FIRST TIME IN PAKISTAN ALL PROVINCES SYLLABUS IN ONE, BOOK NATIONAL BIOLOGY ofr ALM ar Prof. Tariq Mahmood Sahu AMCTable Of Contents 1 | Virus (acellular life/variety ofilife)- 5. 2 | Bacteria (Prokaryotes) 17 3 | Biological molecules 31 4 | Cell structure and function 60 5 | Enzymes " 85 6 | Bio-energetics - 97 7 | Diversity among animals 120 8 | Life process in animals and plants (nutrition/gaseous 146 exchange/ transport) A) Nutrition in Carnivorous plants 147 _ B) Digestive System 148 C) Respiratory System . 165 D) Transport in plants 179 E) Transport in Man (Cardiovascular system in man) 191 F) Lymphatic system : 212 G) Immune &-system’ 215 9 | Reproduction 227 ‘| 10 | Support and movement 240 11 | Coordination and control/nervous & chemical coordination 261 12 | Chromosomes & Nucleic Acid (DNA and RNA) 287 13 | Cell Division 309 14 | Variation and genetics/inheritance 317 15 | Biotechnology 343 16 | Evolution = 359Page |5 (Acellular ife/varlety of life) VIRUS (acellular life/variety of life) Introduction: The life form which exists without a cellular structure is known as acellular or non-cellular Ne. * The primary candidates for non-cellular life are viruses. Majority of biologists consider viruses are non living because they are not capable of autopolesis (ability of reproduction) without host . + The other examples of acellular life are viroids which are smallest infectious agents consisting solely of short strands of circular single stranded RNA without protein coat. + The prions are infectious agents composed entirely of protein, capable of multiplying itself and transferable from one host to another. Prions are responsible for mad cow infection and mysterious brain Infection in man. Prions are most recently discovered in1983. Viruses + "Non-cellular infectious entities which contain either RNA or DNA, normally encased in proteinaceous coat, and reproduce only in living cells.” RUST oye To NVA ets + You must have heard about influenza, bird flu, polio, swine flu, dengue fever etC) All these and many other.diseases are caused by the infectious agents called viruses. + Injust ten minutes, a virus may take over a cell, copy itself hundreds of times, and kill he , cell. Some viruses have a calculated replication time of about 70 seconds. By comparison, the fastest bacterial replicators only double their biomass every 20 minutes or so. + The viruses are pathogens, which cause diseases in animals and plants. Viruses are not cells; i) they are not capable of independent replication. ii) They cannot synthesize their own energy and proteins. History and Discovery of Virus * The word virus is derived from a Latin word “Venom” meaning ‘poison’, in past, the term virus was associated with infectious diseases which have unknown cause. * Work of Charles chamber land: The first evidence about the existence of virus came when (in 1884) Charles Chamberland, who worked with Louis Pasteur, found that the causative agents of rabies could pass through the porcelain filter (pore sizes of 100 — 1000 nm). However such filters could be used to completely remove all bacteria or other cells known at the time from a liquid suspension. ; 5 * Work of Iwanosk; Tobacco mosaic disease was thought to be caused by bacteriA) Iwanowsky (in 1892) extracted the juice from the leaves of tobacco having tobacco mosaic disease. In order to remove bacleria, the juice was passed through porcelain filter. He then rubbed the filtered juice on the leaves of healthy plants, expecting no disease to develop, but the healthy leaves soon showed the symptoms of the disease. + Work of W.M stanley: By 1900, similar disease producing substance had been discovered in both plants and animals. The name fillerable viruses were given to these substances. W.M. Stanley (in 1935) crystallized the infectious particle, now known as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). Subsequently many other viruses actually have been seen with the help of the electron microscope. The study of virus is called virology. They are too small to be seen under the it microscoy Characteristics of Viruses The living characteristics of viruses are: |. Viruses occur in different of strains or varieties. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage is (Acellular ife/varlety of life) Il. They have thelr own genetic material In the form of either DNA of RNA that can undergo, mutation. Ill. They reproduce using the metabolic machinary of the host cell they infect. IV. They enter the cells of living organism and cause disease |.e., Intercellular obligate parasite. V.__ They get destroyed by ultraviolet radiations and chemicals. ‘The nonliving characteristics of viruses are: L, They are non-cellular particles. Il, They lack coenzyme and enzyme system and do not have metabolic activities of their own, lll, They can be crystallized and stored In bottles. IV. They do not respire and use the energy of host for thelr activities. V. Viruses behave as nonliving, Inert Infectious particles outside the host. Vi. Therefore, depending upon the ambivalent (fluctuating) nature of characteristics possessed by viruses; they are considered as boundary line between living and non. living thing General Structure of a Virus Viruses have a very simple structure. A complete, mature and infectious viral particle is called virion. Primarily, it can be divided into two parts i) core —_ii) coat. |. Gore: . «The core is inner part of virion which’ consists of viral genome and various proteins (enzymes). * Genome is the genetic material, which: is either DNA or RNA, which may be single stranded or double strandeD) * Core proteins include one or more enzymes that faciliies the virus in its mode of action within host body. «For example: all single stranded RNA viruses have the enzyme to convert single sanded RNA genome into double stranded RNA genome. + Retroviruses and hepatitis 8 virus contain the enzyme reverse transcriptase to convert single stranded RNA genome into double stranded DNA genome. Il. Coat: ‘* The coat is the outer covering of viral particle which consists of capsid and envelope. + The capsid is the protective coat of protein surrounding the core. Capsid is composed of identical repeating subunits called capsomers (capsomeres). + The number of capsomers Is specific to a particular kind of virus. For example: Herpes virus has 162 capsomers in its capsid while adenovirus that causes common cold contains 252 capsomers in its capsiD) nidpice «There are two forms of symmetry In virus — cn __ [. capsib) Enea etd * When the capsomers are arranged in 20 inate, triangles, Itis called cosahedral (polyhedral vis: or spherical), reute —nsern When the capsomers are arranged in a hollow ce coil that appears rod shaped, it is called Lina paa helical. ea * A few viruses have an additional lipoprotein envelope around the capsid which Is derived from the cell surface membrane of the host _ and also contain virally encoded proteins. * The viral envelope Is often coverad with glycoprotein spikes that help them to recognize the host coll NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMC.Page |7 (Acellular life/variety of life) Bacterlophage capsid + Ina bacteriophage capsid there are 12 vertices and 20 faces. + Two types of capsomers constitute the icosahedral capsid: pentagonal (pentons) at the vertices and hexagonal (hexons) at the faces. + There are always twelve pentons, but the number of hexons varies among virus groups. _HIV capsid forms an unusual cone-shaped structure, with twelve of the pentameric rings and over a hundred hexamers. The number of capsomers in polio virus is 3: Classification of Virus Virus classification Is either based upon host organisms or on other structural characters such as morphology, genome type and mode of action in the host. The internationally agreed system of virus classification’Is based on the structure and composition of the virus particles (virion). In some cases, the mode of replication is also important in classification. Classification of viruses based upon host Viruses can be classified on the basis of their hosts e.g., bacteriophage virus, plant viruses and animal viruses. |. Bacteriophage virus: It altacks bacteriA) It is a DNA virus with a polyhedral head and a tail. Il, Plant Virus: More than 2,000 types of viral plant diseases are known. Most plant viruses discovered till to date including tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), having an RNA genome. Many viruses have rod shaped capsid like TMV e.g., potato yellow.dwarf virus. Il, Animal viruses: Animal viruses occur as parasites in animals. Viruses cause foot and mouth disease in livestock. Rous sarcoma virus causes cancer in animals. In many viral infections’ viruses attack and destroy certain cells in the human body causing the symptoms and diseases. Papo-virus causes warts. Pox-virus causes small pox. Picornavirus causes polio, hepalitis A etc. Paramyxovirus causes measles, mumps. David Baltimore, a Noble prize-winning biologist, devised the Baltimore classification system, which places viruses into one of seven groups, based on their mode of replication, and genome type. Classification of viruses based upon structure * On the basis of capsid viruses are classified as: (a) Helical capsid e.g., tobacco mosaic virus. (b) Polyhedral capsid e.g., adenoviruses. (c) Enveloped viruses e.g., influenza viruses. (d) Complex capsid e.g., Bacteriophage. * On the basis of genomes viruses are classified as: (a) Double-stranded (dsDNA) e.g. smallpox virus, adenoviruses, herpes viruses. (b) Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) e.g., Parvoviruses cause mild rash. (c) Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) e.g., Reoviruses cause diarrhea. (4) Single-stranded RNA (ssRNA); serves as mRNA e.g., Rubella virus. (e) ssRNA; template for mRNA synthesis e. f)_ssRNA; template for DNA The bact Structure of Bacteriophage * Its generally a tadpole shaped virus. + Itconsists of head, neck and tail, « The head is icosahedral in shape. The inner core of head consists of a single stranded DNA genome. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage (Acetuar iterated «Below the head Is narrow neck or collar which BACTERIOPHAGE TRUcTUne separates head and tall. «The tail is-a hollow tube made up of proteins through which the nucleic acid passes during infection. The tail is surrounded by a contractile sheath, which contracts during Infection of the bacterium. E .* At the end of the tall a base plate is present which possesses about six tail fibres around it and several tail pins or spikes at its lower surface. The tall fibres and tall pins are involved... In the binding of the phage to the bacterial cell. ; ; . + At the bottom of core tube of tail, an enzyme, the lysozyme is present which is released upon contraction of tail. It digests the portion of host cell wall so that core tube can be penetrated into the host cell during infection. . Life cycle of bacteriophage . * Bacteriophages or phages show two types of life cycles i. ., Lytic cycle and Lysogenic cycle. ; ; * The life cycle of bacteriophage comprises two main steps i.e., i) infection process within the host cells. ii) replication within the host cells. 1.__ Infection process: The initial steps in the infection process such as adsorption, penetration and genome injection are quite similar in both cycles but mode of replication is much different in lytic cycle or lysogenic cycle. > Adsorption The first step in the infection process is the adsorption of the’phage to the bacterial cell. This step is mediated by the tail fibres and tail pins/spikes. Phages attach to specific receptors on ,the bacterial cell. > Penetration The binding of the phage to the bacterium results in the contraction of the sheath and release of lysozyme that digest the portion of bacterial envelope; as a result the hollow core tube is pushed through the bacterial envelope. The insertion of core tube is called penetration, > Genome injection The penetration of core results into the injection of viral DNA in the bacterial cytoplasm whereas, the remainder of the phage remains on the outside of the bacterium. I Replication of Bacteriophage in Lytic Cycle * The bacteriophage that performs lytic cycle is called lytic or virulent phage because it immediately causes lysis (breakdown) of its host cell after its own multiplication. * It develops Master-Slave relationship with the host cell because host genomic DNA is immediately disintegrated by the virally encoded DNA digesting enzyme (DNAase). * Viral DNA Is already undergone certain chemical modification therefore, such enzymes do not affect it. The disintegration of host DNA enables the viral DNA to take over the control of the whole metabolic machinery of its host. + Inlytic cycle the subsequent steps are: (2) Synthesis of phage components (b) Assembly (c) Maturation (d) Lysis and release. (a) Synthesis of phage components: “* Soon after the disintegration of host DNA phage specified mRNAS and proteins are began to produce. Structural proteins (head, tall) that comprise the phage as well as the proteins needed for lysis of the bacterial cell are separately synthesizeD) NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage |9 (Acellular life/variety of life) (b) Assembly * Nucleic acid is then packaged inside the head and then tail is added fo the hed. (c) Maturation The assembly of phage components into mature infective page pariicle is known as maturation. (d) Lysis anid release + Within 20 to 25 minutes, approximately 200 phage particles are produéed: ~~ Inlysis and release phase the bacteria begin to lyse due to the accumulation of the phage lysis protein |.e.. lysozyme and intracellular phage particles are released into the medium. Replication of Bacteriophage in Lyspgenic Cycle - . The bacterlophages that perform lysogenic cycle are called lysogenic or temperate phages. - * These phages can either multiply via the lytic cycle or enter a dormant state in the cell. * During lysogenic cycle phages develop Host-Guest relationship because in this case the phage DNA actually integrates into the host chromosome and is replicated along with the host chromosome and passed on to the daughter cells. This integrated state of phage DNAs termed prophage. This process is known as lysogeny and the bacteria harboring prophage are called lysogenic bacteriA) * The lysogenic state of a bacterium can get terminated anytime when it is exposed to adverse conditions. This process is called induction. * Conditions that favour the termination of the lysogenic state include: desiccation, exposure to UV or ionizing radiation, exposure to mutagenic chemicals, etc. * The separated phage DNA then initiates lytic cycle resulting in cell lysis and releases of phages. Such phages are then capable of infecting new susceptible cells and render them lysogenic. . ===, Collars, sheaths, and base plates @ \\ have been attached to heads. sdded ast. Bacteralcelllyses, releasing completed infective phage i © ThephageDNAdirects Se ia! . ° the cell'smetabolism 7” S, -——"t Phage attaches tc Empty phage heads ate synthesized, siteon to produce viral "another bacterial cell components—proteins if atest, and copies of phage andinsersits DNA. NA. Phage DNA inserts itself SSSSSSST AL asa prophagelinto bacterial chromosome. Binaryfissionls pam apt e : completed;each // 7 i: catbaithe i wrod ft phage mans rporated. TYSOGENIC Incorporate ee laweat MYM NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMC \Page |10 (Acellutar life/variety of lite) Usage of Bacteriophages in Genetic Engineering The bacteriophages have also been used In number of ways in different approaches of Genetic engineering. ; a) Beside bacterial plasmids’ the phage DNA has also been used as vector in genetic engineering techniques such as development of genomic library (a collection of bacteria or bacterlophage clones which contains multiple copies of all the genes of an individual's jenome) 5 Phage therapy Is the application of genetically engineered phages that can kill pathogenic bacteriA) Phage therapy has advantages over conventional antibiotic therapy. As phages are fairly narrow in thelr spectrum of activity, meaning that with phage treatment it is possible to kill bacterial pathogens while avoiding harming of normal bacterial flora, i.e., our good bacteriA) c) Bacteriophages have been used for many years as tools for the treatment of bacterial infections but recently a new application in the area of antibacterial nano-medicines has been discovered in which bacteriophages can be formulated as targeted drug-delivery vehicles. ss HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS Discovery of HIV: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the causative agent of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). It was identified (in 1984) by - -earch team from Pasture Institute in France and National Institute of Health USA) The virus was named HIV (in1986). . Structure of Human Immunodeficiency Virus «Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is retrovirus. Itis spherical in shape. * The outer covering is a lipoprotein envelope which consists of two layers of lipids; different proteins are embedded. in the viral envelope, forming “Spikes” consisting of the outer glycoprotein (gp)120 and the transmembrane gp41. = The lipid membrane is borrowed from the host cell during the budding process (formation. of new particles). gp 120 is needed to attach to the host'cell, and gp41 is critical for the cellfusion process. * Beneath envelope another protein shell is present which is made up of matrix proteins. It lies between the envelop and capsid. The HIV capsid is somewhat conical shaped which is composed of capsomers. . The viral core contains two single strands of HIV RNA and the enzymes needed of HIV replication, such as reverse transcriptase, integrase and protease. The reverse transcriptase enzyme is used to convert viral RNA genome into viral DNA genome. * Integrase enzyme is used to incorporate viral DNA into host RNA while the protease enzyme is used to break large structural proteins into smaller units. ‘+ _ These structural proteins are encoded by three out of the nine virus genes. Life Cycle of HIV * The primaty hosts of HIV are helper T lymphocytes (CD4 or T4 cells). In addition, macrophages and certain brain cells may also be affected. Following steps are involved in the life cycle of HIV. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage jit (Acellular life/variety of life) 1, The ini ‘al step in the life cycle of HIV Is adsorptlon/attachment which is characterized by the binding of the virion glycoprotein 120 envelope proteins to the CD4 proteins (a receptor) on.the surface of-T4 cells. 2, Next the fusion of the viral envelope with the cell membrane takes place and the virion enters the cell by endocytosis. Once inside the host.cell, the HIV particle sheds Its Protective coat |.e., uncoating occurs. This leaves the single-stranded viral RNA in the cytoplasm along with viral enzymes. 3. The enzyme called reverse transcriptase synthesizes a single stranded DNA complementary to virus RNA therefore, called complementary DNA (cDNA). i Afler reverse transcription the viral genomic RNA is disintegrated by the ribonucledse (RNAase) enzyme. The single stranded cDNA is replicated to form double stranded cDNA. The double stranded cDNA then integrates inlo the host cell DNA) Integration is ~ mediated by a virus encoded enzyme integrase. . The integrated DNA is now called provirus. Viral mRNA is transcribed from the proviral DNA by the host cell RNA polymerase. During transcription not only viral mRNAs for different protein are formed but viral genomic RNAis also produced. 10. The viral MRNAs are translated by host ribosomes into several large proteins, which are then cleaved by the virus-encoded protease to form the virion structural proteins. 11. The viral components are assembled and mature virions are produces. 12.Finally, the mature virions are gradually released by budding off form the host cell and enclosing a portion of host cell membrane around them. In this way host cell size is decreased enough that it becomes non-functional. Since helper T cells regulate immunity by enhancing the response of other immune cells so, the decrease in the number of helper T cells causes deficiency of the human immune system. The virus affects the human ae system, therefore, the virus has been named Human Immunodeficiency Virus Types of HIV There are two species of HIV Pen ee Se +i) HIV-I: HIV-1 is most common pathogenic strain. i. Ii) HIV-II: HIV-Il is not widely recognized outside Africa. Diagnosis: HIV screening test is done by ELISA) However, ELISA test is relatively less authentic, so PCR-test is recommended which is more authentic. Symptoms of AIDS ‘An HIV infection can be divided into 3 stages: Asymptomatic carrier. AIDS Related Complex (ARC). Full Blown AIDS. Asymptomatic carrier (1* stage): In asymptomatic carrier symptoms that may include are fever, chills. Aches (continued pain). Swollen lymph glands and an itchy rash. These symptoms disappear and there are no other symptoms for nine months or longer. Although the individual exhibit no symptoms during this stage, he or she is highly infectious. The stranded HIV blood test for the presence of antibody becomes positive during this stage. AIDS Related Complex (ARC) 2 Stage: The most common symptoms of AIDS related ‘complex are swollen lymph glands in the neck, armpit of groin that persist for months. Other symptoms Include night sweats, persistent cough, flue, and persistent diarrhea, loss of memory and depression. Full Blown AIDS (last stage): The full-blown AIDS Is the final stage. In It there is severe weight loss and weakness due to persistent diarthea and usually one of several opportunistic infections, NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPoge | 12 {Acellular life/varlety of life) Opportunistic Diseases: « HIV does not cause any disease nor kills any person. » + Itonly destroys T-cells of immune system. * The-decrease In the human immune system results In the Inability of the body to fight diseases. i Due to weak defence system a person suffering from AIDS Is attacked by diseases called opportunistic diseases, e.g., skin cancer, fungai Infection, viral Infection, gastrointestinal diseases, respiratory diseases, nervous system and eye diseases. Treatment of AIDS « HIV Is treated using a combination of medicines to fight HIV infection. This is called antiretroviral therapy (ART). * ARTis nota cure, but it can control the virus so that HIV positive person can live a longer, healthler life and reduce the risk of transmitting HIV to others. * ARTis ahighly effective treatment for HIV Infection, preventing progression of the disease in the vast majority of recipients. * When ART Is accessible and started early In the course of infection, the IMespan of HIV- positive people is typically very close to that of comparable HIV-negative people. + -But ART can have toxicities, is often costly, and requires strict daily pill taking that can lesson quality of life. Because of the limitations of ART, a cure for HIV infection remains a vital goal for research, Control Measures Against the Transmission of HIV AIDS can be cx lied by preventing transfer of body fluid (blood, serum, semen, etc.,) from patient to unaffected person. The following behavior of precautionary measure will prevent AIDS: . 1) Do not use used syringes and needles. 2) For blood transfusion, blood must be used after proper screening for HIV. 3) Do not share toothbrushes, blades and towels with anyone. 4) Special cares to be taken at barber's shop or hair cutting saloons, beauty salons. 5) Surgical instruments must be properly sterilized. 6) AIDS is primarily a sexually transmitted disease. Refrain from immoral sexual activities and follow Islamic teachings to pass healthy, neat and clean life. 7) Mother having HIV should not feed their babies. 8) Shaking hands, hugging, coughing or sneezing and swimming in thé same pool do not transmit HIV. One cannot get AIDS from inanimate objects such as toilets, door knobs, telephones, offices machines and house hold furniture. AIDS is not transmitted by mosquitoes and other insects. ‘> General Knowledge information ¥ 1* December is world AIDS day, it is observed every year since 1988. v The red ribbon is a symbol for solidarity with AIDS patiens. AEDES Disease Virus Nucleic Acid | Symptoms ‘Vaccination. ‘Small Pox | Pox virus DNA enveloped | Raised fluid-filled vesicles _| Yes virus pustules -—>pox (pitted scars) Herpes Herpes Virus | DNA enveloped | Vascular lesions in Yes simplex virus epithelial layer of ectodermal tissue , most commonly in mouth; lips & skin NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage {413 (Acellularlfe/varlety of life) [influenza Tafluenza virus [RNA enveloped | Flu, headacne, fever, sore | Not s0 much virus | throat effective Measies Paramyxovirus | RNA enveloped | Red flat rashes on skin, | Aulo- 5 virus fever, red eyes, cough, immunity Mumps Paramyxovirus_| RNA enveloped | Pain full swelling of parotid | Auto- virus giana, Fever, headache, | immunity muscle pain ‘Aids HIV RNA enveloped | Opportunistic infections, No virus Swollen lymph nodes, severe Pneumonia General loss of immunity, A rare vascular cancer, Sudden . weight loss, Poliomyelitis | Polio virus RNA Paralysis of imbs Yes non-enveloped virus Hepatitis A | HAV ~ [RNA ‘Acute infection (jaundice, | Yes Ron-enveloped | Diarrhea, Vomiting, virus Nausea) HepalitisB | HBV DNA enveloped | Acute & Chronicinfection | Yes” virus Yellowish skin, Abdominal Pain, liver cirrhosis, & liver cancer Hepatitis [HCV RNA enveloped | Acute & Chronic infection [NO virus fever, Yellowish skin, ° ‘Abdominal Pain, liver cirrhosis, & liver cancer Hepatitis | HDV(Delta | RNAenveloped | loss of appetite., No Virus ) virus jaundice, nausea, vomiting., tiredness., liver pain, muscle & joint pain. Hepatitis | HEV RNA enveloped | Fever, Fatigue., Li Yes virus of appetite., Jaundice NauseA) Vomiting, Dark urine. Abdominal pain, Prions: * Prions are proteinaceous infectious particles which cause transmissible neurodegenerative disease. Stanley in 1982 discovered these particles. The prions affect the nervous system of human and other mammals. sir Cf prion Is mainly by unhygiénic of feeding, contaminated fooD) Some prions diseases of human are creutzfeld Jacob disease (CJD), kuru, fatal familial insomnia (FFI). These diseases are caused by eating beef products. obtained from cattle with prions diseases. * Scraple is a common disease of bovine caused by prion. It is also known as mad cow disease. + Loss of memory, paralysis, destruction of nerve tissues are symptoms of prion disease. No effective treatment is available and illness is progressive and always fatal. Virolds: * Viroids are single molecules of circular RNA without a protein coat or envelope so they are called simple RNA) * These are smaller in size than virus, ranging from 246-270 nucleotides. + Viroid was first discovered by T. O. Diener in 1971. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMC10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 24. 22. 23. 24, Page [15 A) Prions 8) Viruses ©) Virions D) Mutant particles Enzyme released by phago tail to dissolve bacterial cell wall: ‘A) Ribosome B) Ribozyme C) Lysosome D) Lysozyme Which of these diseases could NOT be treated with antibiotics? A) Tuberculosis 8) Influenza C) Pneumonia. D) Anthrax €D4 receptors ae present on: A) T-lymphocytes B) Helper T-lymphocytes C) B-lymphocytes) HIV Core and sheath of bacteriophages tall are made of: A) Lipoproteins 8)Nucleoproteins —_C) Proteins D)DNA or RNA In HIV viruses, reverse transcriptase converts single stranded RNA Into double stranded viral DNA) This process Is called: A) Transtation B) Reverse Transcription C) Replication D) Reverse Transcriptase All viruses can reproduce within living organisms only, so they are known a: A) Ectoparasites B) Endoparasites €) Obligative Intracellular Parasites 0) Facultative Intracellular Parasites, They word “virus" was generally referred to as a poison associated with: ‘A) Food poisoning 'B) Disease and death C) Nervous breakdown D) Muscular dystrophy ‘Stanley was successful in erystalizing the: A) Rabies B) Pox c)T™v 0) Polio virus Viral envelope is composed of: A) Proteins B) Glycoproteins C) Lipids and proteins 0) All of the above It refers to the final changes within an Immature virion that result In an infectious virus particle: A) Assembly B) Coating C) Integration 1D) Maturation All of the following descriptions regarding viral multiplication and nuclelc acids are true except at: A) Viruses contain DNA or RNA, not both B) Viral mRNA, viral tRNA, and viral ribosomes are used in viral replicaticn C) Viruses replicate only in living cells D) Viruses use the cell's biosynthetic machinery to synthesize copies of them Which of the following is not true of a virion? ‘A) Reproduce independently ) Contain RNA B) Contain DNA D) Extracellular Protein coat of a virus enclosing nuclelc acid Is called: A) Vector B)Capsid C) Plasmid D) Genome Which one of the following diseases Is caused by enveloped RNA virus and spread in epidemic form? A) Influenza B)Herpes simplex __C) Pollo. D) Small pox In HIV viruses, reverse transcriptase converts single stranded RNA into double stranded viral DNA) This process is called: A) Translation B) Duplication C) Reverse transcription D) Replication HIV is classified as: A) Bacteriophage B) Oncovirus C) Retrovirus D) Icosahedral virus The viruses’can reproduce: A) Without Invading any cell C) By mitosis, B) In bacterial cell 0) By meiosis What Is size range ot viruses: (2017-Retake) ‘A)250nmto 200nm —B) 250nmto 100nm = C) 200nm to 20nm 1) 250nm to 201m Cell theory does not explain: A) Fungi B) Virus C)Algaa, D) Protista Which of the following has no nuclele acid? A) Bacteria B) Virus ©) Prions D) Viroid Its a blological weapon: A) Radiation B) Chemical ©) Virus D) All of these Virus transmission Is affected by: AA) Biollc factors B) Chemical factors —_C) Physical factors D) Both A and C Viruses are____entlty between living and non-living. +) Balanced B) Transitional C) Threshold D) None NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMC25. 26. 2. Virus can bud from: - BY Golgi complex ¢) Nuclear envelope A)RER refers to removal or breakdown of capsid. A) Uncoating B) Assembly C) Integration Which viruses enter the host cell as a whole? A) Plant virus B) Bacteriophages —_C) Animal virus The branch that deals with the study of viruses is known as? A) Entomology B) Virology ©) Epidemiology Louls Pasteur made vaccines for: A) Rabies B) Anthrax ) Fowl cholera Virus is composed of: A) Nucleic acid and capsid ¢) Genome 0) Capsia B) RNA only Pa (Acellutar life/variety 9 has D) Allof these ) Maturation D) None D) Bacteriniogy D) Allof Above ES TY Question Answerkey Question © Answerkey Question number number number 1 A 4 A 24 2 D. 12 B 22 3 B . 13 A 23 4 B 14 B 124 5 c 15 A 25 6 B 16 c 26 7 c 7 c 27 8 B 18 B 28 9 c 19 D 29 10 c 20 B 30 ad NATICWAL Ble omO>omD00Page |17 Bacteria (Prokaryotes) Bacteria (Prokaryotes > Diversity in Size of Bacteria: Most bacteria range in size about, 0.1-600 im over a single dimension, * The smallest known bacteria belong to the group of Mycoplasmas, which infect animals, They are spherical bacteria and have approximate diameter of 0.1-0.2'um. Escherichia coli, have rod shape and area bout 7ym long and 1.8 ym in diameter. ‘Some spirochaets reach 500 um in length. Staphylococci and streptococci are 0.75-1.25pm in diameter . + One of the largest bacteria belong to Epulopiscium fishelsoni. It is visible to naked eye (600 ym long, 80 um thick). > Diversity in Shapes of Bacteria: Bacteria have three main shapes; i) Cocci (spherical shape) Ii) Bacilli (Rod shaped) lii) Spirili (Spiral shape) + The Helicobacter pylori exists in both helix-shaped form and a spherical form, Such bacteria are called pleomorphic. 1) Cocci (spherical shape): . + As a result of single (vertical) plane of cell division, bacteria appear in pairs, called diplococci or in chain of many cells, called streptococci. + Asa result of two plane of cell divisions (first vertical then again vertical but at right angle to the first), bacteria appear in a-square of four cells, called tetrad. . + Asa result of three plane of cell divisions (first vertical then again vertical but at right angle to the first and then horizontal), bacteria appear in a cubical arrangement of-eight cells, called sarcina (octet). + Ifplane of cell division becomes irregular and many bacteria are produced which arrange like bunches of grapes, called staphylococci, * The examples of ‘cocci are: ‘Streptococcus pneumonia, Neisseria meningitides and Staphylococcus aureus. ii) Bacilli (Rod Shape): * They always divide in vertical plane so they are found either in pairs, called diplobacilli or in chains of many cells, called streptobacilli. * Some rod shape bacteria have spherical ends like cocci. Such bacteria are called coccobacilli * The examples of .rod shaped bacteria are Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas. i) Spirilll (Spiral shape): They usually occur singly or form colonies. * Thin and flexible spiral shaped bacteria are called Splrochetes.e.g.,Treponema pallidum. * Thick and rigid spiral shaped bacteria are called spirillum e.g Splrillum minus, * Curved or comma shaped bacteria which are Intermediate to spiral and rod shape, are callad vibrio e.g., Vibrio cholarae. Examples: Hellcobacter pylori, Hyphomlcroblum NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCge lis Bacteria (rakarates Bacterial shapes and arrangements | ¥ZB q e ° . c Coceus Rod. or Bacillus § a @ | -.. on = | roF vo) US) (cocci In pairs) Coccobacilli Vibrios (curved rods) 2 ye e > ey o ak, ou Tetrads (cocci | in packets of* in packets of 4)| 8,16,32 cells) onde arrangement) Spirilla : . B \g 4 ‘ oS q 28 ? Zo h IMicrococci and é Streptomycetes x cr staphylococci . ' (moldiike, wT ) sume ci \large cocelin | Spore-forming | filamentous |(coce! in chains)firregular clusters) rods bacteria) ‘Splrochetes, Structure of bacteria > Structure and Composition of Bacterial Ceil Envelope: + The detailed studies of bacterial structure by the electron microscope revealed that the cellenvelope is the outer wrapping of bacterial cell which consist of i) Glycocalyx, ii) Cell wall iii) Cell membrane. «+ Cell membrane sometime considered as the part of bacterial protoplasm. i) Glycocalyx: * The glycocalyx is an outer coating that covers the outside of bacterial cell wall.” * Generally, the glycocalyx is made of polysaccharide. However, in some cases, protein can also be present. + The glycocalyx exist in two forms ie., capsule and slime. Capsule: The capsule is a condensed layer that is relatively tightly associated with the underlying cell wall and gives sticky or gummy nature to the cell. Silme: Slime is a more loosely attached layer that gives slimy or slippery nature to the cell and can be removed from the cell more easily. Functlons of glycocalyx: There are two prominent functions of the glycocalyx. :) In the form of slime It prevents the phagocytosis of bacteria by the cells of immune system called macrophages. A bacterlum with a glycocalyx becomes more pathogenic. _, NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPa . «Bacteria (Prokerytes) il) The second function of a bacterial glycocalyx is to promote the adhesion of the bacteria to living and Inert surfaces and the subsequent formation of adherent, glycocalyx enclosed populations that are called biofilms. Biofilm bacteria can become very hard to kil, partly due to the presence of the glycocalyx material. Bacterial cell wall: Cell wall is the part of bacterial envelop. + Itis situated outer to the cell membrane. * Cell wall is only absent in Mycoplasmas. * Cell walls of archaeobacteria are composed of proteins, glyéoproteins and polysaccarides.” + Itis composed of an inner layer of peptidoglycan and an outer lipoprotein membrane (found only in Gram negative bacteria). + The peptidoglycan provides structural support and maintains the characteristic shape of the cell, Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria: * Gram staining is a method of differentiating bacterial. species into two large groups (Gram-positive and Gram-negative). + The name comes from the Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram, who developed the technique. Gram staining differentiates bacteria by the chemical and physical properties of their cell walls. Gram positive bacteria: * The bacteria which stained purple in colour (retain the primary dye due to formation of CV-1 complex). + The peptidoglycan layer is much thicker in Gram-positive than in Gram-negative bacteria. Gram negative bacteria: * The bacteria which stained pink in colour (retain secondary dye). * When Safrantin or fuchsine, a counterstain (secondary dye) is added which gives all Gram- negative bacteria a red or pink colouring. * In contrast, the Gram- negative have a complex outer layer consisting of lipopolysaccharide and lipoprotein. + The Gram-negative cell wall also contains a protein, the porins in outer membrane which act like pores for particular molecules. Lying between the peptidoglycan layer of cell wall and the cell membrane in Gram-negative bacteria is the periplasmic space which is the site of enzymes that degrade antibiotics. Difference between Gram positive and gram negative cell wall Character Gram positive Gram negative Number of layers One _ Two Thickness Thick (20-80 nm) Thin (8-10nm) Outer membrane Absent Present Periplasmic composition - Present in some Present in all Chemical composition Peptidoglycan (50%), _Lipopolysaccharide, Teichoic acid and lipoproteins and lipotechoic acid peptidoglycan (10%) Porin Proteins Absent Present Lipid Less (1-4%) More (11-12%) Peptidoglycan More Less Permeability of molecules More Permeable Less Permeable Resistance to molecules Less More ; NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPa osc BB d32 Bacterial cell membrane: Just beneath the cell wail is the cell membrane or plasma membrane. Itis very thin, flexible and completely surrounds the cytoplasm. ee membrane is very delicate in nature and any damage to it results in death of organi snd electrons * Cell membrane regulates the transport of proteins, nutrients, sugar ar or other metabolites. , : * _The plasma membranes of bacteria also contain enzymes for respiratory metabolism, MESOSOMES . + The cell membrane, invaginates into the cytoplasm forming structure called ag mesosmes. + Mesosomes are in the form of vesicles, tubules or lamellae. Functio 1) DNA replication 2) Cell division 3) Mesosomes are also Involved in export of exocellular enzyme. 4) Respiratory enzymes are also present on the mesosomes. > Bacterial Cytoplasm: * The bacterial cytoplasm Is also a jelly like dense mass which lacks cytoskeleton and cellular organelles except ribosomes. + «The ribosomes are large in number and freely dispersed in the cytoplasm. + These are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes and characterized as 70S. Bacterial ribosnmes also consist of two subunits i.e., smaller subunit (30S) and a larger subunit (50S). + Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. > GRANULES AND STORAGE BODIES STORAGE: Bacteria exist in a very competitive environment where nutrients are usually in short supply. These may store glycogen, Sulphur, fat and phosphate when possible. EXCRETION: Contain waste materials that are subsequently excreted. For example, common waste materials are alcohol, lactic acid and acetic acid. > Bacterial genome: Baclerial genome includes nucleoid and plasmids. NUCLEOID: * The nuclear material or DNA in bacterial cells occupies a position near to the center of cell. This material is a single, circular and double stranded DNA molecule which is also known as bacterial chromosome. The bacterial chromosomes contain 1,60,000-1,22,00,000 base pairs It aggregates as an irregular shaped dense area called the nucleoid, Bacteria have a single chromosome, so they are haploid organism. The nuclear DNA controls growth and metabolic activities of bacteria. Nucleoid is visible in the light microscope after staining with Feulgen stain. +, E.coli closed circle chromosome measure approximately 14000um. PLASMID: * An extra circular, double stranded DNA molecule present in bacterial cell which is used as a vector in genetic engineering, 7 ¢ They are self-replicating and are not essential for bacterial growth and metabolism. . They often contain drug resistant, heavy metals, disease and insect resistant genes on them, Bacterial appendages: The structures that project from the surface of bacterial cell are called bacterial appendages that Include; A) flagella B) plll or fimbriae. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMC “yPage {21 Bacterla (Prokaryotes) A) Flagolla: + Flagella are long thread IIke structures which are used for locomotion. Bacterial flagella are composed of flagellin protein and lack microtubules. In this way they differ from eukaryotlc flagella, The eukaryotic flagella are composed of microtubules. * Flagola are commonly found in bacill and spiral bacteria while most cocci are without flagella, Structure of Bacterlal Flagellum: * Bacterial flagellum is non-contractile, and lacks microtubules unlike eukaryotic flagellum. Its about 20 nm diameter and up to 20,um In length. * Itconsists of three part i) Basal body Il) Hook ili) Filament. 1) Basal body: The basal body originates from cytoplasm just beneath the cell membrane. It consists of two pairs of discs (Gram positive bacteria have only one pair) which are connected by.a central rod. : + The basal body anchors the flagellum in cell envelop. ) Hook: : «The hook is curved structure which connects the basal body to the filament. + _Itis projected from the cell surface. iii) Filament: + The filament is a hollow structure which originates from the hook. + The filament is composed of the globular protein flagellin. LYf-resetom Gram- Gram- Filament Basal body Peptidoglycan Outer membrane Cell wall cypvuor Yeni ynuny? ca r Cell walt meSRGDANK IA . S . Cytoplasm . (a) Parts and attachment of a flagellum of a (b) Parts and attachment of a flagellum of a gram-negative bacterium gram-positive bacterium MOTILITY IN BACTER! + Motility or movement is an important aspect of bacterial life in that the organism can swim toward optimal concentrations of nutrients and away from toxic substances. This type of purposeful movement in response to chemical stimuli is called chemotaxis. * Sometime bacteria show movement toward optimal light concentration or away from strong light. Such movement in response to light stimuli is called phototaxis. * Molility in bacteria Is achleved by any of several mechanisms, such as; 1) Flagellar movement ii) Spirochaetal movement lil) Gliding motility. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage |22 Bacteria (Prokaryotes) 1) Flagellar moveme: ; «The mechanism of movement of bacteria flagella is quite different from eukaryotic flagella Its basal body produces rotatory motion. The 360° fotation of paired discs of basal body enable the flagellum to rotate which in turn causes the cell to spin and move forward. ‘© Most bacilli and spirilli are motile by means of flagella. © Cocci are usually non-motile. Classification of bacteria on the basis of Flagella: . «The presence of flagella, as well as their number and distribution on the cell, are important characteristics for purposes of identification and classification of bacteria. + When one or more flagella arise only from one or both ends of a rod or spiral-shaped cell, the arrangement is termed polar. i) Atrichous: . The bacteria without flagella are called atrichous. ti) Monopolar monotrichous: if a bacterium possesses single flagellum at one end, called monopolar monotrichous ill) Bipolar monotrichous: if the bacterium possesses single flagellum at both ends, is called bipolar monotrichous or amphitrichous. iv) Monopolar bitrichous: if bacterium possesses a pair of flagella at one end, called monopolar bitrichous. v) Bipolar bitrichous: If the bacterium possesses a pair of flagella at both ends, is called bipolar bitrichous or amphibitrichous. vi) Lophotrichous: if a tuft (more than two) of flagella is present at end of bacterium, called lophotrichous. vii) Amphilophotrichous. . Ifa tuft of flagella is present at both ends of a bacterium, called amphilophotrichous. vill) Peritrichous: : If flagella are arranged all around the body of the bacteria then it is called peritrichous. e.g., Salmonella typhi Monorichous Lophorricnous Amphitrichous ‘Cephatouicnous ‘Corynebacterium Pertrichous ) ween li) Splrochaetal movement * Asomewhat modified version of the bacterial flagellum is called axial filament. + Itis present in Splrochaete. ‘+The axial filament nins lengthwise between the bacterial inner membrane and outer membrane of the cell wall in periplasmic space. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST "NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMC.Page |23 Bacteria (Prokaryotes) * Spltochetes can’ perform flexing, swimming creeping or spinning type of movements with the help of axial filament. Il) Gilding motility: Like spirochaetal movement, the gliding motility is also represented by some genera of the cyanobacteria and myxobacteria. + These organisms can move slowly over solid surfaces. They do not have filamentous structures either internally like axial filament of spirochetes or externally flagella of bacilli but they secrete a slimy substance like garden snails during locomotion. . B) Pill or fimbriae + These are hollow, non-helical, filamentous appendages. * Plli are smaller than flagella and are not involved in motility. » They are made up of special protein called pilin and can only be seen by electron microscope Pili are found only in certain species of Gram negative bacteria. They are primarily involved in a mating process between cells which is conjugation process. Some pili function as a mean of attachment of bacteria to varidus surfaces. Pili allow bacterial cell to adhere to tissue and can help the bacterial cell resist attack from immune system cells in the human body. Bacterlal Spores: . Certain species of bacteria produce spores. They are metabolically dormant bodies and are produced at a late stage of cell growth. Spores are resistant to adverse physical environmental condition such as light, high temperature, desiccation, pH and chemical agents. * Urider favorable conditions they germinate and form vegetative cells. Exospores: These spores are produced external to the vegetative cells. Endospores: These spores are produced within the vegetative cells. On the other hand the Actinomycetes, which are a large group of spore-forming, Gram- positive bacteria that grow by forming long tubules called filaments. Under nutrient poor conditions these filaments differentiate into round thick walled resting structures termed exospores. > Bacterial Cyst: * Cysts are dormant, thick-walled, desiccation resistant forms and develop during differentiation of vegetative cells which can germinate under suitable conditions. Cysts are not heat resistant. Azotobacter species and several others are known to form cysts, which are dormant cells with thickened cells walls. * Encystment (cyst formation) occurs by changes in the cell wall; the cytoplasm contracts and the cell wall thicken. seey Importance of Bacteria * _ Bacteria live everywhere because they have ability to survive in all conditions. They can adjust themselves according to environment, thus exhibit great ecological and economic importance, Ecological Importance of Bacteria: They are useful as recyclers of nature. * Many bacteria Involve In the steps of nutrient cycles e.g., carbon cycle are controlled by bacteria because of decomposition of.remains of dead organisms. © Denitrifying bacteria play role In denitrification. 5 NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage |24 ; Bacterla (Prokaryotes) * , The genus Rhizoblum, live In root nodules of legume plants converts nitrogen gas into nitrates. + The leguminous plants have mutualistic association with the bacteria.(Root nodules) which transform nitrogen into nitrates. ” * If bacterla were not present in universe, the COz from the atmosphere would have diminished. Thus there would have been rio photosynthesis and no possibility of life on earth. + The decomposition of dead organisms and wastes Is carried out mostly by bacteria and fungl, which convert organic matter Intothumus. » Itcontains nutrients and Increases soll fertility for the growth of plants. *_Humus also retains water, thus Increases water holding capacity of the soil. Economic Importance of Bacteria: Bacteria are both beneficial and harmful to human. 4. Beneficial or Useful Bacteria: Bioremediation and Decomposers: : Bioremediation is removal of .environméntal pollutants by using living organisms. Most bacteria act as decomposing agents, decompose dead organisms and the wastes of animals to be reused by the plants and animals. Bacteria decompose sewage, garbage, dungs, stool and during this process produce methane gas or biogas, which is used as fuel. Digestion: Some intestinal bacteria help to digest fats into small droplets in cattle, others produce cellulase, (in the gut of termites and cattle) which digest cellulose and starch. * Synthesis of Vitamins: : Many intestinal bacteria produce vitamins, B and K. Bacteria are cultured to produce vitamin B12 on commercial scale. Bacteria and Biogeochemical Cycles: Bacteria help in cycles of carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus and other nutrients through the biosphere. Bacteria in industry: 3 Bacteria are used in the synthesis of vinegar (acetic acid), acetone, lactic: acid, butanol (alcohol), several vitamins and flavoring tobacco. They are also used in leather and coffee industries. In food industry: Used in the production of dairy products such as yogurt, cheese and butter. Bacterla as Food: Provide most amino acids and vitamins té animals when enter in the alimentary canal through Partially digested plant materials. A single cell protein is obtained from the large scale growth of microorganisms such as bacteria. Antibiotics: Several antibiotics are obtained from actinomycetes group, e.g., streptomycin, teramycin and aureomycin. _ Genetics: Bacteria are used for studying the principles of genetics, such as E. coli, 2. Harmful Bacterla: Bacterial Diseases In Plants: Parasitic bacterla Infect plants and cause various diseases, @.g., fire blight In apple and pear, ring disease In potato and crown galls. Bacterlal Diseases In Mat vo. Many human diseases are caused by bacteria; like tuberculosis, diphtheria, tetanus, cholera, leprosy, typhold fever, meningltls, sore throat, whooping cough etc. Bacterlal Diseases In animals: Chicken cholera, anthrax, TB etc. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage |25 Bacterla (Prokryates) Role of Bacteria In Research and Technology: Nowadays bacteria are greally used by human beings, for their beneficial role in research and technology. Bacteria play Important role in biological research, medicines, “mining, production of blodegradable plastic, food processing, sewage treatments etc. 1) Bacteria are used in study of genetics and genetic engineering, These were used in the discovery of DNA as hereditary material, semi conservative replication to produce clone of DNA of different genes of organisms. . 2) Bacteria are used in mining industry to extract metal from low grade to high grade, i.e., a bacterium Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, help in leaching of rock through the metal sulphides (copper sulphate become soluble in water, |.e., to Cu’* and SO"). This bacteria and Leptospirillum ferrooxidans also help In leaching of gold and uranium. 3) Antibiotics, vitamins and many enzymes are commercially synthesized by recombinant bacteria. Moreover many dairy products are also synthesized by bacteria. 4) Biodegradable plastic, (Poly B hydroxybutyrate) are also produced by transgenic bacteria. Thus prevent from pollution because ordinary plastic are not decomposed . by microorganisms. 5) Bacteria help In degrading harmful chemicals and pollutants (especially synthetic chemicals). Bacterial diseases In Human: Several diseases are caused by bacteria. Some of these are as under: 1. Cholera: ‘Symptoms: Cholera is the classical example of severe watery diarrhea. Vomiting also occurs in most people. Causative agent: It is caused by Vibrio cholerae. The fecally contaminated water, food, . vegetables is the most common source of this disease. Treatment of cholera: It depends on the rapid replacement of electrolytes, either orally or intravenous. The vaccine is also available. Prevention: It depends largely on adequate sanitation and the availability of safe, clean, water supplies. Ui. Typhoid fever: ‘Symptoms: It is generally characterized by diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, in some cases intestinal rupture, internal bleeding, shock and even death. Enlarged spleen occur Causative agents: It is caused by Salmonella typhi, can be contracted by animal sources. Treatment: Antibiotics can be used. Vaccine is also available, which is 50 to 70% effective. Prevention: Adequate cooking effectively kills this bacterium. Ui, Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Symptoms: It is lungs disease in which alveoli burst and replaced by inelastic connective tissues. The patient has cough, fever, pale face and sweating at night. Chest pain, breathlessness and weakness is also felt: Causative agent: It is caused by bacillus Bacteria known as Mycobacterlum tuberculosis. ‘ Treatment: Use of antibiotics and vaccination against the bacteria for long time (six to nine months) or DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment Short Course) of only two months duration. Prevention: It is contagious disease so patient should be kept in isolated environment. Vaccine Is available which helps in partial resistance to tuberculosis. BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) in used vaccine. lv. Pneumonla: ‘Symptoms: The typical symptoms of pneumonia are cough, fever, chest pain and sputum is red brown or rusty color. Causative agent: It Is caused by Streptococcus pneumonia which is a Gram-positive diplococcus. Treatment; Use of antibiotics, @.g., penicillin or erythromycin. Vaccine Is also available. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCpogo | 26 Bacterla (Prokaryotés) Bacterial diseases In plants: Bacteria cause many diseases in plants; 1) Leaf spots li) Blights ili) Soft rots iv) Wilts v) Galls. i. Leafspots: ‘Symptoms: It is most destructive plant disease of rice, tomato, potato, mustard and many other plants. The leaf blades of these plants are infected by bacterial spots, spreading a type of leision which turns brown and dry out. Causative agent: The causative agent is the bacterium of the genus Xanthomonas in tomato and pepper. * * . Prevention: Avoid working in fields when plants are wet. Pathogens can spread mechanically through working hands and farms machinery, use disease free seeds. Treatment: Spray the crops with copper fungicides at recommended rate. li, Blights: ‘Symptoms: Itis also known as bacterial blossom blight (pear), apical bud necrosis (mango), bacterial canker (stone fruit) and bacterial brown spot (bean). It is mostly termed as blight in maize, rice and oat etc. Causative agent: Blights are caused by the bacterium Xanthosomonas oryzae to rice, Pseudomonas syringae and many other species to pear, apple, mango, etc. Prevention: Use disease free seeds and avoid very susceptible varieties, remove the infected plants. li. Soft Rots: ‘Symptoms: It is very common disease in vegetables and fruits that can occur in field but more common during their storage and transport. In most plants rot type symptoms appear, their necrotized tissue become wet and soft hence termed soft rot. Causative ‘agent: Erwinia group cause this disease such as Amylovora to potato, Corynebacterium ear rot to wheat. Prevention: Discard infected roots and damaged fruit by physical method. iv. Wilting: Symptoms: The young leaves may rapidly dry and wilt and decline with severe leaf drop. Causative agent: Pseudomonas solanacearum and some other bacteria. Cause this disease in potato. . Prevention: Use disease free seeds, do not plant in poorly drained sites. Ensure proper spacing between the plants v. Galls: ‘Symptoms: Commonly called crown galls, are local small abnormal out growth on infected piants, thus called galls. Causative agent: Rhizobium leguminosarum causes galls in root nodules in legumes and Agrobacterium tumefaciens in root, twigs and branches of many shrubs. Bacteria like ‘Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Pseudomonas savastanol are responsible for producing galls in plants. * Prevention: Remove galls in infected plants, practice crop rotation, or sterlize the soil using chemical, heat etc. The Bacterial flora of human: Flora: Itis the plant Iife occurring In a particular region at-a particular timé. The normal flora Is the population of micro-organisms routinaly-found growing on the body of healthy persons. Resident flora: live for extended period In the body of Infected person. wartona. BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMC.Page |27 Bacterla (Prokaryotes) Transient flora: temporarily ive. Many microorganisms make up normal flora, which occur in large number. In fact, there are more bacteria in just one person's mouth than there are people in the world. Some Members of Normal Bacterial Flor Members of Normal Flora Anatomic Location Clostridium species Colon Escherichia coll, Lactobacillus Colon, vagina, outer urethra Lactobacillus species Mouth, colon, vagina, uterus Staphylococcus aureus, Corynebacterium Nose, skin, respiratory tract, tongue Enterococcus faecalis, E. coli Colon, (Predominantly intestinal bacteria) Viridans streptococci Mouth, nasopharynx. Benefits of normal bacterial flora to Human (1) Normal fora protects us against potentially harmful microorganisms. (2) The normal flora also plays an important role in the development of imimune responses. (3) Produces some nutritional substances. Many intestinal bacteria produce vitamin B and K. Control /of Harmful/Bacteria Microorganisms can be controlled by physical, chemical methods and vaccination. 1. Physical methods Sterilization: . © This method is useful to kill all life forms, in which physical agents like steam, dry heat, gas filtration and radiations are used. It is the destruction of all life forms. It is used to sterilize surgical instruments. It is also used to preserve milk and meat on large scale. 1) High temperature: This method is used in microbiological laboratories in which both. dry and moist heat are effective. * Moist heat helps in coagulation of proteins and kills the microbes. * Dry heat causes oxidation of chemical constituents of microbes and kill them. I) Radiation: * Microbes are killed by electromagnetic radiation below 300 nm. * Gamma rays are generally used for sterilization process. Ill) Membrane filter: « Heat sensitive materials like antibiotics, sera, hormones, growth media, enzymes, vitamins can be sterilized by using membrane filters. * In hospitals some operation theaters and burn wards receive filtered air to lower the number of air borne microbes. iv) Pasteurization: «This process was developed by Louis Pasteur to kill non-spore forming bacteria, e.g., milk is pasteurized by heating at 71°C for 15 seconds and at 62°C for 32 minutes to destroy Tuberculosis and Typhoid bacteria in milk. . Pasteurization does not change the taste of milk. v Low temperature: “Low temperature (10-15°C) can preserve food for several days, such as milk, egg, meat, cheese and vegetables. vi) Freezing: Meat and some vegetables canbe prevented from microbial destruction by freezing at below 0°C(-10 to -18°C) for several weeks to several months. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR’MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage |28 Bacteria (Prokaryotes) vil) Drying: In this method water Is removed from food like meat, milk, vegetables etc, thus bacteria can not grow because thelr enzymes need water for action. . vill) Preservatives: + Many preservatives slop the growth of microbes, e.g., Acid lowers the pH, salts and sugar decrease water In food, the reduced water checks the growth of bacteria. 1x) Certain chemicals: Potassium metablsulphate slops bacterial growth when added in pickles, candies, jams, bread and biscults. Chemical methods to control bacterla: Following chemical methods are used to contro! microbes. 1) Antlseptics: * There are certain chemical substances (such as lodine, Dettol) that stop the growth of microbes called antiseptics. * Antisepsls Is the procedures to eliminate or reduce the possibility of infection. Il) Disinfectants: Certain chemicals like halogens and phenols, H2Oz, potassium permanganate, alcohol and formaldehyde etc., are oxidizing and reducing agents that inhibit the growth of vegetative cells and are used on non-living materials. lil) Chemotherapeutic agents. 5 Certain chemicals and antibiotics destroy and stop the growth of microbes in cells, e.g., penicillin, tetracycline etc. ¥ Microbicldal effect: kills the microbes immediately. Y Microblstatlc effect: inhibit the reproductive capacities of microbes. Antibiotics: + Antiblotics is a Greek word (Anti-against-and Bios life). ‘+ Antiblotics are the chemotherapeutic chemical substances which are used in treatment of infectious diseases. . Antibiotics are synthesized and secreted by certain bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. * Massive quantities of antibiotics are being prepared and used, which are followed by the ._ widespread problems of drug resistance in microorganisms. Misuse of Antiblotics: * Penicillin-——allergic reaction . Streptomycin------Deafness (Effect auditory nerve) Tetracycline Discoloration of teeth in young children Immunization and Vaccination: Methods of prevention that have been introduced to control microbial diseases include immunization (e.g. vaccination) and public health measures (e.g. water purification, sewage disposal, and food preservation). * Pasteur made many discoveries concerning the cause and prevention of infectious diseases. In 1880's he isolated the bacterium responsible for chicken cholera. * Pasteur next applled this principle of Inoculation with attenuated cultures to the prevention of anthrax, and again it worked. He called the attenuated cultures of bacterial vaccine (a term derived from the Latin Vacca, “cow”) and immunization with attenuated cultures of bacterla, vaccination. * Pasteur honoured Edward Jenner, who had successfully vaccinated a boy against small pox In 1796, Pasteur also made a vaccine for hydrophobla, or rabies, a disease transmitted to people by bites from rabid dogs, cats, and other animals. ewer NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMC1 12, 13. 14. 15. 16. 47. 18. 19. 20. 2. 22. 23. Heat sensitive compounds like antibodies B) Chomicals C) Membrane filters Maintaining tho microbial population at constant fo. A) Radiatlons ‘A) Mecrobistatle approach B) Microbicidal approach When coccus divides In three A) Sarcina, A) Coccl Bacterla can also detect and move In response to cl um and hormones can calor c) ) Antenatal approach Itwill produce . 8) Tetrad €C) Streptococcus ‘These bacterla very rarely have flagella: B) Bacil i ) Spirit calle A) Chemotropism B) Chemotaxis ) Locomotion Tetracycline & Its related compounds cause A) Allergic reactions —_B) Deafness. C) Discoloration of teeth Thick, rigid spiral bacterlum: A) Spirochaete B)Pseudomonas ——_C) Spirillum Thickness of G°™* bacterial coll wall Is: A) 20-40nm_ B) 11-1 2am C) 20-80 nm Which Is not present In bacteria? A) Peptidoglycan B) rRNA, C)Histones Acube of 8 coccl is called: A) Sarcina B) Streptococci C) Octamere What Is a plasmid A) Self-replicating segment of double stranded DNA B) Self-replicating. segment of single stranded RNA C) An out growth for the attachment of bacteria 1D) A bacterial chromosome A slippery outer covering In some bacterla that protects them from phagocytosis by host cells Ist A) Capsule A bacillus bacterlum with a single flagellum at one end Is described as: ‘A) Monottrichous ‘The structure which contain the gene for drug resistance In bacteria a lesosome: Immediately are calle A) Nucleoids Antibiotics that kill microbe A) Microbistatic ‘A) DNA replication A) Ribc-omes Many bacteria are mot A) Flagella B) Slim e C) Cell wall B) Lophotrichous ‘C) Amphitrichous 8) ‘C) Chromatin bodies B) Microbieidal (C) Chemotherapeutic Mesosomes are Infoldings of the cell membrane and are Involved In: 'B)RNA synthesis C) Protein synthesis During unfavorable conditions certain bacterla produce: B) Plasmids ©) Mitochondria B) Pill due to presence of: ) Cilla Cyanobacteria have which of the following type of cell wall? B)Gramnegetive —_C) Cellulose A) Gram pc Ina bacterial cell, plasma membrane with all things present within It Is called: A) Cytoplasmic matrix Prokaron means before nucleus Is word of, A) Dutch 'B) Cytoplasm €) Protoplast nguage. B) Greek C) Roman Microblotogist place bacterla In following major categories: A) Archaeobacteria and vibrio bacteria. 8B) Eubacterla and Streptococcus C) Eubacteria and archaeobacteria D) Cyanobacteria and In Prokaryot archi Inve bacteria olved In plration. ‘A) Mesosomes and cell membrane B) Cell membrane and ribosome C) Mesosomes and ribosomes D) All of Above ‘The gram positive bacte A) Purple B) Red NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST ‘appear which colour under gram stalning? C) Pink NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMC * 0) Staphylococcus 1D) Repulsion shemical signals. This type of behavior Is D) Repulsion D) Both 1D) Rhizobium 0) 12-20 nm > D) Teichoic acid D) Tetrad D) Peptidoglycan D) Peritrichous D) Plasmids 0) Biostatic D) Metabolism D) Spores D) Microtubules D) Acid fast D) Cet Structure D) Spanish 0) Blue26, a. 28. 29, 30. Page Which of th in bacterial cells, but not In mature red blood? ; Ayton ene aOR C) Cell membrane D) Mitochondria A bacterium with tuft-of flagolla at both poles Is called? A) Lophotrichous B) Peritrchous ‘C) Monotrichous D) Amphitrichous Which of the following structure Is not present in all bacteria? A) Cell membrane B) Chromatin C) Ribosome D) Capsule ‘The process of recombinatlon In prokaryotes takes place In which of the following ways? A) Transformation B) Conjugation C) Transduction D) All of these The flagella originate from which part of the cell? A) Basal body B) Cell membrane C) Cell wall D) Capsule For respiratory metabolism, bacterial cell membrane contains: . A) Proteins B) Lipids C) Enzymes D) Chemicals Question” — Answerkey Question Answerkey Question Answer key number number number : 1 c 11 A 24 B 2 A 12 A 22 c 3 A 13 A 23 A 4 A 14 D 24 A 5 B 15 B 25 B § c 16 A 26 D 7 c 17 D 27 D R c 18 A 28 D 9 ¢c 19 B 29 A 0 A 20 c 30 c NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRAt NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMC NCE TESTPage [31 Biological molecules ological molecules are different chemical compound of living organisms" lochemistry Is the branch of blology which deals with the chemical reactions and chemical compounds In the living organisms” . BIO-ELEMENTS: +The elements found In living organisms are called Bio-elements * Approximately 25 elements out of 92 naturally occurring elements of earth are found in tiving organisms, these are called Bio-elements. «Human body Is composed of 16 Bio-elements. In human body, only 6 major bio-elements account for 99% of the total mass. These IncludesOxygen 65% . |. Carbon 18% Ill, Hydrogen 10% Iv. Nitrogen 3% V. Calcium 2% VI. Phosphorus 1% In human body, 10 minor blo-elements account for 1% of the total mass. These Includes Potassium 0.35% ‘Sulphur 0.25% Chlorine 0.15% Sodium 0.15% Magnesium 0.05% = iron 0.004% Copper. trace element Manganese trace element trace element trace element les The molecules with low molecular weight are called Micro-molecules. e.g., HzO, COz Macro-molecules ‘The molecules with high molecular weight are called Macro-molecules. e.g., Proteins, Lipids, Carbohydrates. + Allliving things are made of certain chemical compounds, which are genefally classified as, organic and inorganic, ‘+ Most important organic compounds in living organisms are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. Among Inorganic substances are water, carbon dioxide, acids, bases, and salts. Monomer: “A molecule that may react chemically to another molecule of the same type to form a larger molecule”, such as dimer, trimer, tetramer, polymer, etc.-“The simplest unit, or the repeating unit, of a polymer”. Polymer: + Assubstance which has a molecular structure bult up chiefly or completely from a large number of similar units bonded together, e.g., proteins, polysacchrides, and nuclelc acids. + Polymer molecules made of small, repeating molecular building blocks called monomers. ‘+ The process by which monomers link together to form a molecule of a relatively high molecular mass Is known as polymerization. Monomers of macromolecules (Polymers) of some organic compounds Polymers/Macromolecules ‘Monomers/Units Polysaccharides. Monosaccharides Proteins, ‘Amino acids ‘Nuclelc acids, Nucleotides pis (not polymer) ‘Glycerol and fatty acids ntal kind: logical molecul (1) Carbohydrates are present In the cytoplasm of the cells and provide fuel for the metabolic activities of the cells. (2) Proteins are present In the membranes, ribosomes, cytoskeleton and enzymes of the cells. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage | 32 Blological molecules (3),Liptds are present in the membranes and cytoplasm of the cell. Lipids provide a reserved energy solirce, shape, protect and Insulate the calls. (4) Nuclelc acid: DNA Is present in the chromosomes. It controls the cell activity. RNA Is present in the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. RNA takes genetic information from DNA and Play role in protein synthesis. Condensation and Hydrolysis * Amacromolecule is high molecular weight compound which is made from many repeating units. Molecules built like this are also known as polymers. The individual units of polymers are micromolecules which are also known as monomers. The interconversions of these molecules are carried out by condensation and hydrolysis. + During condensation, when two monomers join, a hydroxyl (-OH) group is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen (-H) is removed from the other to make water and as a result a bond is synthesized between the monomers. The product of such reaction is called a dimer. If the same reaction is repeated several times the resulting molecule will be a polymer. * Condensation is also called dehydration synthesis because water is removed (dehydratior) and bond is made (synthesis). Condensation does not take place unless the proper enzyme is present and the monomers are In an activated energy-rich form. Glucose +Glucose ————+ Maltose + water + The hydrolysis is essentially the reverse of condensation i.., the breakdown of a polymer into its monomers by the addition of water. During hydrolysis, an (-OH) group from water is attached to one monomer and (-H) is attached to one monomer and (-H) is attached to the other monomer. Actually, all digestion reactions are-examples of hydrolysis, which are controlled by enzymes such as carbohydrases, proteases, lipases, nucleases. Sucrose + Water ——~+ _ Glucose + Fructose Chemical composition of a Bacterial and a Mammalian cell % TOTAL CELL WEIGHT S.NO_| CHEMICAL COMPONENTS BACTERIAL] MAMMALIAN CELL 1. Water 70 70 2. Proteins 15 18 3. (Carbohydrates 3 4 4. Lipids. 2 3 5. 7 DNA. 1 0.25 6. RNA, 6 14 ‘Other organic molecules 7 (enzymes, hormones, 2 2 metabolites) : a Tnorganic ions (Nas K fi 7 Mg’*,Ct, SOe etc) Biological|Importance of water «Water Is one of the main constituents on earth. More than two thirds of the earth is covered by water, ‘* Itis essential for existence of protoplasm because protoplasm cannot survive if its water content Is reduced as low as 10 %. Approximately 70-90% of the any organism Is formed of water. Bone cells and seeds have 20% water. Brain cells have 85-90% water. Blood calls have 88% water. Jellyfish has exceptionally large amount of water |.e., 99% (hence the body shows transparency). Properties of water: The properties of water that make It the cradle of life are: NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST . NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage |33 Biological molecules . High polarity: The bonds which are formed by the mutual sharing of electrons between two atoms are called covalent bonds. Normally the sharing of electrons between two atoms is fairly equal and the covalent bond is nonpolar. In the case of water, however the sharing of electrons between ‘oxygen and hydrogen Is not completely equal so the covalent bond is polar. A polar covalent bond is a chemical bond in which shared electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom, making it partially negative and the other atom partially positive, Thus, in H2O, the O alom actually has a slight negative charge and each H atom has a slight positive charge, even though H20 as a whole in neutral. Because of its polar covalent bonds, water is a polar molecule Le., it has a slightly negative pole and two slightly positive ones. This is polarity of water molecules that makes it.an excellent or universal solvent for polar substances. lonic compound or electrolytes can be easily dissolved in water, non-polar substances having charged groups in their molecules can also be dissolved in water. Such compounds when dissolved in water, disassociates into positive and negative ions and are in more favorable state to react with other molecules and ions. This is the reason why all chemical reactions in living beings occur in aqueous medium. . Hydrogen bondina: - The polarity of water molecules makes them interact with each other. The charged’ regions on each molecule are attracted to oppositely charged regions on neighboring molecules, forming weak bonds. Since the positively charged region in this special type of bond is always an H atom, the bond is called a hydrogen bond. The bond is often represented by a dotted line because a hydrogen bond is easily broken.Because of hydrogen bonding, water is a liquid at temperatures suitable for life. The high cohesion and adhesion force of water is due to the presence of hydrogen bonds in water, which in turns makes water as transport medium. ‘The presence of hydrogen bonds among the water molecules cause water to remain liquid rather than change to ice or steam. Without hydrogen bonds, water would be boil at -80°C and would freeze at -100°C. In such condition life for such organism would become impossible Cohesion and adhesion: Cohesionis the attraction among the water molecules which enables the water molecules to stick together. Water flows freely due to cohesion. Water molecules also have attraction to polar surfaces. This attraction is called adhesion. Both cohesion and adhesion are due to hydrogen bonds among water molecules. These properties of water enable it to circulate in living bodies and act as transport medium. 4, High specific heat capacity: Heat capacity can be defined as the amount of heat required for minimum increase in temperature of a substance, The specific heat capacity of water can be represented as number of calories required to raise the temperature of 1g of water up to 1°C Le., 1 calorie (4.18 Joules). Water has relatively a very high heat capacity than any other substance due to its hydrogen bonding, because much of the heat absorbed by water Is utilized in the NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMC@e . Lower density of ice: - Page |34 Blologlcal molecules ae itself to raise th breakdown of hydrogen bonding therefore it does not manifest ‘itself e temperature of water. r. Hence, very large amount of heat can increase very litle In temparaiure eo esuiator for Due to its high heat capacity water works as temperature stablire’ 0 Too ee organisms In the hot environment and hence protects the living mal thermal changes. High heat of vapourization: ; i Heat of vapourization is the amount of heat required to convert a unit mass of 2 liquid into gaseous form. , 5 Heat of vapourization of water is represented as number of calories absorbed per gram vapourized. Water has high heat of vapourization i.e., 574 calories per gram. ni The high heat of vapourization means that a large amount of heat can be lost with minimal loss of water from the body. , SL The high heat of vapourization of water that gives animals an efficient way fo release excess body heat in a hot environment. When an animal sweats, body heat is used to vapéurize the sweat thus cooling the animal. F High heat of vapourization helps plants to release excess body heat during ti Due to this property of water, evaporation of only 2 ml out of one litter of water lower the ranspiration. temperature of the remaining 998 ml water by 1°C. Hydrophobic exclusion: x? Hydrophobic exclusion can be defined as reduction ofthe | ++ ” = contact area between water and hydrophobic substances ote which are placed in water. re "oe For example, if you place few drops oil.on the surface of a water solution, the oil drops will tend to join into a single drop. ; Biologically, hydrophobic exclusion plays. Key roles in maintaining the integrity of lipid bilayer membranes. won s ; 8) lonizatioi g =H: The dissociation of a.molecule into ions is called ionization. moniaue rotor name When water molecule ionizes, it releases an equal number" -s, oa of positive hydrogen and negative hydroxyl ions. This reaction is eversible but equilibrium is maintained at 25°C. The H* and OH" ions affect and take part in many of the reactions that occur in cells, e.g., it helps to maintain or change the pH of the medium. At 25°C the concentration of each of H* and OH" ions in pure water is about 107 molellitre. Water has unique property as it expands when temperature falls 4°C. Water is most heavy at 4°C therefore ice is less dense than this is the reason that ice floats in liquid water. The reason is that ice has a giant structure and show maximum number of hydrogen bonding among water molecules; hence, they are arranged like a lattice. Water has high surface tension. In freezing weather, ice forms on the surface of ponds and lakes forming an insulating layer above the water below. This provides a living environment for some organisms until the ice melts. Organisms also live under the ice. Protectio! Water is effective lubricant, prevent friction. e.g. Tears protect the surface of eye from rubbing of eye lids. Water act as @ cushion ‘around many organs. e.g. Cerebro spinal fluld (CSF) around central nervous system (CNS).Amniotlc fluld around foetus prevent from trauma’ NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage [35 Biological molecules Carbohydrates > Literal meaning: Hydrated carbon’ > Saccharides: (derived from Greek word ‘sakcharon’ meaning sugar) » Chemical Nature: Polyhydroxy aldehydes/ Polyhydroxy ketones > General Formula: Cx (H20)y " yyy Classification of Carbohydrates ‘Character Monosaccharide Ollgosaccharide Polysaccharide | Saccharide unit ‘One 240 ‘More than 10 Common Name | Simple sugar ‘Complex Sugar Most Complex Sugar Taste__ ‘Sweet Less sweet Tasteless ‘Solubility in water | Easily soluble Less soluble insoluble Hydrolysis Can't be hydrolyzed | Can be hydrolyzed Can be hydrolyzed Yield 2-10 Yield at least 11 monosaccharides monosaccharides General Formula | C.(HO), (Ca(H20)o Ce (20), a Classification ‘On the basis of On the basis ‘On the basis structural number of carbon’ monosaccharides units | complexity & relation : atoms Function Provide energy Excess is stored as fat_| Used in synthesis of converted many to glycogen for complex molecules storage ~ Sources fruits and ‘Sugar cane, Rice, Cereal, Vegetable Beat root, Milk Bread Examples Glucose, fructose, Sucrose, Starch, Galactose ,ribo: Maltose, Cellulose,Glycogen, lyceraldehyde, Lactose Chitin, dextrin, ager, dihydroxy acetone pectin Monosaccharide: > In nature monosaccharides with 3-7 carbon atoms are found. > Allcarbon atoms in a monosaccharide except one, have a hydroxyl group. The remaining carbon atom is either a part of an aldehyde group or a keto group. > The sugar with aldehyde group is called aldo-sugar. > The sugar with keto group is called keto-sugar. > If carbonyl group is an aldehyde and attached to C-1 the monosaccharide is an Aldose. > if carbonyl group is a ketone attached to C-2 the monosaccharide is a Ketose. Classification and Functions of monosaccharides Glass Formula | Aldoses Ketoses Funetion, Triose | CsHeOs _ | Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone | Intermediates in photosynthesis, and cellular respiration. Tetrose | CaHsO« | Enythrose Enyihrulose Intermediates in bacterial photosynthesis. Pentose | CsHwOs | Ribose, Ribulose Ribose and deoxyribose are Deoxyribose CsH100« components of RNA and DNA respectively. Ribulose is an intermediate in photosynthesis Hexose | GeHzOe | Glucose, Galactose _| Fructose ‘Glucose is respiratory fuel. Fructose is an intermediat respiration. Galactose is the component of milk sugar. Heptose | CrHOr _| Glucoheptose ‘Sedoheptulose | Intermediates in photosynthesis. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMC aPage 136 Biological molecules Chemical structures of monosaccharide: * Monosaccharides are usually found in open chain structure in See eee aT they are dissolved in water most of them (pentoses and hexoses) are co! 9 chain structure. Ox mel CH,OH cHO CHO H—t-oH HO——H _ | OH wonton nl on Ho | ioe " CH,OH CHOH . eHon cH,OH CH.OH D-Erythrose L-Erythrose Dinydroxyacetone Deaheeraldshyde — L-glyceraldehyde > Ribose: * Ribose forms a five comer ring structure called ribofuranose in salutions. + Letus understand it by taking ribose (CsH10Os) as an example. It can exist in open chain structure in dried form but it exists in ring structure in aqueous medium. * When itis dissolved in water, the oxygen atom from ma aldehyde group reacts with second last carbon i.e., C4 __openchain structure - in case of ribose. In this way oxygen atom forms a link between C1 and C4 while the OH group of C4 is shifted to C1. Aftes this modification ring structure of ribose is formed. Os-H Ox _H 1CH2OH " CHyOH H—z1—OH HO—}—H 2—=0 so) HoH Ho—}—-H | H=37—OH HO—}—H -H-ql—OH HoH H-qt-OH Hors 5CH,OH CH.OH 5CH;OH H,0H D-Ribose L:Rivose | D-Ribulose _ L-Ribulose > Glucose: + Each pentose or hexose molecule in ring structure exists in either a or B form depending upon the position of -H and -OH group on C-1.. * If -OH group is found downward on C-1 then it is called a sugar and if -OH:is present upward on C-1 then it is known as sugar. * Glucose forms a 6 corner ring structure called glucopyranose in solutions. * In free state, glucose is present in all fruits, being abundant in grapes, figs & dates. * Human blood normolly contain 0.08% glucose. 100mg of glucose per 100 ml of blood. * Onhydrolysis starch, cellulose & glycogen produce glucose. - * For the synthesis of 10 gm of glucose 717.6 kcal of solar energy is used. * Glucose is the most common respiratory substrate and also most common monosacchride. * Grapes contains as much as 27% glucose. + Honey contains large amount of glucose and fructose. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMC- page |37 Biological molecules nn? c I N+C--OH ve HO-C-H H-C--OH fi H-¢=OH « Glucose 4 He On ( Glucose H Fructose Ring Structure CH,OH _ CH,OH O._ CH,OH : OH H OH ! (OH CH,OH OH H OH H a-D- Fructose . Q-D- Fructose Galactose Ring Ring Structure Stereoisomerism In Glucose: © Stereoisomerism are molecules that have the same molecular formula and differ only in _ how atoms are arranged in 3D space. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage | 3a Biological, molecules Enantlomers is a type of stereoisomers in which molecules are nonsuperimposable mirror-image. This means that the molecules are mirror image but they cannot be placeg ‘on top of one another to give the same molecule. ‘An example of enantiomer is D and L glucose. D sugars are right-handed molecules. L sugars are left-handed molecule: Comparison between Structural Isomers and Stereolsomers: Isomers (Gk. Iso: equal, meros: part) are molecules with the same molecular formula but different chemical structure. It means that isomers contain same number of atoms of each element but have different arrangements. Isomers do not generally share similar properties unless they also have same functional group. There are two main forms of isomerism, the structural isomerism and stereoisomerism. Structural isomers: In structural isomers (also called constitutional isomers) the atoms and functional groups are joined together in different ways, glucose and fructose are structural isomers, Stereo-isomerism: In stereo-isomerism the bond structure is the same but the geometrical positioning of atom and functional groups in space differs e.g., D-glucose and ‘L-glucose. Laboratory manufactured (Artificial) Sweetener: Laboratory manufactured sugars are L sugars. * On the other hang, the naturally occurring sugars in bodies are D sugars, * Proteins and cell receptors are designed to react only with D sugars. * The enzymes in your body can digest only right-handed sugars. Likewise, left-handed sugars cannot be metabolized by right-handed enzymes. Just as the glove fits only on the proper hand, a right-handed enzyme cannot fit on or react with a left-handed substrate. The substrate must fit on the proper active site of the enzyme. So, for the Jeft-handed substrate (artificial sweetener) the enzyme must be left-handed. + The LH sugar have same physical properties as D-glucose, therefore, may be used instead of D-glucose e.g., for baking and also making ice cream. * The left-handed sugar are’ not commonly used’ because they are expensive, not commonly available and their over use cause serious disturbance for diarrhea patients. + The laboratory manufactured sugar such as tagatose, sucralose etc. are examples of LH sugar. * These sugar molecules cannot be digested because mostly the enzymes for their digestion are not synthesized in the body and our cells do not have receptors for them. LH sugar are not converted into fais. CH2OH SH20H on (cron. | G=0 1 oo, Bm ras wn Zh ” “H—-G—OH res MC H—GLOH ‘onjoh \ on uf on CH20H i TS hoon b-Fructose Fructose Lglucose eghicors NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage |39 Biological molecules 2 CON 3 CHOW D- Glyceraldehyde 1 cHo™ ” ‘CHO 2 HCO «+ noc 3 HCO con 4 CHOH cHon * aw aw 1 ia co Ho cHo ee HiCoH +————> ioc 3 COR HoH * HocH HocH «CoH icon Hcon HCOH s bon brow byou cuon D- Ribose D-Arabinose D- Xylose D- Lyzose ' oud \e ond \ 0 oud ‘ie ond \., 2 HCOH<—>HOCH HCOH + HOCH HCOn+—* HOCH HCOH + HOCH J HCOH —HICOH H HOCH HoH = -HCOH HOCH. HOCH 4 HCOH = HCOH = -HCOH HCH och = HOCH HOCH HOCH sou von ton eon NCO = HCO HCO ICON 6 CHOH CHO .CHLON CHO CHOH —CHOH —CHOH—CHOH D-Allose D-Altrose = D-Glucose — D- Mannose D-Gulose D-Idose D-Galactose D- Talose Stereochemistry of the D-aldoses NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage 149 Blological molecules Oligosaccha * Oligosaccharides consists of 2-10 monosaccharides. * Monosaccharides combined to form oligosaccharides by glycosidic bond In a process called condensation . s Classification of Oligosaccharides: 1. Disaccharides 6._Heptasaccharides 2. Trisaccharide 7. Octasaccharides 3. Tetrasaccharide 8. Nonasaccharides 4. Pentasaccharides | 9. Decasaccharides 5. _Hexasaccharides Disaccharides: * Two monosaccharides combine to form a disaccharide. * Disaccharides are the most common oligosaccharides. : Disaccharides are less sweet in taste and less soluble In water. + These can be hydrolyzed to give monosaccharides. + Examples are: maltose, lactose, sucrose. The general formula of disaccharide is: C12 Haz O11. > Sucrose: \tis commonly known as‘cane sugar. . \tis widely used as sweetener al homes for making weet dishes. . In plants sucrose is also called transport disaccharides as prepared food in plants is transported in the form of sucrose. \tis very soluble and can therefore be moved efficiently in high concentration in plants. Itis also relatively unreactive chemically. Itis obtained commercially from sugar cane are sugar beet. The sucrose on hydrolysis form glucose and fructose. . The sucrose is formed by the condensation of glucose and fructose. In this reaction, the -OH group at C-1 of glucose reacts with the -OH group at C-2 of fructose, liberating a water molecule forming a-1,2-glycosidic linkage. CHZOH CHOH w on 4 SH uw + HONY On 4 on Gluceso or| CcH.0oH | CHZ0H wea Pn ON H oH Alo KH Ho Ho io? f CH20H 4 on on OF Sucrose > Maltose: «Its commonly known as malt sugar. Its an intermediate disaccharide produced during the breakdown of starch and glycogen. * Maltose Is generally found in germinating seeds. NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMCPage [41 : Biological molecules + The maltose Is formed by the condensation of two a-glucoses, In this reaction, the, -OH group at C-1 of one glucose reacts with the -OH group at C-4 of other glucose, liberating awater molecule forming a-1, 4-glycosidic linkage, CH,OH CH,OH CH,OH condensation, \ i _ “10 on oA! GK on " ° . OH On ‘OH On Taeohdonia on on on MFepbconite Gy, olucose lucose maltose ator > Lactose + Itis commonly known as milk sugar. + The lactose is formed by the condensation of B-galactose and B-glucose. In this reaction, the -OH group at C-1 of galactose reacts with the -OH group at C-4 of glucose, liberating a water molecule forming B-1, 4-Glycosidic linkage. HoH, HoH, on # Galactose #-Glucose Lactose $71, dalyeositic hnkage Hydrolysis of sucrose, lactose and maltose Sucrose + water + sucrase (enzyme) > Glucose + Fructose + Sucrase Lactose + water + lactase’ (enzyme) > Glucase + Galactose + lactase Maltose + water + maltase (enzyme) -—-->. Glucose + Glucose + maltase 6CH2OH SCH,OH H OH A H OH cellobiose lysaccharides. ‘Those carbohydrates which upon hydrolysis yield more than ten monosaccharide units are called polysaccharides.” * Polysaccharides is largest group of carbohydrates. + Polysaccharides are tasteless and Insoluble of water. + Homopolysaccharides: The polysaccharides which are composed by the condensation of only one kind of monosaccharides are called homopolysaccharides e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin; NATIONAL BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE TEST NMDCAT/NUMS/AKU/AMC.