Quality Improvement programme

Mains-2023
History
Lecture 1
Q. Discuss the varied socio-economic functions that were performed by temples of ancient and
medieval India. (150 words)

Q. Highlight the significant features of Harappan artistic creations with adequate examples. (150
words)

Q. Compare and contrast core philosophical ideas of Buddhism and Jainism. (250 words)

Q. Highlight the differences in the approach of Subhash Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi in the struggle for
freedom. (UPSC, 2016)
 Content

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(Indian Heritage and Culture, History and Geography of the World
and Society)
1. Indian Culture - Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and
Architecture from ancient to modern times.
2. Modern Indian History from about the middle of the eighteenth
century until the present- significant events, personalities, issues.
3. The Freedom Struggle — its various stages and important
contributors/contributions from different parts of the country.
4. Post-independence Consolidation and Reorganization within the
country.
5. History of the World will include events from 18th century such as
Industrial Revolution, world wars, Redrawal of National Boundaries,
Colonization, Decolonization, political philosophies like
Communism, Capitalism, Socialism etc.— their forms and effect on
the society.
 Past years’ trend

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Total

Art and culture 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 3 3 17

Modern history 4 2 3 3 4 1 4 2 3 2 28

Post Ind. 3 1 1 1 6
World History 5 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 16

Medieval History 2 1 2 1 1 7

Total 14 10 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 74
UPSC’s favorite in Art UPSC questions
and culture:

Indus valley To what extent has the urban planning and culture of the Indus valley civilization
civilization provided inputs to the present-day urbanization? Discuss. (2014)

Buddhism and Jainism 1. Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives
successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate. (2016)
2. Gandhara sculpture owed as much to the Romans as to the Greeks. Explain.
(2014)
3. Highlight the central Asian and Greco-Bactrian elements in the Gandhara art.
(2019)
Mauryan, Gupta, and How do you justify the view that the level of excellence of the Gupta numismatic
Chola Period art is not at all noticeable in later times? (2015)
Discuss the main contribution of Gupta period and Chola period to Indian
heritage and culture. (2022)
Travelers and visitors Assess the importance of the accounts of the Chinese and Arab travelers in the
reconstruction of the history of India. (2018)
Bhakti and Sufi 1. Sufis and medieval mystic saints failed to modify either the religious ideas
and practices or the……… (2014)
2. Bhakti movement re-orientation of Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (2018)
UPSC’s favorite in Modern History
Mahatma Gandhi and others
Major Revolts
Important Governor Generals
UPSC questions
1. How different would have been the achievement of
Indian Independence without Mahatma Gandhi?
Discuss (2015)
2. Highlight the differences in the approach of Subhash
Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi in the struggles
for freedom. (2016)
3. Throw light on the significance of the thoughts of
Mahatma Gandhi in the present times. (2018)
Explain how the uprising of 1857 constitutes an
important watershed in the evolution of British policies
towards colonial India. (2016)
In many ways, Lord Dalhousie was the founder of
modern India.
UPSC’s favorite in Post Independence: UPSC question
Consolidation Has the formation of linguistic states
strengthened the cause of Indian Unity? (2016)
Re-organisation Discuss whether formation of new states in
recent times times is beneficial or not for the
economy of India. (2018)
 UPSC’s UPSC questions
favorite in
World History:

Major 1. Explain how the foundations of the modern world were laid by the
revolutions American and French Revolutions. (2019)
2. American revolution was an economic revolt against mercantilism.
Substantiate. (2013)
Decolonization 1. Africa was chopped into states artificially created by accidents of
European competition. Analyze. (2013)
2. What problems were germane to the decolonization process in the
Malay Peninsula? (2015)
World wars To what extend can Germany be help responsible for causing the two World
Wars? Discuss. (2015)
 Mark Twain said:
“India is the cradle of the human race, the birthplace
of human speech, the mother of history, grandmother of
legend, and great grand mother of tradition. Our most
valuable and most instructive materials in the history of
man are treasured up in India only.”
 Core approach
in History

Cause and
Evolution Transition
effect relation
Q1. Highlight the significant features of Harappan artistic creations with adequate examples. (150 words)
 Indus valley civilization

Art and Architecture Economy Society/Culture

• Bronze age • Agriculture • Clothing and Costumes

• Urban centre • Animal husbandry • Food habits
• City planning • Major crops • Leisure
• Drainage system • Fibre • Religion
• Citadel and Lower towns • Foreign trade • Household activities
• Use of brick • Metallurgy • Social systems
• Beads • Consumer products • Language
• Terracotta • Status of different
• Metals sections of society
• Literature
 Harappan art
Stone: Bearded Man (Priest Man, Priest-King, found in Mohenjodaro, made up of steatite), Male Torso
(made up of red sandstone at Harappa)

Bronze: Lost Wax Technique (Dancing girl and Bull of Mohenjodaro)

Terracotta: Mother Goddess, toy carts, animal figures. Plough at Banawali.

Seals: made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta. Unicorn bull,
rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison, goat, buffalo were depicted. Standard size was 2x2 inch. E.g.,
Pashupati seal at Mohenjodaro.

Pottery: red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip. Geometric and animal designs are executed
in glossy black paint (PGW).

Beads, Ornaments, fashion and Cosmetics: White necklaces, fillets, armlets and finger rings were
commonly worn by both sexes. Metals included gold and copper. Dead bodies were buried with
ornaments. Cotton and wool was used. Cinnabar was used as a cosmetic and face-paint, lipstick and
collyrium (eyeliner).

Writings: used the boustrophedon style (consecutive lines starting in opposite direction. It was
pictographic and logo syllabic. Not yet deciphered.
 Urban planning

It was the first urban centre in the region.

High priority given to hygiene.
• City planning: Centres were divided into quarters and each quarter was further divided
into houses, rectangle and square was basic division unit.

• Drainage system: There were covered drains along the road. Houses were built on either
side of the roads and streets. Each street had a well-organized drain system.

• Citadel and Lower towns: between rich and labour class, Houses had the same plan – a
square courtyard around which were a number of rooms. Entrance to the houses were
from the narrow lanes which cut the street at right angles. No windows faced the
street.

• Use of bricks - burnt bricks of same geometrical sizes,

 Economy
• Agriculture: Granaries are found at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan, and Lothal.

• Animal husbandry: animals such as cows, bull and ox were domesticated, milk was
consumed along with other animal fat.

• Major crops: lentils and other pulses (peas, chickpeas, green gram, black gram), wheat
and barley were staple crops, millets in Gujarat. Range of fruit, vegetables and spices :
these included a variety of brown mustard greens, coriander, dates, walnuts, grapes, figs;
many others, such as mango, okra, garlic, turmeric, ginger, cumin and cinnamon.

• Fibre: cotton, wool were known.

• Foreign trade: trade in stone, metal, shell, etc, did not use metal money. Trade with
south India, North-central India (Ketri mines), Mesopotamia.

• Metallurgy: metal known were Gold, copper, bronze, and silver.

• Consumer products: weights and measures were used, all daily consumer items like
clothing, utensils, cosmetics were available.
 Cultural aspects

• Food habits: both vegetarian and non-vegetarian.

• Leisure: indoor games which involved the use dice and marbles,
toys were used by kids, there was a stadium in Dholavira, dances
were performed, music was known.

• Religion: not known, but female goddess (fertility) and Pashupati

seals were depicted. Fire altar at Kalibangan. Trees were
worshipped. One horned animal (unicorn). Signs of Swastika.

• Social systems: matrilineal society, absence of caste system,

higher position of women, peaceful society. No evidence of
educational institutions. Burial differed between regions and
social strata. There however was a class division.

• Language: not known

 Candidates
must not
Q1. Highlight the significant features of Harappan artistic creations with adequate write on
examples. (150 words) this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

• Introduction: About the artistic creation of the Indus Valley Civilization.

• Body: Enlist significant features of Harappan artistic creations with

examples.

• Conclusion: Later Indian subcontinent owes a lot to the varied artistic

traditions of the era.
 Candidates
must not
write on
this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

The artistic creation of the Indus Valley Civilisation that emerged during the
second half of the third millennium BCE includes sculptures, seals, pottery,
jewellery, terracotta figures, etc.
 Candidates
Features of Harappan art work must not
write on
this margin
• Excelled in small size art works: Such as terracotta toy carts and animals; Seals
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

with animal/human figure and inscription, for example Pashupati Seal.

• Skilled craftsmanship: Realistic delineation of human and animal figures – Ex -
Partially damaged image of a bearded man has majestically styled beard.
• New techniques: Like ‘lost wax’ technique for making statues such as Dancing
Bronze Girl.
• Three-dimensional Stone Statues: Like red sandstone male torso.
• Variety of craft: Earthenware, Sculpture, Metal works, Burnt clay, Seals and
Sealing's etc.
• Diversity of material used: Produced from every conceivable material ranging from
precious metals, gemstones to bone and baked clay.
• Uniqueness: In terms of quantity or quality the Harappan sculptural remains cannot
be compared with the repertoire of either Mesopotamia or Egyptian civilisation.
 Candidates
must not
write on
this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

Thus, Harappan artistic creations were one of its kinds.

Indian subcontinent apparently owes a lot to the varied
artistic traditions of the era. Its art forms were later
adopted by many other dynasties in time to come.
 Q. To what extend has the urban planning and culture of the Indus Valley Civilisation provided
inputs to the present-day urbanization. (UPSC, 2014) Candidates
must not
write on
this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS
 Q. Mesolithic rock cut architecture of India not only reflects the cultural life of the times but
also a fine aesthetic sense comparable to modern painting. Critically evaluate this comment. Candidates
must not
(UPSC, 2015) write on
this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS
 Practice Question:
Q. In your opinion, what aspects of the Indus Valley Civilization make it a significant and Candidates
must not
intriguing ancient civilization? (150 words) write on
this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS
 Buddhism, Jainism and Associated art

Buddhist art

Stupas Vihara/Chaitya Rock cut Sculpture

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
• Buddhist places of worship were known as Stupas which were made in two styles i.e., Indian and Gandhara style.
• Chronologically significant Indian style stupas include:
1. Piprahwa, Nepal (oldest stupa)
2. Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh (built by Ashoka): We find depiction of stories of Lord Buddha’s previous birth on its
Toranas.
3. Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh (built by Ashoka and later by Sungas): biggest stupa
4. Amaravati, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh (2nd cen BC- 2nd cen AD built by Satvahanas with use of white marble): Its ancient
name is Dhanyakataka.
5. Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh (2nd – 3rd cen AD built by Ikshavakus)
6. Dhamekh/Sarnath stupa (built during Gupta period by use of bricks and stones)
Chronologically significant Gandhara style stupas include:
1. Dharmarajika stupa, Takshila
2. Purushapur stupa, Peshawar (built by Kanishka)
• Vihara refers to the residence of monks. Ex: Junnar viharas in Maharashtra

Chaitya refers to the place of worship for Buddhists.

Chronologically significant Hinayana Chaitya include:
1. Bhaja (oldest)
2. Ajanta (6 caves belong to Hinayana)
3. Nasik
4. Karle, Maharashtra (built by Satvahanas in 1st century AD; considered to be the best): It consists of dampati and
mithuna figures.
5. Kanehri
Chronologically significant Mahayana Chaitya include:
Ajanta: It consists of total 29 caves. Under it Cave no. 9, 10, 19 and 26 are Chaitya and rest are Viharas. It was built
under Satvahanas and later Guptas and Chalukyas. They are primarily Buddhist caves.
Ellora: It consists of 34 caves dated between 7th – 9th century AD It has caves dedicated to Hindu, Buddhist and Jain faith.
Buddhist Architecture: Stupas
•Mound-like structure containing Buddhist Relics
•Construction: Brick work , surface of dome finished of with a
thick layer of lime water
•PARTS OF STUPAS
• Anda is the Hemi Spherical dome.
• Harmika: Top of dome is ‘Harmika’ , square balcony in
decorative form enclosing a pedestal
• Chattra: A 3 tiered stone / wooden umbrella
chhatrayasti raised over pedestal which was the Vedic
alter of sacrifice and represented the village shrine.
• Vedica: wooden / stone railing called Vedica.
• Toranas : ceremonial gateways.
• Medhi : Medhi (pedestrian Path)
• Example: Sanchi Stupa
Buddhist Architecture: Viharas
(Monasteries)
•They are residential places of Buddhist
priest.
•Main halls entered by a doorway , it has
assembly halls , dining chambers ,
meditation cells , walls depict figures of
Buddha .
Nagapattinam Vihara in Tamil Nadu
•It was built by Shailendra Kings of Sumatra
•Chola emperor Rajaraja 1 had made an
official charter to pay for the expenses of
running this, Vihara.
Buddhist Architecture: Chaityas
•Chaityas were Temples or Assembly halls where
monks used to Pray.
•Opened by small rectangular doorways to
vaulted hall with apsidal end .
•Divided longitudinally by 2 colonnades forming a
broad nave in the centre and two side aisles.
•The roof is usually semi – circular .
•The chaityas resemble to that of church
Buddhist Architecture: STAMBHAS OR LATS
•Buddhist pillars bearing inscriptions on their shafts, with emblems or
animals on their capital.
•Typical Buddhist column are of two types: one is based on persepolitian
type and other Graeco-Roman
•Persepolitian type is an octagonal with bell shaped capital supporting
animal sculpture. The shaft is highly polished and has a vase-shaped
base.
•Graeco-Roman type is rectangular with shallow flutes. They are tall and
slender; the height nearly six to eight times its lower diameter. At the top
is a capital usually with a fluted vase motif.
•Ashokan Pillars:19 surviving, Sarnath Pillar best example
•Sarnath pillar is 15 m high .
•Four lions surmounting capital; supporting metal wheel containing
24 spokes and called wheel of lane .
•The wheel symbolizes first summon of Buddha , which is also
adopted as national emblem of India .
•Sarnath lion capital (restored) of monolithic column showing
Buddhist symbols.
 Other forms of Buddhist Art

1. Buddha’s statue (Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati Art)

2. Bodhisattvas’ figure (e.g., Manjushri representing wisdom)
3. Buddha’s Mudras (e.g., Abhaya or Dhyana Mudra)
4. Jataka Tales
5. Yaksha and Yakshini (spirits inhabiting the natural places like trees, mountains)
6. Mandalas or geometric designs that represent the cosmic universe.
7. Tara or female god representing compassion.
JAIN ART & ARCHITECTURE
• Gomateshvar in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka: Built in 983 AD. Largest statue
of Jain tirthankara Bahubali.
• Dilwara temple, Mt. Abu: Built by Chalukyan ruler of Gujarat, Bhimadeva (1031
AD).
• Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves in Odisha: (35 Jain caves) Hathigumpha inscription
of Kharavela is found here.
• Khajuraho temple complex: Consists of Jain temples dating from 10th and 11th
century. Of significance is Parshwanath temple.
• Ellora caves too consist of Jain caves. Indrasabha cave is famous.
• Ayagapata: They are religious slabs associated with Jainism. Many such
Ayagapatas have been found at Kankali Tila at Mathura.
BASADIS: Jain monastic establishment or temples in Karnataka.
• Ellora Caves (Cave No. 30-35)- Maharashtra
• Mangi Tungi Cave- Maharashtra
LAYANA/GUMPHAS • Gajapantha Cave- Maharashtra
(CAVES) • Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves- Odisha
• Hathi-gumpha Cave- Odisha
• Sittanavasal Cave- Tamil Nadu
STATUES • Gometeshwara/Bahubali Statue- Shravanabelagola, Karnataka
• Statue of Ahimsa (Rishabnatha)- Mangi-Tungi hills, Maharashtra
• Dilwara Temple- Mount Abu, Rajasthan
JAINALAYA (TEMPLE) • Girnar and Palitana Temple- Gujarat
• Muktagiri Temple- Maharashtra
 Common elements of Jain temple architecture

• Temples were built in complexes and groups

• Temples were built using Nagara style of architecture

• Highest importance was given to carving on pillars and walls

• Yellow to grey sandstone was used for construction.

• Raised platform/plinth

• Multiple shikharas were constructed.

• These temples were constructed on the hill areas (Palitana in

Bhavnagar, Mt. Abu in Sirohi, Girnar in Junagarh,
 Candidates
must not
write on
Q. Compare and contrast core philosophical ideas of Buddhism and Jainism. (250 words) this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

Introduction: Emergence of Both religions.

Body: Similarities in Jainism and Buddhism in their core

ideas.

Differences in their views and interpretations.

Conclusion: Significance of emergence of these
religions.
Buddhism and Jainism were prominent among the many religious
sects that arose in Mid-Gangetic plains in sixth-fifth centuries BC. The
Varna divided Post Vedic society generated tensions among not only
lower Varna like Vaishyas and Shudras but also Kshatriyas who
reacted strongly against ritualistic domination of Brahmanas.
In this background the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism brought
reform in society and new philosophies.
The Buddhism and Jainism shared many philosophical ideas such as
• Both gave Non-violence a prominent place.

• Both rejected Authorities of Vedas.

• Both Buddha and Mahavira attained Nirvana through knowledge and
taught the same.

• Right Knowledge and Right Action are core to both Philosophies.

• Both established Shramanik traditions and allowed all people regardless
of their status in society.

• Both Mahavira and Buddha preached their ways in local languages of

Prakrit and Pali instead of Sanskrit.
However, Buddhist and Jaina philosophies differ with each other in many aspects:

•Jainism recognised the existence of Gods but placed them lower than jina, Buddha on
other hand did not involve himself in conversation about God as he found it fruitless.

•Mahavira asked his followers to lead a more austere life, whereas Buddha prescribed
“Middle path”,(madhyam marg).

•Jainism did not condemn the Varna system as Buddha did.

•Jainism gave the Tri-ratnas for salvation, whereas Buddha gave a practical Ashtangika
Marg for liberation.

•Jainism prohibited even agriculture for its followers to abide by non-violence, Buddhism
avoided such extremes.
Thus both Jainism and Buddhism emerged as social
reform movements in 6th century BC and became
religious traditions with their own distinct philosophical
ideas. They continue to enrich the culture, languages
and spiritual thinking of Indian subcontinent and
beyond.
 Foreigners’ account

Ancient Medieval

• Megasthenes • Al-Masudi
• Fa-Hein • Al- Beruni
• Huien Tsang • Marco Polo
• Ibn Batuta
• Abdur Razzak
• Nicolo Conti
• Thomas Roe
• Francois Bernier
MEGASTHENES
• He was the ambassador of Seleucus.
• Megasthenes was a Greek Diplomat, Historian and ethnographer whose extensive writings about the cultures
of India gave an insight into the lives of ancient Indians during the rule of Chandragupta Maurya.
• Chandragupta was known to the Greeks as Sandrocottus.
• He was also the author of the book ‘Indica’ (original book is lost).
• His observation: well-organized governance structure with a hierarchy of officials, presence of spies, presence
of varna system, prevalence of slavery, use of irrigation systems, extensive trade network, worship of gods and
goddesses, the performance of sacrifices, and the influence of astrology.

FA-HIEN
• He was a Chinese Buddhist monk (a voyager and pilgrim from China)
• He visited India during the reign of Gupta King Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) in Magadha (Present-day Bihar).
• He is known for his visit to Lumbini.
• His voyage is described in his travelogue “Record of Buddhist Kingdoms”.
• Based on his record we came to know about the prevalence of socio-economic and cultural aspects of Gupta
empire.
 Fa Hien’s record on India

On Polity: Gupta Administration was liberal on the subjects, disputes were very limited, first-time offenders were
treated with fine, repeated offender were treated with severe punishment, death penalty was absent, there was
palace of Ashoka that survived,

On Economy: land ownership was transferable, government servants were paid in cash, Monasteries, Sanghas,
temples were free from any form taxes, Indians carried sea voyages, ports like Cambay, Sopara, Baroach, and
Tamralipti existed,

On society: public places and highways were free from dacoity and thieves, rest houses for travelers and hospitals
for poor were built, majority of population was vegetarian, alcohol was least consumed, only Chandalas were the
meat eaters, tradition of donation by the rich people to Temples, monastries and shrenis, emperor worshipped
Vishnu but remained tolerant to the other religious faiths, there were
HUIEN TSANG
• He was a Chinese traveller who visited India during the supremacy of Harshvardhan (Pushyabhuti Dynasty)
• Si-Yu-ki or ‘The Records of the Western World’ was written by him.
• He also visited, studied and written about Nalanda University.
• He visited to far south up to Kanchipuram.
• King Harsha also invited Hiuen Tsang to Kumbh Mela in Prayag.

AL-MASUDI
• Al-Masudi was An Arab traveller.
• In his book Muruj-ul-Zehab (Meadows of God) he has explained his journey.
• Al Masudi was the first Arab writer to combine history and scientific geography in his works.
• His works largely focused on the geographical extent of India and beyond.
 What Hiuen Tsang Observed?

• Wrote Si-Yu-Ki: about western world.

• King was just in his administration and punctual
in discharging his duties
• Made frequent visits of inspection throughout his
dominion.
• One sixth of the produce was collected as land
tax
• Cruel punishments of the Mauryan period
continued
• Archive of the Harsha period was known
as nilopitu, and it was under the control of
special officers.
• Fourfold varna system was prevalent.
• Sudras practiced agriculture.
• Women: institution of Swyamvara had declined.
Remarriage of widows was not permitted but
system of dowry and sati was also prevalent.
AL BERUNI
• He was a Persian scholar considered as the father of Indology.
• He accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni and wrote a book titled ‘Tahqiq-i-hind’ or Kitab-ul-Hind (History of
India).
• In his book Tahqiq-i-Hind, he described the social, political, religious and economic condition of India.
• He also compared Indian thought to the Greek thought of Socrates, Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Galen and
others, and at times with Sufi teaching.
MARCO POLO
• He was a European traveller.
• He visited Southern India during the reign of Rudramma Devi of the Kakatiyas.
• He made an account on the social life in South India including food, festival, daily routine etc.
IBN BATUTA
• He was a Moroccan traveller.
• He visited India during the rule of Mohammed Bin Tughlaq (later became Qazi).
• Rihla (Arabic) is a book written by Ibn Batuta.
• He considered India inferior to the European society. Slaves like any other commodity, were openly sold in
the markets. Talked about robbers on trade routes. Talked about urban life.
NICOLO CONTI
• He was an Italian merchant.
• He visited India during the reign of Deva Raya I of Vijayanagar.
• For Vijayanagar he described that it is covered with lofty and massive stone walls everywhere across the
valleys and mounted over the hillsides.
• The stone-built dwellings of the nobles, merchants, and upper classes of the vast community; elaborately
constructed water-channels of the Rayas for land irrigation.
• There were rich gardens and woods, and luxurious crops of rice and sugar-cane. Beautifully carved
temples and fanes to Hindu deities. Brahmanical colleges and schools were also seen.

ABDUR RAZZAK
• He was a Persian scholar and also an ambassador of Persia.
• Abdur Razzak, the Persian Islamic scholar and a Timurid chronicler visited the Vijayanagar Kingdom at
the time of Dev Raya II ruler of Sangam dynasty.
• He described that the city of Vijayanagar was governed by an able King. It was filled with temples, gardens
and palaces. There were 300 harbours and 1,100000 warriors. It was well fortified and the markets were
teeming with wealth. He also mentioned the Royal Centre of Hampi that several rivulets and streams
flowed through channels of cut stone.
Quality improvement about foreign traveller:

• Places they came from,

• Their languages and works,
• Their observation about Indian society, ruling dynasties, culture etc.
• Indian response towards these traveller,
• Religious contributions of these traveller.
Q. Persian literacy sources of medieval India reflect the spirit of the age. Comment. (UPSC, 2020)

Q. Assess the importance of the accounts of the Chinese and Arab travelers in the reconstruction
of the history of India. (UPSC, 2018)
 Paintings during different period

Pre-historic

Mural Ancient

Medieval
Paintings
Medieval
Miniature
Modern

Folk paintings
 Prehistoric Paintings

The Upper Paleolithic period witnessed a proliferation of artistic activities.

• Subjects were confined to simple human figures, human activities, geometric designs, and
symbols.
• In India, remnants of rock paintings have been found on the walls of caves situated in several
districts of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Kerala, Bihar,
and Uttarakhand.
• Some of the examples of early rock paintings sites are Lakhudiyar in Uttarakhand, Kupgallu
in Telangana, Piklihal, and Tekkalkotta in Karnataka, Bhimbetka and Jogimara in Madhya
Pradesh, Karikiyoor rock art in Tamil Nadu, etc.
• Paintings discovered can be divided into three categories: Man, Animal, and Geometric
symbols.
• Bhimbetka Caves represent excellent prehistoric paintings in India: They consist of nearly
400 painting in rock shelters distributed in five clusters.
GENERAL FEATURES OF PREHISTORIC BHIMBETKA PAINTINGS
• They employed colors, including various shades of white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple,
brown, green, and black.
o The paints used by these people were made by grinding various colored rocks.
o They got red from hematite (Geru in India).
o Green was prepared from a green-colored rock called Chalcedony.
o White was from Limestone.
o Some sticky substances such as animal fat or gum or resin from trees may have been used
while mixing rock powder with water.
• Brushes were made of plant fiber.
• It is believed that these colors remained thousands of years because of the chemical reaction
of the oxide present on the surface of rocks.
• Many rock art sites of the new painting are painted on top of an older painting. In Bhimbetka,
we can see nearly 20 layers of paintings, one on top of another.
• The use of many geometrical patterns is seen.
• Scenes were mainly hunting and the economic and social life of people.
Karikiyoor rock art paintings are approx. 5,000 years old. It is situated in Kil Kotagiri village,
Tamil Nadu.
Lakhudiyar Caves are located in the Almora district of Uttarakhand. These caves have
paintings of animals, humans and also tectiforms done with fingers in black, red, and white.
WALL PAINTINGS
• Early examples can be seen in Buddhist art such as painted cave temples of Ajanta dating from 2nd cen BC to
7th cen AD. The subject matter is mostly associated with the jatakas recording previous births of Lord Buddha.
• Other depictions include flying apsaras. The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani from Cave 1 is one of the
masterpieces of Ajanta paintings.
• Cave 17 represents Buddha’s visit to door of Yashodhara’s abode.
• Ajanta offers few Brahmanical figures of iconographical interest. For ex: depiction of Lord Indra.
• Earliest Brahmanical paintings are found in Badami caves belonging to 6th cen AD.
• Paintings of Sittannavasal are intimately connected with Jain themes and symbology.
• The most important wall paintings in South India are from Tanjore, Tamil Nadu. The dancing figures from
Rajarajeswara temples of Tanjore (11th cen AD) are beautiful examples of medieval paintings. The technique
used here is a true fresco method over surface of the rock.
• Last series of wall paintings are from Lepakshi temple (16th cen AD) which are pressed within broad friezes and
illustrate Saivaite and secular themes.
MINIATURE PAINTING
PALA SCHOOL (11TH – 12TH CEN)
• Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramsila and Somarupa were great
centres of Buddhist learning and art.
• They had workshops for casting of bronze images. T
• Surviving examples of Pala illustrated manuscripts belong
to the Vajrayana School of Buddhism.

WESTERN INDIAN SCHOOL (12TH – 16TH CEN)

• Comprised of regions of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Malwa.
• Influenced by Jainism and patronized by Chalukyas.
• Kalpasutra and Kalakacharya –Katha are two popular Jaina
texts illustrated with paintings.
 Folk Paintings

Why?
• Source of leisure and depiction of local customs
and cultural ideas.
• Preserve the local traditions
• Women participation in cultural activities • Madhubani Paintings.
• Source of earning • Pattachitra Art.
• Source of entertainment • Pithora Painting.
• Kalamkari Paintings.
• Kalighat Pat Art.
Common elements • Floor Paintings.
• Designed in easier manner • Warli Art.
• No complex tools or methods involve • Thangka Paintings
• Follow local folklore or mythological stories
• Derived to celebrate festival or important life
event.
• Important themes include Gods or goddess,
animals, rural life, womanhood etc.
Quality improvement about painting:
• Sources of these paintings
• Unique features of these paintings
• Patronage given
• Material used
• Reflection of Indian history and culture
• Religious denomination
 Candidates
must not
write on
this margin
Q. Folk paintings have been an integral part of Indian civilization; they exhibit diversity in style and
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

patterns with respect to different regions of India. In light of the above statement, enumerate
some folk paintings along with their characteristics. (250 words)

• Introduction: Throw some light on long tradition of

folk paintings in India.
• Body: Discuss various regional folk paintings with
their unique features.
• Conclusion: Conclude highlighting underlying
similarities.
 Candidates
must not
write on
this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

India has long tradition of folk painting since prehistoric times

(Bhimbetka). Vast cultural and geographical diversity of country
infuses diversity in their presentation also.
 Candidates
must not
Folk paintings and their characteristics write on
this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

Madhubani/Mithila

• Flourishes in Mithila (terai) region of Bihar.

• The work is done on freshly plastered or a mud wall.

• Theme: Hindu deities like Rama, Krishna etc. and social happenings like court scenes and
weddings.

• Fingers, twigs, brushes, nib-pens, and matchsticks are used for paintings

Tanjore/Thanjavur

• Flourished in southern Tamil Nadu region.

• Themes: Mythological depicting Hindu gods and goddesses.

• Use of brilliant colour schemes, decorative jewellery with stones and cut glasses are
remarkable feature of these paintings.
 Candidates
must not
Warli write on
this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

• Flourished in Maharashtra.

• Themes: Depiction of social life.

• The paintings are done on walls coated with mud and cow dung.

• Bears close resemblance to the prehistoric cave paintings.

Pattachitra

• Art form of Odisha, means picture (Chitra) on canvas (Patta).

• Themes: mostly mythological are depicted for ex temple of Jagannath; Krishna Lila etc.
• Display of emotions of the figures is the key striking feature of the painting.
 Candidates
must not
write on
Rajasthani miniature this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

• Flourished around provinces like Bundi, Kota, Marwar (Jodhpur) and Kishangarh etc.

• Theme: Court scenes, hunting expedition and portraits.

• Several local innovations like Kishangarh School famous for its Bani Thani paintings
depicted Radha-Krishna as divine lovers.

Kalamkari

• Flourished in Andhra Pradesh, in two styles namely Srikalahasti and Machilipatnam.

• It is a type of hand block printed cotton textile.

• Theme: Hindu mythology.

 Candidates
must not
write on
this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

Several other paintings like Kalamezhuthu, Kalighat, Thangka etc.

present diversity in features, however use of natural colours and
mythology being dominating theme underlies unity in diversity.
 Important personalities

Rulers
Ancient
Others
Personalities
Medieval Freedom
fighters
Modern
Other
Quality improvement about personalities:
• Duration and know for
• Unique contributions
• Patronage given to
• Impact on Indian socio-economic and cultural aspects.
• Personal contributions
 Kanishka

• Belonged to Kushan dynasty (Most influential and powerful ruler)

• He is famous for his military, political, and spiritual achievements
• Empire: Gandhara to Ganga

• Cultural contribution:
v Patronised Buddhism
v Spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and China
v He replaced Greek with Bactrian as the official language of administration in
the empire
v Issued gold coins with his own image, image of Greek gods and Greek script.
v He administered the 4th Buddhist Council in Kashmir as the head of the
council. It was presided by Vasumitra and Ashvagosha.
v Kanishka stupa at Purushapura, modern day Peshawar. Chinese pilgrims such
as Xuan Zang paid a visit to this stupa.
v Buddhist Coins: Showed Shakyamuni Buddha and Maitreya.
v He inaugurated Mahayana Buddhism and patronized Gandhara and Mathura
school of Buddist Art.
 Shivaji

Established a competent and progressive civil rule with well-structured administrative

organisations. He revived ancient Hindu political traditions, court conventions and promoted
the usage of the Marathi and Sanskrit languages, replacing Persian in court and
administration.

• Aastha Pradhan Mandal, was an administrative and advisory council set up by Shivaji.
• Shivaji's royal seal was in Sanskrit.
• Production of ‘Rājavyavahārakośa’ (Lexicon produced to replace Persian and Arabic words)
• Shivaji is known for his liberal and tolerant religious policies.
• Shivaji not only allowed Muslims to practice without harassment but supported their
ministries with endowments.
• Shivaji was a master of guerrilla warfare.
Personalities already asked by the UPSC:
• Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
• Krishna deva Raya
• Lord Curzon
• Mahatma Gandhi
• Subhash Chandra Bose
• Lord Dalhousie
• Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad
• Acharya Vinoba Bhave
 Q. Krishna deva Raya, the King of Vijayanagar, was not only an accomplished scholar himself but Candidates
must not
was also a great patron of learning and literature. Discuss. (2016, UPSC) write on
this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS
 Temple architecture and their role

Evolution Basic feature Classification Regional forms

• Rock cut • Mandapa • Nagara • Vesara

• Stone structural • Shikhara • Dravida • Kalinga
• Brick structural • Antarala • Solanki
• Local materials • Gardens • North-East
• Platforms • Himalayan states
• Water bodies • Kakatiya
• Directions • Rajputana
 HINDU TEMPLES
• Shikhara is a vital element of Hindu temples in both north and south India. They are miniature temple towers placed
one on top of the other.
• Major elements of Hindu temple architecture are:
a) Grabhagriha: where the idol is placed
b) Mandapa: pillared hall which lies in front of Garbhagriha
c) Ardhmandapa: lies next to mandapa
d) Antarala: joins Garbhagriha and Mandapa
e) Pradakshinapatha: it is a gallery which surrounds Garbhagriha meant for Parikrama.
• Earliest temple structure includes Lad Khan temple, Aihole which has a towering shikhara.
• There are three styles of Hindu temple architecture i.e., Nagara (north), Dravida (south) and Vesara (mix of Nagara
and Dravida).
• Teli ka mandir situated in north India is made in Dravidian style with a Dravidian shikhara.
• Many Hindu temples are made in Panchayatana style i.e., a temple that has a central shrine surrounded by four
other shrines. Examples: Brahmeshvara temple, Odisha, Deogarh, Jhansi & Khajuraho, MP.
• In Mahabalipuram, rathas sculpture of Arjuna’s penance and descent of Ganga are depicted. A panel shows Varaha
avatar surrounded by Surya, Brahma, Rishis and Prithvi. A great masterpiece is the carving showing goddess Durga
engaged in a fierce battle with the buffalo headed demon.
 TEMPLE
Rock cut temples at Mahabalipuram
Shore temple at Mahabalipuram
Kailasanath temple at Kanchipuram
Brihadesvara temple, Tanjavur
RajaRani temple, Bhubaneshwar
Lingaraja temple, Bhubaneshwar
Sun temple, Konark
Kailasa temple, Ellora
Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh
Virupaksha temple, Hampi
Lad Khan temple, Aihole
Udayagiri cave temple at Vidisha
RULER AND DATE
Pallava rulers of Kanchipuram:
Narasimhavarman; 7TH cen AD
Narasimhavarman: Pallava Ruler; 7th cen
A. D
Raja Simha: Pallava Ruler; 8th cen AD
Rajaraja: Chola ruler; 1010 AD
11th century AD
Somavamsi and Ganga rulers; 11th
century AD
Narasimhadeva 1: Eastern Ganga ruler;
13th century AD
Krishna 1: Rashtrakuta ruler; 8th century
AD
Chandellas; 900-1130 AD
Vijayanagar ruler; originally since 7th
century AD
Chalukyan rulers; 5th cen AD
Chandragupta: Gupta ruler;
KEY POINTS
Consists of Rathas named after Pandavas, Draupadi,
Dharamraja and Ganesha.
Outside walls consists of seated bull figurines.
Consists of Garbhagriha, Mandapa and ambulatory.
Whole temple is made of granite and consists of
sculptures and frescos along with temple architecture.
Unique temple without any presiding deity.
It is dedicated to Lord Shiva.
It is also known as Black Pagoda.
It is a mix of Pallava and Chalukyan architecture.
Consists of Hindu and Jaina temples.
It is dedicated to Shiva and is an imitation of Kailashnath,
Kanchipuram.
It is one of the oldest temples and dedicated to lord Shiva.
Contains a grand statue of the Varaha avatar of Vishnu
 Temple Architecture

NAGARA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE DRAVIDA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

It developed from the 5th century and is characterized by a From the 7th century, the Dravida or southern style developed. The
beehive-shaped tower called shikhara. shape of the main temple tower, known as Vimana, is like a stepped
pyramid.
In North India, it is common for an entire temple to be built Generally, it is not built on a stone platform.
on a stone platform with steps leading up to it.
Further, unlike in South India, it does not usually have Unlike the Nagara temple, the Dravida temple is enclosed within
elaborate boundary walls or gateways. a compound wall. The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre,
which is known as a gopuram.
The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest Unlike Nagara style, at some of the most sacred temples in South India,
tower. the main temple in which the garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one
of the smallest towers.
Temple tanks or large water reservoir are generally not It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank,
enclosed with in the temple complex enclosed within the complex.

Images of Goddesses Ganga and Yamuna are placed outside Sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or guarding the temple is generally a
the Garbhagriha. common feature.
Examples- Kandariya Mahadeva (Khajuraho), Jagannath Examples - Shore temple (Mahabalipuram), Brihadesvara temple
Temple (Puri), Dashavatara temple (Deogarh). (Thanjavur), Meenakshi Temple (Madurai)
VESARA TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
• The Vesara style emerged during the reign of Chalunkyan Rulers.
• It is a hybrid temple architecture. It has features of both the Nagara and
Dravidian style of temple architecture.
• It is mainly found in Deccan and Central India regions.
• Though the trend of the Vesara Style of temples started by the Chalukyan
Rulers, it flourished during the Hoysala Period.
• The main important feature of the Vesara Style is that they have Northern
Indian Style (Nagara Style) of Shikhara, and the Mandap was designed in
Southern Indian Style (Dravidian Style).
• In the Vesara Style of temples Shikhara (top of the temple)
and Mandap (main shrine) are joint by the Antarala. So, the temples do
not have ambulatory passageways around Sanctum Sanctorum.
• Examples- Ladkhan Temple at Aihole, Temples at Badami.
KALINGA TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
• In Kalinga Architecture, basically a temple is made in two parts, a
tower and a hall.
• The tower is called deula and the hall is called Jagmohan.
• The walls of both the deula and the Jagmohan are lavishly sculpted
with architectural motifs and a profusion of figures. The most
repeated form is the horseshoe shape, which has come from the
earliest times, starting with the large windows of the chaitya-grihas.
It is the deul or deula which makes three distinct types of
temples in Kalinga Architecture.
• The style consists of three distinct types of temples: Rekha Deula,
Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula. The former two are associated
with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temples while the third is mainly with
Chamunda and Durga temples.
KAKATIYA TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
• Decorated beams and pillars of carved granite and dolerite.
• Kakatiyan-built water reservoir.
• Pyramidal Vimana
• Stepped tower made of lightweight porous bricks, called as floating bricks;
• Sculptures: Temple sculptures are of high artistic quality and highly polished.
• Sandbox technique: The foundation of the temple is built using sand-box technique which is
utilising sand as a material for the foundation.
Other important Kakatiyan period structures:
o Keerthi Thoranas of Warangal
o Temple of Thousand Pillars at Hanumakonda
 Temples’ contribution

Cultural: centre for dances and music, organised cultural fairs, paintings
were developed.

Literature: scriptures were preserved, copper plates, religious text were

written,

Religious aspects: Devadasi system, Marriage mandapas, community

gathering, patronized many Bhakti saints,

Economic centres: lending of funds, acted as storage of value and

donations, water for irrigation and routine work,

Others: promoted architectural studies and further improvement, royal

events were organised, Rock edicts and royal messages were provided.
Quality improvement about Temple architecture:
• Duration and know for
• Unique Features
• Patronage
• Depiction of Indian socio-economic and cultural aspects.
• Material used
• Influence on others architecture designs
 Q. Discuss the varied socio-economic functions that were performed by temples of ancient Candidates
and medieval India. (150 words) must not
write on
this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

• Introduction: Temples acted as nuclei of important social,

economic, artistic and intellectual functions.
• Body: Discuss how temples acted as social institution by
giving suitable examples.

• Conclusion: Temples acted as grounds for unifying people

from all sections of the society.
 Candidates
must not
write on
this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

Ancient and medieval Hindu temples acted as nuclei

of important social, economic, artistic and intellectual
functions. They were not just a place for prayer and
worship, rather were believed to be a place where god
dwells.
They received huge amount of generous endowment of
lands, gold and money that turned the temples into
most powerful economic institutions, to whom other
member of the society to turn to it in times of need.
 Candidates
must not
write on
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Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

• Acted as educational institutions Ex – Kanchi University at Kailashnath

temple.
• Provided employment to many people irrespective of caste (through
maintenance, gardening, etc.).
• Constructed tanks and other irrigational facilities to boost agriculture,
within their territory of control (Devadana – villages gifted to temples).
• Served as bank, donated money to the society on interest basis. Ex-
Rajaraja Chola Temple.
• Promoted cultural integrity by organising dance and Carnatic music
events.
• Facilitated social gathering, temple Mandapas were used for organising
weddings and debates.
 Candidates
must not
write on
this margin
Practice Question from Rau’s MTS

Further, temples were constructed with the support of all

people thus improved social cohesion. Hence, the temples
acted as grounds for unifying people from all sections of the
society along with improving and deepening the architecture of
India.