LECTURE NOTES

ON

SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND

DESIGN
(Unit-1 &2)

BBA GENERAL (3rd Sem)

Notes by: Meenu Sharma(C.S Dept.)

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 SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
PAPER CODE: BBA/GEN/303
UNIT-I: Overview of System Analysis and Design – Business System concepts, system
development life cycle; System Methodologies: Structured Analysis, Structured Design,
Structured Programming, E-R Models, Prototypes, CASE tools.

UNIT-II: Project selection: sources of project requests, managing project review and
selection, preliminary investigation; Feasibility Study – technical, economical and operational
feasibility; Fact finding techniques; Data input methods – coding techniques; Designing
Output: - design of output reports, screens, Use of Business Graphics.

UNIT-III: Design and implementation: Modularization, Module specification, System flow

Charts, screen displays, data elements and record structure, file Organization, schema
structures, units and integration testing, testing practices and plans, System Controls, Audit
trails, System administration plan, System backup plans, system recovery plans,
documentation and user manuals.

UNIT-IV: Hardware acquisition, memory process, peripherals, bench marking, vendor

selection, software selection operating, system languages, data communication, networks,
personal estimates, performance and acceptance criteria.

Text Books: System Analysis and Design, Ellias m. Awadh,Galgotia publication

SUGGESTED READINGS:

1. James A., Analysis and Design of Information System, McGraw Hill

2. Len, Fertuck, System Analysis and Design, McGraw Hill

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 Contents
UNIT-1
Overview of System Analysis and Design……………………………………………………………………………….4-11
Business System concepts……………………………………………………………………………………………….11-13
System development life cycle(SDLC)………………………………………………………………………………….13-16
System Methodologies…………………………………………………………………………………………………….16
Structured Analysis:………………………………………………………………………………………………………17-18
Structured Design………………………………………………………………………………………………………….18
Structured Programming…………………………………………………………………………………………………28-20
E-R Models ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….20-25
Prototypes…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………25-27
CASE tools………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..27-29
UNIT-2
Project selection………………………………………………………………………………………………………30-32
Sources of project requests……………………………………………………………………………………………32-35
Managing project review and selection……………………………………………………………………………….35-36
Preliminary investigation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………36-37
Feasibility Study……………………………………………………………………………………………………….37-39
Technical, Economical and Operational feasibility…………………………………………………………………..39-40
Fact finding techniques………………………………………………………………………………………………40-43
Data input methods……………………………………………………………………………………………………43-45
Coding techniques……………………………………………………………………………………………………..45-48
Designing Output: - design of output reports………………………………………………………………………..48-49
Screen design……………………………………………………………………………………………………………49
Use of Business Graphics……………………………………………………………………………………………….51

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 UNIT I
1.1 Introduction to analysis and design:
The word System is derived from Greek word “Systema”, which means an organized relationship
between any set of components to achieve some common cause or objective.
OR
A system is an organized combination of resources working together to convert inputs into useful output.
OR
A system is an organized grouping of interdependent components working together according a plan to
fulfill predetermined objectives.
OR
A system is “an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a plan to
achieve a specific goal.”
A system must have three basic constraints –
 A system must have some structure and behavior which is designed to achieve a predefined objective.
 Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist among the system components.
 The objectives of the organization have a higher priority than the objectives of its subsystems.

For example, traffic management system, payroll system, automatic library system, human resources
information system.
1.2 Properties of a System
1. Organization: It implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that helps to
achieve predetermined objectives.
2. Interaction: It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each other. For
example, in an organization, purchasing department must interact with production department
and payroll with personnel department.
3. Interdependence: It means how the components of a system depend on one another. For proper
functioning, the components are coordinated and linked together according to a specified plan.
The output of one subsystem is the required by other subsystem as input.
4. Integration: It is concerned with how system components are connected together. It means
that the parts of the system work together within the system even if each part performs a
unique function.
5. Central Objective: The objective of system must be central. It may be real or stated. It is not
uncommon for an organization to state an objective and operate to achieve another. The
users must know the main objective of a computer application early in the analysis for a
successful design and conversion.
1.3 Characteristics of system:
1. Predetermined Objectives
2. It can be further subdivided
3. All components can be interdependent or interrelated

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1.4 Elements of a System:

Figure 1.1: - Elements of a system

Inputs and Outputs
 The main aim of a system is to produce an output which is useful for its user.
 Inputs are the information that enters into the system for processing.
 Output is the outcome of processing.
Processor(s)
 The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of input into
output.
 It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input either totally
or partially, depending on the output specification.
 As the output specifications change, so does the processing. In some cases, input is also
modified to enable the processor for handling the transformation.
Control
 The control element guides the system.

 It is the decision–making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities governing input,
processing, and output.
 The behavior of a computer System is controlled by the Operating System and software. In
order to keep system in balance, what and how much input is needed is determined by
Output Specifications.
Feedback
 Feedback provides the control in a dynamic system.
 Positive feedback is routine in nature that encourages the performance of the system.
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  Negative feedback is informational in nature that provides the controller with information for
action.

Environment
 The environment is the “super system” within which an organization operates.
 It is the source of external elements that strike on the system.
 It determines how a system must function. For example, vendors and competitors of organization’s
environment, may provide constraints that affect the actual performance of the business.
Boundaries and Interface
 A system should be defined by its boundaries. Boundaries are the limits that identify its
components, processes, and interrelationship when it interfaces with another system.
 Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and control.
 The knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in determining the nature of
its interface with other systems for successful design.
1.5 Types of Systems
The systems can be divided into the following types –
1. Physical System:
A physical system can be tangible or visible which can be touch and also be counted. Physical
system can be operated statically or dynamically.

2. Abstract System:
It can be conceptual or intangible. For ex: A model of organization represents the concept.

3. Open System:
An open system is that interacts freely with outside environment and also it can be affected from outside
environment. When the environment changes the open system must also change in order to adopt itself to
the environment otherwise it will be failed.

4. Deterministic System:
Deterministic system operates in a manner that state of the system at a time is already determined
and we can also predict the next state of the system without error. For ex: The output of computer
system is deterministic.

5. Probabilistic System:
The probabilistic system works in a predictable manner. If we can predict the stat of the system
then it is probabilistic. For ex: Economic forecasting.

1.5.1 Comparison of Various types of Systems: -

Physical or Abstract Systems
Physical systems are tangible entities. We can touch and feel them. Physical System may be static or
dynamic in nature. For example, desks and chairs are the physical parts of computer center which are
static. A programmed computer is a dynamic system in which programs, data, and applications can
change according to the user's needs. Abstract systems are non-physical entities or conceptual that
may be formulas, representation or model of a real system.

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 Open or Closed Systems
An open system must interact with its environment. It receives inputs from and delivers
outputs to the outside of the system. For example, an information system which must adapt
to the changing environmental conditions. A closed system does not interact with its
environment. It is isolated from environmental influences. A completely closed system is
rare in reality.

Adaptive and Non-Adaptive System

Adaptive System responds to the change in the environment in a way to improve their
performance and to survive. For example, human beings, animals. Non Adaptive System is
the system which does not respond to the environment. For example, machines.
Permanent or Temporary System
Permanent System persists for long time. For example, business policies. Temporary System is made
for specified time and after that they are demolished. For example, A DJ system is set up for a
program and it is dissembled after the program.
Natural and Manufactured System
Natural systems are created by the nature. For example, Solar system, seasonal system.
Manufactured System is the man-made system. For example, Rockets, dams, trains.
Deterministic or Probabilistic System
Deterministic system operates in a predictable manner and the interaction between system
components is known with certainty. For example, two molecules of hydrogen and one
molecule of oxygen make water. Probabilistic System shows uncertain behavior. The exact
output is not known. For example, Weather forecasting, mail delivery.

Social, Human-Machine, Machine System

Social System is made up of people. For example, social clubs, societies. In Human-Machine
System, both human and machines are involved to perform a particular task. For example: Computer
programming. Machine System is where human interference is neglected. All the tasks are
performed by the machine. For example: an autonomous robot.

Man–Made Information Systems

It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for particular
organization, under Direct Management Control (DMC). This system includes hardware,
software, communication, data, and application for producing information according to the
need of an organization.
Man-made information systems are divided into three types −

1. Formal Information System − It is based on the flow of information in the form of

memos, instructions, etc., from top level to lower levels of management.
2. Informal Information System − This is employee based system which solves the day
to day work related problems.
3. Computer Based System − This system is directly dependent on the computer for
managing business applications. For example, automatic library system, railway
reservation system, banking system, etc.

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1.6 System Analysis and Design
Systems development is systematic process which includes phases such as planning, analysis,
design, deployment, and maintenance. Here, in this tutorial, we will primarily focus on −

 Systems analysis
 Systems design
Systems Analysis
It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the problems, and decomposition of a
system into its components.
System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or its parts in order to identify its
objectives. It is a problem-solving technique that improves the system and ensures that all the
components of the system work efficiently to accomplish their purpose.
“Analysis specifies what the system should do”.

Systems Design
It is a process of planning a new business system or replacing an existing system by defining its
components or modules to satisfy the specific requirements. Before planning, you need to understand
the old system thoroughly and determine how computers can best be used in order to operate
efficiently.
System Design focuses on “how to accomplish the objective of the system”.
System Analysis and Design (SAD) mainly focuses on −
 Systems

 Processes

 Technology

 System Analyst:

A system analyst is a person responsible for the development of software and hardware solution to
the efficient working of the organization. Analysts study the environment and problems of an
organization to determine whether a new information method can provide solution to the problem.

The system analyst is a person who is thoroughly aware of the system and guides the system
development project by giving proper directions. He is an expert having technical and interpersonal
skills to carry out development tasks required at each phase. He pursues to match the objectives of
information system with the organization goal.
The main job of system analyst is to provide right type of information, in right quantity at the right
time in post-effective manner to the management or the end user.

Roles of System Analyst:

· Defining IT requirements of organization
· Gathering Data/Facts
· Analyzing the problem
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· Problem solving
· Drawing Specification
· Designing System
· Evaluating System
1. Defining IT requirements of organization:
The most imp and difficult task of an analyst is to understand the organization’s requirement’s
information. It includes interviewing users finding out what information is they are using in the
current system.

2. Gathering Data/Facts:
For gathering data or facts, written documents are important because these documents represent
the formal information flow in the system. The analyst studies documents such as input forms,
output records, invoices etc to understand how data are passed and used in the present system.

3. Analyzing the problem:

After gathering data or facts the analyst analyses the working of current system and find out to
what extent it meet the user’s needs.

4. Setting priority amongst requirements:

In the organization there are many types of users, each user has different types of
information needs. It may not be possible to satisfy the requirements of everyone due to
limited availability of resources so it is necessary to give priority. The priorities are set on the
basis of urgency and importance of user’s need.

5. Problem solving:
The system analyst helps IT users to solve their information problems. In that role he must
understand the problem and suggest solutions.

6. Drawing specification:
The analyst obtains the input and output specification for optimal functioning of the system to be
developed.
7. Designing system:
Once the specifications are accepted by the management the analyst gets on to the design of the
system. The analyst must be aware of the latest design tools for the system design so analyst
also knows as architect.a

8. Evaluating system:
An analyst must critically test the performance of the designed system with specifications
after it has been in use for a reasonable period of time. Thus, main roles and responsibilities of
system analysts can be summarized as: -
 Defining and understanding the requirement of user through various Fact-finding techniques.
 Prioritizing the requirements by obtaining user’s view.
 Gathering the facts or information and acquires the opinions of users.
 Maintains analysis and evaluation to arrive at appropriate system which is more user
friendly.
 Suggests many flexible alternative solutions, pick the best solution, and quantify cost and
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 benefits.
 Draw certain specifications which are easily understood by users and programmer in precise
and detailed form.
 Implemented the logical design of system which must be modular.
 Plan the periodicity for evaluation after it has been used for some time, and modify the
system as needed.

1.6.1 Attributes of a Systems Analyst

The following figure shows the attributes a systems analyst should possess –

Fig 1.3: - Skills of System Analysts

 Interpersonal Skills
 Interface with users and programmer.
 Facilitate groups and lead smaller teams.
 Managing expectations.
 Good understanding, communication, selling and teaching abilities.
 Motivator having the confidence to solve queries.
 Analytical Skills
 System study and organizational knowledge
 Problem identification, problem analysis, and problem solving
 Sound commonsense
 Ability to access trade-off
 Curiosity to learn about new organization.
 Management Skills
 Understand users jargon and practices.
 Resource & project management.
 Change & risk management.
 Understand the management functions thoroughly.
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  Technical Skills
 Knowledge of computers and software.
 Keep abreast of modern development.
 Know of system design tools.
 Breadth knowledge about new technologies.

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Business System concepts

A business system is a defined set of principles, practices and procedures that are applied to specific activities to
achieve a specific result. Basically, it’s about creating a set of shortcuts that will make sure everything still gets
done right.

You can create systems for many areas of your businesses. From making sales to building marketing strategies,
even to managing the cleanliness of the workspace, systems can make all these tasks easier and more efficient.

Systems are also designed to connect different departments and elements of a business to work together to achieve
business objectives.

Businesses need Business systems,why?

Here are six major benefits:

1. Achieve greater efficiency

Tasks that can be managed by a business system are usually routine and repetitive.

If these activities can’t be automated with technology, a system will mean that staff will have to spend less time
and effort doing these tasks, which will save the business time and money.

2. Make sure tasks are consistent

Having a system that everyone sticks to means that the same task is being done in the same way each time, which
should lead to more consistent results.This will ultimately help your business be more productive, so you can serve
more customers and make more money.

3. Staff are clear on expectations

Systems give staff a better idea of what’s expected of them, both in terms of behaviour and results.

4. Scale at a faster rate

Developing a good set of business systems that work together to improve your how efficient and productive your
business is will allow you to grow at a faster rate.

5. Streamline processes
When systems are written down or set out as a flow chart, it lets you see any double-handling that’s happening. It
will also help you find opportunities to streamline processes or remove those that aren’t needed anymore.
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6. Control without micromanaging
Effective systems give business owners confidence that things are going as planned. They provide a way to monitor
and control key aspects of the business without having to micromanage.

To build a business system we need to cover following:

1. Set your objective
No matter what it is, you can come up with a system for anything and everything in your business – and it’s
probably beneficial if you do, just not all at once.

Choose one process at a time to create a system for. When one is embedded, start on another one.

2. Break down the task

What are all the activities that go into the task that you’re creating a system for?

Record the process for the activity, noting any tools or equipment needed to complete it. Is the task usually
completed by an individual or a team? What techniques or skills do they use to get the job done?

3. Identify improvements
Once the task has been recorded, step by step, look for ways to improve how it’s done. Could it be done faster? Is it
possible to group tasks by team or time period? Would additional resources or tools achieve efficiencies? Are there
tasks that you can dispense with altogether?

Step back and critically assess every single part of the process.

4. Test and learn

Implement the system improvements and observe the results. If the business system works, train your staff and
make sure everyone is clear on their roles and responsibilities with the new system.

If the business system doesn’t quite hit the mark, keep refining it until it does.

Types of business systems

1. Lead generation
Every business needs to make sales to make money. One of the biggest challenges when it comes to sales is finding
potential customers (or ‘leads’) to sell to.

There are different methods for finding new customers, making sales and automating these processes. These
include making lists of businesses that could benefit from your services and cold calling or cold emailing them, or
developing expression of interest forms that you put on your website, which develops contact lists for you.

2. Payroll
As you pay your staff regularly, setting up automated payroll systems will save you time and money. They’ll also
create records about these payments, which you will need for tax reporting time.

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3. Operations
Businesses have many operational tasks, many of which can be automated.

One example of this is hiring and onboarding new staff. Businesses can receive dozens of job applications for an
advertised role. Creating a system for the way applications are scanned and shortlisted can save time. Likewise the
way new staff are onboarded can be streamlined and consistent.

4. Inventory
Any business that holds products will have to manage their inventory.

You can manage stock easily with an inventory list that assigns minimum quantities to certain products. If it’s
checked regularly and you replenish as required, your business is one the way to running smoothly every day.

5. Workforce management
Managing staff and creating rosters and schedules is time-consuming work, and so is understanding individuals’
competency levels and training needs. If you have a large number of employees, creating systems can help you
understand things like how to schedule your staff for peak periods and how to manage team leave and sick days.

6. ERP
For bigger businesses, an Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), or business management software, pulls all
information into one system. This gives you oversight across all business function and allows you to automate
and improve processes across your business.

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System Development life cycle

The following diagram shows the complete life cycle of the system during analysis and design
phase.

Fig: - Life Cycle (stages) of System Analysis and Design

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 System Development Life Cycle (SDLC): -
It is a well-defined process by which a system is planned, developed and implemented. The system
development starts with the requirement for improving their business system.
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model which includes policies and
procedures for developing or altering systems throughout their life cycles.

Without using an exact life cycle model, the development of a software product would not be in a
systematic and disciplined manner. When a team is developing a software product, there must be a
clear understanding among team representative about when and what to do. Otherwise, it would
point to chaos and project failure.
An effective System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) should result in a high-quality system that
meets customer expectations, reaches completion within time and cost evaluations, and works
effectively and efficiently in the current and planned Information Technology infrastructure.
SDLC is used by analysts to develop an information system. SDLC includes the following
activities:-
 Requirement Analysis
 Defining
 Designing
 Coding
 Testing
 Deployment
 Maintenance

The stages of SDLC are as follows:

Stage1: Planning and requirement analysis

Requirement Analysis is the most important and necessary stage in SDLC.

The senior members of the team perform it with inputs from all the stakeholders and domain experts or SMEs in
the industry.

Planning for the quality assurance requirements and identifications of the risks associated with the projects is also
done at this stage.

For Example, A client wants to have an application which concerns money transactions. In this method, the
requirement has to be precise like what kind of operations will be done, how it will be done, in which currency it
will be done, etc.
Once the required function is done, an analysis is complete with auditing the feasibility of the growth of a product.
In case of any ambiguity, a signal is set up for further discussion.

Stage2: Defining Requirements

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Once the requirement analysis is done, the next stage is to certainly represent and document the software
requirements and get them accepted from the project stakeholders.

This is accomplished through "SRS"- Software Requirement Specification document which contains all the product
requirements to be constructed and developed during the project life cycle.

Stage3: Designing the Software

The next phase is about to bring down all the knowledge of requirements, analysis, and design of the software
project. This phase is the product of the last two, like inputs from the customer and requirement gathering.

Stage4: Developing the project

In this phase of SDLC, the actual development begins, and the programming is built. The implementation of design
begins concerning writing code. Developers have to follow the coding guidelines described by their management
and programming tools like compilers, interpreters, debuggers, etc. are used to develop and implement the code.

Stage5: Testing

After the code is generated, it is tested against the requirements to make sure that the products are solving the needs
addressed and gathered during the requirements stage.

During this stage, unit testing, integration testing, system testing, acceptance testing are done.

Stage6: Deployment

Once the software is certified, and no bugs or errors are stated, then it is deployed.

Then based on the assessment, the software may be released as it is or with suggested enhancement in the object
segment.

After the software is deployed, then its maintenance begins.

Stage7: Maintenance

Once when the client starts using the developed systems, then the real issues come up and requirements to be
solved from time to time.

This procedure where the care is taken for the developed product is known as maintenance.

Phases of SDLC

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 Systems Development Life Cycle is a systematic approach which explicitly breaks down the
work into phases that are required to implement either new or modified Information System.

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System development Methodology

System development methodologies are promoted as a means of improving the management and control of the
software development process, structuring and simplifying the process, and standardizing the development process
and product by specifying activities to be done and techniques to be used.

The system development life cycle is a common methodology used in all most every organization, as the system
development projects got bigger and the discipline of software enginnering begun to set some standards ot its own
a lot of methodologies have seen light and were put together by organizations seeking success according to their
own measurement of success.

Before we get to further details about various system development methodologies, we would like to give a basic
definition of a system development methodology. it's " a standard process followed by an organization to conduct
all the steps necessary to analyze, design, implement, and maintain information systems".

A methodology is also defined as follows " A method describes the activities involved in defining, building, and
implementing a system; a method is a framework. Since a method is a logical process for constructing systems
(process), it is known as a metaprocess (a process for modeling processes).

The definition does not mention the reason why the organizations want to follow those steps in system
development, but it seems very obvious that one of the goals was to facilitate tracking problems whenever they
might occur, and built successful system.

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 Structured Analysis and Structured Design (SA/SD)

Structured Analysis and Structured Design (SA/SD) is a diagrammatic notation that is designed to help people
understand the system. The basic goal of SA/SD is to improve quality and reduce the risk of system failure. It
establishes concrete management specifications and documentation. It focuses on the solidity, pliability, and
maintainability of the system.

Structured Analysis and Structured Design (SA/SD) is a software development method that was popular in the
1970s and 1980s. The method is based on the principle of structured programming, which emphasizes the
importance of breaking down a software system into smaller, more manageable components.

In SA/SD, the software development process is divided into two phases: Structured Analysis and Structured
Design. During the Structured Analysis phase, the problem to be solved is analyzed and the requirements are
gathered. The Structured Design phase involves designing the system to meet the requirements that were gathered
in the Structured Analysis phase.

Structured Analysis and Structured Design (SA/SD) is a traditional software development methodology that was
popular in the 1980s and 1990s. It involves a series of techniques for designing and developing software systems in
a structured and systematic way. Here are some key concepts of SA/SD:

Functional Decomposition: SA/SD uses functional decomposition to break down a complex system into smaller,
more manageable subsystems. This technique involves identifying the main functions of the system and breaking
them down into smaller functions that can be implemented independently.

Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs): SA/SD uses DFDs to model the flow of data through the system. DFDs are graphical
representations of the system that show how data moves between the system’s various components.

Data Dictionary: A data dictionary is a central repository that contains descriptions of all the data elements used in
the system. It provides a clear and consistent definition of data elements, making it easier to understand how the
system works.

Structured Design: SA/SD uses structured design techniques to develop the system’s architecture and components.
It involves identifying the major components of the system, designing the interfaces between them, and specifying
the data structures and algorithms that will be used to implement the system.

Modular Programming: SA/SD uses modular programming techniques to break down the system’s code into
smaller, more manageable modules. This makes it easier to develop, test, and maintain the system.

Additionally, SA/SD may not be well-suited for complex, dynamic systems, which may require more agile
development methodologies.

The following are the steps involved in the SA/SD process:

Requirements gathering: The first step in the SA/SD process is to gather requirements from stakeholders, including
users, customers, and business partners.

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Structured Analysis: During the Structured Analysis phase, the requirements are analyzed to identify the major
components of the system, the relationships between those components, and the data flows within the system.

Data Modeling: During this phase, a data model is created to represent the data used in the system and the
relationships between data elements.

Process Modeling: During this phase, the processes within the system are modeled using flowcharts and data flow
diagrams.
Input/Output Design: During this phase, the inputs and outputs of the system are designed, including the user
interface and reports.

Structured Design: During the Structured Design phase, the system is designed to meet the requirements gathered
in the Structured Analysis phase. This may include selecting appropriate hardware and software platforms,
designing databases, and defining data structures.

Implementation and Testing: Once the design is complete, the system is implemented and tested.

Advantages of Structured Analysis and Structured Design (SA/SD):

Clarity and Simplicity: The SA/SD method emphasizes breaking down complex systems into smaller, more
manageable components, which makes the system easier to understand and manage.

Better Communication: The SA/SD method provides a common language and framework for communicating the
design of a system, which can improve communication between stakeholders and help ensure that the system meets
their needs and expectations.

Improved maintainability: The SA/SD method provides a clear, organized structure for a system, which can make it
easier to maintain and update the system over time.

Better Testability: The SA/SD method provides a clear definition of the inputs and outputs of a system, which
makes it easier to test the system and ensure that it meets its requirements.

Disadvantages of Structured Analysis and Structured Design (SA/SD):

Time-Consuming: The SA/SD method can be time-consuming, especially for large and complex systems, as it
requires a significant amount of documentation and analysis.
Inflexibility: Once a system has been designed using the SA/SD method, it can be difficult to make changes to the
design, as the process is highly structured and documentation-intensive.
Limited Iteration: The SA/SD method is not well-suited for iterative development, as it is designed to be completed
in a single pass.

Structured Programming

In structured programming, we sub-divide the whole program into small modules so that the program becomes
easy to understand. The purpose of structured programming is to linearize control flow through a computer
program so that the execution sequence follows the sequence in which the code is written. The dynamic structure
of the program than resemble the static structure of the program. This enhances the readability, testability, and
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modifiability of the program.
We use structured programming because it allows the programmer to understand the program easily. If a program
consists of thousands of instructions and an error occurs then it is complicated to find that error in the whole
program, but in structured programming, we can easily detect the error and then go to that location and correct it.
This saves a lot of time.

These are the following rules in structured programming:

Structured Rule One: Code Block

If the entry conditions are correct, but the exit conditions are wrong, the error must be in the block. This is not true
if the execution is allowed to jump into a block. The error might be anywhere in the program. Debugging under
these circumstances is much harder.

Rule 1 of Structured Programming: A code block is structured, as shown in the figure. In flow-charting
condition, a box with a single entry point and single exit point are structured. Structured programming is a method
of making it evident that the program is correct.

Structure Rule Two: Sequence

A sequence of blocks is correct if the exit conditions of each block match the entry conditions of the following
block. Execution enters each block at the block's entry point and leaves through the block's exit point. The whole
series can be regarded as a single block, with an entry point and an exit point.

Rule 2 of Structured Programming: Two or more code blocks in the sequence are structured, as shown in the
figure.

Structured Rule Three: Alternation

If-then-else is frequently called alternation (because there are alternative options). In structured programming, each
19
choice is a code block. If alternation is organized as in the flowchart at right, then there is one entry point (at the
top) and one exit point (at the bottom). The structure should be coded so that if the entry conditions are fulfilled,
then the exit conditions are satisfied (just like a code block).

Structured Rule 4: Iteration

Iteration (while-loop) is organized as at right. It also has one entry point and one exit point. The entry point has
conditions that must be satisfied, and the exit point has requirements that will be fulfilled. There are no jumps into
the form from external points of the code.
Rule 4 of Structured Programming: The iteration of a code block is structured, as shown in the figure.

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ER models

An entity–relationship model (or ER model) The Entity Relational Model is a model for identifying entities to
be represented in the database and representation of how those entities are related. The ER data model specifies
enterprise schema that represents the overall logical structure of a database graphically.
The Entity Relationship Diagram explains the relationship among the entities present in the database. ER models
are used to model real-world objects like a person, a car, or a company and the relation between these real -world
objects. In short, ER Diagram is the structural format of the database.

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 Entity–relationship modeling was developed for database and design by Peter Chen and published in a 1976
paper. However, variants of the idea existed previously. Some ER models show super and subtype entities
connected by generalization-specialization relationships, and an ER model can be used also in the
specification of domain-specific ontologies.

Use of ER Diagrams:
ER diagrams are used to represent the E-R model in a database, which makes them easy to be converted into
relations (tables).
ER diagrams provide the purpose of real-world modeling of objects which makes them intently useful.
ER diagrams require no technical knowledge and no hardware support.
These diagrams are very easy to understand and easy to create even for a naive user.
It gives a standard solution for visualizing the data logically.

Symbols Used in ER Model:

ER Model is used to model the logical view of the system from a data perspective which consists of these
symbols:
Rectangles: Rectangles represent Entities in ER Model.
Ellipses: Ellipses represent Attributes in ER Model.
Diamond: Diamonds represent Relationships among Entities.
Lines: Lines represent attributes to entities and entity sets with other relationship types.
Double Ellipse: Double Ellipses represent Multi-Valued Attributes.
Double Rectangle: Double Rectangle represents a Weak Entity.

An E-R model is usually the result of systematic analysis to define and describe what is important to processes in
an area of a business. It does not define the business processes; it only presents a business data schema in
graphical form. It is usually drawn in a graphical form as boxes (entities) that are connected by lines
(relationships) which express the associations and dependencies between entities. An ER model can also be
expressed in a verbal form, for example: one building may be divided into zero or more apartments, but one
apartment can only be located in one building.
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Components of ER Diagram:

ER Model consists of Entities, Attributes, and Relationships among Entities in a Database System.

Entity:
An Entity may be an object with a physical existence – a particular person, car, house, or employee – or it may
be an object with a conceptual existence – a company, a job, or a university course.

Entity Set: An Entity is an object of Entity Type and a set of all entities iscalled an
entity set. For Example, E1 is an entity having Entity Type Student and the set of all
students is called Entity Set. In ER diagram, Entity Type is represented as:

Entity Set

1. Strong Entity
A Strong Entity is a type of entity that has a key Attribute. Strong Entity does not depend on other Entity in the
Schema. It has a primary key, that helps in identifying it uniquely, and it is represented by a rectangle. These are
called Strong Entity Types.

2. Weak Entity
An Entity type has a key attribute that uniquely identifies each entity in the entity set. But some entity type exists
for which key attributes can’t be defined. These are called Weak Entity types.

22
For Example, A company may store the information of dependents (Parents, Children, Spouse) of an Employee.
But the dependents don’t have existed without the employee. So Dependent will be a Weak Entity Type and
Employee will be Identifying Entity type for Dependent, which mea ns it is Strong Entity Type.

A weak entity type is represented by a Double Rectangle. The participation of weak entity types is always total.
The relationship between the weak entity type and its identifying strong entity type is called identifying
relationship and it is represented by a double diamond.

Strong Entity and Weak Entity

Attributes:
Attributes are the properties that define the entity type. For example, Roll_No, Name, DOB, Age, Address, and
Mobile_No are the attributes that define entity type Student. In ER diagram, the attribute is represented by an
oval.

Attribute

1. Key Attribute
The attribute which uniquely identifies each entity in the entity set is called the key attribute. For example,
Roll_No will be unique for each student. In ER diagram, the key attribute is represented by an oval with
underlying lines.

Key Attribute

2. Composite Attribute
An attribute composed of many other attributes is called a composite attribute. For example, the Address
attribute of the student Entity type consists of Street, City, State, and Country. In ER diagram, the composite
attribute is represented by an oval comprising of ovals.
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Composite Attribute

3. Multivalued Attribute
An attribute consisting of more than one value for a given entity. For example, Phone_No (can be more than one
for a given student). In ER diagram, a multivalued attribute is represented by a double oval.

Multivalued Attribute

4. Derived Attribute
An attribute that can be derived from other attributes of the entity type is known as a derived attribute. e.g.; Age
(can be derived from DOB). In ER diagram, the derived attribute is represented by a dashed oval.

Derived Attribute

The Complete Entity Type Student with its Attributes can be represented as:

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3. Relationship

A relationship is used to describe the relation between entities. Diamond or rhombus is used to represent the
relationship.

Types of relationship are as follows:

a. One-to-One Relationship

When only one instance of an entity is associated with the relationship, then it is known as one to one relationship.

For example, A female can marry to one male, and a male can marry to one female.

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b. One-to-many relationship

When only one instance of the entity on the left, and more than one instance of an entity on the right associates
with the relationship then this is known as a one-to-many relationship.

For example, Scientist can invent many inventions, but the invention is done by the only specific scientist.

c. Many-to-one relationship

When more than one instance of the entity on the left, and only one instance of an entity on the right associates
with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-one relationship.

For example, Student enrolls for only one course, but a course can have many students.

d. Many-to-many relationship

When more than one instance of the entity on the left, and more than one instance of an entity on the right
associates with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-many relationship.

For example, Employee can assign by many projects and project can have many employees.

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 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Prototype

A prototype is an early sample, model or release of a product created to test a concept or process. Typically, a
prototype is used to evaluate a new design to improve the accuracy of analysts and system users. It is the step
between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea.

Prototypes are a crucial part of the design process and a practice used in all design disciplines. From architects,
engineers, industrial designers and even service designers, they make their prototypes to test their designs before
investing in their mass production.

The purpose of a prototype is to have a tangible model of the solutions to the problems already defined and
discussed by the designers during the concept/idea stage. Instead of going through the entire design cycle based on
a supposed solution, prototypes allow designers to validate their concepts by putting an early version of the
solution in front of real users and collecting feedback as quickly as possible.

Prototypes often fail when tested, and this shows designers where the defects are and sends the team “back to the
drawing process” to refine or repeat the proposed solutions based on real user feedback. Because they fail early,
prototypes can save lives, avoiding the waste of energy, time and money in implementing weak or inappropriate
solutions.
Another advantage of prototyping is that, because the investment is small, the risk is low.

Prototyping allows you to build simple, small-scale prototypes of your products, and use them to observe, record,
and assess user performance levels or the users' general behavior and reactions to the overall design. Designers can
then make appropriate refinements or possible alterations in the right direction.

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What is Prototype in Design?
The purpose of a prototype in design thinking is to test products (and product ideas) prior to launch. Prototypes are
simulations or samples of final products that are used as testing tools. It is intended to test products (and product
ideas) before investing a great deal of time and resources into creating a sellable product

Need to Prototype:

 Evaluate Technical Feasibility

 Enhance Website Quality
 Conduct testing for site usability
 Inspect site navigation
 Conveniently access information on the site
 Determine correct placement of visual accents – what visitors should see first
 Effectively Present Idea to Customers

Types of Prototyping
Some of the common types of prototyping that you can use include:

 Sketches and Diagrams

Perhaps the most basic form of prototyping, sketching, requires minimal effort and does not necessarily require
artistic drawing skills to serve its purpose. Use sketches to begin the process of conceptualizing and building a new
product and share the concept with teammates for more ideas and discussions.

 Paper Interface
Digital products, especially websites, mobile apps, web services, and other screen-related products, require a range
of prototyping methods en route to the final design and development. Paper interfaces prove to be handy for early -
stage prototyping for digital products.

 Storyboards
Storyboarding is an excellent way of telling stories and guiding targeted customers through a user experience. A
technique to be used for early prototyping, storyboards allow you to visualize how users would experience a
problem or product and present it in a series of images or sketches.

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CASE Tools

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A computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tool is a software package that provides support for the design and
implementation of information systems. It can document a database design and provide invaluable help in
maintaining the consistency of a design. By integrating many of the techniques used to document a system
design—including the data dictionary, data flows, and entity relationships—CASE software can increase the
consistency and accuracy of a database design. It can also ease the task of creating the diagrams that accompa ny a
system design.

There are many CASE tools on the market. The actual look of the diagrams is specific to each particular package.
However, it should always be kept in mind that although some current CASE tools can verify the integrity of a data
model, they cannot design the database. There is no software in the world that can examine a database environment
and identify the entities, attributes, and relationships that should be represented in a database. The model created
with CASE software is therefore only as good as the analysis of the database environment provided by the people
using the tool.

USE CASE TOOLS:

The two main reasons for utilizing CASE tools are:

1. Reduce the amount of time and money spent on projects

2. Improve the quality of the system developed

However, CASE tools can also:

 Enhance the developers' productivity and satisfaction

 Make the system development task more enjoyable
 The use of CASE tools can formalize the requirements gathering stage, forcing developers to consider what
they are building before they build it. CASE tools enable the developing of systems that are easier to test
and maintain and contain good quality documentation.

Available CASE Tools for System Analyst:-

1. System requirements specification document tool.

2. Data Flow diagramming tool.
3. System flow chart generation tool.
4. Data dictionary creator.
5. E-R diagramming.
6. Decision table checking.
7. Formatting & checking Structured English process logic.
8. Screen design for data inputting.
9. Form design for output.
10. Database normalization & dependency information.

Types of CASE Tools:

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Upper CASE Tools:-
CASE tools designed to support the information planning & the project identification & selection, project initiation
& the planning, analysis & design phases of the system development life cycle.

Lower CASE Tools:-

CASE tools designed to support the implementation & maintenance phases of the system development life cycle.

Integrated or Cross-Life Cycle CASE:-

CASE tools designed to support activities that occur multiple phases of the system development life cycle like
analysis, design and coding

Advantages of CASE Tools:

 Provide new systems with shorter development time.

 Improve the productivity of the systems development process.
 Improve the quality of the systems development process.
 Improve worker skills.
 Improve the portability of new systems.
 Improve the management of the systems development process.

Disadvantages CASE Tools:

 The high cost of purchasing CASE.

 The high cost of training personnel.
 Low organization confidence in the IT department to deliver high-quality systems on time and within
budget.
 Lack of methodology standards within the organization.
 Viewing CASE as a threat to job security.
 Lack of confidence in CASE products.
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 UNIT-2

Project Selection

Project selection in project management refers to the process of an organization choosing one out of many projects
so that the project can reap the most benefits. Projects should be able to align with an organization's goals and
ensure that the resources are not misused.

This is one of the most crucial actions for an organization. Choosing the right project is not sheer luck, and it is
about analyzing data-driven insights to follow the most beneficial approaches and choose the best project that reaps
the most benefits for the company. A Project Management Training Program can teach you the technicalities
associated with project selection.

Project Manager Role in Project Selection

Due to their experience in project planning, execution, and delivery, the project manager plays an important role in
the Project Selection process by providing input and recommendations to senior management on the feasibility of
proposed projects. The project Manager must ensure that the projects chosen are in line with the organization's
overall strategy and are feasible given the available resources and timeline.

Project Selection Methods

Choosing the wrong project can cause havoc to an organization and hinder its growth. Listed below are some of the
most popular project selection tools organizations can use to understand which project they should proceed with.

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A. Benefits Measurement Methods

1. Cost-Benefit Analysis

This is one of the most important tools for project selection which helps organizations analyze which decision they
should proceed with and which one they should let go of. This process involves adding up the potential earnings
that are expected from action and then deducting the costs incurred as input costs while taking action.

This tool measures tangible aspects like financial metrics, including the cost saved or revenue earned during a
project, and intangible aspects, such as customer satisfaction and employee morale. Based on the conclusions
drawn, an organization decides whether to proceed with or forego a project.

2. Payback Period

As the name suggests, this method of project selection helps determine the time in which the initially incurred costs
while starting a project can be recovered. The sooner the initial investment can be recovered, the more desirable it
is for the company to proceed with the project.

3. Discounted Cash Flow

This project selection tool helps determine an investment's present value by considering the estimated revenue
generated compared to the investment in the coming years. In this method, the value of an investment is determined
based on future cash flows. If the DCF of a project is higher than the initial cost incurred, then the project is
considered profitable.

4.Net Present Value

This is the difference between the cost of the project and the money it brings back (ROI). A higher NPV
is always preferable. This method of prioritising the projects takes into account the time value of money.
It considers the discounted cash flow over the project life instead of the payback period. A project that
may earn lesser in the first year but makes up in the second year than one where the returns decrease
and take longer to earn back the money invested.

5. Opportunity Costs

Opportunity costs are a great tool for project selection that organizations can use to make informed project choices.
Opportunity cost refers to the highest value organizations have to give up to opt for their choice of project.
To put it in simple words, opportunity cost helps to determine the opportunity which might be overlooked when an
organization chooses one project over the other.

6. Ranking Method

Organizations use this simple method of project selection to prioritize the projects that will earn them the most
profits. Projects are ranked based on their importance. This is a comparatively quicker and easier approach as it
helps the companies identify the top-most priorities at the earliest.

7. Scoring Model

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In this method of project selection, there is a list comprising all the criteria that need to be considered while
choosing a project. A dedicated committee is assigned the task of weighing the list with respect to the priorities and
importance of all the projects under consideration. The redeemed values are thus evaluated, and the project that
secures the highest score is selected.

8. Analytical Hierarchy Process

This analytical hierarchy decision-making method is used in project selection where the environment is complex
and has multiple alternatives and criteria. The decisions are made using psychology and mathematical algorithms.
A scoring system is implemented to make unbiased decisions on potential projects an organization should proceed
with.

The analytical hierarchy process of decision-making involves three steps. At first, the problem is identified, then
the probable alternatives are analyzed, and finally, the best option is chosen.

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Project Request
The project request is a system for proposing a project to the project management team for consistent value-based
approval and automated project routing. Before approving it, the project management team considers its impact on
the organization’s financial and strategic goals.

They may vary depending upon the type and scope of the project. It could be a multipage description or a single
paragraph that briefly explains the project. They can describe a project that has been formally submitted to
management. It includes the main information about a project that may develop their interest.

The Need for Project Request

Due to limitations, a particular organization can have many project ideas that cannot be completed simultaneously.
So, the company has to decide which project to complete first.
To decide which project to work on, a request document is created that briefly describes each project. This
document helps th company leaders and the project managers choose some viable projects. All the selected projects
then go through the project selection process, and the project that fulfills the criteria of selection goes into the
process.

Sources of Systems Projects

Initiation or request of systems projects may come from various areas, both internal and external to an
organization. There are four primary sources of project requests. The requesters inside the organization are
department managers, senior executives, and systems analysts.In addition, government agencies outside the
organization may request information systems projects.

Following are some of the sources.

User requests:
Users of a company work usually with the systems and interact with customers on a daily basis.They are the most
34
likely source for improved or new systems request. Users may experience that the current system is not flexible and
it is difficult to learn. They might experience that the system does not produce information required by the
company business.

For example, users may request a new Web site to market company products, a more powerful sales analysis
report, a network to link all production locations, or an online system for customers to obtain instant status for their
orders.

Existing systems:

Systems project request can come from the information systems department as suggestions.This is possible if staff
members such as CIO (chief information officer) and managers are involved with company operations and user
needs.

External factors:

There are many external factors can cause changes to an existing system or creation of a new system.Examples are:
•Changes in government tax regulations and reporting requirements.
•New releases or version of software packages and technologies used in the existing systems.
•Competitors offering of new products and services such as online banking or technical support through telephone
or Web site.

Project Selection Methods

Now let’s have a look at what is project selection method in project management. There are two main project
selection methods.

1. Constrained Optimization: It focuses on and prioritizes numerical and mathematical advantages.

2. Benefits Measurement: It focuses on opportunity costs and payback periods.

project selection by using the Constrained Optimization

The constrained optimization method uses quantitative methods like complex mathematical concepts as a project
selection process. It is best suited for large-scale and complex projects.

There are three main techniques in the constraint optimization method; integer programming, linear programming
and dynamic programming.

Integer Programming

This method involves looking at a decision that involves integer values, not fractional ones. This is a project, such
as the manufacture of cars, razor blades or other items that cannot be divided into smaller pieces but delivered as a
whole.

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Linear Programming

This method is about reducing the project cost by shortening the time necessary to complete the project. Therefore,
it involves the examination of how long it takes to run any particular activity in the project. If you have to add
effort to an activity, that means it will cost more and likely be less attractive.

Dynamic Programming

This method is used to break complex problems into a series of simpler ones. However, you have to decide if the
problem is suited for dynamic programming. If it is, then dynamic programming will help you make a sequence of
correlated decisions. It allows you to see the best combination of decisions.

Project selection by using the benefits measurement method:

The benefit measurement method uses numbers to describe the daily operations of the business.

1. Benefit-cost analysis

In this method, the costs of the project are compared with their benefits. Let’s take an example to understand it
more. Suppose that you plan on opening a restaurant in a location. The cost of inventory, training, hiring, and
renovations are all considerable.

However, a new location will benefit your restaurant in terms of revenue. Therefore, increased brand value and rate
of return are more beneficial than the cost.

2. Payback period

The payback period is the time that is needed to get the return on the initial investment. Most of the time,
companies tend to choose projects with shorter payback periods rather than longer ones. However, always take into
consideration the incoming potential of the project.

For example, for a restaurant, the payback period will depend on the reconstruction, hiring, training or inventory.
This can take a longer period as well due to many unknown factors. However, the potential payback of it would be
high due to its new location and increased sales. Thus, the investment must be compared with the payback you’re
going to receive while selecting a project.

3. Discounted cash flow analysis

More often than others, the project doesn’t pay what we expect. It can be affected due to many factors like inflation
or a sudden decline in the demand for the product. Therefore, one must consider these factors while selecting a
project.

Suppose the restaurant is located near the university. You can make money out of students. However, you mu st
consider that during vacations and other public holidays your sales might drop more than usual.
36
3. Net present value(NPV)

Net present value can be calculated with a relationship between the present cost of the project and its rate of
investment (ROI).

The project with a higher NPV is better selected than with a lower one. In NPV the discounted cash flows are also
taken into consideration to make a wise decision. So, for your restaurant, you’ve two locations in mind. The first
location provides you with a fixed rate of return that $6000 every year compared to your investment of $12000.
While the other location pays you $6000 in one year and $12000 in the second year. In this scenario, you might
want to choose the second location due to its faster rate of return.

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Project Management Review

A Project Management Review is an exercise undertaken at the end of each Project Phase to identify the current
status of the project. The Project Review identifies the deliverables which have been produced to date and
determines whether or not the project has met the objectives set. The outcome of the Project Management Review
is documented on a project Phase Review Form and this states whether the project is currently on track, within
schedule and under budget.

At the end of each Project Phase, a Project Management Review is conducted. Once the Project Review form has
been completed, the form is presented to the Sponsor who decides whether to proceed to the next Project Phase.
This particular Project Review form helps you review the "Execution" project phase and proceed to the "Closure"
project phase smoothly.

It can also evaluate a current project to determine whether it’s on the right track. Or, it can determine the success of
a completed project.

As part of the review, teams debrief the project as a group. Together, they explore what they could have done
better. For example, they may learn specific ways in which they can communicate better. They also acknowledge
their successes so they can celebrate them. By comparing results with goals, they can refine their strategy.

To Build A Great Project Review Team

Several important roles guide the project review process. It’s also important to assign a project review leader to
facilitate the process. This person can also make assessments based on data prior to the review. Assign another staff
member to assist with data analysis. Also assign a notetaker who can note/record information throughout the
process by using an electronic device.

98Some organizations assign these roles to people who had no involvement in the project. In some cases, different
project managers review one another’s projects. They first brief one another on project goals, scope, team, and
process. That may not always prove feasible, however. In many organizations, teams review their own projects.

Project Review Process Guidelines

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Within your review, make sure to cover several key elements. The following instructions and questions will ensure
you address the key components of the review process. The project review leader can use them as a guide to
conducting the review.

Evaluate quality, time, and cost—the three main project variables, according to Harvard Business Review editors.
Did you make any tradeoffs between them? Were project milestones achieved on schedule, with the desired
results? Did the project exceed the budget? Detail any particular areas that proved more expensive (or inexpensive)
than expected.

Assess your project management methodology. Was it the best choice for your team? For the project?
Evaluate the risk exposure. In addition what actually happened, look at what could have happened. Consider what
serious risks occurred and how to avoid them next time.

Use a simple scoring system to represent a project’s success or risk level. Assigning a colour can work well, as
Indeed outlines:
Green = low risk; everything is on track.
Yellow = some concern about progress or risk exists.
Red = major adjustments need to be made. Follow progress closely after making them.
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Preliminary Investigation
Preliminary Investigation The first step in the system development life cycle is the preliminary investigation to
determine the feasibility of the system. The purpose of the preliminary investigation is to evaluate project requests.
It is the collecting of information that helps committee members to evaluate the merits of the project request and
make an informed judgement about the feasibility of the proposed project.

Analysts working on the preliminary investigation should accomplish the following objectives:

1. Clarify and Understand the Project Request. What is being done? What is required? And why? Is there an
underlying reason different from the one the user identifies?
2. Determine the size of the project.
3. Access costs and benefits of alternative approaches.
4. Determine the technical and operational feasibility of alternative approaches.
5. Report the finding to management, with recommendations outlining the acceptance or rejection of the proposal.

Scope of Study
The preliminary review of the system is performed which assists in recognizing the scope of the system.
Feasibility study occurs depending on the result of the original study. The feasibility study is essentially the test of
the projected system in the light of:
• Its workability.
• Fulfilling user’s needs.
• Effective utilization of resources.
38
• The cost usefulness.

Conducting the Investigation

The data collected by the analysts during preliminary investigations are gathered through three primary methods:
Reviewing Organization Documents: The analysts conducting the investigation first learn about the organization
involved in, or affected by the project.

Example: To review an inventory systems proposal means knowing first how the department works and who are
the persons directly associated with inventory system. Analysts can get some details by examining organization
charts and studying written operating procedures. The procedures clearly define various important steps involved in
receiving, managing and dispersing stock.

On-site Observations:
In this method, the analysts observe the activities of the system directly. One purpose of on-site observation is to
get as close as possible to the real system being studied. During on-site observation, the analyst can see the office
environment, work local of the system and the users, methods of work and the facilities provided by the
organization to the users.

Conducting Interviews:
The above two methods tell the analysts how the system should operate, but they may not include enough details to
allow a decision to be made about the merits of a system proposal, nor do they present user views about current
operations. Analysts use interview to learn these details.

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Feasibility Study

Feasibility Study can be considered as preliminary investigation that helps the management to take decision
about whether study of system should be feasible for development or not.

It identifies the possibility of improving an existing system, developing a new system, and
produce refined estimates for further development of system.
It is used to obtain the outline of the problem and decide whether feasible or appropriate
solution exists or not.
The main objective of a feasibility study is to acquire problem scope instead of solving the
problem.
The output of a feasibility study is a formal system proposal act as decision document
which includes the complete nature and scope of the proposed system.

1.10.1 Steps Involved in Feasibility Analysis

The following steps are to be followed while performing feasibility analysis −
 Form a project team and appoint a project leader.
 Develop system flowcharts.
 Identify the deficiencies of current system and set goals.
 Enumerate the alternative solution or potential candidate system to meet goals.
39
 Determine the feasibility of each alternative such as technical feasibility, operational
feasibility, etc.
 Weight the performance and cost effectiveness of each candidate system.
 Rank the other alternatives and select the best candidate system.
 Prepare a system proposal of final project directive to management for approval

40
Types of Feasibilities
There are four aspects of feasibility study: -
i. Technical feasibility
ii. Economical feasibility
iii. Operational feasibility
iv. Behavioral feasibility

Economic Feasibility
 It is evaluating the effectiveness of candidate system by using cost/benefit analysis method.
 It demonstrates the net benefit from the candidate system in terms of benefits and costs to the
organization.
 The main aim of Economic Feasibility Analysis (EFS) is to estimate the economic requirements of
candidate system before investments funds are committed to proposal.
 It prefers the alternative which will maximize the net worth of organization by earliest and
highest return of funds along with lowest level of risk involved in developing the candidate
system.

Technical Feasibility
 It investigates the technical feasibility of each implementation alternative.
 It analyzes and determines whether the solution can be supported by existing technology or not.
 The analyst determines whether current technical resources be upgraded or added it that
fulfill the new requirements.
 It ensures that the candidate system provides appropriate responses to what extent it can
support the technical enhancement.

Operational Feasibility
 It determines whether the system is operating effectively once it is developed and implemented.
 It ensures that the management should support the proposed system and its working feasible
in the current organizational environment.
 It analyzes whether the users will be affected and they accept the modified or new business
methods that affect the possible system benefits.
 It also ensures that the computer resources and network architecture of candidate system are
workable.

Behavioral Feasibility
 It evaluates and estimates the user attitude or behavior towards the development of new
system.
 It helps in determining if the system requires special effort to educate, retrain, transfer, and
changes in employee’s job status on new ways of conducting business.

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a. System Design
 Includes the design of application, network, databases, user interfaces, and system interfaces.
 Transform the SRS document into logical structure, which contains detailed and complete set of
specifications that can be implemented in a programming language.
 Create a contingency, training, maintenance, and operation plan.
 Review the proposed design. Ensure that the final design must meet the requirements stated in
SRS document.
 Finally, prepare a design document which will be used during next phases.

b. Implementation

 Implement the design into source code through coding.

 Combine all the modules together into training environment that detects errors and defects.
 A test report which contains errors is prepared through test plan that includes test related
tasks such as test case generation, testing criteria, and resource allocation for testing.
 Integrate the information system into its environment and install the new system.

c. Maintenance/Support

 Include all the activities such as phone support or physical on-site support for users that is
required once the system is installing.
 Implement the changes that software might undergo over a period of time, or implement
any new requirements after the software is deployed at the customer location.
 It also includes handling the residual errors and resolve any issues that may exist in the
system even after the testing phase.
 Maintenance and support may be needed for a longer time for large systems and for a short
time for smaller systems.
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Fact Finding Techniques

After obtaining the background knowledge, the analyst begins to collect data on the existing system’s outputs,
inputs and costs. To do fact finding,the analyst does the following:

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l Interviews personnel

2 Prepares questionnaires

3 Observe the current system

4 Gathers forms and documents currently in use.

5 Determines the flow of data through the system, and

6 Clearly defines the system requirements

Need for Fact Finding:

Normally, each and every business house or any organization has its own rules and procedures to run and
manage it. When a system needs to be developed, the systems analyst needs to know the requirements of the
system. Depending on these requirements, the system has to be developed.

Interviews:

By studying the organization chart, analyst can confidently schedule interviews with key personnel involved
with the system. There should be preliminary interviews, and after that detailed interview with people who
actually operate the system. Not only will these people use the newly developed system, but they also may be
the ones most afraid of change,especially if they feel the computer might replace them. Like an investigative
reporter trying to discover the who, what, when, why and how of a store, the analyst should conduct the
interview in such a way that people provide honest descriptions of their jobs.

Advantages:

1 Interviews permit the systems analyst to get individual’s views and get the specific problem work wise and
operation wise.

2 Interviews allow the systems analyst to obtain a better clarity of the problem due to feedback from the
interviewees.

3 In the process of interviews, the interviewer has time and scope to motivate the interviewee to respond freely
and openly.

4 Interviews allow the systems analyst to understand the user requirements and to know the problems faced by
the user with the current system.

5 It is an effective technique to gather information about complex existing systems.

 Group Discussions

In group discussion, a group of staff members are invited who are expected to be well versed in their own
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wings of the organization. The analysts will have a discussion with the members for their views and responses
to various queries posed by them. In this process, individuals from different sections gather together and will
discuss the problem at hand. Ultimately, they come to an optimum solution. In group discussion, the problems
of all sections are taken care of most of the cases, solutions are found which are acceptable to everyone. The
main disadvantage of group discussion is that it is very difficult to get all the concerned people together at
time. But, the major advantage is that a mutually acceptable solution can be found.

 Site Visits

The engineers of the development organization visit the sites. Usually, the systems analysts visit sites to get
first hand information of the working of the system. In this technique, systems analyst watches the activities of
different staff members to learn about the system. When there is confusion about the validity of data collected
from other sources, the systems analyst uses the method of site visits. The main objective of site visit is to
examine the existing system closely and record the activities of the system.

Advantages

1. The process of recording facts site visits is highly reliable.

2. Sometimes, site visits take place to clear doubts and check the validity of the data.

3. Site visit is inexpensive when compared to other fact finding techniques.

4. In this technique, systems analyst will be able to see the processes in the organization at first hand.

5. The systems analyst can easily understand the complex processes.

Disadvantages

1. People usually feel uncomfortable when being watched; they may unwillingly perform their work
differently when being observed.

2. Due to interruptions in the task being observed, the information that is collected may be inaccurate.

3. Site visits are done during a specific period and during that period, complexities existing in the system may
not be experienced.

4. There may be scheduling problems for the systems analysts when the activities take place during odd hours.

 Presentations

It is another way of finding the facts and collecting data. Presentation is the way by which the systems analyst

gathers first hand knowledge of the project. The customer makes a presentation of the existing system or about
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the organization. Participants in the meeting are representatives from the IT company and key personnel of the

client organization. When a company needs to develop a software project, it may present its requirements for

IOE(interest of expression) from the interested IT Company. In that case, the client presents his/her

requirements.

 Questionnaires

Questionnaires economically gather data from both large and small group of people develpoment of

questionnaires requires in depth planning, and usually more than one draft is necessary. Questionnaire design

is critical.Questions should be short, easy to understand, unbiased, nonthreatening and specific. To make sure

questions will stimulate needed information, the analyst can test them with one or two outsiders before

widespread distribution.The analyst should send questionnaires to everyone involved with the system.

Advantages:

1. It is an inexpensive means of collecting the data from a large group of individuals.

2. It requires less skill and experience to administer questionnaires.

3. Proper formulation and interaction with respondents leads to unbiased response from the customers.

Disadvantages:

1. Sometimes, the number of respondents is low.

2. There is no guarantee that the respondents will answer all the questions.

3. Sometimes, the individual may misunderstand the question. In that situation, the analyst may not get correct
answer.

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Input Design
In an information system, input is the raw data that is processed to produce output. During the input
design, the developers must consider the input devices such as PC, MICR, OMR, etc.
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 Therefore, the quality of system input determines the quality of system output. Well designed
inputforms and screens have following properties –
 It should serve specific purpose effectively such as storing, recording, and retrieving the
information.
 It ensures proper completion with accuracy.
 It should be easy to fill and straightforward.
 It should focus on user’s attention, consistency, and simplicity.
All these objectives are obtained using the knowledge of basic design principles regarding –
 What are the inputs needed for the system?
 How end users respond to different elements of forms and screens.

Objectives for Input Design

The objectives of input design are −
 To design data entry and input procedures
 To reduce input volume
 To design source documents for data capture or devise other data capture methods
 To design input data records, data entry screens, user interface screens, etc.
 To use validation checks and develop effective input controls.

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 2.3.1. Data Input Methods
It is important to design appropriate data input methods to prevent errors while entering data. These
methods depend on whether the data is entered by customers in forms manually and later entered by
data entry operators, or data is directly entered by users on the PCs.
A system should prevent user from making mistakes by −

i. Clear form design by leaving enough space for writing legibly.

ii. Clear instructions to fill form.
iii. Clear form design.
iv. Reducing key strokes.
v. Immediate error feedback .

Some of the popular data input methods are

i. Batch input method (Offline data input method)
ii. Online data input method
iii. Computer readable forms
iv. Interactive data input

 Input Integrity Controls

Input integrity controls include a number of methods to eliminate common input errors by end-users.
They also include checks on the value of individual fields; both for format and the completeness of
all inputs.
Audit trails for data entry and other system operations are created using transaction logs which gives
a record of all changes introduced in the database to provide security and means of recovery in case
of any failure.
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Coding Techniques
Deadlines, errors, stubborn syntax, scope creep, the list goes on. A project manager’s role is a tough
one. From planning a sound strategy to ensuring timely completion, there are multiple risks, both controllable
and uncontrollable, that ought to be considered and mitigated. You need to put your managerial hat on along
with your developer hat to assess the situation and make the right decisions.

It isn’t all that easy, but it isn’t all that bad either. With a few practical tips, you can successfully strategise
any coding project like a pro unassailed by occurrences like technical troubles, coding errors, bottlenecks,
etc., that create unnecessary delays.

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Importance:

One area that can significantly impact their success is programming. It has the power to transform a business, from
improving communication and problem-solving abilities to gaining control over website and app development.
Indeed, its benefits for entrepreneurs are vast.

What is programming?

Programming involves the use of a specific language to create code. A computer then executes this code to perform
particular tasks. Thus, this process plays a crucial role in developing websites, mobile apps, computer games, smart
contracts, and other digital products. Whether you're building a new offering or automating a task, coding is an
essential skill to have in today's technology-driven world.

Top advantages of coding for entrepreneurs:

1. Enhanced problem-solving ability(breaking down problems into smaller, manageable parts.)

2. Increased productivity(entrepreneurs can quickly build prototypes and test them in real-time instead of relying
on a third party.)

3. Reduced operating expenses(need for additional staff)

4. Stronger security and data protection

5. Better customer service(able to design and implement chatbots and other artificial intelligence-powered tools to
handle simple customer inquiries and transactions)

6. More time saved(customer communications, data analysis, and website maintenance can all be handled quickly
and efficiently by computer programs written with code)

Plan and Manage Any Coding Project Strategically

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Listed below are a few tips which would help avoid unnecessary delays and errors during the project
development cycle.

1. Gather the Right Team Members

When you assemble your team, ensure that the members you pick have the specific knowledge required for
the project and would be able to add value to the project development cycle. If a few of the team members are
not best suited for the project, ensure to have them trained for their roles to enable them to contribute better.

2. Clearly Define the Scope

A defined project scope, including its constraints, deadlines, and milestones, would help the team understand
the nature and extent of work required for its completion. A scope statement would give them a fair idea of
the intricacies involved in the project and the probability of various types of risks that might arise.

3. Use the Right Equipment

There are multiple platforms and software available to aid project management. Analyse your project
requirements and team feasibility to select the one that fits best. A Project Management Software will not
only help to organise the entire project development cycle but will also facilitate ease in communication of
work processes within the team.

4. Risk Analysis and Management

As a technical leader, analysing and mitigating risks also fall under the purview of managing the project. You
need to identify risk factors early on so that you can take the necessary steps to avoid the risks and establish
preventive mechanisms.

5. Test and Evaluate

To heave a sigh of relief when the program successfully passes the final test, you have to keep on evaluating
it at regular intervals. Mark the critical points on the project cycle and test the code frequently to ensure a
bug-free, smooth, and secure program.

6. Plan the Project Architecture

Firstly, make a complete list of project requirements and categorize them into essential and non-essential
entities. Then, implement all the essential features, which would become a skeleton for you to im provise on.

Analyse and plan your project to include elements that are essential for the entities to function separately and
coexist. Sketch a blueprint classifying different elements and their functionalities in your project’s
structure. The Thumb rule is to always think from the POV of the client and their needs.

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7. Practical Budgeting

A crucial step in any project forecasting is defining the budget. A well -defined budget would include
provisions for the present and future, considering any contingencies. While planning the budget, it is
important to consider the following costs:

 Cost of managing the team

 Administrative costs

 Marketing and promotional cost

 Software development costs

8. Communicate Regularly and Effectively

Setting up proper communication channels helps avoid misunderstandings/errors that hinder the timely
completion of the project. Effective communication implies that every team member is well -versed with their
role in the project, its scope, timeline, and requirements such that any issue that arises would be taken care of
before it blows out of proportion.

9. Delegate Work Strategically

Draw up a task sheet to gather requirements and allocate specific tasks to team members based on their
experience and skillsets. While some might excel at developing a code, a few others might prove worthy
during implementation. Therefore, it’s essential to assess their strengths and delegate work that challenges
their potential.

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Output Design or Designing Output

The design of output is the most important task of any system. During output design, developers
identify the type of outputs needed, and consider the necessary output controls and prototype report
layouts.

Objectives of Output Design

The objectives of input design are −

 To develop output design that serves the intended purpose and eliminates the production of
unwanted output.
 To develop the output design that meets the end users requirements.

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  To deliver the appropriate quantity of output.

 To form the output in appropriate format and direct it to the right person.

 To make the output available on time for making good decisions.

Let us now go through various types of outputs −

 External Outputs
Manufacturers create and design external outputs for printers. External outputs enable the system to leave
the trigger actions on the part of their recipients or confirm actions to their recipients.
Some of the external outputs are designed as turnaround outputs, which are implemented as a form
and re-enter the system as an input.

 Internal outputs
Internal outputs are present inside the system, and used by end-users and managers. They support the
management in decision making and reporting.
There are three types of reports produced by management information −

 Detailed Reports − They contain present information which has almost no filtering or
restriction generated to assist management planning and control.
 Summary Reports − They contain trends and potential problems which are categorized
and summarized that are generated for managers who do not want details.
 Exception Reports − They contain exceptions, filtered data to some condition or standard
before presenting it to the manager, as information.

 Output Integrity Controls

Output integrity controls include routing codes to identify the receiving system, and verification
messages to confirm successful receipt of messages that are handled by network protocol.
Printed or screen-format reports should include a date/time for report printing and the data.
Multipage reports contain report title or description, and pagination. Pre-printed forms usually
include a version number and effective date.
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Screens design

Screen design refers to the graphic design and layout of user interfaces on displays. It is a sub-area of user interface
design but is limited to monitors and displays.
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In screen design, the focus is on maximizing usability and user experience by making user interaction as simple
and efficient as possible. Technical background functions do not matter in screen design. Web design, on the other
hand, is the process of creating websites that implement the functions not considered in screen design. You could
say that screen design thus makes the functionality specified in the context of web design applicable to users.

A central approach in screen design is orientation to the target group’s needs and abilities. This means that
designers must know and understand the skills and habits as well as the senses of users. Screen design will
typically differ depending on whether it is designed for older people, children, or adults. Someone who deals with a
particular device on a daily basis will have less difficulty using complicated screens than someone who is less
familiar with them.

Applications of screen design

Screen design is used in mobile and desktop versions of websites, apps, and any graphical user interface displayed
on monitors or displays that enable users to interact with electronic devices. This includes computers, portable
media players, gaming devices, smartphones, and household, office, or industrial controls.

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What makes good screen design?
Focus on users

Good screen design always focuses on users and takes their needs and expectations into account when designing a
user interface. ll elements (text, images, icons, and buttons) are arranged and designed in a way that enables
consumers to easily understand and apply them.

User-oriented screen design is based on knowing users' preferences, skills, and goals and requires a designer who
can empathize with their audience to create a simple and effective solution that is easy to execute.

Screen design doesn't reinvent the wheel

Good screen design takes into account that over the years users have become accustomed to certain elements and
their function and appearance. People will accept and use new applications more quickly if their design is similar to
applications they are already familiar with. Therefore, some companies are developing a library of standard screen
templates that developers can use. This approach not only helps enforce design standards but also accelerates
screen design development.

Importance of screen design for usability

Screen and web design go hand in hand. Both are crucial for user guidance and experience and thus have a high
value for usability and ultimately the economic success of a website.

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Use of Business Graphics

Graphic design plays a crucial role in modern business marketing strategies. it helps to build brand consistency,
communicate vital information, increase sales, and enhance trust and credibility.

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There are 7 key reasons why graphic design is essential for your business’s success:

1.Build Brand Consistency |

In the competitive business landscape, it is vital to establish a strong and recognizable brand. Graphic
design plays a pivotal role in creating brand consistency across various platforms, from brochures and websites
to social media profiles and advertisements. By utilizing consistent design elements, such as color schemes,
fonts, and visual styles, you can effectively reinforce your brand identity and make a lasting impression on your
target audience.

2.You Need a Brand, Not Just a Logo

While a logo is an integral part of your brand identity, it is essential to understand that a brand is much more than
just a logo. Graphic design helps shape and define your brand’s visual identity, including logo design,
typography, and overall aesthetics. It encompasses the emotions and associations that your brand evokes in the
minds of consumers. By investing in professional graphic design services, you can create a compelling brand that
resonates with your target market and sets you apart from competitors.

3.Communicate Your Information

In today’s fast-paced digital world, capturing your audience’s attention is paramount. Graphic design enables
you to communicate information effectively and concisely. Through visually appealing infographics, brochures,
and other marketing collateral, you can convey complex concepts, data, and messages in a visually engaging
manner. Well-designed graphics can enhance comprehension, grab attention, and leave a lasting impact on your
audience.

4.Increase Your Sales

Visual appeal plays a significant role in influencing consumer behavior. High-quality graphic design has the
power to entice potential customers, making them more likely to engage with your products or services. A
visually appealing website, for example, can captivate visitors, encourage exploration, and ultimately lead to
increased conversions.

5.Increase Trust & Credibility

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Aesthetically pleasing and well-executed graphic design instills a sense of trust and credibility in your target
audience. Professionally designed visuals convey a message of professionalism, attention to detail, and
reliability. Consumers are more likely to trust a brand that invests in high-quality graphic design, as it reflects a
commitment to delivering exceptional products or services. By consistently utilizing visually ap pealing designs,
you can build a positive perception of your brand.

6.Digital Marketing Graphic Design

In the digital era, graphic design is a fundamental aspect of any successful marketing campaign. Visual content,
such as social media posts, online ads, and email newsletters, is highly shareable and helps capture the attention
of online audiences. An eye-catching design can make your digital marketing efforts stand out amidst the sea of
online content, increasing engagement and driving traffic to your website or social media profiles.

7.Professional Image

A unified, consistent approach to graphic design is key for creating effective marketing materials. By using
logos, images and visuals strategically throughout your website, social media pages and other channels you can
help build an impressionable brand with heightened awareness.

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