Computer Graphics (CST307)

Lect: Modeling Transformation

What has been Covered so far
 Basics of a computer graphic system
 Idea about overall Graphic pipeline
 Object representation (Ist stage) - Partial
 Remaining will cover in the upcoming lecture
 Basic Output Primitives; Scan conversion
 Algorithms and working principle
Recap
Basic Idea
 Object representation techniques allow us to represent
objects individually
 Local/Object coordinates
 i.e., at the time of defining the objects, its shape, size, and
position is not important
 In order to create a scene, the objects needs to
assembled together in different setting.
 So called scene/world coordinate system
 When individual objects are assembled their size, shapes
and positions becomes very important
 We need to perform some operations to
 Transform objects from local to world coordinate
Modeling/geometric transformation (II stages)
Basic transformations
 Modeling transformation implies applying some
operations on the objects definition (in local coordinate)
to transform them as a component of the world
coordinate scene
 There are several such operations possible
 All these operations can be derived from a set of basic
operations:
 Translation (T),
 Rotation (R),
 Scaling (s),
 Shearing (s)
Basic operations
 Translation (T): Translation object from one position to
another
 Rotating (R): Rotates object by some angle in clockwise
or anticlockwise direction around an axis
 Scaling (S): Reduces/Increases Object size
 Shearing (Sh): Changes object shape
 Though not a basic transformation, can be derived from
rotation and scaling
 These operations changes geometric properties (Shape,
size and locations)
 Hence called geometric transformations
Translation
 Simplest of all
 To translate a point p(x, y) to a new location p’(x, y)
 Displace a point by tx and ty along the X and Y directions
 Positive displacement
 Negative displacement
 Same is true for vertical displacement
 Translation
 Transformation that used to reposition
the object along the straight line path. (x',y')
 Adding translation distance 𝒕𝒙 and 𝒕𝒚
ty
to the original coordinate position (x,y)
(𝒙, 𝒚) respectively we move point at
new position (𝒙′ , 𝒚′ ). tx

 𝒙′ = 𝒙 + 𝒕𝒙 & 𝒚 ′ = 𝒚 + 𝒕𝒚
 Translation distance pair (𝒕𝒙, 𝒕𝒚 ) is
(x',y')
called a Translation Vector or Shift
Vector. ty
(x,y)
 It is rigid body transformation so we
need to translate whole object. tx
 Rotation
 It is a transformation that used to reposition the object along
the circular path in the 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
(x',y')
 To generate a rotation we specify a,
 Rotation angle 𝜽.
 Rotation Point (Pivot Point) (𝒙𝒓, 𝒚𝒓 ). (x,y)
θ

 +ve value of rotation angle defines counter clockwise

rotation.
 -ve value of rotation angle defines clockwise rotation.
 Rotation Equation
 We first find the equation of rotation when pivot point is at
coordinate origin(0,0).
 From figure we can write.
(x',y')
𝒙 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
𝒚 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
(x,y)
θ

∅
&
𝒙′ = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + ∅ = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒚′ = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧(∅ + 𝜽) = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
 Contd.
 Now replace 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ with 𝒙 and 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ with 𝒚 in above
equation.
 𝒙′ = 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 (x',y')
 𝒚′ = 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
(x,y)
θ

∅
 Rotation about arbitrary point
 Transformation equation for rotation of a point about pivot
point (𝒙𝒓, 𝒚𝒓 ) is:
 𝒙′ = 𝒙𝒓 + (𝒙 − 𝒙𝒓 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − (𝒚 − 𝒚𝒓 ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
 𝒚′ = 𝒚𝒓 + 𝒙 − 𝒙𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + (𝒚 − 𝒚𝒓 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
 These equations are differing from rotation about origin and
its matrix representation is also different.
 Rotation is also rigid body
transformation so we need to (x',y')
rotate each point of object.
(x,y)
θ
∅
(xr,yr)
How to apply
 For an object we simply apply all the points that makes
ups surface
 E.g., All vertices in a vertex list representation
 Control points for spline surface
 …..
 In this way, we can change object orientation by applying
rotation on the surface points
 Along with change in position with translation
 Scaling
 Transformation that used to alter the size of an object is
known as scaling.
 This operation is carried out by multiplying coordinate value
(𝒙, 𝒚) with scale factors (𝒔𝒙 , 𝒔𝒚 ) respectively.
 Equation for scaling is given by,
𝒙′ = 𝒙 ∙ 𝒔𝒙 & 𝒚′ = 𝒚 ∙ 𝒔𝒚
Contd.
 Normal scaling will scale as well as reposition the object.
 Scale factors less than 1 reduce the size and move object
closer to origin.
 Scale factors greater than 1 enlarge the size of object and
move object away from origin

1 3
Contd.
 Same values of 𝒔𝒙 and 𝒔𝒚 will produce Uniform Scaling.
 Different values of 𝒔𝒙 and 𝒔𝒚 will produce Differential
(Non Uniform) Scaling.

Uniform Differential
Scaling Scaling
 Fixed Point Scaling
 We can control the position of object after scaling by keeping
one position fixed called Fix point (𝒙𝒇 , 𝒚𝒇 ).

Fixed Point
Fixed Point Scaling Equation
 Equation for scaling with fixed point position as (𝒙𝒇 , 𝒚𝒇 ) is:
 𝒙′ = 𝒙𝒇 + (𝒙 − 𝒙𝒇 )𝒔𝒙 𝒚′ = 𝒚𝒇 + (𝒚 − 𝒚𝒇 )𝒔𝒚
 𝒙′ = 𝒙𝒇 + 𝒙𝒔𝒙 − 𝒙𝒇 𝒔𝒙 𝒚′ = 𝒚𝒇 + 𝒚𝒔𝒚 − 𝒚𝒇 𝒔𝒚
 𝒙′ = 𝒙𝒔𝒙 + 𝒙𝒇 (𝟏 − 𝒔𝒙 ) 𝒚′ = 𝒚𝒔𝒚 + 𝒚𝒇 (𝟏 − 𝒔𝒚 )
 Polygons are scaled by applying scaling at coordinates and
redrawing.
 Other body like circle and ellipse will scale using its defining
parameters.
 For example ellipse will scale using its semi major axis, semi
minor axis and center point scaling and redrawing at that
position.
Shearing
 With Shearing transformation, we change shape of an
object
Shearing
 General form of the transformation to determine the
new point (x’, y’) from the current point (x, y)
𝒙′ = 𝒙 + 𝒔𝒉𝒙 ∙ 𝒚
𝒚′ = 𝒚 + 𝒔𝒉𝒚 ∙ 𝒙
 𝒔𝒉𝒙 and 𝒔𝒉𝒚 are shearing factors along X and Y
coordinates
 Shearing may also reposition the objects like scaling
Note
 The equations shown in for basic transformations are not
very handy and convenient to use to build graphics
libraries/packages
Note
 The equations shown in for basic transformations are not
very handy and convenient to use to build graphics
libraries/packages
 Alternate representations are there
Basic equations of transformations
Matrix Representation of transformations
Translation
 We can represent it into single matrix equation in column
vector as;
Translation
 We can represent it into single matrix equation in column
vector as;
𝑷′ = 𝑷 + 𝑻
𝒙′ 𝒙 𝒕𝒙
= 𝒚 + 𝒕
𝒚′ 𝒚
Translation
 We can represent it into single matrix equation in column
vector as;
𝑷′ = 𝑷 + 𝑻
𝒙′ 𝒙 𝒕𝒙
= 𝒚 + 𝒕
𝒚′ 𝒚
 We can also represent it in row vector form as:
𝑷′ = 𝑷 + 𝑻
𝒙′ 𝒚′ = 𝒙 𝒚 + ,𝒕𝒙 𝒕𝒚 -
Translation
 We can represent it into single matrix equation in column
vector as;
𝑷′ = 𝑷 + 𝑻
𝒙′ 𝒙 𝒕𝒙
′ = 𝒚 + 𝒕
𝒚 𝒚
 We can also represent it in row vector form as:
𝑷′ = 𝑷 + 𝑻
𝒙′ 𝒚′ = 𝒙 𝒚 + ,𝒕𝒙 𝒕𝒚 -
 Since column vector representation is standard
mathematical notation and also many graphics package
like GKS and PHIGS uses column vector we will also
follow column vector representation.
Translation Example
 Example: - Translate the triangle [A (10, 10), B (15, 15),
C(20, 10)] 2 unit in 𝑥 direction and 1 unit in 𝑦 direction.
𝑡𝑥
We know that 𝑃′ =𝑃+𝑇 = 𝑃 + 𝑡
𝑦
Translation Example
 Example: - Translate the triangle [A (10, 10), B (15, 15),
C(20, 10)] 2 unit in 𝑥 direction and 1 unit in 𝑦 direction.
𝑡𝑥
We know that 𝑃′ =𝑃+𝑇 = 𝑃 + 𝑡
𝑦
10 2 12
For point (10, 10) 𝐴′ = + =
10 1 11
′ 15 2 17
For point (15, 15) 𝐵 = + =
15 1 16
20 2 22
For point (10, 10) 𝐶 ′ = + =
10 1 11
Translation Example
 Example: - Translate the triangle [A (10, 10), B (15, 15),
C(20, 10)] 2 unit in 𝑥 direction and 1 unit in 𝑦 direction.
𝑡𝑥
We know that 𝑃′=𝑃+𝑇 = 𝑃 + 𝑡
𝑦
10 2 12
For point (10, 10) 𝐴′ = + =
10 1 11
′ 15 2 17
For point (15, 15) 𝐵 = + =
15 1 16
20 2 22
For point (10, 10) 𝐶 ′ = + =
10 1 11
 Final coordinates after translation are:
[A’ (12, 11), B’ (17, 16), C’ (22, 11)]
 Rotation: Matrix Representation
 𝒙′ = 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
 𝒚′ = 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 (x',y')

(x,y)
θ

∅
 Rotation: Matrix Representation
 𝒙′ = 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
 𝒚′ = 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 (x',y')

 column vector matrix equation are, (x,y)

 𝑷′ = 𝑹 ∙ 𝑷 θ

∅
 Rotation: Matrix Representation
 𝒙′ = 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
 𝒚′ = 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 (x',y')

 column vector matrix equation are, (x,y)

 𝑷′ = 𝑹 ∙ 𝑷 θ
𝒙′ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒙
 ′ = ∙ 𝒚 ∅
𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Rotation Example
 Example: - Locate the new position of the triangle
[A (5, 4), B (8, 3), C (8, 8)] after its rotation by 90o clockwise
about the origin.
Rotation Example
 Example: - Locate the new position of the triangle
[A (5, 4), B (8, 3), C (8, 8)] after its rotation by 90o clockwise
about the origin.
 As rotation is clockwise we will take 𝜃 = −90° .
 𝑃′ = 𝑅 ∙ 𝑃
Rotation Example
 Example: - Locate the new position of the triangle
[A (5, 4), B (8, 3), C (8, 8)] after its rotation by 90o clockwise
about the origin.
 As rotation is clockwise we will take 𝜃 = −90° .
 𝑃′ = 𝑅 ∙ 𝑃
′ cos(−90) − sin(−90) 5 8 8
 𝑃 =
sin(−90) cos(−90) 4 3 8
Rotation Example
 Example: - Locate the new position of the triangle
[A (5, 4), B (8, 3), C (8, 8)] after its rotation by 90o clockwise
about the origin.
 As rotation is clockwise we will take 𝜃 = −90° .
 𝑃′ = 𝑅 ∙ 𝑃
′ cos(−90) − sin(−90) 5 8 8
 𝑃 =
sin(−90) cos(−90) 4 3 8
′ 0 1 5 8 8
 𝑃 =
−1 0 4 3 8
4 3 8
 𝑃′ =
−5 −8 −8
Rotation Example
 Example: - Locate the new position of the triangle
[A (5, 4), B (8, 3), C (8, 8)] after its rotation by 90o clockwise about
the origin.
 As rotation is clockwise we will take 𝜃 = −90° .
 𝑃′ = 𝑅 ∙ 𝑃
′ cos(−90) − sin(−90) 5 8 8
 𝑃 =
sin(−90) cos(−90) 4 3 8
0 1 5 8 8
 𝑃′ =
−1 0 4 3 8
′ 4 3 8
 𝑃 =
−5 −8 −8
 Final coordinates after rotation are: [A’ (4, -5), B’ (3, -8), C’ (8, -
8)]
 Scaling: Matrix Representation
 Equation for scaling is given by,
𝒙′ = 𝒙 ∙ 𝒔𝒙 & 𝒚′ = 𝒚 ∙ 𝒔𝒚
 Scaling: Matrix Representation
 Equation for scaling is given by,
𝒙′ = 𝒙 ∙ 𝒔𝒙 & 𝒚′ = 𝒚 ∙ 𝒔𝒚
 These equation can be represented in column vector matrix
equation as:
𝑷′ = 𝑺 ∙ 𝑷
𝒙′ 𝒔𝒙 𝟎 𝒙
= 𝟎 𝒔𝒚 ∙ 𝒚
𝒚′
 Any positive value can be assigned to(𝒔𝒙 , 𝒔𝒚 ).
Contd.
 Example scale square with opposite corner coordinate
point are (1, 1) and (2, 2) by scale factor (3, 3)
𝑷′ = 𝑺 ∙ 𝑷

1 3
Contd.
 Example scale square with opposite corner coordinate
point are (1, 1) and (2, 2) by scale factor (3, 3)
𝑷′ = 𝑺 ∙ 𝑷
𝑥1 ′ 𝑥2 ′ 3 0 1 2 3 6
= =
𝑦1 ′ 𝑦2 ′ 0 3 1 2 3 6

1 3
Scaling Example
 Example: - Consider square with left-bottom corner at
(2, 2) and right-top corner at (6, 6) apply the
transformation which makes its size half.
Scaling Example
 Example: - Consider square with left-bottom corner at
(2, 2) and right-top corner at (6, 6) apply the
transformation which makes its size half.
 As we want size half so value of scale factor are
𝑠𝑥 = 0.5, 𝑠𝑦 = 0.5 and Coordinates of square are [A (2,
2), B (6, 2), C (6, 6), D (2, 6)].
Scaling Example
 Example: - Consider square with left-bottom corner at (2, 2)
and right-top corner at (6, 6) apply the transformation which
makes its size half.
 As we want size half so value of scale factor are 𝑠𝑥 = 0.5, 𝑠𝑦 =
0.5 and Coordinates of square are [A (2, 2), B (6, 2), C (6, 6), D
(2, 6)].
 𝑃′ = 𝑆 ∙ 𝑃
′ 𝑠𝑥 0 2 6 6 2 0.5 0 2 6 6 2
 𝑃 = 0 𝑠 =
𝑦 2 2 6 6 0 0.5 2 2 6 6
Scaling Example
 Example: - Consider square with left-bottom corner at (2, 2)
and right-top corner at (6, 6) apply the transformation which
makes its size half.
 As we want size half so value of scale factor are 𝑠𝑥 = 0.5, 𝑠𝑦 =
0.5 and Coordinates of square are [A (2, 2), B (6, 2), C (6, 6), D
(2, 6)].
 𝑃′ = 𝑆 ∙ 𝑃
′ 𝑠𝑥 0 2 6 6 2 0.5 0 2 6 6 2
 𝑃 = 0 𝑠 =
𝑦 2 2 6 6 0 0.5 2 2 6 6
1 3 3 1
 𝑃′ =
1 1 3 3
 Final coordinate after scaling are:
[A’ (1, 1), B’ (3, 1), C’ (3, 3), D’ (1, 3)]
Problem
 We can follow the approach of 2x2 Matrix representation
for transformations: rotation , scaling and shearing but
not translation
Problem
 We can follow the approach of 2x2 Matrix representation
for transformations: rotation , scaling and shearing but
not translation
 In order to avoid to these situation we go for another
type of transformation known as homogenous coordinate
system
Contd.
 For efficient utilization we must calculate all sequence of
transformation in one step.
Contd.
 For efficient utilization we must calculate all sequence of
transformation in one step.
 For that reason we reformulate above equation to
eliminate the matrix addition associated with translation
terms in matrix 𝑴𝟐 .
Contd.
 For efficient utilization we must calculate all sequence of
transformation in one step.
 For that reason we reformulate above equation to
eliminate the matrix addition associated with translation
terms in matrix 𝑴𝟐 .
 We can combine that thing by expanding 2X2 matrix
representation into 3X3 matrices.
Contd.
 For efficient utilization we must calculate all sequence of
transformation in one step.
 For that reason we reformulate above equation to
eliminate the matrix addition associated with translation
terms in matrix 𝑴𝟐 .
 We can combine that thing by expanding 2X2 matrix
representation into 3X3 matrices.
 It will allows us to convert all transformation into matrix
multiplication.
Homogeneous Coordinate System
 We take recourse to one mathematical trick known as
the Homogeneous Coordinate System
Homogeneous Coordinate System
 We take recourse to one mathematical trick known as
the Homogeneous Coordinate System
 Homogeneous Coordinate System is an abstract
representation technique.
Homogeneous Coordinate System
 We take recourse to one mathematical trick known as
the Homogeneous Coordinate System
 Homogeneous Coordinate System is an abstract
representation technique.
 In this technique, a 2D point (x, y) is represented with 3-
element vector 𝒙𝒉 , 𝒚𝒉 , 𝒉 .
𝒙𝒉 𝒚𝒉
 Where 𝒙 = ,𝒚 = thus we can also write triple as
𝒉 𝒉
(𝒉 ∙ 𝒙, 𝒉 ∙ 𝒚, 𝒉).
Homogeneous Coordinate System
 We take recourse to one mathematical trick known as
the Homogeneous Coordinate System
 Homogeneous Coordinate System is an abstract
representation technique.
 In this technique, a 2D point (x, y) is represented with 3-
element vector 𝒙𝒉 , 𝒚𝒉 , 𝒉 .
𝒙𝒉 𝒚𝒉
 Where 𝒙 = ,𝒚 = thus we can also write triple as
𝒉 𝒉
(𝒉 ∙ 𝒙, 𝒉 ∙ 𝒚, 𝒉).
 𝒉 is called homogeneous factor – can take any non-zero
value.
Contd.
 Any point of the form 𝒙𝒉 , 𝒚𝒉 , 𝟎 is considered to be
infinity.
Contd.
 Any point of the form 𝒙𝒉 , 𝒚𝒉 , 𝟎 is considered to be
infinity.
 point (0, 0, 0) is not allowed
Homogeneous Matrix for Translation
 Let’s see each representation with 𝒉 = 𝟏
𝑷′ = 𝑻(𝒕𝒙 ,𝒕𝒚 ) ∙ 𝑷
𝒙′ 𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒙 𝒙
𝒚 ′ = 𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒚 𝒚
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
Homogeneous Matrix for Translation
 Let’s see each representation with 𝒉 = 𝟏
𝑷′ = 𝑻(𝒕𝒙 ,𝒕𝒚 ) ∙ 𝑷
𝒙′ 𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒙 𝒙
𝒚 ′ = 𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒚 𝒚
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
 Inverse of translation matrix is obtain by putting
− 𝒕𝒙 & − 𝒕𝒚 instead of 𝒕𝒙 & 𝒕𝒚 .
Homogeneous Matrix for Rotation
𝑷′ = 𝑹(𝜽) ∙ 𝑷
𝒙′ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝒙
𝒚′ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎 𝒚
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
Homogeneous Matrix for Rotation
𝑷′ = 𝑹(𝜽) ∙ 𝑷
𝒙′ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝒙
𝒚′ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎 𝒚
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
 Inverse of rotation matrix is obtained by replacing 𝜽
by −𝜽.
Homogeneous Matrix for Scaling
𝑷′ = 𝑺(𝒔𝒙 ,𝒔𝒚 ) ∙ 𝑷
𝒙′ 𝒔𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝒙
𝒚′ = 𝟎 𝒔𝒚 𝟎 𝒚
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
Homogeneous Matrix for Scaling
𝑷′ = 𝑺(𝒔𝒙 ,𝒔𝒚 ) ∙ 𝑷
𝒙′ 𝒔𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝒙
𝒚′ = 𝟎 𝒔𝒚 𝟎 𝒚
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
 Inverse of scaling matrix is obtained by replacing 𝒔𝒙 & 𝒔𝒚
𝟏 𝟏
by & respectively.
𝒔𝒙 𝒔𝒚
Homogeneous Matrix for Shearing
𝑷′ = 𝑺(𝒔𝒉𝒙 ,𝒔𝒉𝒚 ) ∙ 𝑷
𝒙′ 𝟏 𝒔𝒉𝒙 𝟎 𝒙
𝒚′ = 𝒔𝒉𝒚 𝟏 𝟎 𝒚
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏

Note: After getting p’ we get the new coordinates after dividing

p’ with h
Composite Transformation
 In practice we need to apply more than one
transformations to get desired result.
Composite Transformation
 In practice we need to apply more than one
transformations to get desired result.
 It is time consuming to apply transformation one by one
on each point of object.
Composite Transformation
 In practice we need to apply more than one
transformations to get desired result.
 It is time consuming to apply transformation one by one
on each point of object.
 So first we multiply all matrix of required transformations
which is known as composite transformation
matrix.
Composite Transformation
 In practice we need to apply more than one
transformations to get desired result.
 It is time consuming to apply transformation one by one
on each point of object.
 So first we multiply all matrix of required transformations
which is known as composite transformation
matrix.
 Than we use composite transformation matrix to
transform object.
 For column matrix representation, we form composite
transformations by multiplying matrices from right to left.
Multiple Translations
 Two successive translations are performed as:
 𝑷′ = 𝑻 𝒕𝒙𝟐 , 𝒕𝒚𝟐 ∙ *𝑻(𝒕𝒙𝟏 , 𝒕𝒚𝟏 ) ∙ 𝑷+
 𝑷′ = *𝑻 𝒕𝒙𝟐 , 𝒕𝒚𝟐 ∙ 𝑻(𝒕𝒙𝟏 , 𝒕𝒚𝟏 )+ ∙ 𝑷
Multiple Translations
 Two successive translations are performed as:
 𝑷′ = 𝑻 𝒕𝒙𝟐 , 𝒕𝒚𝟐 ∙ *𝑻(𝒕𝒙𝟏 , 𝒕𝒚𝟏 ) ∙ 𝑷+
 𝑷′ = *𝑻 𝒕𝒙𝟐 , 𝒕𝒚𝟐 ∙ 𝑻(𝒕𝒙𝟏 , 𝒕𝒚𝟏 )+ ∙ 𝑷
𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒙𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒙𝟏
 𝑷′ = 𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒚𝟐 𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒚𝟏 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Contd.
𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒙𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒙𝟏
 𝑷′ = 𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒚𝟐 𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒚𝟏 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒙𝟏 + 𝒕𝒙𝟐
 𝑷′ = 𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒚𝟏 + 𝒕𝒚𝟐 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝑷′ = 𝑻 𝒕𝒙𝟏 + 𝒕𝒙𝟐 , 𝒕𝒚𝟏 + 𝒕𝒚𝟐 ∙ 𝑷
Contd.
𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒙𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒙𝟏
 𝑷′ = 𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒚𝟐 𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒚𝟏 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝒕𝒙𝟏 + 𝒕𝒙𝟐
 𝑷′ = 𝟎 𝟏 𝒕𝒚𝟏 + 𝒕𝒚𝟐 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝑷′ = 𝑻 𝒕𝒙𝟏 + 𝒕𝒙𝟐 , 𝒕𝒚𝟏 + 𝒕𝒚𝟐 ∙ 𝑷
 Here 𝑷′ and 𝑷 are column vector of final and initial point
coordinate respectively.
 This concept can be extended for any number of
successive translations.
Multiple Translations Example
 Example: Obtain the final coordinates after two
translations on point 𝑝(2,3) with translation vector
(4, 3) and (−1, 2) respectively.
 𝑃′ = 𝑇 𝑡𝑥1 + 𝑡𝑥2 , 𝑡𝑦1 + 𝑡𝑦2 ∙ 𝑃
1 0 𝑡𝑥1 + 𝑡𝑥2 1 0 4 + (−1) 2
 𝑃′ = 0 1 𝑡𝑦1 + 𝑡𝑦2 ∙ 𝑃 = 0 1 3+2 ∙ 3
0 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 3 2 5
 𝑃′ = 0 1 5 ∙ 3 = 8
0 0 1 1 1
 Final Coordinates after translations are 𝑝, (5, 8).
Multiple Rotations
 Two successive Rotations are performed as:
 𝑷′ = 𝑹(𝜽𝟐 ) ∙ *𝑹(𝜽𝟏 ) ∙ 𝑷+
 𝑷′ = *𝑹 𝜽𝟐 ∙ 𝑹 𝜽𝟏 + ∙ 𝑷
Multiple Rotations
 Two successive Rotations are performed as:
 𝑷′ = 𝑹(𝜽𝟐 ) ∙ *𝑹(𝜽𝟏 ) ∙ 𝑷+
 𝑷′ = *𝑹 𝜽𝟐 ∙ 𝑹 𝜽𝟏 + ∙ 𝑷
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝟎
 𝑷′ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 𝟎 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
′
 𝑷 =
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 𝟎
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝟎 ∙p
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Multiple Rotations
 Two successive Rotations are performed as:
 𝑷′ = 𝑹(𝜽𝟐 ) ∙ *𝑹(𝜽𝟏 ) ∙ 𝑷+
 𝑷′ = *𝑹 𝜽𝟐 ∙ 𝑹 𝜽𝟏 + ∙ 𝑷
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝟎
 𝑷′ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 𝟎 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝑷′ =
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 𝟎
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝟎 ∙𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽𝟏 +𝜽𝟐 ) −𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝟏 +𝜽𝟐 ) 𝟎
 𝑷′ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝟏 +𝜽𝟐 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽𝟏 +𝜽𝟐 ) 𝟎 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Contd.
𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽𝟏 +𝜽𝟐 ) −𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝟏 +𝜽𝟐 ) 𝟎
 𝑷′ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝟏 +𝜽𝟐 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽𝟏 +𝜽𝟐 ) 𝟎 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝑷′ = 𝑹(𝜽𝟏 +𝜽𝟐 ) ∙ 𝑷
Contd.
𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽𝟏 +𝜽𝟐 ) −𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝟏 +𝜽𝟐 ) 𝟎
 𝑷′ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝟏 +𝜽𝟐 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽𝟏 +𝜽𝟐 ) 𝟎 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝑷′ = 𝑹(𝜽𝟏 +𝜽𝟐 ) ∙ 𝑷
 Here 𝑷′ and 𝑷 are column vector of final and initial point
coordinate respectively.
 This concept can be extended for any number of
successive rotations.
Multiple Rotations Example
 Example: Obtain the final coordinates after two rotations on
point 𝑝(6,9) with rotation angles are 30𝑜 and 60𝑜 respectively.
 𝑃′ = 𝑅(𝜃1 +𝜃2 ) ∙ 𝑃
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 +𝜃2 ) −𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 +𝜃2 ) 0
 𝑃′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 +𝜃2 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 +𝜃2 ) 0 ∙ 𝑃
0 0 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠(30 + 60) −𝑠𝑖𝑛(30 + 60) 0
 𝑃′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(30 + 60) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(30 + 60) 0 ∙ 𝑃
0 0 1
0 −1 0 6 −9
 𝑃′ = 1 0 0 ∙ 9 = 6
0 0 1 1 1
 Final Coordinates after rotations are 𝑝, (−9, 6).
Multiple Scaling
 Two successive scaling are performed as:
 𝑷′ = 𝑺 𝒔𝒙𝟐 , 𝒔𝒚𝟐 ∙ *𝑺(𝒔𝒙𝟏 , 𝒔𝒚𝟏 ) ∙ 𝑷+
 𝑷′ = *𝑺 𝒔𝒙𝟐 , 𝒔𝒚𝟐 ∙𝑺 𝒔𝒙𝟏 , 𝒔𝒚𝟏 + ∙ 𝑷
𝒔𝒙𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝒔𝒙𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 𝑷′ = 𝟎 𝒔𝒚𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝒔𝒚𝟏 𝟎 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒔𝒙𝟏 ∙ 𝒔𝒙𝟐 𝟎 𝟎
 𝑷′ = 𝟎 𝒔𝒚𝟏 ∙ 𝒔𝒚𝟐 𝟎 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Contd.
𝒔𝒙𝟏 ∙ 𝒔𝒙𝟐 𝟎 𝟎
 𝑷′ = 𝟎 𝒔𝒚𝟏 ∙ 𝒔𝒚𝟐 𝟎 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝑷′ = 𝑺 𝒔𝒙𝟏 ∙ 𝒔𝒙𝟐 , 𝒔𝒚𝟏 ∙ 𝒔𝒚𝟐 ∙ 𝑷
 Here 𝑷′ and 𝑷 are column vector of final and initial point
coordinate respectively.
 This concept can be extended for any number of
successive scaling.
Multiple Scaling Example
 Example: Obtain the final coordinates after two scaling
on line 𝑝𝑞 ,𝑝 2,2 , 𝑞(8, 8)- with scaling factors are
2, 2 and (3, 3) respectively.
 𝑃′ = 𝑆 𝑠𝑥1 ∙ 𝑠𝑥2 , 𝑠𝑦1 ∙ 𝑠𝑦2 ∙ 𝑃
𝑠𝑥1 ∙ 𝑠𝑥2 0 0 2∙3 0 0
 𝑃′ = 0 𝑠𝑦1 ∙ 𝑠𝑦2 0 ∙ 𝑃 = 0 2∙3 0 ∙𝑃
0 0 1 0 0 1
6 0 0 2 8 12 48
 𝑃′ = 0 6 0 ∙ 2 8 = 12 48
0 0 1 1 1 1 1
 Final Coordinates after rotations are 𝑝, (12, 12) and
𝑞 , 48, 48 .
Question
 Does the sequence of applying the transformation is
important?

Q2: Apart from having same matrix formulation, why

homogenous coordinate system is important?
Question
 Does the sequence of applying the transformation is
important?

Q2: Apart from having same matrix formulation, why

homogenous coordinate system is important?
Ans: https://prateekvjoshi.com/2014/06/13/the-concept-of-
homogeneous-
coordinates/#:~:text=Homogeneous%20coordinates%20are
%20used%20extensively,be%20implemented%20as%20matri
x%20operations.
 General Pivot-Point Rotation
 For rotating object about arbitrary point called pivot point we
need to apply following sequence of transformation.
1. Translate the object so that the pivot-point coincides with the
coordinate origin.
2. Rotate the object about the coordinate origin with specified angle.
3. Translate the object so that the pivot-point is returned to its original
position (i.e. Inverse of step-1).
General Pivot-Point Rotation Equation
 Let’s find matrix equation for this
 𝑷′ = 𝑻 𝒙𝒓 , 𝒚𝒓 ∙ 𝑹 𝜽 ∙ 𝑻 −𝒙𝒓 , −𝒚𝒓 ∙ 𝑷
 𝑷′ = *𝑻 𝒙𝒓 , 𝒚𝒓 ∙ 𝑹 𝜽 ∙ 𝑻 −𝒙𝒓 , −𝒚𝒓 + ∙ 𝑷
𝟏 𝟎 𝒙𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 −𝒙𝒓
 𝑷′ = 𝟎 𝟏 𝒚𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 −𝒚𝒓 ∙
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑷
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒙𝒓 (𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) + 𝒚𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
 𝑷′ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒚𝒓 (𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) − 𝒙𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Contd.
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒙𝒓 (𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) + 𝒚𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
 𝑷′ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒚𝒓 (𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) − 𝒙𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝑷′ = 𝑹 𝒙𝒓 , 𝒚𝒓 , 𝜽 ∙ 𝑷
 Here 𝑷′ and 𝑷 are column vector of final and initial point
coordinate respectively and 𝒙𝒓 , 𝒚𝒓 are the coordinates
of pivot-point.
General Pivot-Point Rotation Example
 Example: - Locate the new position of the triangle ABC
[A (5, 4), B (8, 3), C (8, 8)] after its rotation by 90o clockwise
about the centroid.
 Pivot point is centroid of the triangle so:
5+8+8 4+3+8
 𝑥𝑟 = = 7 , 𝑦𝑟 = =5
3 3
 As rotation is clockwise we will take 𝜃 = −90° .
 𝑃′ = 𝑅(𝑥𝑟 , 𝑦𝑟 ,𝜃) ∙ 𝑃
 𝑃′ =
cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 𝑥𝑟 (1 − cos 𝜃) + 𝑦𝑟 sin 𝜃 5 8 8
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑦𝑟 (1 − cos 𝜃) − 𝑥𝑟 sin 𝜃 4 3 8
0 0 1 1 1 1
Contd.
 𝑃′ =
cos(−90) − sin(−90) 7(1 − cos(−90)) + 5 sin(−90) 5 8 8
sin(−90) cos(−90) 5(1 − cos(−90)) − 7 sin(−90) 4 3 8
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 7(1 − 0) − 5(1) 5 8 8
 𝑃′ = −1 0 5(1 − 0) + 7(1) 4 3 8
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 2 5 8 8
′
𝑃 = −1
 0 12 4 3 8
0 0 1 1 1 1
Contd.
0 1 2 5 8 8
 𝑃′ = −1 0 12 4 3 8
0 0 1 1 1 1
6 5 10
 𝑃′ = 7 4 4
1 1 1
 Final coordinates after rotation are [A’ (6, 7), B’ (5, 4), C’
(10, 4)].
 General Fixed-Point Scaling
 For scaling object with position of one point called fixed
point will remains same, we need to apply following sequence
of transformation.
1. Translate the object so that the fixed-point coincides with the
coordinate origin.
2. Scale the object with respect to the coordinate origin with
specified scale factors.
3. Translate the object so that the fixed-point is returned to its
original position (i.e. Inverse of step-1).
General Fixed-Point Scaling Equation
 Let’s find matrix equation for this
 𝑷′ = 𝑻 𝒙𝒇 , 𝒚𝒇 ∙ 𝑺 𝒔𝒙 , 𝒔𝒚 ∙ 𝑻 −𝒙𝒇 , −𝒚𝒇 ∙ 𝑷
 𝑷′ = *𝑻 𝒙𝒇 , 𝒚𝒇 ∙ 𝑺 𝒔𝒙 , 𝒔𝒚 ∙ 𝑻 −𝒙𝒇 , −𝒚𝒇 + ∙ 𝑷
𝟏 𝟎 𝒙𝒇 𝒔𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 −𝒙𝒇
 𝑷 ′ = 𝟎 𝟏 𝒚 𝒇 𝟎 𝒔𝒚 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 −𝒚𝒇 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒔𝒙 𝟎 𝒙𝒇 (𝟏 − 𝒔𝒙 )
 𝑷′ = 𝟎 𝒔𝒚 𝒚𝒇 (𝟏 − 𝒔𝒚 ) ∙𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Contd.
𝒔𝒙 𝟎 𝒙𝒇 (𝟏 − 𝒔𝒙 )
 𝑷′ = 𝟎 𝒔𝒚 𝒚𝒇 (𝟏 − 𝒔𝒚 ) ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝑷′ = 𝑺 𝒙𝒇 , 𝒚𝒇 , 𝒔𝒙 , 𝒔𝒚 ∙ 𝑷
 Here 𝑷′ and 𝑷 are column vector of final and initial point
coordinate respectively and 𝒙𝒇 , 𝒚𝒇 are the coordinates
of fixed-point.
General Fixed-Point Scaling Example
 Example: - Consider square with left-bottom corner at
(2, 2) and right-top corner at (6, 6) apply the
transformation which makes its size half such that its
center remains same.
 Fixed point is center of square so:
6+2 6+2
 𝑥𝑓 = , 𝑦𝑓 =
2 2
 As we want size half so value of scale factor are
𝑠𝑥 = 0.5, 𝑠𝑦 = 0.5 and Coordinates of square are [A (2,
2), B (6, 2), C (6, 6), D (2, 6)].
 𝑃′ = 𝑆 𝑥𝑓 , 𝑦𝑓 , 𝑠𝑥 , 𝑠𝑦 ∙ 𝑃
Contd.
 𝑃′ = 𝑆 𝑥𝑓 , 𝑦𝑓 , 𝑠𝑥 , 𝑠𝑦 ∙ 𝑃
𝑠𝑥 0 𝑥𝑓 (1 − 𝑠𝑥 ) 2 6 6 2
 𝑃′ = 0 𝑠𝑦 𝑦𝑓 (1 − 𝑠𝑦 ) 2 2 6 6
0 0 1 1 1 1 1
0.5 0 4(1 − 0.5) 2 6 6 2
 𝑃′ = 0 0.5 4(1 − 0.5) 2 2 6 6
0 0 1 1 1 1 1
0.5 0 2 2 6 6 2
 𝑃′ = 0 0.5 2 2 2 6 6
0 0 1 1 1 1 1
Contd.
0.5 0 2 2 6 6 2
 𝑃′ = 0 0.5 2 2 2 6 6
0 0 1 1 1 1 1
3 5 5 3
 𝑃′ = 3 3 5 5
1 1 1 1
 Final coordinate after scaling are:
[A’ (3, 3), B’ (5, 3), C’ (5, 5), D’ (3, 5)]
General Scaling Directions
 Parameter 𝒔𝒙 and 𝒔𝒚 scale the object along 𝒙 and 𝒚
directions.
 We can scale an object in other directions also.
 By rotating the object to align the desired scaling
directions with the coordinate axes before applying the
scaling transformation.
 Contd.
 Suppose we apply scaling factor 𝒔𝟏 and 𝒔𝟐 in direction shown
in figure than we will apply following transformations.
1. Perform a rotation so that the direction for 𝒔𝟏 and 𝒔𝟐 coincide
with 𝒙 and 𝒚 axes.
2. Scale the object with specified scale factors.
3. Perform opposite rotation to return points to their original
orientations. (i.e. Inverse of step-1).
General Scaling Directions Equation
 Let’s find matrix equation for this
 𝑷′ = 𝑹−𝟏 𝜽 ∙ 𝑺 𝒔𝟏 , 𝒔𝟐 ∙ 𝑹 𝜽 ∙ 𝑷
 𝑷′ = *𝑹−𝟏 𝜽 ∙ 𝑺 𝒔𝟏 , 𝒔𝟐 ∙ 𝑹 𝜽 + ∙ 𝑷
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝒔𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎
 𝑷′ = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎 𝟎 𝒔𝒚 𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒔𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝜽 + 𝒔𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 (𝒔𝟐 − 𝒔𝟏 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎
 𝑷′ = (𝒔𝟐 − 𝒔𝟏 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒔𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 + 𝒔𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝜽 𝟎 ∙ 𝑷
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Here 𝑷′ and 𝑷 are column vector of final and initial point
coordinate respectively and 𝜽 is the angle between actual scaling
direction and our standard coordinate axes.
Announcement
 We will have two lecture of openGL in next week.