varying between perhaps 20° and 50°, so it is obvious
that the phases of the feedback voltages become far more important than their magni-
tudes. By far the most difficult part of the design of such a circuit is to maintain
the feedback negative over the usable a-f range, rather than to obtain the desired
frequency response.
Because of the variation in frequency response with the phase of the feedback volt-
age it is possible to obtain bass and treble boosting without frequency discriminating
elements in the feedback path. Such a circuit would be the same as Fig. 35.3 with
all feedback components removed except R2 and Ra. In such a case circuit elements
such as the grid coupling condensers, which would normally be as large as possible
to avoid phase shifts in the working range, would be decreased in size to cause phase
35.3 (ii) AUDIO-FREQUENCY RESPONSE 1239
shifts and thus develop a bass boost. This is the reverse of what would be expected
from such a change in an amplifier without feedback. Similarly a high frequency
.boost could be obtained by adding a by-pass in the plate circuit of VI or elsewhere.
As the amount of negative feedback applied to an amplifier is increased, the peaks
of response at low and high frequencies are removed further from the mid-frequency
and become greater in amplitude, and with the fe~er components available in the
simplified circuit it usually becomes necessary to vary the amount of feedback to
assist in obtaining the desired response.
(iii) Hum
The a-f gain in a radio receiver is seldom high enough to make hum elimination
difficult except in so far a.s space or economy considerations make it so. Nevertheless
economy is such an ever-present need in commercial design that the majority of
receivers have hum reduced to a barely acceptable minimum.
The amount of hum permissible at any stage in a receiver can be expressed as the
maximum tolerable hum at the output of the receiver divided by the gain at the
appropriate frequency between the output and the stage in question. Thus the
filtering required by the plate of the output valve is less than that for any other part .
of the a-f system. Advantage can be taken of this effect in small receivers, in which
the plate of the output valve can be fed directly from the capacitor across the rectifier
output. Since the output valve plate draws a large proportion of the total B current
in a small receiver, the filter used for the supply for the rest of the receiver can be de-
creased considerably in size, and it may be possible to· use a resistive filter instead of
a choke without an excessive voltage drop. It should be noted however that since
there is gain benveen the screen of a nonnrl tetrode or pentode and its plate the screen
of the output valve in such a case will probably need to be supplied from the filtered
source.
Filtering becomes more important when the grid circuit of the output valve and the
plate circuit of the a-f amplifier valve are considered. Designs using back':biasing
for the output valve normally have the grid of the output valve decoupled for hum
reduction, and similarly the plate supply to the first a-f amplifier is often decoupled.
It is worth noting that the hum introduced from these two sources is out of phase,
and whilst if one decoupling is used as a matter of course, or if the output valve is
cathode biased, the other may become essential, yet the results obtained with both
omitted are often satisfactory.
Hum introduced between grid and cathode of the a-f amplifier is usually the most
difficult to eliminate since the following amplification is high, and the circuit is usually
a high impedance one which makes the effects of small capacitive couplings appreci-
able. The impedance of course is variable, depending upon the volume control
setting, and when tracing hum introduced into this stage it is best to turn the volume
control to maximum. If noise fro~ the r-f end of the receiver then drowns the hum,
the last i-f valve can be removed.
Hum can be introduced into a receiver before the second detector, although under
these circumstances (assuming transformer coupling to the detection diode) it can only
be troublesome if it modulates the signal. Modulation hum can usually be traced
to two general sources, firstly amplitude or frequency modulation of the local oscillator
in a superheterodyne receiver by hum from the po~er supply, and secondly amplitude
modulation of the signal in. a valve working on a non-linear part of its characteristic
and with a hum voltage impressed on one electrode.
Modulation hum due to the local oscillator is as a rule only met when the oscillator
plate has a separate filter from the rectifier output to eliminate flutter-see Sect. 3(vi) ~
of this chapter. The filter is usually resistive and arranged to give the proper voltages
so that an increase' in the size of the filter capacitor is the cure.
Modulation hum occurring because of a non-linear characteristic in a r-f or i-f
valve is greatest at the point of maximum non-linearity and this as a rule is at some
intermediate value of bias, so that the hum may increase up to some particular input
and decrease thereafter. This can readily be checked on the a.v.c. characteristic,
1240 (iii) HUM 35.3
plotted as described earlier in this section. A common reason for this type of hum
is insufficient filtering for the screen of a r-f amplifier. If the a.v.c. line carries bias
generated across a back bias resistor it is also possible for hum from this source to
modulate incoming signals in any of the remote cut-off valves to which a. v .c. is applied.
A third source of modulation hum is sometimes met in a.c./d.c. receivers. Owing
to insufficient filtering in the mains leads or perhaps to insufficient shielding, the
rectifier becomes a part of the circuit in which signal currents circulate. The signal
in this path is modulated by the mains frequency since the rectifier is conductive for
only half of each mains frequency cycle. A cure for this type of hum is to use a r-f
by-pass across the rectifier, a typical capacitor being a 0.001 p.F mica type.
A receiver with high a-f gain can give trouble with hum due to potentials developed
between different soldering lugs on the chassis, and because of this it is usually best
to return directly to the cathode of the a-f valve any leads coming from the ' earthy'
side of components in the grid circuit of the valve. In addition, the lead between
cathode and ground must be separate from the lead earthing one side of the valve's
heater. When building the pilot model of a receiver which is likely to give hum trouble
it is best to take all possible precautions initially, trying any economy measures one
by one after the model is in operation. The alternative of building first for maximum
economy may lead to delay, since when several sources of hum are present cancellation
usually occurs, and the removal of one source may lead to an increase in total hum.
One aspect of hum which can be put to good use during design is that a hum level
which is objectionable at very low listening levels may be satisfactory at higher levels
when it is masked by the programme. A circuit which at very small cost reduces
hum at the minimum volume setting of the volume control is shown in Fig. 35.5.
The connection from the voice coil is in the direction to give negative feedback, and
this feedback is a maximum with the volume control turned to zero, decreasing as
the volume control is turned up, until at maximum volume the gain of the receiver
IS reduced only by one or two db. The feedback is also valuable in reducing play-
through, and this aspect has a particular application in reflex receivers.
There is a maximum value of feedback which can be used without instability,
and in a high gain amplifier use of the full amount of feedback available from the voice
coil may give trouble (see Chapter 7 Sect. 3). In addition, the feedback into the
bottom of the diode load results in an apparent reduction of the a.c./O.c. impedance
ratio.
FIG.35.5
The reason for this latter effect can readily be visualized from Fig. 35.5 as follows.
Neglecting for the moment the negative feedback, the diode load is the 0.5 megohm
resistor R, and an a-f voltage Ea due to the modulation of an inCOming carrier pro-
duces in the diode load an a-f current 1a of a magnitude given by 1a = Ea/R.
Now when feedback is applied, an a-f voltage of magnitude-in a typical case~
equal and opposite to Ea with the audio volume control at maximum, is applied to
the bottom of the diode load. The a-f voltage across the resistor R is now 2Ea and
10' = 2Ea/R
where 1a' = a-f current in diode load with feedback applied.
Thus the a-f current flowing in the diode load has been doubled by the application
of feedback for the same demodulated a-f signal Ea. An altemative way of consider-
ing this effect is that the a-f voltage E<! is generated across an impedance equal to R/2.
This is the usual conception of the effect, and the explanation for the statement that
the a.c./d.c. ratio is reduced by such a feedback application.
35.3 (iii) HUM 1241
Of course as the volume control is turned down from its maximum setting the feed-
back voltage applied to the bottom of the volume control is reduced and the a.c./d.c.
ratio is improved, even although the amount of a-f gain reduction is increased.
To overcome the trouble of possible instability and increased a.c. loading on the
di01e load when the full voice coil voltage is used for feedback, the circuit of Fig. 35.6A
can be used. Resistors R J and Rz may be of equal size, say 25 ohms each, and the
phase of the feedback is such that-the feedback at the bottom of the diode load is still
n~gative, so that the feedback into the top of the diode load is positive. The values
of the resistors can readily be arranged so that the gain reduction with the volume
control at maximum is zero, when the a.c.jd.c. ratio is no worse than in the no-feed-
back condition.
It is quite possible of course to have positive feedback predominating, giving an
a.c.jd.c. ratio greater than unity, but the reduced detection distortion in this case
may be more than offset by increased a-f distortion.
I '
When tracing hum it is essential to be in a location quiet enough for the character
of the hum to be recognisable, and a meter reading hum amplitude and an oscilloscope
showing. hum waveform can each be useful on occasions.
The amount of hum which can be tolerated is very dependent on the frequency of
the hum, and pure 50 cis hum could be of much greater amplitude than say a 150 cis
hum for two reasons. Firstly, the sensitivity of the ear is greatly reduced at 50 cis,
and secondly the sensitivity of the reproducing equipment also decreases rapidly
below the resonance of the loudspeaker. Nevertheless a receiver with a small speaker
which cannot reproduce 100 cis satisfactorily can suffer badly from 100 cis modu-
lation hum, which, although not audible in itself, modulates any other audio fre-
quencies which are present and thus gives a very harsh, broken-up type of repro-
duction.
Since the effects of hUm are to such a large extent subjective it is natural that final
approval in a doubtful case must come from a listening test. It is essential that
such a test be carried out in a home under the quietest conditions possible, as the
masking effects of noise in a normal faCtory, or even laboratory, make an evaluation
of the hum level very difficult.
See also Chapter 31 for a general treatment of hum, Chapter 7 Sect. 2(ix) for hum
with feedback, Chapter 12 Sect. 10(vi) for hum in voltage amplifiers, and Chapter 18
Sect. 2(iii) for hum in pre-amplifiers
(iv) Microphony
Microphonic effects in electronic equipment are those in which mechanical move-
ment produces undesired electrical output from the equipment. Many such effects
are self-sustaining in that the microphonic noise produced reinforces the original
mechanical movement and a continuous output builds up at the frequency· of the
mechanical vibration.
There are two main sources of microphony in an A-M receiver, the local oscillator
and its circuit, and valves. Since all tuned circuits and all valves are microphonic
to some extent, the object of a designer when laying out a receiver must be to isolate
from the output of the loudspeaker those components which are most likely to give
trouble.
1242 (iv) MICROPHONY 35.3
Tuning condensers probably give more microphonic trouble than any other com-
ponent, although frequently this is due to the mounting method used or to the dial
drum. Some receivers have the complete tuning unit (condenser, coils, wave-change
switch and valves) mounted on a subchassis which is floated on rubber. This pre-
caution, although comparatively expensive, is usually sufficient to remove any micro-
phony, and even the cheaper solution of floating the gang condenser alone will usually
give a substantial improvement. A drawback to the use of floating tuning units is
that as a rule the dial and tuning knob must float too, or flexible couplings must be
provided to them, in which case backlash between the tuning knob and the gang
condenser or the dial usually becomes a problem.
The type of gang condenser microphony which can be cured by floating the con-
denser is usually due to movement of masses of metal such as the complete gang body,
or the whole rotor shaft, and an alternative to floating the gang is to make it more
rigid. The first step is to stiffen the body by soldering with large fillets of solder the
junctions between the cross bracing strips and bars, and the end and dividing plates
in the gang. For extreme cases it may be necessary to solder a plate to the back of
the body of the oscillator section. An alternative is to mount the gang normally on
its feet and then add an additional bracing from the top of the gang to some nearby
solid mounting. Such a bracing may be better either rigid or rubber mounted, in
the latter case acting more as a vibration damper. A gang condenser with its frame-
work stressed by the mounting is more likely to be microphonic than one which is not
stressed. Thus a suitably designed three point mounting may be an improvement on
the conventional four point suspension, although in each case care must be taken to
see that it is not possible for the condenser to rock.
It does sometimes happen that a complete stator packet vibrates and causes micro-
phony. In such cases it may be possible to reinforce the brackets supporting the
stators sufficiently at least to remove the resonance to a frequency at which it will
not be troublesome.
Some microphonic effects are due to a large dial drum mounted on the gang spindle.
Such a drum may be self resonant if made of metal or it may because of its weight
induce flexing effects in the condenser shaft. In other ases its position may give
trouble; for instance the drum may be spaced only slightly from the front panel of
a mantel model receiver, with the loudspeaker mounted on the same panel. Very
considerable acoustical coupling will then exist between the loudspeaker and the gang
rotors. Should the drum itself be resonant it may be possible to alter the frequency
sufficiently to avoid microphony by punching suitably placed holes in it. Spraying
with flock or attaching a piece of felt may damp the resonance adequately.
Another type of gang microphony is due to the vibration of the plates of the con-
denser. This is more often due to sound waves impinging directly on the plates
themselves and acoustical shielding between speaker and gang condenser should be
tried as a cure.
Should a valve be causing microphony it can be mounted on a floating socket and
shielded as far as possible from the noise from the loudspeaker. Sometimes a rubber
sleeve around the glass envelope may effect a cure.
With battery valves, microphony can be affected by circuit design. If the plate
current of a remote cut-off valve has been reduced almost to cut-off by a.v.c. action,
movement of the filament under the influence of noise from the loudspeaker may cause
some sections of the valve which have been completely cut off to conduct again.
The resulting change in plate current creates noise in the loudspeaker w bich main-
tains the vibration of the filament and the microphony is sustained. An alteration
to the circuit which will result in smaller a.v.c. potentials being applied to the valve
in question should be tried.
Microphony is also encountere-d between pickups and loudspeakers, althoug!J. more
recent types of combined gramophone motors, turntables and pickups use very
flexible mountings which almost compieteiy remove such troubles. '
If the remedies suggested above fail to cure a particular case of microphony there
are other methods of attack. The simplest is to mount tlie loudspeaker on rubber
35.3 (iv) MICROPHONY 1243
or felt with no solid connection between loudspeaker and cabinet. Even if this
should result in a gap of up to one quarter of an inch between the edge of the loud-
speaker frame and the baffle, little change of a-f response need be expected. Such a
mounting is, of course, mainly effective in keeping low frequency vibration from the
cabinet, and is most likely to cure low frequency microphony. .
An alternative method of achieving the same result is to mount the loudspeaker
solidly to its baffle, and float loudspeaker and baffle from the cabinet on suitable rubber
grommets.
Similar results can be obtained electrically by reducing the bass response of a
receiver. If the response is already satisfactory this is undesirable, but it may be
found possible to attenuate severely frequencies below say 70 c/s without appreciably
~ecting the tone, and this could produce the required effect. Alternatively, since
.microphony is usually much worse on short waves, a bass cut can be switched in with
the wave change switch as the receiver is turned to short waves. This possible cure
can actually improve short wave reception since fading and noise can be less objection-
able with a restricted bass response.
Since some types of microphony are due to a change in receiver output as the os-
cillator frequency is varied, it follows that the greater the selectivity of a receiver, the
more prone it will be to this type of microphony. Receivers with a sharp peak to the
selectivity curve are particularly susceptible and this is frequently caused by re-
generation in the i-f channel which may be reduced by improved layout or by neu-
tralization-see Chapter 26 Sect. 8(ii).
(v) Instability
This sub-section is confined to instability problems commonly met in A-M re-
ceivers. For general information on the subject see Ref. 22.
Probably the most common trouble with new models when wired up for the first
time is instability, although the reason can usually be found with little trouble by by-
passing possible" hot" points with a large capacitor, say 0.5 p.F, or by placing an
earthed piece of metal between stages across which feedback is likely to occur.
More annoying instability problems are those which do not show up in pilot models
but which affect production receivers, a typical instance being instability which occcurs
only at the low frequency end of the broadcast band. The regeneration is due to
some of the i-f output being returned to the aerial coil and thus back to the i-f input
again. The effect usually becomes evident only towards the low frequency end of
the broadcast band where the aerial coil secondary tuning is approaching the inter-
mediate frequency, and in addition the high impedance aerial primary must be
resonating at or near the intermediate frequency.
The i-f output is often radiated directly from the second detector valve or from the
last i-f transformer, in which case shielding may be needed, or at other times from
the loudspeaker leads or frame. Earthing the frame will cure the latter trouble and
a r-f bypass in the audio circuit the former.
Since the instability is due to intermediate frequency fed back to the aerial primary,
a reduction in impedance of the primary reduces the feedback. A resistor, say
10 000 ohms, across the primary may be sufficient damping, but usually gives a greater
loss in gain, selectivity and signal-to-noise ratio than a condenser tuning the primary
to a lower frequency than the intermediate frequency. When the latter method is
used, additional capacitance due to the aerial can only tune the primary further from
the intermediate frequency, but otherwise some critical aerial length may resonate
the primary at the intermediate frequency and lead to instability.
Battery receivers are particularly prone to trouble in this respect when operated
without an earth, as the aerial capacitance is in series with the capacitance between
receiver and ground, so that even a large aerial does not tune the primary much lower
In frequency.
A very similar trouble is instability when the receiver is tuned to the second harmonic
of the intermediate frequency. In this case the second harmonic is radiated from the
second detector circuit--where it has a high amplitude-picked up by the input
1244 (v) INSTABILITY 35.3
circuit and returned to its source. Care in confining the i-f harmonics to appro-
priate sections of the chassis is sufficient to cure this fault. Sometimes actual in-
stability will not be encountered, but the a-f output of the receiver will decrease as the
volume control is turned up over the last few degrt:fs. This is due to rectification
by an a-f valve of i-f voltages on its grid, thus increasing the bias on the valve and
decreasing its gain. By-passing, or if possible improved layout, will cure this trouble,
and it is wonh checking with a good oscillograph each new model developed, to see
that a-f valves are not handling i-f voltages of the same order of magnitude as the
a-f voltages.
A more difficult problem is presented by multistage battery receivers in which
coupling occurs in the filament leads. Since some couplings may be regenerative
and some degenerative it becomes difficult to determine the true gain. However by
filament by-passing and by wiring the valves in a suitable order regeneration can be
removed, and if the gain can be spared it is well wonh while to introduce degeneration.
Under these conditions variations in sensitivity with decreasing battery voltage are
minimized.
Battery sets in particular are prone to a type of instability which shows up as a squeal
when a strong signal is tuned in rapidly. This is due to interaction between i-f and
a-f circuits, and in battery receivers adequate a-f by-passing of the B supply will
prevent the trouble from developing when the internal impedance of the battery rises
with use. If back biasing is used the resistor may need by-passing for audio fre-
quencies. Filteling of i-f voltages from the a-f end of the receiver is in some cases
the only cure necessary for other troubles of this type.
Electrolytic condensers are not always satisfactory r-f by-passes and where more
than one i-f stage is returned directly to the B supply an additional paper by-pass is
advisable. When two or more circuits have a common by-pass they should be re-
turned to it individually to avoid common impedances.
A tendency to instability at the high frequency end of the short wave band of a
receiver is often due- to excessive coupling between the signal grid and the oscillator
circuit of a receiver and can be cured by coupling from the opposite phase of the
oscillator. If a r-f stage is used the trouble may be due to resonance or near resonance
in the r-f coil primary and a suitable cure is a small carbon resistor, say 25 ohms, be-
tween r-f plate and r-f coil primary.
An indication of the stability of an i-f channel can be obtained from its selectivity
curve. While complete symmetry is rarely obtained with the mixture of capacitive
and inductive coupling encountered in most receivers, a marked degree of asymmetry
at small attenuations can usually be traced to regeneration and it may be difficult
to remove the last traces. Apart from coupling due to leads or capacitances inside
or outside the amplifying valves-not forgetting capacitances above the chassis where
they are apt to be overlooked-magnetic coupling can occur between two transformers
either in air, or in the metal of the chassis, the latter trcuble being more prevalent
with the small spacing occurring with miniature valves.
The two leads from the signal generator should be twisted together when i-f selec-
tivity measurements are made, to keep the loop formed by them as r.ma11 as possible
and so avoid coupling between the first and later stages of the i-f amplifier.
See also Chapter 23 Sect. 7 for instability in r-f amplifiers and Chapter 26 Sect. 8
for instability in i-f amplifiers.
(vi) The local oscillator
(A) Recommended values of oscillator grid current are specified for all con-
verter types, and it might be thought that if these values were obtained and the os-
cillator tuned over the required range, no further design work would be required
for the oscillator. However the local oscillator circuit can be responsible in a receiver
for flutter, squegging, poor sensitivity with high noise level, unstable short wave tuning,
apparently short battery life in battery receivers and other more obscure faults.
(B) The term " flutter" covers two different effects, the sound emitted from the
loudspeaker being the same in each case. As a strong signal is being tuned in, the
voltages in a receiver are varied by the application of a.v.c. to the controlled stages
and by the changing plate current of the output valve. If the changes in voltage reach
35.3 (vi) THE LOC.I\L OSCILLATOR 1245
the oscillator valve the oscillator frequency is altered, and a case could be visualized
in which the tuning-in of a station generated voltages sufficient to detune the re-
ceiver. The additional voltages would then disappear and the receiver would retune
the signal, only to be detuned again. This is actually what happens when a receiver
flutters, although the station may not be completely tuned and detuned on each cycle.
The time taken for a cycle is dependent on the time constants of the circuits involved,
but it is usually low enough for each cycle to be heard separately.
The voltage applied to the oscillator may come from the B supply or from the a.v.c
In each case a receiver is more prone to the trouble when operating on short waves,
since a given percentage of detuning is a larger number of cycles per second than on
the medium waveband. If the fault originates in the B supply the effect is that as· a
carrier is being tuned-in the a-f signal causes a large vari~tion in the current drawn
from the B supply by the output valve. This variation in current sets up a voltage
across the series impedance of the power supply and this voltage is applied to the
oscillator plate and detunes the oscillator from the signal.
The time constants concerned are those of the a-f amplifier and of the power supply,
and since the a-f amplifier must amplify the flutter frequency, which is very low, a
cure is to decrease the bass response of the a-f amplifier. If this leads to excessive
bass cutting-although as in the case of microphony it may be necessary only on the
short wave band-the alternative of increasing the time constant of the power supply
can be tried. This is not so desirable since a larger electrolytic condenser is required
at additional expense.
Output Valve
,----,
FlU. 35.68 - B +
A cure which has been used successfully is shown in Fig. 35.6B. The condenser
C2 is connected between B + and the power valve grid circuit and applies negative
feedback to any a.c. potentials (due to flutter or hum) appearing across the B + filter
condenser. The usual decoupling condenser C1 is also necessary unless the hum level
on the B supply is very low (complete cancellation of hum across the B supply is not
the same as cancellation of hum across the output transformer primary) and values of
0.1 fLF for C 1 and 0.05 fLF for C2 have been used to give appreciable reduction in
flutter while leaving the hum level almost unchanged.
To remove the cause of the flutter, rather than curing the symptoms of the trouble,
it is necessary to reduce the impedance common to the oscillator and the output valve.
A large part of this impedance is the filter in the B supply, and by supplying the os-
cillator plate directly from the output of the rectifier a big improvement can be effected.
A separate filter to remove the hum from the oscillator plate supply will be needed
and typical values are a 20 OO(). ohm resistor from the rectifier cathode and an 8 fLF
electrolytic condenser. The normal oscillator plate resistor, perhaps 30000 ohms,
is connected from the junction of these components to the oscillator plate. A careful
check for modulation hum-see Chapter 37 Sect. l(vi)H-should be made if this
circuit is used.
Flutter due to a.v.c. application to converters is confined to short wave bands, and
is due to coupling within the valve between the control grid and the oscillator section.
Reference should be made to Chapter 25 Sect. 2 for an explanation of this effect.
The simplest cure is to use fixed bias on the converter on the short wave band, and
this is not unduly detrimental to receiver performance since the maximum signal
1246 (vi) THE LOCAL OSCILLATOR 35.3
input to be expected on short waves is less than on the broadcast band. The a.v.c.
curve will not be so fiat with one less stage controlled, but this may be an advantage
because it is not desirable to hold receiver output too flat when selective fading is
experienced as this unduly emphasizes the accompanying distortion. Even when
the a.v.c. applied to the converter does not cause flutter, it may make the tuning of
strong signals at the high frequency end of the short wave band very difficult, the
effect being that no matter how carefully the tuning knob is handled, the receiver
tunes just past the station. In addition, the fading of a signal may cause it to be
detuned.
(C) Squegging of the local oscillator in a receiver is usually confined to the short
wave range, but cases have been encountered on the broadcast band when unusual
coupling circuits have been used. Squegging is due to high oscillator amplitude
in conjunction with a large time constant in the oscillator grid circuit. Oscillation
at the desired frequency becomes interrupted at another frequency which is depen-
dent on the time constants in the oscillator circuit. The interruption frequency may
be audible or supersonic and depends upon the rate at which the oscillation amplitude
at the desired frequency builds up sufficiently to bias the valve to cut-off, and the
time required for the charge on the grid condenser to leak away sufficiently for os-
cillation to start again.
The possible results of a squegging local oscillator are a very high noise level (with
or without multiple tuning points and with or without a heterodyne at each point)
when the squegging frequency is supersonic, or a continual squeal when the squegging
frequency is in the audible range. Such a squeal should not be confused with another
which sounds almost identical and which is due to signal grid and oscillator grid
circuits being tuned to approximately the same frequency on the short wave band.
This second type can be stopped by detuning the signal frequency circuit, but a squeal
due to squegging can not.
A third squeal which sometimes occurs at the high frequency end of the broadcast
or short-wave band sounds similar but needs a small resistor (say 25 ohms carbon)
jn series with the control grid of a converter, as close to the grid as possible, for a cure.
The simplest remedy for squegging is to reduce the oscillator grid capacitor and
r.~sistor to the lowest values that can be used without reducing unduly the oscillator
grid current at the lowest tuning frequency. This may not be sufficient if the same
components are used on both the broadcast band and the short wave band (100 p.p.F
and 25 000 ohms are about the smallest combination possible if these components are
not to affect the oscillator amplitude excessively at frequencies below 600 Kc/s) and
a simple a1ternative is to switch the grid coupling condenser together with the coil
as the wave range is changed.
A third possibility is to connect a small carbon resistor in series with the oscillator
grid capacitor or oscillator plate lead. This resistor reduces the amplitude of oscilla-
tion at and near the high frequency end of the band, where it is a maximum, without
noticeably affecting the low frequency end, and thus removes the tendency to squeg.
The varying effect of the resistor can readily be visualized when it is realised that
at the high frequency end of the band the total tuning capacitance may be 30 p.p.F
and the resistor is in series with the oscillator input which amounts to about 10 p.p.F,
or one third of the total. At the low frequency end of the range the 10 p.p.F with the
resistor in series amounts to only about one fiftieth of the total capacitance.
(D) To produce the required oscillator grid current at a specified frequency is
usually simple, but to obtain the same grid current over a range of frequencies which
is usually greater than three to one can be quite difficult. Fortunately considerable
variation in grid current is possible with little change in conversion characteristics
and full use is made of this in. design.
Battery receivers usually present the most difficult local oscillator problems be-
cause of the lower initial slope in the oscillator section of the converter and because
of the necessity for the oscillator to operate with A and B batteries reduced to (pre-
ferabiy) 2i3 of their initial voltage. For this reason battery CODverter problems
are considered here.
35.3 (vi) THE LOCAL OSCILLATOR 1247
The first trouble to be experienced is usually insUfficient grid current at the low
frequency end of the short wave band-assuming that preliminary design is such as
to allow the required band to be covered. Figure 35.7 shows a simple circuit (" padder
feedback") for increasing this grid current without loss of frequency coverage, the
only variation from a conventional circuit being that the cold end of the primary coil
is connected to the cold end of the secondary. If this circuit is already in use, at-
tention must be given to coil design as discussed in Chapter 11 Sect. 5.
~ ____________ ~~NV~B~
With valves which do not oscillate readily at high frequencies, it sometimes happens
that a frequency range which is impossible when mixing with the oscillator funda-
mental can be covered with the second harmonic of the oscillator used for mixing.
This method of operation also has the advantage of practically eliminating pulling
and, in spite of decreased gain at the low frequency end of the short wave band and
additional spurious responses arising from unwanted signals beating with the oscillator
fundamental, it is often worth trying.
It is important to remember that it is the voltage across a grid resistor which is the
essential requirement. The oscillator grid current published by valve manufacturers
is used because it is easier to measure, but it only applies to the published value of
grid resistance. If a different value of grid resistance is used, the grid current should
be inversely proportional to the ratio of the resistances. For example, if the published
grid current is 0.4 rnA in 50 000 ohms, then the equivalent value would be 0.8 rnA
in a 25 000 ohm resistor.
A choice of series feeding or shunt feeding the oscillator plate is often available
(see Figs. 24.2B and C for series and shunt feeding of a tuned plate oscillator). An
increase in grid current, dependent in size on the value of the resistor used, can be
obtained by using series feed as this removes the damping of the resistor from the
plate coil.
With series fed oscillator circuits, an increase in coverage can be obtained by con-
necting the by-pass capacitor in the oscillator plate supply directly to the cold end of
the oscillator primary coil, rather than to some other place in the circuit. All oscillator
wiring must be kept as short as possible and removed as far as possible from other
components and from the chassis if maximum frequency coverage is to be obtained.
As the oscillator grid capacitor is in series with the capacitance of the oscillator valve
it should be kept as small as possible, and if the capacitor is switched with the oscillator
coil, a substantial improvement in frequency coverage can be obtained by the use of
the smallest possible value. At the same time the effect of the change in oscillator
input capacitance as the valve warms up is reduced, thereby increasing the frequency
stability.
It is unfortunate that in battery receivers, in which frequency coverage with sufficient
grid current is difficult to obtain, it is also necessary for the oscillator to provide suffici-
ent output for reasonable conversion conductance when the battery voltage is con-
siderably reduced. As a routine test during oscillator coil design for battery receivers,
the sensitivity should be checked from time to time with A and B battery voltages
simultaneously reduced to two thirds of their initial values, with a converter valve
having an oscillator slope as low as is likely to be encountered in production, and
under these conditions the oscillator should not only start readily each time the re-
ceiver is switched on, but it should also provide enough grid current to give reasonable
conversion conductance.
1248 (vi) THE LOCAL OSCILLATOR 35.3
It should be remembered when laying out any receiver that the characteristics
of the valves can be seriously affected by the presence of a magnetic field. All
valves are likely to fall off in performance if placed too close to a loudspeaker, and
oscillator grid cunent can be seriously reduced in this way.
(E) In a.c. receivers it is a simple matter to obtain sufficie~t oscillator grid current
but excessive values should be avoided. On the broadcast band, where so many
signals can be tuned, self generated spurious responses must be reduced to a minimum
and it is helpful to' reduce the oscillator· amplitude as far as possible. This
should be done experimentally as it is found that the reduction can be carried, without
undue loss of sensitivity, further than would be expected from a study of published
curves of conversion conductance versus oscillator voltage. Signal-to-noise ratio
should also be measured when the grid current is reduced as it may even improve
with moderately low values of oscillator voltage.
An additional advantage of using the lowest possible oscillator grid current is that
radiation from the local oscillator is reduced.
(F) With most converters it is found that the shortwave sensitivity is
affected when the oscillator frequency is changed from one side of the signal
frequency to the other. The reasons for this are set out in Chapter 25 Sect. 2(ii),
but it is not always realised that a useful gain in short-wave sensitivity can be ob-
tained with certain types of converters by determining the better method of
operation and using it, even if this necessitates an oscillator frequency lower than the
signal frequency. Under these conditions the signal frequency circuit (or circuits)
is padded and the oscillator circuit is not, but no other changes are necessary, and an
Increase in sensitivity of two or three times at the high frequency end of the short
wave band is sometimes obtainable. In addition image responses are reduced pro-
portionately.
A disadvantage of operating the oscillator on the low frequency side of the signal
is that a given ratio of signal frequencies becomes more difficult to cover.
Under all conditions it is advisable to make sure that the converter is not in need of
neutralizing on short waves. Neutralization of oscillator voltages in the signal fre-
quency circuit need not require additional components, as an undesired voltage from
the oscillator grid circuit can often be offset by a wiring change which increases the
capacitance between the oscillator plate and the control grid and vice versa, the wiring
to and the capacitances of the wave change switch being very useful for this purpose.
Plate tuned oscillators develop high oscillator voltages in the plate circuit and need
particular care in layout even on the broadcast band.
(vii) Cabinet design
(A) The subject of cabinet design for direct radiator loudspeakers is covered in
Chapter 20 Sect. 3. Open-back cabinets have many shortcomings-see Chapter 20
Sect. 3(ii). Completely enclosed cabinets, even with an enclosed volume as small as
2 cubic feet, are capable of giving very much improved low frequency response-
see Chapter 20 Sect. 3(iii). Vented baffles give about 3 db additional response over
a limited frequency range equivalent to bass boosting-see Chapter 20 Sect. 3(iv)
The cloth used for loudspeaker grilles should be very light and of suitable texture-
see Chapter 20 Sect. 1(viii).
Some form of diffuser is highly desirable to increase the angle of radiation at the
higher frequencies-see Chapter 20 Sect. 2(vii). One simple form of diffuser is cone
shaped and mounted directly in front of the loudspeaker.
Sharp angles (e.g. 90°) on the exterior front of the cabinet should be avoided be-
cause of deleterious diffraction effects-see Chapter 20 Sect. 3(vii).
In console and radiogram cabinets improved reproduction can be obtained if the
speaker can be directed upwards, particularly if the controls are on the top of the
receiver. The high frequencies produced by a loudspeaker are propagated in a
beam, and where the speaker is mounted close to the floor the high frequencies do
not reach ear level unless the loudspeaker is directed upwards.
When two loudsoeakers are used. both reproducing high frequencies, a desirable
effect can be obtained by directing· the speakers outWards at an angle of ahout 30°
35.3 (vii) CABINET DESIGN 124~
with respect to each othetand upwards if necessary. In this way the high frequency
response is spread over a much greater angle.
(B) A small amount of time spent on the ventilation of a receiver in a cabinet to
which a back is fitted can often materially reduce the operating temperatu.re of the
components. Provision must be made for cold air to enter near. the bott~ of the
cabinet and to leave it at the top. The components which affect the frequency of
the local oscillator should have a supply of air from Qutside the receiver passing ove.f
them before it passes over any other heat sourc(..s. Ventilation should also be pro-
vided to permit a copious flow of air to pass over the output and rectifier valves and
power transformer.
An efficient ventilation system is essential in the case of small a.c./d.c. receivers.
For the power-of the order of 60 watts in a typical case-to be dissipated by radiation
alone, the cabinet and the components inside it would rise to excessive tempetatures}
so that the greatest possible amount of heat should be carried away by convection.
This involves a maximum volume of air passing .through the receiver at as high a
speed as possible, so that restrictions on the flow must be minimized and the air paths
provided should be as direct as possible. At the same time all heat sources within
the receiver must be included in the ventilation system.
In the case of wooden cabinets it is essential that some means be employed fOf
preventing hot spots from forming on the timber. Ventilation is the best method
where it is possible, but in extreme cases it may be necessary to use asbestos sheeting
to protect the wood. Failure to avoid hot spots will sooner or later result in the finish
of the cabinet being marred where the heat is excessive, although the seriousness
of the blemish will depend on the quality of the veneering and on the type of finish.
When investigating ventilation, it is helpful to allow cigarette smoke to be drawn
into the back of the receiver, and to watch its course through, and exit from) the
receiver, which should be at operating temperature.
See also Chapter 3 page 81.
(viii) Ratings
Standard laboratory tests in most cases cover the requirement that all components
be operated within their ratings. There are some cases however where circumst6nCes
arise under which components may be over-run, although the operating conditions
under test may be quite satisfactory. A typical.case is that of an i-f valve. screen
by-pass condenser on which the no-signal operating voltage may be 80 volts, rising
to perhaps 180 volts when a strong signal is tuned in, and to 380 volts for some 15
or 20 seconds every time the receiver is switched on. The last effect would be due
to the use of a directly heated rectifier with a complement of indirectly heated valves
and of course a condenser with a working voltage of at least 400 must be used.
Whilst such a case would rarely be overlooked, it should be remembered that evea
with an indirectly heated rectifier, the same high voltages may be experienced for
a shorter time, and electrolytic and other condenser working voltages shoqld be
specified accordingly.
. Other points which have given trouble are
(A} The screen dissipation of an output valve should always be checked with
a large signal input to, and a large a-f output from, the receiver. A large signal input
biases the controlled valves, thus causing the B supply voltage to rise and the bias to
decrease if back bias is used, whilst the large a-f output increases the screen dissipation.
The output valve plate dissipation maximum will occur with a large r-f signal
and no output, since any output is subtracted from the plate dissipation.
(B) If a transformer is to be operated on frequencies of 60 cis and 50 cis, or 50
cis and 40 cis as is the case with transformers in some Australian receivers, the heat
run should always be carried out at the lowest rated frequency. The flux density
on 40 cis is 25% higher than on 50 cis, which will seriously affect the temperature
rise.
(C) The dissipation of the resistors forming screen circuit voltage dividers
changes with applied signal, and the resistor from B supply to screen should be checked
under no signal conditions, and the resistor from screen to ground at maximum signal
1250 (viii) RATINGS 35.3
input. These dissipations should also be checked when the value of each resistor
is on the upper or lower tolerance limit, whichever will give the greater dissipation.
(D) When 1.4 volt valves are operated in series across a 6 volt wet battery,
a large capacitance (500 ,.,.F) electrolytic capacitor is often used to by-pass some of the
valves. It frequently happens that every time the receiver is turned on, this capacitor
is charged through one or more of the filaments in the string. The· resulting flash
can readily be seen and can seriously reduce the life of the valve, although the filament
voltage may be correct when tested.
Special cases of one sort or another occur in most receivers and emphasize the
need to investigate the worst conditions in every case.
bass response of a dual wave receiver is frequently reduced for the sole purpose of
avoiding short wave microphony; a.v.c. application to the various stages may be a
compromise between the broadcast band and short-wave band requirements, and in
order to save money on switching, the final circuit may lead to increased overloading
or reduced signal-to-noise ratio on the broadcast band; to reduce costs it is also
customary to operate the s.w. and broadcast aerial primary coils in series, thus avoid-
ing switching, but somewhat reducing the broadcast aerial coil performance; if switch-
ing is used, the capacitance between the leads to the switch may on the other hand
reduce the broadcast band image ratio.
When a receiver is designed only for the broadcast band it is possible to use less
i-f amplification owing to the increased aerial coil gain on medium frequencies (average
perhaps 8 times) as against that on the short wave band (average not greater than 2
times). This may result in a more pleasant tuning characteristic as a single i-f stage
giving maximum gain usually verges on regeneration.
In an extreme case, say in a 3 valve plus rectifier receiver, the inclusion of a short
wave band may even make the difference between a reflex and a straight receiver to
obtain the required i-f sensitivity for the short wave band. This introduces the
problems of a remote cut-off valve used as an a-f amplifier, rectification in the i-f
amplifier, and high play-through as discussed in Chapter 28 Sect. 2(i), for the sake
of increased amplification which is cancelled by turning down the volume control.
short wave ranges and one broadcast range it is possible to provide continuous cover-
age from 22 Mc/s to 540 Kc/s with standard components.
However the more usual type of multi-range receiver is one in which the coverage
of individual ranges is restricted by reducing the effective change in tuning capacitance.
From the view point of ease of tuning it is best in such receivers to give each range
an equal coverage in megacycles rather than an equal tuning ratio, as the highest
frequency band may otherwise still be quite difficult to tune.
Improved oscillator performance is possible because higher (if necessary) and more
constant values of oscillator grid current can be obtained, while r-f and aerial coil
performance can be improved because higher values of inductance can be used.
Microphony is reduced because part of the oscillator tuned circuit capacitance is
a fixed capacitor. Further advantages of using a number of short wave tuning ranges
are brought out in the next subsection.
Band -spmIding
FIG. 35.8
I
I
M~chanical
I
Electrical
I
o.F.C.and band
COvc racJC by tuning
I
Band covcracJC by
variablc capacitor
I
Band covcrage by
variable induCtor
first i-f
I
High stobility and
possi blc short-wovc
station names
Fig. 35.8. Possible types of bandspreading (from Ref. 14).
Bandspreading by means of moving iron cores has been used in many models, but
although this is, an electrical type it introduces mechanical problems of core location
if the band-spread ranges are calibrated.
The small parallel variable capacitor used for spreading is well known to amateurs
but gives a very variable amount of band-spreading, depending upon the capacitance
of the main tuning condenser, with which it is in parallel, at different parts of the tuning
range. Moreover unless the band-spreading condenser has as many sections as the
main tuning condenser the signal frequency circuits become detuned when band-
spreading is used. This restricts the proper use of the spreading condenser to the
passband of the signal frequency circuits between values of about 6 db loss, and when
a r-f stage is used this contains very few broadcasting channels.
A simple method of spreading which avoids the use of an additional tuning con-
denser is the tapped coil system. When the tuning condenser is tapped down the
coil, its effective capacitance is reduced approximately by the square of the tapping
ratio. If distributed capacitance across the whole coil is neglected, the coverage at
"',ach tapping point will be a constant proportion of the frequency. Distributed
capacitance reduces the coverage at the higher frequencies, giving a more nearly equal
coverage measured in Kc/s. To restrict the coverage at each tapping point, a capaci-
tor can be connected in parallel (Ref. 20) or in series with the main tuning condenser.
Such capacitors can conveniently be brought into circuit by the band-spread switch.
The series capacitor method of bandspreading (Refs. 15, 16) has been widely used.
It has the advantage of providing, if desired, continuous coverage of the normal
short-wave band (6 to 18 Mc/s) together with tuning on the international broad-
casting bands which is comparable with that of the medium wave band. In
addition it requires few additional components, all of which are standard types.
Fig. 35.9 shows the essentials of such a band-spreading circuit as applied to an
aerial stage. Only two wavebands are shown, but as many as can conveniently be
switched can be used. A typical value for the capacitor in s~ries with the gang is
50 p.p.F and at the high frequencv end of the band, with gang capacitances of the order
of 15 ;.t;.tF it rlils only a small effect on the resonant trequency of the tuned circuit.
With the gang approaching its maximum setting of 400 p.p.F or more, however, C
35.4 (iv) BAND-SPREAD RECEIVERS 1255
with an effec:;tive Q of SO, tuned to the middle of a band 500 Kc/s wide and including
the 15 Mc/s band, falls about 6 db between the centre point and the extremes of the
band.
With 'Such a system spreading only the international bands, it may be advisable
to provide one short wave band giving continuous coverage from 6 to 18 Mc/s, as
many stations of interest are heard outside the bands. This is not a great disad-
vantage as the components used for continuous coverage can also be used for at least
some of the spread ranges.
Apart from the possibility of providing linear spreading up to any reasonable
limit (and the consequent need for bandspreading for the oscillator circuit alone in a
receiver without a r-f amplifier) the circuit has the advantage of preserving suitable
L/ C ratios while maintaining at all times a capacitance in parallel with the oscillator
input large enough to minimize frequency drift as the valve warms up. Capacitor
0 3 can be a temperature compensating condenser to improve the frequency stability.
Microphony from the gang is completely eliminated because, with normal com-
ponent values, the tuning capacitance is only altered 10% as the gang is turned from
maximum to minimum.
An interesting image rejection circuit is given in Ref. 14A. Its use is confined to
bandspread receivers with a r-f stage and covering one short-wave band only on each
band spread range, but image ratios from 35 to 50 db are claimed. Few additional
components are required.
- 3Vt----,."'N'W'--+
With manual volume control the circuit of Fig. 35.11 is usually employed. How-
ever if the B supply voltage is low, the signal handling capabilities of the i-f valve
are reduced (owing to the reduced plate-cathode Voltage) when a strong signal is
tuned in, the volume control is turned back and the cathode voltage of the controlled
valves thus increased. This objection can be overcome by using a negative voltage
applied to the grids of the controlled stages. One method of obtaining the negative
voltage is to connect the power supply filter in the negative lead and use the d.c.
voltage generated across it. Some decoupling is necessary, but one stage is sufficient
as high value resistors can be used.
A second method of obtaining a suitable negative voltage is to use the volume con-
trol resistor as, or in parallel with, the oscillator grid leak (With suitable decoupling).
Oscillator grid current must be kept as constant as possible throughout the tuning
range when this is done.
Three valve and rectifier receivers with an i-f stage and using i-f transformers with
a Q of about 115 and good aerial coils are capable of producing sensitivity figures of
the order of 15 ,."V on the medium wave band when the most suitable commercial
valve types are used. This sensitivity is ample for almost any listening conditions
providing full volume is not required from very weak signals. In fact, successful
dual-wave receivers giving short wave sensitivities not worse than 50 II-V have been
made with such a circuit.
(D) Superheterodyne with reftexing
Reflexing in a three valve and rectifier superheterodyne receiver provides enough
a-f gain to allow full simple a.v.c. to be used, and to allow good short wave performance
to be obtained. The additional problems involved are discussed in Chapter 28.
A convenient a.v.c. circuit consists of full a.v.C. voltage applied to both converter
and reflexed i-f amplifier, which can give a very flat a.v.c. characteristic. An a.v.c.
circuit in which control is applied only to stages before the a.v.c. detector, can never
give a completely flat output curve, because some rise is necessary to provide the
additional bias needed to reduce the output as the input signal is increased. Such
a circuit is a "backward acting" a.v.c. circuit.
A "forward acting" a.v.c. circuit is one in which the developed a.v.c. voltage is
applied to a stage after the detector, and with such a circuit the output voltage may
even fall with increasing input. The reason is that although the detector output
must rise as in the previous case, the gain after the 'detector will fall, and the net result
may be an increase or a decrease or a flat characteristic depending on the constants
used.
In a reflex receiver the application of a.v.c. to the reflexed stage controls the mutual
conductance of the valve and thus its gain at intermediate and at audio frequencies.
As the a-f gain follows the detector the a.v.c. system is a forward acting one.
Alternative a.v.c. designs in a reflex receiver may use full a.v.c. on the converter
and a fraction or none on the reflexed stage.
The increased a-f gain makes it possible to use inverse feedback, frequency com-
pensated or otherwise, in the a-f amplifier, and resistive feedback into the bottom of
the volume control (see Sect. 3(iii) of this chapter) is useful in reducing minimum
volume.
The combination of audio a.v.c. and negative feedback (particularly when fre-
quency compensated) is not always advisable, either in reflex receivers or in larger
types in which a.v.c. may be applied to a valve acting only as an a-f amplifier. Since
the purpose of the a.v.c. is to vary the gain of the stage, and one of the functions of
negative feedback is to minimize any changes within the loop, the two effects oppose
each other. This is not undesirable in itself, but the result is that on strong signals,
such as local stations, the a-f gain is reduced and the feedback is consequently reduced
so that the full effects of distortion reduction are not obtained. When the feedback
incorporates frequency compensation the result is that weak stations receive maxi-
mum compensation and local stations a reduced amount, which is th.e reverse of the
normal requirement.
35.5 (i) FOUR VALVE A.C. RECEIVERS 1259
Advantage has been taken of this effect in a receiver having one a-f stage with
deliberately attenuated high and low frequency response. Audio a.v.c. was applied
to this stage so that on strong stations no attenuation resulted-slight high and low
frequency boosts were incorporated elsewhere in the a-f circuit-whereas on weak
stations considerable treble and bass cutting was automatically introduced, giving
a very effective automatic tone control. Suitable treble cutting for such a circuit
could be by means of a small capacitor between plate and grid of the controlled stage,
and bass cutting could be brought about by a small value of screen by-pass in a pen-
tode.
In conjunction with a pick-up of good sensitivity a reflexed three valve receiver
can reproduce gramophone records without added circuit complications.
The most common type of reflexing has the a-f and i-f signals applied to the con-
trol grid, with the load for each in the plate circuit. Another type which has been
used has the two signals applied to the control grid with the i-f load in the plate cir-
cuit and using the screen dropping resistor as the a-f load, with an i-f by-pass from
screen to ground. The a-f path to the grid of the output valve is provided by means
of a normal grid coupling capacitor.
Since the a-f gain available from a reflex stage is comparatively small if the i-f
operation is to be satisfactory, the reduced amplification between control grid and
screen grid may be more than offset by the increased a-f load resistor which can be
used and by the fact that proper i-f by-passing can be used on the cold side of the i-f
transformer in the plate circuit.
Cost 1 2 3
Sensitivity 2 1 3
Selectivity 3 1 2
A-F Response 1 2 2
A.V.C. 3 1 2
Stability 2 1 2
Noise 3 2 1
Spurious Responses 2 3 1
The names "a-f receiver," "i-f receiver" or " r-f receiver" are used to identify
a receiver with such an additional stage.,
Although the performance of the a-f receiver can be improved upon in many ways,
its characteristics can be satisfactory, as evidenced by the fact that the w-eat majority
of five valve receivers are 'built in this form. Since most receivers are tuned only
to local stations, the advantages of the i-f and r-f types would rarely be displayed,
and their additional cost might be more profitably used on a refinement on an a-f
receiver such as a tuning indicator, bandspread ranges, or a better loudspeaker,
cabinet or a-f system.
*i.e. four amplifying stages and rectifier.
1260 (iii) LARGER A.C. RECEIVERS 35.5
30 Mc/s or below 540 Kc/s. Provision for reception of F-M broadcasting on 88-108
Mc/s is included in some models.
Owing to the wide range of frequencies covered, the calibration of a communication
receiver is important, and increasing emphasis is being placed on the inclusion of
facilities for calibration checking and even on the possibility of the receiver being
tuned to any given channel in its range without external aids.
An inbuilt crystal oscillator is the usual method of checking calibrations, and when
the oscillator operates at 0.5 or 1.0 Mc/s, convenient checking points occur throughout
the tuning range. Movable cursors have been used with receivers of this kind to
allow corrections to be made to the calibration when found necessary. Figure 35.13
(British patent No. 8706/44) shows a simple circuit to increase the amplitude of the
higher harmonics of the oscillator output up to the self-resonant frequency of the choke
L. The choke is designed to keep the harmonic output as constant as possible
throughout the tuning range of the receiver. Such an inbuilt calibrator can be very
useful in the alignment of the receiver. A possible refinement is the modulation of
the oscillator output by pulsing with a neon tube, or even by the mains frequency, for
ease of identification.
B+
FIG. 35.13
Harmonic
Output
Fig. 35.13. Circuit for increasing am-
plitude of high.,.order oscillator har-
monics (from Ref. 33).
For the second requirement of setting the receiver accurately to any desired fre-
quency, a crystal oscillator and its harmonics are used as a part of the mixer input,
and tuning is provided by a comparatively low frequency oscillator which bridges the
spaces between the harmonics of the crystal. The variable oscillator can be designed
to operate at a low frequency and to have high stability, any residual fluctuations
being a much smaller proportion of the total mixing frequency than of the variable
oscillator frequency.
To minimize the possibility of incorrect frequency settings, some receivers have
sliding dial scales which· expose only the calibration actually in use. Where high
setting accuracy is required the frequency may be displayed as the sum of two readings,
one in Mc/s and the other in Kc/s.
(C) Bandchanging
Methods of bandchanging can be divided into three main categories, mechanically
operated moving coils with stationary contacts, plug-in coils and switched coils.
The most common form of moving coil arrangement uses a rotating turret with the
coils inside it, but moving platforms which travel along the chassis have also been
used. Particularly when high frequencies are tuned, the contacts for the moving coils
present a problem as the inductance of the contacts can form a large part of the re-
quired inductance-with -consequent loss of gain-and the inductance may vary each
time a particular band is brought into circuit or when .the receiver is subjected to
mechanical movement.
Plug-in coils can be efficient as they do away with the need for a wavechange switch
-each plug-in unit can even carry its own calibration-but the necessity for grouping
the coils adjacent to an opening in the case restricts the layout somewhat. _Storage
must be provided for the unused coil units close to the receiver.
Switched coils are most commonly used and the main associated problem is the dis-
posing of a number of coils adjacent to each switch. The switches need to be reliable,
but modem types using rhodium plating properly applied are satisfactory.
1262 (iv) COMMUNICATION RECEIVERS 35.5
(D) Stability
Many stability problems are automatically eliminated by the use of suitable circuits,
e.g. crystal controlled oscillators. Methods of improving electrical stability are out-
lined in Chapter 24 Sect. 5. However mechanical stability is a first requirement and
the tuning units at least should be made as rigid as possible, some receivers even using
a cast chassis with this end in view.
(E) Sensitivity and noise
Owing to the number of stages used, the sensitivity is always limited by the noise
in the first stages of a receiver. This is taken into account in one method of measure-
ment by defining sensitivity as the lowest intensity of an input r-f carrier modulated
at 400 cycles to a depth of 30 % such that the total r .m.s. output power (signal and noise)
is halved when the modulation is removed from the input carrier. Such a definition
of sensitivity gives a good indication of the minimum signal which can be used ar:.d
figures of the order of one micro-volt and better can be obtained.
Another method of defining the noise ratio is by comparing it with the signal-to-
noise ratio of an ideal receiver under the same conditions. The factor by which the
noise ratio of an actual receiver is worse than that of an ideal receiver is known as its
noise factor. Further details of this method of noise measurement are given in Chapter
37 Sect. 1(vi)G.
(F) Selectivity
The selectivity requirements of a communication receiver are severe and depend
on the type of service for which the receiver is being used. For telephony the band-
width cannot be less than about 5 Kc/s at 10 db attenuation, whereas for telegraphy
a bandwidth of a few hundred cycles per second is sufficient while greater bandwidths
give increased noise interference.
These requirements can only be met by variable selectivity under the control of
the operator, and a good receiver will usually have at least six i-f tuned circuits to pro-
vide adequate " skirt" selectivity, with a crystal filter providing varying degrees of
" nose" selectivity perhaps together with a variable rejection control for dealing with
an interfering station on a nearby frequency. A representative crystal circuit
will give an attenuation of 20 db when detuned 200 c/s in its sharpest position and 2000
c/s in its broadest position. With a rejection or " phasing" control in use, an at-
tenuation in excess of 40 db can be obtained within 250 c/s of resonance. The as-
sociated i-f amplifier will give an attenuation of 60 db when detuned less than 15 Kc/s.
Crystal bandpass filters are becoming increasingly popular and they provide a pass
band of say 300 or .3000 c/s with severe symmetrical attenuation on each side. De-
tails on the design of variable selectivity crystal filters are given in Chapter 26 Sect. 6.
An additional means of discriminating between a desired telegraphy signal and an
undesired one separated by perhaps only a few hundred cycles per second, is the use
of a-f selectivity. A typical selective circuit centred on 1000 c/s gives an attenuation
of 15 to 20 db only 100 cis from resonance and of course much greater reductions
with greater separation. Apart from discrimination against undesired signals, such
a circuit reduces random noise in the same ratio as it reduces the bandwidth, and the
ringing which is experienced with crystals at maximum selectivity when subjected
to bursts of noise is eliminated.
Such selective a-f circuits are normally designed with iron-cored inductors because
maximum Q is required, but it may be possible to produce equivalent or improved
performance with a bridged T negative feedback circuit.
(G) Volume control and a.v.c.
Volume control presents some problems because the range of signal levels which
the receiver is expected to use exceeds one million to one, and because different types
of control are required for different functions of the receiver. For reception of
telegraphy many operators prefer a manual control and some receivers provide separate
controls for a-f gain and i-f gain; even separate r-f gain is sometimes provided.
1\. convenient compromise which obtains good results from the receiver and requires
no care on the part of the operator is to gang the a-f and r-f con~ols and delay the
35.5 (iv) COMMUNICATION RECEIVERS 1263
A/ /
~V
V
- Va
100
i
I
I I
0
o 2345678
Eh (Volts) FIG. 35. 14
Fig. 35.14 (A). Voltage-current characteristic of 6.3 volt 0.3 amp. heater; (B) Voltage-
current characteristic of 21 ohm resistor.
180 I
I
1
V I
~
150
B 1\
AV 1\ \
1\
120
r \ \.
I
~ 1\
I\, \.
mA
90
, I
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,\ 1\;).. \ i I
I i \.
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60
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J.
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I i I i I I I I 1\ 1\ i 1\ I
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: II
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o
o 40 80
X 108
II
Y 216 "
240
-'I
264
290
120 VOLTS 160
FIG. 35.1.5
Fig. 35.15. Illustration of the effect of mains voltage variation on heater voltage (Method
from Ref. 41).
1266 (i) SERIES-RESISTOR OPERATION 35.6
the heaters, is point B, the operating point under normal conditions. Now if the
mains voltage is increased 10% to 264 volts the slope of the resistive line is un-
changed and it intercepts the curve at point C. A vertical from C cuts the base line
at Y, representing a voltage of 123, and an increase of 15 volts, i.e. 14% in the voltage
applied to the heaters. Similarly a decrease of 10% in the mains voltage gives more
than 10% decrease in the voltage applied to the heaters.
Because of this fact, it is necessary to provide more tappings on a series dropping
resistor for various primary voltages than would otherwise. be the case. Variations
in supply voltages around the nominal value must be taken into account, in conjunc-
tion with the manufacturer's tolerance on the valve heaters. For American types
this tolerance is usually taken as ± 10% of the rated voltage, but other tolerances are
also used, and some types have a tolerance on the permissible current variation.
When the dropping resistor is designed for one primary voltage only, it often takes
the form of resistance in the power lead. This has the advantage of dissipating the
heat outside of the Q.~inet. However if a receiver was originally designed for 115
volt operation and is converted for 230 volt operation by means of a series resistor,
the B + voltage is liable to be reduced by this method (Ref. 36). The reason is that
the value of the series resistor must be adjusted to give the correct average heater
voltage (or current) but the rectifier draws its current in pulses and these pulses
flowing through the series resistance decrease the applied voltage during the time the
rectifier is drawing current. This gives a decrease in the d.c. output of the rectifier,
which in a severe case might amount to 30 volts in 110. Methods of providing
separate voltage dropping impedances for the heaters and rectifier which are suitable
for use on both a.c. -and d.c. are given in Ref. 36. Whele voltage dropping of this
type is required on a.c. only, a series condenser of the correct impedance can be used
in series with the power lead (Ref. 42) provided that an adequate voltage rating is
specified.
the barretter filament reached its operating temperature. The use of a dial lamp
of higher current rating than the valve heaters is a possible method of operation.
Some manufacturers have produced special 1amps for series running. Nevertheless
in each of these cases the fai1ure of the dial lamp would remove the voltage from the
valve heaters and stop the receiver.
One method of avoiding this trouble is to use a negative coefficient resistor (Thermis-
tor) in series with the valve heaters-see page 190 (n).
A system in which both heater current and high tension supply current are used is
given in Fig. 35.17. Special rectifier valves (e.g. 35Z5-GT) have been produced
for use in such circuits, and the initial surge is offset by the fact that until the rectifier
. heater reaches its operating temperature the high tension component of the dial lamp
current does not flow. No. 40 or No: 47 dial lamps (0.15 amp) should be used, and
when the rectified current exceeds 60 rnA a shunting resistor (R, in Fig. 35.17) is
required, its value being 300, 150 and 100 ohms for rectified currents of 70, 80 and
90 mA respectively.
1
D.C .
Fig. 35.17. Circuit using 35Z5-GT and
dial lamp. The drop across R and all
heaters (with panel lamp) should equal 117
.... ..-1 .....1 ...... '--- OUT~p'uT volts at 0.15 ampere. R s = shunting
resistor required when d.c. output curretzt
exceeds 60 mAo
FIG. 35.17
Other rectifiers making similar provision for a pilot iamp are the miniature 35W4
and the 45Z5-GT.
The trend in small a.c./d.c. receivers is to use a simple dial without a lamp, and
thus entirely avoid the use of the troublesome light source.
(iv) Miscellaneous features
(A) Rectifier
Since there is no centre-tapped source of high voltage a.c. in an a.c./d.c. receiver
it is not possible to use a normal full wave rectifier. Bridge rectifiers or voltage
doublers are possible but half wave rectifiers are most commonly used. They intro-
duce some filtering problems since the frequency of the ripple in the output is one
half of that from a full wave rectifier. To give the same electrical attenuation, filter
capacitors and inductors would need to be increased in size~ but speaker inefficiency
and the poorer response of the ear at the lower frequency help in minimizing the
effects of higher hum level.
When the receiver is operating on d.c., the rectifier acts only as a series impedance
but serves a useful purpose in protecting the electrolytic filter condensers from damage
if the mains connection is reversed in polarity, although the receiver will not operate
under these conditions.
The high tension voltage is likely to be different with a.c. or d.c. mains of the same
rated voltage. The reason is that on a.c. the peak voltage applied to the rectifier is
vi times the rated r.m.s. voltage and with small to medium loads and a large input
condenser for the rectifier the d.c. output voltage will exceed the r.m.s. value of the
a.c. input.
Modulation hum is frequently experienced in a.c./d.c. receivers operating on a.c.
due to th e presence of r-f signals in the mains, and to the direct connection of the
rectifier to the mains. A suitable filter in the mains lead will stop the modulation
hum, and any interference coming from the mains, but a satisfactory cure for the
hum alone is a small (1000 ILJ1.F) mica condenser connected between plate and cathode
of the rectifier.
(B) Valve oro er
When the valve heaters are wired in series and connected across the mains the
potential between heater and cathode of any valve will be dependent on its position
1268 (iv) MISCELLANEOUS FEATURES (AC/DC) 35.6
in the string. Each valve must be placed so that the maximum heater-cathode poten-
tial specified by the valve manufacturers is not exceeded, and also so that the potential
is not great enough to introduce hum into the receiver output.
The position of a valve in the circuit determines its susceptibility to hum pick-up,
and an a-f amplifier is generally the most critical. The usual wiring order, starting
from the grounded end is second detector and first a-f amplifier, converter, r-f am-
plifier, i-f amplifier, output valve, rectifier. The converter is kept as close to ground
as possible to avoid modulation hum. It will be found that allowable maximum
heater-cathode potentials (90 V max. design centre for American amplifying valves)
always allow this order, which is the best for modulation hum, to be used.
(C) Earth connection
Two main types of a.c./d.c. receivers are produced, one with one side of the mains
directly connected to the chassis, and the other with mains wiring connected to an
earth bus which is by-passed to the chassis proper with a suitable capacitor, perhaps
shunted by a high value resistor.
The first type of receiver has fewer design difficulties but does not comply with
the safety requirements in some countries, e.g. the Radio Code of the Standards
Association of Australia (A.S.S. No. C.69-1937) states: V.7 (f) (ii) "Power units
and sets of the transformerless type shall have the live parts of the inner strUcture
isolated from the case or frame by an isolating condenser or other approved means,
which shall not be capable of passing a current exceeding 5 milliamperes to case or
frame when the full rated voltage is applied in the normal manner of operation."
The main trouble encountered with the other type of a.c./d.c. receiver is instability
due to impedance between the earthed bus and the chassis proper, the impedance
being made up of the reactance of the by-pass capacitor and the inductance of its
leads. This impedance can be reduced to a low value by making up a unit consisting
of an inductor wound on the body of the capacitor, the two being connected in series
and resonated at the intermediate frequency, at which most amplification occurs.
Many cases of instability need individual treatment and it often becomes necessary
to return particular circuits (e.g. the cathode by-pass of the i-f amplifier) to the chassis
through a series tuned circuit instead of to the negative bus.
To avoid modulation and other types of hum it may be helpful to use back-bias
for amplifying valves so that the cathodes can be directly grounded. This avoids
the possibility of hum voltages appearing between cathode and ground.
Where there is any possibility of interconnection of two or more a.c./d.c. units,
such as for instance a radio tuner and a separate public address amplifier, it is essential
that the mains be isolated from the chassis.
obtain similar sensitivities. The four types arc a converter, an i-f amplifier, an a-f
amplifier and an output valve. The i-f output is severely limited by the low plate
voltage on the last i-f valve-about 84 volts with fresh batteries in a typical modem
receiver-and an a-f amplifier is needed to obtain sufficient a-f voltage to drive the
output valve.
The more general type of battery receiver has five valves and uses the additional
valve as a r-f or second i-f amplifier. On the broadcast band sensitivities of the orde~
of 1 p-V are readily available in each case, and if a high gain aerial coil is used there
is not a great deal of difference in signal-to-noise ratio. On the short-wave 'band the
r-f stage receiver is noticeably quieter but the average sensitivity at 6 Mc/s may be
of the order of 25 p-V, against perhaps 10 p-V for the receiver with an additional i-f
stage.
Because of the low i-f plate v()ltage the signal handling capacity of battery operated
receivers is limited, and taken in conjunction with the requirement for high initial
sensitivity, this means that a normal battery receiver overloads with a comparatively
small r-f signal applied. Nevertheless the conditions of use are such that large inputs
are not usual, and a receiver which will not distort seriously with an input of 0.1 volt
will give satisfactory service in almost all locations.
There is usually only one diode available in a battery receiver, and this severely
restricts the a.v.c. design as it makes delayed a.v.C. impossible. The most satis-
factory compromise is probably to apply a fraction (say one third) of the developed
a.v.c. voltage to the first and last controlled stages (unless the first valve is a r-f am-
plifier which may take full a.v.c. without increased signal-to-noise ratio) and full
a.v;c. to the intermediate one. The small amount of a.v.c. on the input stage mini-
IrJzes the increased noise from t..l)e first valve as a.v.c. is applied and on the last i-f
stage it allows larger signals to be handled without overload. The middle stage has
no effect on the nois~, handles only small signals, and consequently can do most of
the gain controlling.
A.V.C. design affects high tension current consumption and if too small a fraction
of the developed a.v.c. voltage is used, current will be wasted when a local station is
tuned.
Bias for the output valve is usually obtained from a back-bias resistor in dry battery
operated receivers. Receivers have been made in which the voltage developed across
the oscillator grid leak has been used for this purpose (with suitable decoupling) but
if the A battery voltage falls more quickly than that of the B battery, the output valve
is operated in an underbiased condition and draws excessive B current.
Separate C batteries have also been used, but the difficulty of discharging the C
battery at the proper rate has led to the popularity of back biasing, in which the voltage
remains approximately optimum throughout the B battery life.
When a back-bias resistor is used it should be effectively by-passed to audio fre-
quencies, otherwise a-f voltages developed across the resistor are applied to the plate
circuits of the i-f and perhaps oscillator valves. This may cause instability as a re-
ceiver is being tuned to a station.
Another advantage of back biasing is that if B + is short circuited to the valve fila-
ments, the bias resistor restricts the current to an amount which will not damage the
valves. With a 500 ohm resistor and a 90 volt supply the current is 180 rnA, whereas
even a four valve receiver normally draws 250 rnA from its filament battery'.
When a battery receiver is rurD.ed off, the B supply voltage does not disappear as
in the case of an a.c. operated receiver. The filament voltage being turned off stops
the valves from passing current but small leakage currents (for instance, through con-
densers) have merely to flow through another series leakage-that of the B supply
switch. Particularly in humid conditions, the resistance between switch contacts
may be only of the order of tens of megohms and the uninterrupted current which
flows can lead to electrolysis of fine wires and consequent open circuits.
Unless precautions are taken, the fine wire of the output transformer primary is
particularly susceptible to this trouble, leakage occurring between the primary (con-
1270 BATTERY OPERATED RECEIVERS-(i) GENERAL 35.7
nected to B+) and the core (connected to chassis), and interwound coils with one
wire earthed and the other connected to the B supply also give trouble.
Output transformer electrolysis can be prevented by connecting the primary wind-
ing to the core and isolating the assembly from the chassis, for instance in a pitch
filled container.
Interwound coils have a satisfactory life if they are baked to remove moisture and
then impregnated and flash-dipped in a moisture resisting wax or varnish.
In designing battery receivers it is important to check power output, sensitivity
and oscillator grid current with reduced voltages and with many valves. A large
number of valves is required because no tests are made by valve manufacturers at
voltages as low as those commonly employed by receiver designers as the " end of
life" point.
For battery converter problems see Sect. 3(vi).
(ii) Vibrator-operated receivers
Chapter 32 deals with the design of vibrator operated power supplies. Receivers
to operate with such supplies have some associated problems, mostly concerned with
the elimination of r-f and a-f interference from the vibrator unit.
Separation of all vibrator circuits from the receiver is essential if hash is to be satis-
factorily eliminated. If for instance various parts of the vibrator circuit are earthed
at different places in a receiver chassis, interference can occur which no amount of
filtering will remove. The correct method is to earth all vibrator by-passes and
earth returns at one point and connect the lead from the battery to the same point.
The same principles apply to a-f interference. It is assumed that adequate filter-
ing is used in the B supply so that interference from that source is negligible. Even
under these conditions, vibrator noise can be troublesome and the first source is the
battery itself. Although the internal impedance of a battery is very low it is not
negligible, and the pulses of current drawn by the vibrator set up voltages across it
which are applied to the filament of the a-f amplifier and result in noise from the loud-
speaker.
FIG. 35. IS
1\'-------.)111'...-----'
- ... FUM
A cure is an iron-cored choke between the positive battery terminal and the fila-
ments of the valves, which are normally connected in series-parallel. A large (500 p.F)
condenser is usually required in addition to the choke, and receivers with high a-f
gain may need two condensers. A typical circuit is shown in Fig. 35.18. With the
reduced filament drain of 1.4 volt valves it is possible in some cases to do away with
the iron-cored choke and use a resistor. When used with a 6.0 volt battery the fila-
ment voltage for each valve should be 1.3 volts so that a dropping resistor of 21 ohms
would be required in place of the iron cored choke shown in Fig. 35.18. Where two
large condensers must be used in any case the resistor usually has sufficient impedance.
Even when the filtering (due to the electrolytic condensers and choke or resistor)
is adequate, serious buzz can still occur. In Fig. 35.18 two leads are taken from each
battery terminal, and the vibrator and filament circuits are entirely separate. How-
ever it sometimes happens that two switches cannot be used and a common switch
section and negative battery lead must be used. This will introduce some buzz
although the degree will depend on the a-f sensitivity and the value of the mutual
35.7 (ii) VIBRATOR-OPERATED RECEIVERS 1271
impedance. An undesi-able feature is that the interference may vary each time the
switch is operated and may become progressively worse with age as the contact re-
sistance of the switch increases.
If the a-f gain is high, even the common impedance of a fuse may cause trouble
and in some cases only the vibrator circuit is fused for this reason.
The electrolytic condensers are also useful in preventing coupling between the
filament circuits of the various valves. However high gain receivers usually need
additional r-f by-passes on the filament string to prevent regeneration at the inter-
mediate frequency or to keep i-f voltages from the a-f end of the receiver.
One undesirable feature of the circuit of Fig. 35.18 is that if anyone of the lR5,
IS5 or IT4 valves is removed from its socket, or if one filament becomes open cir-
cuited, two other valves will have excessive filament voltage applied. The additional
voltage is nopnally not enough to open circuit the other filaments but if the receiver
is left unattended in this condition the valves will deteriorate rapidly.
The resistors Rl) R2 and R3 equalize the filament voltages on the different valves.
Since the filament string requires 100 rnA and the cathode current of the 3S4 alone
is 8.8 rnA under typical operating conditions, some adjustment to the voltage across
the filaments (in which the cathode currents flow) is necessary. However calculation
of the values required for the various valves is not straightforward since the cathode
drrrent of each valve has alternative paths of different impedance. For instance in
Fig. 35.18 the lR5 cathode current will flow partly in the negative filament lead and
partly in the positive, this latter current splitting into one component which flows
through the 1S5 and another which flows through the 3S4. As a result the resistor
values are most readily determined experimentally, and with average valves in a
receiver and decade boxes connected where shunting resistors are needed, a few
minutes' manipulation of the decade boxes will determine the correct values. A.V.C.
application will affect plate currents and hence filament voltages, and the resistor
values should be decided with an average input signal. By making slight compromises
it is often possible to do without one or more resistors, but if this is done conditions
should be checked with freshly charged and discharged batteries as well as at the rated
battery voltage.
A.V.C. design is complicated in vibrator receivers with series-parallel filament
circuits, but satisfactory solutions can usufilly be obtained by means of a.v.c. voltage
dividers returned to different potentials. For instance in Fig. 35.18, which might
be the filament circuit of a receiver with two i-f amplifiers, the diode load would be
returned to the IS5 negative filament, i.e. to ground, and a.v.c. would be taken
directly to the grid of the IT4 acting as the first i-f amplifier. This is possible be-
cause the filaments are at the same potential. However the lR5 and second i-f
IT4 have their filaments more positive and would be biased 1.3 volts negative if
connected directly to the diode load. A solution would be to connect a two megohm
resistor from the top of the diode load to the lR5 and IT4 grids, and another two
megohm resistor from .the grids to the positive side of the lR5 filament. This would
remove the bias from the lR5 and IT4 and reduce the amount of a.v.c. to these valves
which would be desirable-see subsection (i) of this section.
The elimination of hash from a vibrator operated receiver usually involves work
on the power unit (Chapter 32) but some precautions in the receiver may be necessary.
A frequent source of interference which is difficult to trace is hash picked up by the
converter valve. A very small amount of interference in the B supply may modulate
the oscillator and be fed into the i-f amplifier with the local oscillator injection, or
interference on the converter filament' may be troublesome. In each case the inter-
ference receives the total receiver amplification. A separate r-f choke is often used
for the converter filaII)ent to eliminate this trouble.
When tracing hash, a convenient method is to connect a shielded wire, with one
end bared, to the receiver's aerial terminal through a capacitor. The bared end of
the wire is used as a probe and when in contact with various points in the receiver
circuit indicates whether interference is present. The first points to check, of course,
1272 (ii) VIBRATOR-OPERATED RECEIVERS 35.7
are the incoming leads from the vibrator unit to the receiver and in general these
should be filtered until they are quite" cold ".
To be sure of trouble-free production runs it is advisable to work on hash elimina-
tion until, with an aerial wrapped around the battery leads and battery, no inter-
ference can be heard at any frequency with the receiver operated at maximum gain
in a screened room.
Mechanical noise and vibration from the vibrator also present a problem. The
high frequency noise components can readily be minimized by felt or other sound-
absorbing material, and even the metal shielding box in which vibrators are often
used may be sufficient. However noise at the fundamental frequency of the vibrator
is more difficult to cure and much trouble can be avoided by using a very flexibly
mounted vibrator socket. Each new receiver usually presents different problems
in this respect.
HI
I IS B SIZE CELLS IN SERIES.
1-6
I y
-"" 'I'--.. . . 2 HOURS PER DAY.
10()
I
I
I "'" , TO 17 VOLTS
......
"'- .........
t'--.....
I "-
"I'-....
10 30
AVERAGE CURRENT - MILLIAMPERES
FIG. 35.19
Fig. 35.19. Ampere-hour output versus discharge current for various end-point voltages
(Ref. 25).
*Infonnation taken from Ref. 25.
35.7 (iii) CHARACTERISTICS OF DRY BATTERIES 1273
Fig. 35.20 shows the importance of reducing battery drain to a minimum or alter-
natively of specifying batteries of as great a capacity as possible. As the drain is
reduced a progressively greater amount of the battery output is made available at a
high voltage, and as an extreme example, a 2.9 rnA drain on the cell will give 83%
of the battery's output (assuming that the cell can be used until discharged to 0.8
volt) at a voltage greater than 1.3, whereas a 187 rnA drain gives only 16% of the bat-
tery's output at 1.3 volts or more. The curves of Fig. 35.20 were taken on continu-
ous discharge, and with operation of say 4 hours a day the effects of shelf life would
modify the figures obtained.
No 6 SIZE CELL.
CONTINUOUS DISCHARGE
THROUGH
'"~ 1'2
0
>
i
!·O J
~~O--~--~2~0--~--~~~--~--~~~--~---a~0--~--~IOO
Fig. 35.20. Working voltage of No.6 size cells during discharge through various re-
sistances (Ref. 25)~
The main interest of Fig.. 35.21 is to the user of the receiver, as it shows the effects
of heavy battery usage in decreasing battery output. For a B drain of 15· rnA and
8 hours of use each day, each cell will give 1.13 ampere-hours output, but with 2
hours daily usage the output rises to 1.48 ampere-hours. Thus the batteries will last
for about 50 days with 2 hours of use, but less than 10 days with 8 hours of use. The
effects of shelf life in Fig. 35.21 are clearly indicated at low current drain and with
decreasing hours of discharge per day.
An aspect of dry battery performance which is of particular importance to receiver
designers is the increase of internal resistance of each cell as it becomes discharged.
The resistance of a new cell can be ignored for radio purposes, as it varies from about
one third of an ohm for small B battery cells, to one fiftieth of an ohm for large A
battery celIs. However as the battery ages, an impedance of the order of 20 ohms
per cell may develop and for a 90 volt battery this represents a series impedance of
1200 ohms.
Such impedances cause coupling between circuits, and in the case of an A battery
may cause instability due to coupling between different i-f stages or between i-f and
a-f stages. The remedy is an adequate by-pass (0.5 fLF may be necessary) across the
filament circuit, and the necessity for this should be tested with a discharged battery
during design. Impedance in the B supply circuit can cause trouble between almost
any pair of stages (including the oscillator) in the receiver. An electrolytic condenser
in parallel with a r-f by-pass (0.1 fLF) is commonly used to avoid this troubJe.
The only completely satisfactory method of testing a receiver for performance with
discharged batteries is to use a set of batteries which has been used normally until
the voltage has fallen to the required level. Accelerated rates of discharge do not
1274 (iii) CHARACTERISTICS OF DRY BATTERIES 35.7
Ir~ i I 1 TO 'SVOLTS._ -
\'~
i
I
I 'V'\. - .......... 2HR5./OAY
",",
!
I·S
'I
V \ '\. j
/ ~ r\ i
i I
/ \ \~ HR5./OAY"" ~ I i
+ I\!\ N ! !
I
I
I
'\ I'\. ~I
; I ......
1-0
I
! 1'\ ~
i
1'-. ........
1
I
I :
"- N ! !
r-.....
I
I
I
I24HRS./DAY' ,,["...i I
: ...........
~N
!
~
I
! I C"---~
! .........
o 10
AVERAGE
20
CURRENT - MILLIAMPERES
i
FIG. 3S.21
30 "
Fig. 35.21. Ampere-hours output versus discharge current for various operating cycles
(Ref. 25).
produce such a high internal resistance. Noise will sometimes be encountered with
a discharged battery unless a large by-pass is connected in parallel with it.
The effect of temperature on dry cells is very marked. At high temperatures the
deterioration of unused cells is rapid and tests have shown that batteries stored for
one year at 104°F. have deteriorated more than similar batteries stored for five years
at 48°F. Small cells have a shorter shelf life than large ones stored under the same
conditions.
The reasons for the increased rate of deterioration at high temperatures are in-
creased moisture loss from the electrolyte, and increased chemical activity in the
battery. This latter effect is beneficial when the battery is actually in use and a
battery discharged in a comparatively short time at lOO°F. has been found to give
140% of the output of a similar battery at 70°F. At 40°F. the output fell to 48%
of the output at 70°F.
When testing batteries it is important to realise that there is no relationship be-
tween the current delivered by a dry cell on a short circuit amperage test and the
service capacity of the cell. On the other hand the working voltage of a dry cell does
decline progressively as the cell becomes exhausted, so that a voltage test under normal
load is a good indication of a battery's condition. The voltmeter used should have a
resistance of not less than 100 ohms per volt for single cells or 1000 ohms per volt for
B batteries. The current drawn by lower sensitivity meters may lead to a lower
voltage indication than actually occurs in use.
In some types of portable receivers which can be used with dry batteries or an a.c.
power supply the dry batteries can be charged during a.c. operation or while the re-
ceiver is not in use. This is claimed to increase the service obtainable from the dry
batteries rut-hough the degree of improvement depends on the conditions of use. It
is important that the charging current should not be excessive. Further information
is available in Refs. 56 and 57.
35.S CAR RADIOS-(i) INTERFERENCE SUPPRESSION 1275
(i) Try the effect of bonding various parts of the bodywork to the bulkhead or
engine block with i in. copper braid. It sometimes happens that a large section of
meta:., for example a mudguard, is insulated by rubber or fabric beading, or even by
paint, from the rest of the body. Bonding of such sections may eliminate inter-
ference.
(j) By-pass separately the various electrical components of the car, such as the hom,
ignition switch, windscreen wiper motor, petrol pump, head lights, dome light, park-
ing lights, petrol gauge, electric clock, etc.
In fitting the various units of the radio itself it is necessary to remove some paint
from the metal to make sure that the unit is electrically earthed.
Occasionally trouble is experienced from wheel and tyre static. Graphite grease
in ,the wheel bearings, may be sufficient to effect a cure, but in some cases spring
contacts bearing on the wheel hub have been used.
The design of the aerial input circuit is very important in a car radio, because of
the small effective height and physical size of the aerial itself. Different aerials may
be used with the receiver, but telescopic types with a capacitance of about 50 p.p.F
are commonly assumed. One of the most popular circuits is shown in Fig. 35.22.
L, is a choke consisting of a few spaced turns of thick wire, resonant at about 40 Mc/s.
It is used to minimize incoming ignition interference without seriously ¢"ecting the
desired signals. L2 is the aerial coil primary, which is arranged to resonate with the
aerial and the rest of the circuit outside the low frequency end of the required band.
However the resonance is kept as close to the band as possible without introducing
too much mistracking between the aerial and r-f circuits, in order to obtain the maxi-
mum possible gain at the low frequency end of the band.
The capacitor C 1 is from 50 to 100 p.p.F in a typical case, and provides capacitance
coupling to improve t.~e gain at the high frequency end of t.~e band. La is tapped at
from one quarter to one third of the total number of tums from the cold end. Coup-
35.8 (ii) CIRCUIT CONSIDERATIONS 1277
Since valves are only tested by manufacturers to the recommended voltage limits,
there is no guarantee of uniformity of operation between valves at voltages outside
those limits
1-·
Fig. 35.23. Interference from power- 'T'
supply induces noise into input circuit "'*-
of receiver.
By-passing of the incoming mains leads to the chassis, with or without series in...;
ductors, is often used to reduce interference. Fig. 35.23 shows that this method is of
limited use, depending on the impedance between the receiver chassis and· ground.
Noise currents represented by arrows flow from mains to chassis and from chassis
to ground, thus setting upa noise voltage on the chassis relative to ground. This
voltage causes another noise current to flow through the primary of the aerial coil
and the capacitance of the aerial to ground, and thus a noise voltage is induced in the
aerial coil secondary and applied to the first valve of the receiver.
The fact that interference stops when the aerial is removed from the receiver is
not proof that the noise is picked up by the aerial. If the aerial were removed in
Fig. 35.23 the interference would stop because the path to ground through the aerial
primary would be removed, but the noise source is the supply mains.
Figure 35.23 indicates how improvements in noise reduction can be made. Firstly,
if the earth lead for the mains by-passes is separated from the receiver earth, the noise
potential between chassis and ground is eliminated. The separation needs to be more
than electrical, as if two wires were close to each other the noise currents in the filter
earth would induce noise currents in the receiver earth.
Secondly the incoming noise currents can be considerably reduced by using a r-f
choke in series with the mains leads before the first by-pass to increase the impedance
of the path. This will reduce the noise voltage between chassis and ground, but
1280 (ii) REDUCTION OF INTERFERENCE 35.9
increase the noise voltage between mains leads and ground, and the capacitance be-
tween mains and aerial leads may lead to increased noise from this source.
A third possibility is the use of a balanced aerial coil primary connected to the ends
of a symmetriCal lead-in from the aerial. When the two ends of the primary are
balanced with respect to capacitance to chassis (a small trimmer can be used on either
side of the primary if found necessary to give the greatest noise reduction) then noise
currents flowing from receiver chassis to ground through the aerial capacitance do
not give rise to noise voltages in the aerial coil secondary or the remainder of the re-
ceiver. An electrostatic shield can be used between primary and secondary as an
added· precaution against electrostatic asymmetry between primary and secondary
windings.
The symmetrical lead-in can be terminated at the aerial end in another transformer
coupling it to the aerial, in a dipole, or aerial and counterpoise or the lead-in may be
merely a two wire feeder with one end extended to form the aerial. In any of these
cases additional noise reduction can be expected from the fact that the aerial proper
can be placed at some distance from the .power supply mains or any other known
source of interference, e.g., it can be removed as far as possible from, and placed at
right angles to, tram lines.
Before proceeding with elaborate noise reduction methods it is advisable of course
to make sure that the receiver itself is not picking up noise directly. In strong fields
large voltages are induced into grid leads and under-chassis wiring, and complete
shielding of the receiver proper may reduce interference without other assistance,
or it may be essential if the full benefit of more elaborate methods is to be obtained.
In-built aerials on mains operated receivers usually work on the principle of pro-
viding an earth return for signals coming from the mains, in some cases as shown
in Fig. 35.23, and in other cases with a capacitance between mains and aerial terminal,
and the receiver chassis providing, through capacitance or direct connection, the
return to ground. In the first case the requirement for the " aerial " is merely the
largest possible capacitance to ground, and a ground connection to the chassis should
reduce the signal input. In the second case an earth connection should improve
signal strength as the current through the coil will be increased.
Even when a mains-operated receiver is equipped with an in-built loop aerial,
some of the signal input is due to the capacitance effect of the loop as a whole. A
mains filter may improve the signal-to-noise ratio in such a case, but with the other
two types of in-built aerial a mains filter will reduce the signal and noise by the
same amount leaving the ratio unchanged.
for this type of service provided that the plate current is restricted to a maximum of
1 mA, the grid leak is 5 megohms or larger (2 megohms can be used with a small signal
input but distortion should be checked) and the output required is no~ greater than
25 V r.m.s. Under these conditions less distortion can be expected from grid leak
bias than from cathode bias (Ref. 43).
Pentode valves have more critical bias requirements when used as .low distortion
resistance coupled a-f amplifiers and because of this are not so suitable for grid leak
biasing. However when used with a series screen resistor of high value and com-
paratively small a-f inputs they can be satisfactory, and remove some of the hum
problems from fairly low-level a-f amplifiers since there is no bias supply to be
filtered, and the cathode is at ground potential so that heater-cathode conductance
is not troublesome.
Diode biasing finds its main application in minimum cost 5 valve (4 valve plus
rectifier) receivers. A.V.C. is applied to the i-f and converter valves directly from
the diode plate of the second detector, the diode load and the cathode of the i-f am-
plifier being returned to ground. Under these conditions the contact potential of
the diode is the only bias applied to the i-f amplifier, and its screen voltage is adjusted
to keep plate and screen dissipations within tolerances. The converter may need
additional bias, obtained from a cathode resistor and by-pass, depending on the type
used.
A trouble which occasionally occurs with this circuit is that the diode bias is too
small, the i-f valve draws. grid current, and its reduced input impedance damps the
i-f transformer sufficiently to cause a serious drop in sensitivity with small inputs.
As the input is increased, the additional i-f bias from the a.v.c.line restores the sensi-
tivity to normal so that over a small range of input signals the receiver output in-
creases much more rapidly than the input. A receiver with this defect may show
poor sensitivity for 50 m W output, but normal sensitivity for the larger signal re~
quired to give 0.5 watt output as recommended by the I.R.E. " Standards on Radio
Receivers, 1948."
Additional methods of using contact potential for bias ate given in Ref. 44.
(iv) Fuses
Commercial A-M receivers rarely incorporate a fuse owing to the difficulties in-
volved in providing a satisfactory one. The peak current in the primary of the power
transformer when a receiver is switched on may be twenty times the average current
for a time not exceeding 0.01 sec. This occurs during normal operation, but on the
other hand a fault resulting in twice the normal primary current over a period of time
may lead to transformer breakdown.
Since a normal cartridge fuse will blow within 0.01 sec. with five to ten times its
rated current applied, a fuse of four times the rated currerit of a receiver would be the
smallest value which could be used. Such a fuse would probably not fail immediately,
even with a complete short circuit on the whole high tension winding of a receiver,
and would be almost useless.
Two types of fuse which can be used satisfactorily under such conditions have been
described (Ref. 30). The first consists of the normal glass cartrjdge and ends, con-
taining in series a small spring soldered under tension to a fine manganin resistance
wire by means of a blob of low temperature solder (e.g. Wood's metal). A prolonged
overload produces enough heat in the resistance wire to melt the solder and allow
the fuse to clear, but the thermal inertia of the mass of solder protects the fuse against
short duration surges. With a severe overload the resistance wire clears almost
instantaneously. An advantage of this type of fuse is the low temperature required
for operation-of the order of 100°C compared with perhaps 900°C for a normal
type of fuse. -
Another fuse has been made consisting of a high melting point nickel wire with
blobs of magnesium powder in a binding varnish supported on it. Once again the
thermal inertia of tpe blob allows short duration surges to occur without damage, but
1282 (iv) FUSES 35.9
a prolonged overload raises the magnesium powder to ignition point (about 500°C)
and the fuse clears.
A different type of protection has been used in other types of receivers. This
consists of an insulated strip of metal with high heat conductivity which is included
in the power transformer during winding. One end of the strip projects outside the
winding and to this a small stirrup is soldered with very low melting point solder.
A spring engages in the stirrup under tension and the primary current to the whole
receiver passes through the assembly. Any overheating of the power transformer
melts the solder and the spring disconnects one side of the mains from the receiver.
Such a device might not protect a low impedance rectifier from damage if the input
condenser were to break down, but it could save the power transformer and would
certainly prevent a fire.
A heat-operated overload cut-out is described in Ref. 65.
See also Chapter 38 Sect. 12 for general information on fuses, and Table 55.
(v) Tropic proofing
Tropic proofing has been the subject of a large amount of investigation (Ref. 40).
However many treatments described are not applicable to commercial A-M receivers
-even if only because of expense-and in any case are not required for equipment
which, although in the tropics, is to operate inside a home.
For" commercial tropic proofing" the following points might be taken as a mini-
mum requirement:-
(a) Good quality resistors, derated to dissipate no more than two thirds of the
manufacturer's rating.
(b) Good quality paper capacitors, preferably sealed in glass, but at least moulded
in some non-hygroscopic composition, with particular care (non-cracking wax or
varnish sealing for instance) against ingress of moisture along lea~. Voltage rating
to be at least twice that experienced under working conditions. Mica capacitors
to be used in positions critical to leakage e.g. a-f coupling capacitors, or a.v.c. by-pass
capacitors.
(c) Mica capacitors in tuned circuits to be of silvered mica type, flash-dipped in
non-hygroscopic wax or varnish.
(d) Trimmers to have air dielectric.
(e) Power transformer to be moisture proofed, preferably by baking and vacuum
impregnation with bitumen, or with a varnish which can be made to set satisfactorily
right through the winding (this must be checked). Failing vacuum impregnation,
pitch sealing can be used providing good penetration is obtained. Penetration is
assisted by baking the transformers, standing them on edge with the top of the wind-
ing just above the surface of the pitch immediately after baking for perhaps half an
hour, and then lowering the whole transformer below the surface in the same position
and leaving for another quarter hour. The transformers can then be drained.
(f) A-F transformers and chokes to be vacuum impregnated and to have the core
connected to the winding, the whole assembly being isolated from the chassis.
(g) Coils to be wound on moulded or ceramic formers and baked, impregnated
(preferably under vacuum) and flash dipped in non-hygroscopic wax.
(h) Very fine wire to be avoided; 36A.\V.G. is a suitable minimum size.
(i) Hook-up wire to be covered only with good quality rubber of low sulphur con-
tent, or P.V.C.
(j) All corrodible metals to be suitably treated, e.g. steel to be well and heavily
plated (and lacquered where possible), aluminium to be anodised if possible or chro-
mate dipped in such places as gang plates, brass to be plated. Die castings and readily
corrodible metals, such as zinc, to be avoided.
(k) Plywood to be urea-bonded.
(1) Good quality micarta to be used for lug strips, wavechange switch wafers, etc.
Micarta to be baked and vacuum impregnated in non-hygroscopic compound where
possible.
(m) All fungus-supporting media such as cloth and other organic materials to be
avoided as far as possible and fungus and moisture proofed if used.
35.9 (v) TROPIC PROOFI~G 1283
(n) Wiring to be arranged as far as possible to minimize the effects of leakage e.g.
B+ and a.v.c. not to be wired to adjacent lugs on a lug strip, etc.
(0) All-glass valve types to be used to avoid losses in moulded insulating material,
together with high quality valve sockets.
(P) Ceramic insulation to be used in the tuning gang if possible. Micarta-if used
-must be baked, vacuum impregnated in varnish and rebaked.
Additional improvements which can be incorporated include the use of ceramic
instead of micarta for such items as lug strips, wavechange switch, and valve sockets,
hermetic sealing for individual components (particularly transformers), hermetic
sealing for the complete equipment with silica gel used for dehydration, and the avoid-
ing of contact potentials in excess of a small fraction of a volt betWeen contacting
metals. Platings of appropriate metals can be used to minimize potential differences
between adjacent metal surfaces.
See also Chapter 11 Sect. 7 for tropic proofing of coils.
(vi) Parasitic oscillations
The high slope of modem valves makes them particularly liable to generate parasitic
oscillations unless suitable precautions are taken. In a radio receiver, a power output
stage employing a high slope valve is the mos.t probable cause of trouble, which may
show up as a continuous "frying" noise, as an irritating " buzz " perhaps only on
loud passages, or merely as reduced output with distortion.
Parasitic oscillations often occur at frequencies of the order of 100 Mc/s with leads
from valve sockets forming resonant circuits and with a feedback path provided by a
few micromicrofarads of capacitance between plate and grid circuits. In such a
case a suitable remedy is a non-inductive resistor (say 50000 ohms, -! watt, carbon)
wired dlrecdy to the grid pin. This increases the losses in the high frequency circuit
to such an extent that oscillation is not possible.
Because the placing of wires is liable to vary between receivers, oscillation may
occur only in some r