Chapter 3 Energy Value of Food Stuffs 3.0.1 The Energy-Yielding Food Factors ‘The energy yielding food factors are 1. Carbohydrates, 2. Fats ; and 3. Proteins. is one of the continuous are oxidised in the cells. The process Within the body, these unit ‘ion of COs, water and heat utilisation of oxygen and produ Carbohydrates and Fats 2", CO) + Water + Heat Proteins 2" CO, + Water + Urea 3.1 Calorific Value Energy value of food stuffs are usually expressed in terms of a term known The calorific value is defined as the quantity of heat liberated in calories by the com bustion of a unit mass of the food stuff in excess air or oxygen under specified standard o The calorific value depends on the nature of the food and relative proportion of proteins.£ carbohydrates present in that food. It is usually expressed in kilo calories and taken is 100 g. ‘This term is used to grade different food stuffs or fuels. Greater the quality of the food stuff or fuel. Different fuels as well as food stuffs are graded on the basis of their calorific values loritic val 3.1.1 Energy Units ‘The energy value of foods can be expressed in terms of kilo calories (KCal) of m ‘The International Union of Nutritional Sciences had suggested the use of M energy unit in place of KCal Kilo Caloric: One kilo calorie is the quantity kg of water through 1°C. It is one thousand times the small caloric used inp Mega Joule : One kilo calo 186 kilo joules. Hence thousand 8! x 10% kilo joules or 4.186 mega joules. of heat required to to ra equals 3.1.2 Determination of Energy Value of Foods ‘The energy value of foods is usually determined using the i It consists of a heavy steel bomb, with a cover held tightly: 1a CHAPTER 3. ENERGY VALUE OF FOOD STU Ly. — sirer = jacket ‘calorimeter wall ony let platinum resistance sample hoe amb vessel A weighed amount of food sample is placed inside the « oxygen under pressure. The calorimeter is immersed in a known quantity of water The sae ignited by means of electric fuse and heat liberated is measured by the rise in te alorimeter, in aceucible | led For example, consider the evaluation of calorific value of 2g of wheat meas: calorimeter containing 3 kilograms of water. Weight of wheat taken 29 Weight of water in the outside vessel = 3000 4 Water equivalent of calorimeter 500 9 Initial temperature of water 24°C Final temperature of water 26°C Rise in temperature 2c Heat gained by water and calorimeter = 3500 x2 = T000 2 g of wheat produces 7 kilo calories 1 g wheat produces 3.5 KCal Calorific value of 100 g of wheat = 350 KCal Gross Energy Value of Foods The average gross energy value of pure carbohydrates, fats, and proteins bomb calorimeter are given below. 1g Carbohydrate yields 4.1 KCal Ig Fat, 9.45 lp Protein, 6.65 Physiological Energy Value of Foods In the utilization of carbohydrates, fats and proteins un the boxly, a certain pereetta te above nutrients is lost in digestion and the nitrogen of protein is excreted in ure as urea whic still contains some energy value. ‘The average losses in dl estimated to be 2.0 percent for carbohydrates, 5.0 percent for fats and 8.0 percent for proteins ‘The loss of energy in urea has been estimated to be 1.2 KCal per gram of protein oxidised. The physiological energy value of foods calculated from the gross energy values after allowing for the above losses in digestion and metabolism are as follows: carbohydrates 4.0; fats, 9.0 and proteins 10 estion in human subjects have been ‘These values are known as Atwater-Bryant valuesBASAL METABOLISM 3 “utrient | Gross Energy | Loss of Food | Energy Available | Loss of Food | Physiological | Type) Value | Energy in after Energy in | Energy Value | __ Digestion Digestion | Metabolism | _ of Foods Carbohydrates 41KCal/g [2 40 KCal/g 0 4.0 KCal/g Fats | 945 KCal/g | 5 9.0 KCal/g 0 9.0 KCal/g Proteins Oe On the basis of the above table we can calculate the energy values of foods from their contents { carbohydrates, fats and proteins using the physiological energy values of 4.0 KCal per gram of carbohydrate or protein and 9.0 KCal per gram of fat.Bes (of reactions simultaneously take Hh oiace in a living cell, in a well-organized nd integrated manner. The entire spectrum of chemical reactions, occurring in the living system, are collectively referred to as ‘metabolism. A. metabolic pathway (or metabolic map) constitutes a series of enzymatic reactions to produce specific products. The term metabolite 2oplied to a substrate or an intermediate or a product in the metabolic reactions. ‘etabolism is broadly divided into two categories (Fig. 12.0. 1. Catabolism : The degradative processes concered with the breakdown of complex nolecules to simpler ones, with a concomitant velease of energy 2. Anabolism : The biosynthetic reactions rrvolving the formation of complex molecules cm simple precursors. A clear demarcation between catabolism and anabolism is rather dificult, since there are ‘The metabolism introduces itself : “Urepresent the chemical reactions of life: Composed of catabolion and anaboliom: Cataboliom is degradative to generate energy: Anaboliom is sythetic that consumes energy.” Energy ch g | lapP «i im ~ cexrabOusu sazous L, ar | | NADPH apne | me Ti ta rin ead tion several intermediates common to both the processes. The term amphibolism is also in use for reactions which are both catabolic and anabolic in nature. Catabolism The very purpose of catabolism is to trap the energy of the biomolecules in the form of ATP and 10 generate the substances (precursors) 241Poyacchandes Save + S$ umoadioranes Seage? BIOCHEMISTRY rome | | Serer Fig. 122: The mee sages of eaabolion (ETC-Eiecron Wanspor chain) the synthesis of complex molecules Solis occurs in three stages (Fig. 12.2. Conversion of complex molecules into their building blocks : Polysaccharides are sober down to monosaccharides, lipids to free nd glycerol, proteins to amino acids. 2. Formation of simple intermediates : The building Docks produced in stage (1) are Segraded ft simple intermediates. such as. pyrmvate and acetd Cod. These intermediates S70 not readily identifiable as carbohydrates, «és oF proteins. 4 small quantity of energy (as P)'s captured in stage 2 Final oxidation of acetyl CoA : Acetyl CoA sietely ovidized to CO, liberating NADH ‘OH; that Tinally get Oxidized to release anti of energy (as ATP. Krebs eyele (or seid Qcle) is the common metabolic involved in the final oxidation of all energ-rich molecules. This pathway accepts the carbon compounds (pynnate, succinate etc.) derived trom carbohudrates, lipids or proteins. Anabolism For the synthesis of a lange variety of complex molecules, the staning materials are relatively few. These include pyruvate, acetyl CoA and the intermediates of citric acid cycle. Besides the availability of precursors, the anabolic reactions are dependent on the supply of energy (as ATP ‘or GTP) and reducing equivalents (as NADPH + HN The anabolic and catabolic pathways are not reversible and operate independently. As such, the metabolic pathways occur in specific cellular locations (mitochondria, microsomes et-.) and ate controlled by different regulatory signals The terms—intermediary metabolism and energy —_metabolism—are also in use. Intermediary metabolism refers to the entire range of catabolic and anabolic reacticns, not involving nucleic acids. Energy metabolism deals with the metabolic pathways concerned with the storage and liberation of energy Types of metabolic reactions The biochemical reactions are mainly of four types 1. Oxidation-reduction Group transter. 3. Rearrangement and isomerizationShepter 12 : INTRODUCTION 10 MeTABOLIGM 4) Make and break of carbon-carbon bonds These reactions are catalysed. by speci eazymes—more than 2,000 known +0 far Methods employed to study metabolism The metabolic reactions donot occur in ‘solation. They are interdependent and integrated into ‘specific series that constitute metabolic Pathways. It is, therefore, not an easy task to study metabolisms. Fortunately, the basie metabolic pathways in most organisms are essentially identical. For this teason, many organisms can be used to understand imetabolisms. Several methods are employed to elucidate biochemical reactions and the metabolic Pathways. These experimental approaches. may be broadly divided into 3 categories 1. Use of whole organisms or its components, 2. Uiility of metabolic probes, 3. Application of isotopes. The actual methods employed may be either in vivo (in the living system) or in vitro (in the test tube) of, more frequently, both, 1. Use of whole organism or its components : (a) Whole organisms : The ultimate aim of 2 biochemist. is to know the ‘metabolism in the organism as a whole. Glucose tolerance test (GTT), SUMMAI 243 employed 1 measure the response of man (or other animals) towards rbohydrate metabolism good ‘example of the use of whole organise, (b) Isolated organs, tissue slices, whole cells, subcellular organolles, ‘cell-fce systems and recently purified components are frequently used to elucidate biochemical reactions and metabolic pathways. lity of metabolic probes : Two types of probes are commonly used to trace out biochemical pathways. These are metabolic inhibitors and mutations. In both the cases, there is a specific blockade in a metabolic reaction which helps to understand the pathway Inhibitors of electron transport chain have been largely responsible to elucidate the sequence of lectron carriers (Chapter 11). The inborn errors of metabolism in higher organisms and the Benetic manipulations in the microorganisms have also contributed a lot to the understanding ‘of metabolisms, 3. Application of isotopes : Isotopes are the atoms with the same number of protons but different neutrons. By use of isotopes, the molecules of the living system can be labelled without altering their chemical properties. Application of isotopes in biochemisty has revolutionized the study of metabolisms. More details on the utility of isotopes in biochemistry are given elsewhere (Chapter 41, ry 1, The wide range of chemical reactions occurring known as metabolism, Catabolism is concerni in the living system are collectively ied with the degradation of complex molecules to simpler ones coupled with the liberation of energy (ATP). On the other hand, anabolism deals with the synthetic re complex molecules, factions converting simple precursors to coupled with the consumption of energy (ATP). A metabolic 7 Pathway constitutes a series of enzymatic reactions to produce specific products, 2 Several methods are employed to study metabolism. These include the use of the whole ‘organism or its components (organ, tissue, cells, ‘organelles etc.) utility of metabolic Probes (inhibitors and mutations) and application of isotopes.— i @ ‘1 for Peptide Researchers nd the right automated Peptide /nthesizer for your lab. AAPPTec “Aw Last Updated: March 24, 2021 Anabolism and Catabolism are the two types of biochemical reactions that make up the metabolism. Anabolic reactions involve the building of larger, complex molecules from smaller, simpler ones, and require an input of energy. Catabolic reactions are the Opposite of anabolic reactions, and break the chemical bonds in larger, more complex molecules. This process releases energy while breaking larger molecules down into their emallar cpaomnonantceee eceneenenee mane Find the right automated peptide Eee synthesizer for your lab. /AAPPTec an Anabolism Catabolism Requires energy Releases energy Breaks down large, complex molecules into smaller, simpler ones Builds larger, complex molecules from smaller, simpler ones Forms chemicalbonds Breaks chemical bonds between molecules within molecules What is Anabolism? Anabolic processes are building reactions. These processes use small, simple molecules to create larger, more complex molecules, and require an input of energy to do so. For example, single amino acids may be used to assemble large, complex proteins. Because anabolism involves the synthesis of new biological molecules, it is also known as biosynthesis.#1 fT ‘ hing egy’ Ptide Researchers “* synthesizer foryow lab, peptide . PTec nN The products of anabolism are often used as Structural materials for the building of new | Cells. Therefore, anabolism is the driving force behind the physical growth of organisms. Examples of Anabolic Reactions ; +607 Photosynthesis ~ S00. 4 6 “care in’ oxysen dvoxtds One example of an anabolic reaction is photosynthesis. This is series of biochemical reactions that takes place in the chloroplasts of plants and involves the synthesis of glucose from carbon dioxide gas and water molecules. Like all anabolic reactions, photosynthesis requires an input of energy and is powered by light energy from the sun.#1 for Peptide Researchers Find the right autom ed peptide 1. synthesizer for your lab. AAPPTec “ ae : a Dgjuigane DART on re ein an { cual ee ca 6 S puarbhat®- Ter) ra Glycogen s' hese nti fm y' Giycagta hbsissensy ‘el Puecble Glycogen synthesis (AKA glycogenesis) is another example of anabolism. During glycogen synthesis, glucose molecules are assembled into long chains of glycogen, which art ; ey Ee are RRS 2 4 muscles. ” Rept aot ' Ke eee a. ar a ain Alaa ete Ket eet What is Catabolism? . an 3 Catabolism is the opposite of anabolism. Ala codece Catabolic processes break large, biological TO molecules down into smaller, simpler molecules. These reactions involve the breaking of chemical bonds, which is accompanied by a release of energy. Around 40% of the energy released is used to synthesize ATP molecules (the energy currency of cells). The remaining 60% is a xfi 7 “ #1 for Peptide Researchers Find the right automated peptide z= synthesizer for your lab, LAPP Tec What is Catabolism? Catabolism is the opposite of anabolism. Catabolic processes break large, biological molecules down into smaller, simpler molecules. These reactions involve the breaking of chemical bonds, which is accompanied by a release of energy. Around 40% of the energy released is used to synthesize ATP molecules (the energy currency of cells). The remaining 60% is released as thermal energy and is absorbed by the body tissues and fluids. Examples of Catabolic Reactions Cellular Respiration | —— 4Find the right automated peptide synthesizer for your lab. /AAPPTec #1 for Peptide =< = nN Examples of Catabolic Reactions Cellular Respiration cc¥% * 602 a ise Glu Lose, CATE Cellular respiration is a type of catabolic reaction that takes place inside every living cell. This process involves the breaking down of glucose molecules to release energy, which is then used to power all other cellular processes. Respiration may take place in the presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration) or its absence (anaerobic respiration). 6=c=8#1 for Peptide Geena Find the right automated o synthesizer for your lab. A “wa Digestion of Food Another vital type of catabolism is the digestion of food. Digestion involves a series of catabolic reactions that break large food molecules down into smaller, simpler molecules. For example, proteins are broken down into amino acids; complex carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars; lipids are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol. The body may then break these smaller simpler molecules down even further to release energy or use them as ‘building