Chapter - 3 Loop Antenna and Helical Antenna 3.1 Introduction to Loop Antennas The loop antenna is a radiating coil of any convenient cross - section of one or more turns carrying RF current. It may assume any shape as in figure 3.1. (Example : Rectangular, Square, Triangular, Hexagonal and Circular). C24 LIO¢ (a) Rectangular (b) Triangular (¢) Square (d) Circular (e) Square Figure 3.1: Loop antennas of different shapes A loop antenna of more than one turn is called as frame. It is used in radio receiver, aircraft receiver, direction finding and UHF transmitters. Currents are of the same magnitude and phase throughout the loop if dimensions are small in comparison to wave length (a<<2). or 4 rl (a) 0) Figure 3.2: Circular loop and square loop of equal area The radiation efficiency of closed loop antenna is low for transmission Purposes.3.2 Radiated fields of small loop antenna Figure 3.3: Square loop to spherical coordinate system Let the circular loop of radius r be represented by square loop of side length d such that areas of both are same. The loop is placed at the centre of the co- ordinate system as in figure 3.3 and its far field will have only E, component. The sides AD and BC of the loop are being treated as short dipoles, their radiation pattern in horizontal plane x-y and vertical plane y-z in figure 3.4. AD or BC (a) Radiation pattern (b) Radiation pattern in xy plane in yz plane Figure 3.4 Dipole PADS 77 BC y . wn C7; - vs Figure 3.5: Dipole AD and BC in YZ planeLOOPANTENNAAND HELICALANTENNA, 3.3 Both the dipoles radiating uniformly in all directions. Individuals dipoles AD and BC will behave like two isotropic point sources in yz plane as in figure 3.5. E, = field component due to AD+ field component due to BC E, = -E, ev®+E, ei” from triangle, ZRPQ cos (90 - 6) = & - = -E, (ov?— ews PR = dcos (90-6) E, = -2jE, siny/2. PR = dsiné where, ea 32 0s(90°-6) = phase difference w = Bdsind en dsin@ E, = -2i6, sin (*) where, E, = Electric field component of dipoles AD or BC. To find E,, consider the far field of the individual dipole. p, —Li]Lsine jo to tne (2) [From section 1.3 case (i)] 0 Short dipole was oriented in z direction, where as the dipoles AD and BC are oriented along y direction. [Lsin® jo 0 dney CF But, @ = 2nf 1 = =f ocaie _[HLsing jet 50, Fe =~ Ane (aye ‘The angle 0 is measured from the dipole’ axis anid it is 90° [sin 90° = 1]ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION 34 , 5 In freespace E, —Hiftsin6o” ‘3 E fe =120 & p, AL, py =4nx107 H/m 2ar €) = 1/362 10° F/m — joonfryt 607} |B i J60n[I]L Bdsin® ar 2 60x[1] 2nLdsind ar 2 120n"[I]sinOA mt [- A=Ld] The other far field is magnetic field component H, B eee 120n 20n? [T]sin-A Ta? 1200 x[l]sinoa Hee 3.3 EMF equation of loop antenna In order to derive EMF equation of loop antenna, we have to find out the actual value of phase difference between two vertical sides when the plane of the loop is.at an angle-6 with respect to the direction of incoming wave, difference between waves no 1 and 2 is OD. The From figure 3.6, the path ¢ O and lastly at C. Let at any instant, the electric wave will reach at A first then atLOOPANTENNAAND HELICALANTENNA 3.5 OCP field at O is E,sinwt, then field at D will be leading and that at F will be lagging by an amount say a. Direction of {incoming wave Figure 3.6: Loop antenna and signal wave arrival path difference = OD = $eos8 cos0= S phase difference a= xop=3- Seose CB=ACcos® = dcos6 op = CBR. a="4cos6 . op=S cose 2 The field at A(i.e., at D) is given by E,sin(wt+a) and at C is E,sin(wt-a). Field at D will be leading and F will be lagging by an amount a. Emf induced in vertical sides AD and BC are E, = E,hsin(at + a) E, = E, hsin (ot - a) ‘The resultant loop emf is the difference of two, E,-E, = E,h [sin (ot + a) - sit (at - a)] e, e, = E, h[sinat cosa. + cos:at sina — sinwt.cosa. +" cosat ot sina) e, = 2E,heosot sing >.’ EP aeANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION 36 . ( ndcos® = 2hE, cost sin ea ndcos0 y= tes east [ Pir pek ‘Az had = Area of loop, If there are N turns in the loop, e BRAN C080 coset " d e, = V;, cosat : eect ot where, V.= V,,, > ts value of induced emf in loop. 3.4 Direction finding by rotating loop ‘Todetermine the unknown transmitter, loop antenna is used. When the loop antenna associated with a receiver is turned 360°, there are two maxima at 6 = 0° and 6 = 180° and two minima at 6 = 90° and 6 = 270°. ‘Thus when the coil is rotated, maximum signal is heard in the receiver when the loop antenna is set along the direction of transmitter and no signal is heard when the loop is at right angles to the direction of incoming waves, ‘When the loop is rotated to either null or maximum signal position, there is still uncertainty whether the signal is arriving from the left or right ie., front of back directions of the loop. ‘This uncertainty exists because there are two positions of the loop and is ‘known as 180° ambiguity. This means that the loop antenna is unable to distinguish between bearing of a distant transmitter and its reciprocal bearing.LOOPANTENNAAND. HELICAL ANTENNA 37 3.5 Errors in loop direction finding 1, Antenna effect or vertical effect, Due to unequal action of ae ate nae the two vertical sides of the loop antenna, vertical 2, Night error or aeroplane error or polarization error A loop antenna will give correct bearing only when the passing EMG waves are vertically polarized and there is no horizontally polarized wave come down. By the action of ionosphere, horizontally polarized down coming waves are produced. These waves produce induced emf’s in the horizontal arms and affect null position and giving incorrect bearing. The strength of down coming wave is more pronounced in the night than during the day. So it is called as night error. Disadvantages of loop antenna 1. Suitable for low and medium frequencies and not for high frequency. 2. Transmission efficiency is very poor. 3. Spurious induced voltages are produced if near by loops are present. 3.6 Radiation resistance of loop antenna _ 120n"[I]sinoa ra? n[i]sinA Total power radiated is one w=[fP.ds= J fp,x* sinodode | a6 = fb -B,H2er*sinedo [+ dser'sino aoa) 2 1 p120e [Hsin [isin oA | HLSiROA 2900 do By saa hE 43.8 ANTENNAS AND WAVE, PROPAGATION ANTENNAE ATO evar Sone hes foin’ 9.40 a é spar. % = B0n TAY 2. faint odo at ti — "aun 6d0= B a 3 4 = 240" I (4) : wine 2 W=160n' E, (4) Radiation resistance, 2 W=320n' (4) 2, watts w Re : R, == 320s! (4) ohms; R, = 31200 (4) ohms "Tie If the loop antenna has N no of turns, 2 R, = 31200 () ohms Xv 3.¢ Helical Antenna It is\a broadband VHF and UHF antenna which is used to provide cireuls!- polarization. It consists of a helix of thick copper wire or tubing wound in the shape of screw thread and used as an antenna in conjunction with a flat metal plal? called a ground plane as in figure 8.8. The ground plane is simply made of she# and concentric conductors. The helix is fed by a coaxial cable. ‘The one end of t? helix is connected to the inner conductor of the coaxial cable and the outer conduc!’ is connected to the ground plane. It is fed between one end and a ground plase in figure 3.7 (a). /4LoorANTEN Ae Inner conductor oufer conductor“ () © Figure 3.7: a) Helical antenna, b) radiation pattern (Axial mode), | y ¢) relationship between C, a, 8 and L Ke ation depends on the diameter of helix D and turn spacing, Ss The mode of radi (centre to centre). nd the feed wire (between ix axial length (A) starts gth of ‘The coaxial cable is coincident with the helix axis @ gh helix axis. The heli point A and B) lies in the plane throu at point A. The length of feed wire which is parallel to the axis is ¢. The len: feed wire is equal to S/2. ‘The various dimensions of the helix are shown below: C= circumference of helix (xD) o— pitch angle =tan” (3) 4 =D). d— diameter of helix conductor D> diameter of helix. A Axial length = NS L-— Length of one turn N= no-of turns £ > Spacing of helix from ground plane. (feed wire length) For N turns, the total length of helix antenna is equal to NS. nrolled on a plane surface, the circumference (xD), gle a are related by the triangle as shown in If one turn of helix is w spacing (S), turn length L and pitch anj figure 3.7 (c). L=VS?+G =/8? +(apy "ee h, The pitch angle is the angle between a line tangent to the helix wire and the plane normal to the helix axis. Pitch angle is calculated from the triangle shown jn figure 3.7 (©). o=tan™ (3) Ground Plane Figure 3.8: Helical antenna with ground plane 3.7.1 Modes of operation of Helical antenna A helical antenna may radiate in many modes but prominent modes of radiations are two i.e., normal or perpendicular mode of radiation and axial or endfire or beam mode of radiation. 1. Normal mode of radiation In this mode, the radiation field is maximum in broadway ie., in the direction normal to the helix axis and is circularly or nearly circularly polarized. ‘This mode of radiation is obtained if the dimensions of the helix are small compared to 2 ie., NL << 4, But Band width of such a small helix is very narrow and the radiation efficiency is low. Bandwidth and efficiency can be increased by increasing the size of helix and to have the current in phase along helix axis. (Phase shifters are required at intervals). The radiation pattern of helical antenna is a bidirectional pattern as shown in figure 3.9. Figure 3.9: Radiation patternLOOPANTENNAAND HELICALANTENNA hs ( a 3.11 ‘The radiation pattern is a combination of the equivalent radiation from a short dipole positioned on the same helix axis and a small loop which is also coaxial with the helix axis. It is because the helix reduces to a loop of diameter D when the pitch angle « = 0° and to a linear antenna when a. = 90° shown in figure 3.10. bi f @ (a) Helix in 3 - D spherical coordinate, (b) loop a = 0, (c) short dipole s = constant, (@) equivalent to figure 3.7 Lol” Figure 3.10 aS ‘A helical antenna may be considered of having a number of small loops and short dipoles connected in seres in which loop diameter is equal to helix diameter and helix spacing S is equal to dipole length, So the far field radiated by a helix in the normal mode can be described in terms of E, and E, components of the dipole and loop respectively. od » 49 ] Far field of the small loop is f: { 120n°[I]sin@A . G re? 9 Ca where, xD? aT area of the loop. ‘Also far field of a short dipole is given by, _j60n[F]sino § [s- jol,Lsind r a Aner 5 jl,Lsind 86nx10° 2a S = L = length of dipole eats 0 soelsng cy eae r3.12 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION |j60 x [1] sinos| Axial ratio (AR), AR-=[El -—— ir ) [E,| [t2077[1]sinoa\ errs wh u Sh, a 2nA __ Sh S r neat 28h, Axial ratio, AR = 25%. 1D? when, AR = 0, linear horizontal polarization AR = oo, linear vertical polarization AR = 1, circular polarization i |AR|=1; 29. = 2°D* S=3r etan'(3) tant & i ania(S)ean( i va! eta s 5 ee on ‘This is the condition for pitch angle to get circular polarization. Practically this mode of operation is limited and it is hardly used because its Bandwidth and radiation efficiency are very small. 2.Axial or beam mode of radiation In this mode of radiation, the radiation field is maximum in the end fire direction je., along the helix axis and the polarization is circular or nearly circular. This mode occurs when the helix circumference (C) and spacing S are appreciable of the order of one wavelength. This mode produces a broad and fairly directional beam in the axial direction. The helix turn spacing is approximately 2/4. The helix isoperated along with a ground ii Plane and is fed by co-axi Tl Satterd of Helieat aaeaee é by axial cable. The radiation ee a7 ON! in axial mode is unidirectional as shown in a pitch angle a varies from 12° to 18° angle. There i: ji ii in eee oe Fe one major axis and its maximum radiation intensity is alon; elix. The minor lobes are at oblique anglestothe-axis-—— : In optimum case C/. = 1 je, C =. To achieve circular polarization ores 2 3 2 1 grange and spacing is about S= T ‘The pitch angle is usually 12° < £ 0. <14°. The diameter of ground plane is atleast 1/2 : Plane is atleast 1/2. The arran, t fe i axial mode is shown in figure 3.11. eo and about 14° is optimum pitch ce Bahyarrg atte \ xy ,N C all \ G ; \ |Ground Plane 2-4 Figure 3.11: Arrangement for generating axial mode 3.7.2 Design procedure Monofilar axial mode helical antenna: Monofilar - unifilar - one wire- single conductor. Monofilar helix is an antenna constructed by a single conductor. It is the easiest of all antennas to build. ‘The important parameters are 1. Beam width 2. Gain 3. Impedance. 4, Axial ratio The antenna gain and beamwidth depend upon the helix length (NS). The terminal impedance of helical antenna di we Q to 2002 ct in axial mode lies between 1 impt pure resistive. Within + 20% approximation, the terminal impedence is3.14 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION, 1406 oms a Half power beam width is given by, sas tegres § (HPBW) ‘The beam width between first nulls is given by, vA Axial ratio, AR = pt 2N Normalized far field pattern is given by, ie eee =e N ~ sin ) z=sn() cos@ + nN sin ie wl <}ro where, v=o (1-cos@) + ll 3 4 The above formula assumes a = 12° to 15° N23, NS<10, O=7h to 3 1 in Gain o FoBW Gain and beam width are inter.dependent. | eA 4 ! \ ! 3.8 Reconfigurable Antennas ca (Po foi \ Areconfigurable antenna is an antenna capable of peter dynamically its frequency and radiation properties in a controlled and reversible manner. In order to provide a dynamical response, reconfigurable antennas integrate an inner mechanism (such as RF switches, varactors,mechanical actuators or tunable materials) that enable the intentional redistribution of the RF currents over the antenna surface and produce reversible modifications over its properties. Reconfigurable antennas differ from smart antennas because the reconfiguration mechanism lies inside the antenna rather than in an external beam forming network. ‘The reconfiguration capability of reconfigurable antennas is used to maximize the antenna performance in a changing scenario or to satisfy changing operating requirements. Reconfiguring an antenna is achieved through deliberately changing its frequency, polarization, or radiation characteristics.This change is achieved by many techniques that redistribute the antenna currents and thus alter the: electromagnetic fields of the antenna's effective aperture.Reconfigurable antennas can address complex system requirements by modifying their geometry and electrical behavior, thereby adapting to changes in environmental conditions or system requirements (ie, enhanced bandwidth changes in operating frequency, polarization, and radiation tant and desired feature of modern, pattern).Reconfigurability has become an import atellite communications, agile, radio-frequency (RF) systems for wireless and s s sensing, and imaging. ‘There is a shift toward incorporating smart, cognitive, and agile RF devices that can poth sense the surrounding RF environment and communicate at the same time in any contested/congested environment. Some of the new desired capabilities include frequency-agile, software defined,and cognitive radios to cope with extendable and reconfigurable multiservice, multistandard, and multiband operation, as well as with efficient spectrum and power utilization. ‘These concepts can significantly reduce the number of components and thus hardware complexity, and cost compared to today's radio technology, which relies on incompatible communications systems with inflexible hardware. nna reconfiguration rable antennas can be classified typically the frequency ‘Types of ante’ Reconfigu that is dynamically adjusted, or polarization. according to the antenna. parameter of operation, yadiation pattern.3.16 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION Frequency reconfiguration A radiating structure that is able to change its operating or noteh frequency by hoping between different frequency bands is called frequency reconfigurable antenna. This is achieved by producing some tuning or notch in the antenna reflection coefficient. They are particularly useful in situations where several communications systems converge because the multiple antennas required can be replaced by a single reconfigurable antenna, Frequency reconfiguration is generally achieved by modifying physically or electrically the antenna dimensions using RF-switches, impedance loading or tunable materials. Radiation pattern reconfiguration Aradiating structure that is able to tune its radiation pattern is called radiation pattern reconfigurable antenna. For this category, the antenna radiation pattern changes in terms of shape, direction, or gain. Radiation pattern reconfigurability is based on the intentional modification of the spherical distribution of radiation pattern. Beam steering is the most extended application and consists in steering the direction of maximum radiation to maximize the antenna gain in a link with mobile devices. Pattern reconfigurable antennas are usually designed using movable/ rotatable structures or including switchable and reactively-loaded parasitic elements. Polarization reconfiguration A radiating structure that can change its polarization (horizontal/vertical, lefthand or right-hand circular polarized, +,Slant 45°, etc.) is called polarization reconfigurable anterina. In this case, the antenna can change, for example, from vertical to left-hand circular polarization. Polarization reconfigurable antennas are capable of switching between different polarization modes. The capability of switching between horizontal, vertical and circular polarizations can be used to reduce polarization mismatch losses in portable devices. Polarization reconfigurability can be provided by changing the balance between the different modes of a multimode structure. Compound reconfiguration Compound reconfiguration is the capability of simultaneously tuning several antenna parameters, for instanee frequency and radiation pattern. The most commo® application of compound reconfiguration is the combination of frequency agility and beam-scanning to provide improved spectral efficiencies. Compound reconfigurability is achieved by combining in the same structure different single” parameter reconfiguration techniques or by reshaping dynamically a pixel surface-era Reconfiguration Techniques Six major types of reconfiguration techniques are used to implement reconfigurable antennas, as indicated in Figure 3.12. Reconfigurable Antenna { nemens | PavDiode’ F Photoconductive [Structural Alteration Ferrites, Liqui ‘Varactor | Electrical Optical Physical Material Change Figure 3.12: Various techniques adopted to achieve reconfigurable antennas ‘Antennas based on radio-frequency microelectromechanical systems (RE-MEMS, PIN diodes, and varactors to redirect their surface currents are called electrically reconfigurable. Antennas that rely on photoconductive switching elements are called optically reconfigurable antennas. Adescription of the operation ofthe switches is summarized in Table 1. Physically reconfigurable antennas can be achieved by altering the structure ofthe antenna. Finally, reconfigurable antennas can be implemented through the use of smart materials such as ferrites and liquid crystals. Table 3.1: Different Type of Switches Used in the Design of Electrically and Optically Reconfigurable Antennas ‘| RF MEMS: They use mechanical movement to achieve a short circuit or an open cireuit in a surface current path of an antenna structure. The forces required for ‘\the mechanical movement can be obtained using electrostatic, magnetostatic, piezoelectric, or thermal designs. PIN Diodes: They operate in two modes. The ON state, where the diode is forward biased and the OFF state, where the diode is not biased. Varactors: They consist of a p-1. junction diode. As the bias voltage applied to the diode is varied, the varactor capacitance is going to be changed. Typical values are from tens to hundreds of picofarads. Photoconductive Elements: The movement of electrons from the valence band to the conduction band allows the switch to go from OFF state to ON state. This is achieved by illuminating the switch by light of appropriate wavelength from a laser diode.3.18 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION Challenges to be addressed while designing reconfigurable antennas. Three challenges that have to be addressed while designing reconfigurable antenna, 1) Reconfigurable property (¢.g., frequency, radiation pattern, or polarization) that needs to be modified antenna structure that have to be 2) Different radiating elements of the reconfigured to achieve the required property. 3) Reconfiguration technique that minimizes negative effects on the antenna radiation/impedance characteristics. advantages in using: reconfigurable antennas as summarized ‘There are several below. 1, Ability to support more than one wireless standard a) minimizes cost; b) minimizes volume requirement; c) simplifies integration; d) good isolation between different wireless standards. 2) Lower front end processing a) no need for front end filtering; b) good out-of-band rejection. 3) Best candidate for software-define a) capability to adapt and learn; a microcontroller’ or afield programmable. gate array (FPGA): d radio via capabilities nality as the mission changes; p) automated 4) Multifunctional a) change functio1 p) act as 2 single element or as an array, d or wideband operation ©) provide narrow ban10 3.9 Active Antennas An active antenna is an antenna that contains active electronic components. Basically active antenna is an antenna consists of a very short antenna and a high- gain amplifier. This allows the construction of antennas of limited size and /or wide frequency range. Most active antennas use antenna parts of minimal conducting area, e.g., a small whip, connected to the active component (usually a FET). The signal attenuation caused by the antenna-size-to-wavelength mismatch is compensated by an active circuit. The active circuit consists of an impedance translating stage and an optional amplification stage. This arrangement is especially useful for constructing compact low frequency antennas which, due to budgetary, spatial, or practical requirements (e.g., installation in vehicles), must be downsized. Low frequency signal wavelengths range from one to ten kilometers. Power for the active components may be supplied by batteries, a filtered power supply, or through the signal feeder itself (phantom power). Antennas containing active impedance translating and optionally amplifying stages are usually used only for receiving, since operation of such stages is unidirectional. Active antenna includes two amplifiers, one for the downlink and one for the uplink. The amplifiers are located very close to the antenna. The purpose of the downlink amplifier is to maintain the best possible signal quality at reception. The purpose of the uplink amplifier is to deliver the needed RF power into the antenna. Without these amplifiers, the loss of the coaxial cable will have a severe impact on performance. With an active antenna, it is possible to use long cables and still maintain performance. Passive antenna includes only an antenna element, no amplifiers. A passive antenna is useful only for short runs'of coaxial cable. Cable loss will deteriorate system performance. KH No amplifier Integrated amplifier (a) Passive Antenna (b) Active Antenna Figure 3.13: Passive and Active antenna3.22 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION By taking natural logarithmic on both sides of equation (1), we get, Inr =Inr,+0Ina we(2) Differentiating with respect to 6, (rate of change of radius with angle) 1dr 2220 7 a0 na we (8) | ‘The constant a in equation 3 relates the angle B between the tangent L at any | point on the spiral and the radial line from the origin to that point. _ 1 ma tanp Substitute (4) in (2) (4) 0= £0 _tanp enr éna 0=tanpénr B is same for all points as the spiral. Hence the spiral given by equation 1 is also known as equi-angular spiral. The log spiral is constructed with r = 1 at 0 = 0 and r = 2 at 9 = x. These conditions determine the value of the contants a and f . The shape of the spiral is determined by the angle f . The angle B is same for all points on the spiral. Figure 3.15: Frequency independent planar spiral antennaConsider a spiral described by =r ae T, = 1, al The dimension of the antenna is designed to operate at a frequency {,. If the antenna is scaled by a factor K, it would have the same radiation and input properties at a frequency {/K. Multiplying the equation by a factor K, we get r, = Krya® Let K = aé = rats r, = ryae-9 The second antenna is obtained by rotating the original antenna structure by angle 5. The structure of the antenna is unchanged. Hence the radiation pattern alone rotates by an angle 5, keeping all other properties the same. Such an antenna is known as frequency independent antenna. The third antenna is obtained by rotating the first spiral by 180°, rb, = ae-* ‘The fourth spiral is obtained by rotating the second spiral by 180°, ‘The areas between spiral 1and 4 and spiral 2 and 3 are metalised with other areas open as shown in figure 3.15. It satisfies the self-complementary and congruence conditions. The two conductors form a balanced structure with feed points F and F’. A generator or receiver is connected across the inner terminals. The arrows indicate the direction of the outgoing waves travelling along the conductors. ‘The high frequency limit of operation is determined by the spacing d of the input terminal and the low frequency limit by the overall diameter D. For example if d=4g at the high frequeney limit and D=4 at the low frequency limit , the p/w i =/2=5 antenna bandwidth is 5 to 1 i.e. Moee ke 3.24 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION ‘The radiation for the antenna is bidirectional broadside (perpendicular) to the plane of the spiral. The pattern in both directions has a single broad lobe so that the gain is only a few dBi. The input impedance depends on the parameters 6, a and the terminal separation d. Design parameters of spiral antenna. 1. & —. determines the width of the arm 2. 1, — determines the radius of the feed region 3. a - determines the rate of growth of the spiral 4. @ — determines the radius of the spiral 3.11 Electromagnetic Bandgap (EBG) Structure and Applications Electromagnetic Bandgap (EBG) materials are one of the most widely used i "and microwave applications. EBG materials are very popular in scientific applications due to their unique properties. EBG structures support the propagation of electromagnetic waves to a level that was not possible earlier. Generally, EBG structures are defined as artificial periodic structures that support the propagation of electromagnetic waves in a specified band of frequencies for all incident angles and for all polarization states. ‘The structure can able to permit electromagnetic wave propagation in certain frequency bands.called band gaps. The terminology photonic band gap (PBG) of the optics is popularly used as EBG in microwave domain. EBG Structures are popularly known as photonic crystals that are artificially synthesized erystals which control light completely. EBG structures typically consist of metal patches that are separated by @ trate with vias connecting the metal patches to the ground { the EBG structure is represented by the gap between the ‘ance is represented by the via. gap on a dielectric subst plane. The capacitance o! patches, while the induct ized i according to tures can be broadly categorized into three groups a i voneta ‘configuration as shown in Figure 3.16 : (1) 3-D volumetric structures, ae Daina surfaces, and (3) 1-D transmission lines.LOOPANTENNAAND HELICAL ANTENNA 28 The three dimensional EBG structures that are formed by stacking different EBG layers to form a three dimensional structure, two dimensional EBG structures formed by arranging an EBG unit cell in two dimensions on a plane and one dimension EBG structures that are formed by arranging an EBG unit cell in one dimension to form a transmission line with two ports. IrraTraa4+t "ty x Cross view (a) 3-D EBG: a woodpile dielectric structure (b) 2-D EBG: a mushroom EBG Circular holes Micro strip tine Dielectric substrate Ground plane (c) 1-D EBG: a Micro strip line with periodic holes on the ground plane Figure 3.16: EBG Structures (a) 3-D EBG (b) 2-D EBG (c) 1-D EBG EBG structures are equivalent to a tank circuit with capacitance represented by the gap between the patches and the inductance represented by the distance between the patches and the ground plane. EBG structures are usually compact and have low loss and can be easily integrated with antennas, but operate over uencies. Bandwidth of EBG structures can be increased by marrgw bend of ire e to one another, vertically in multiple cascading EBG layers, which resonate clos‘ layers or progressively in one layer.3.26 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION In the RF and microwave research arena, microstrip antenna is a best choieg for designing compact and cost-effective wireless communication systems. Besides the features such as light weight, low profile, low cost, and ease of mounting on the host surface and integration with printed circuits, microstrip antennas suffer from a number of drawbacks, such as narrow bandwidth, low gain, poor radiation performance due to excitation of surface waves, and so on. The band gap feature of EBG structures have found useful applications in suppressing the surface waves in microstrip antenna. These structures are also found to be effective for bandwidth improvement , compact microstrip antenna designs, harmonic control, and the radiation pattern control. EBG structure is also an attractive solution to reduce the power loss through the substrate of a conventional antenna. Generally, EBG structure produces a smoother radiation profile, lower back radiation, and higher gain and efficiency than a conventional ground antenna. Moreover, these structures would ensure low interference with adjacent microwave elements and act as a shielding material between the antenna and the user of communication device. Furthermore, an EBG object could drive the microstrip antenna to a dual frequency operation modifying the higher order radiation patterns, thus making them similar to those of the basic mode. Besides the antenna element applications, EBG structures have also been used in arrays to alleviate the mutual coupling effects. Strong mutual coupling could reduce the array efficiency and cause the scat blindness in phased array systems. The EBG structures are efficient to reduce the mutual coupling and eliminate the scan angle. 3.11.1 Applications of EBG Structures EBG structures are used as a part of microwave devices in order to improve the performance of devices especially to improve the radiation/gain patterns and to decrease the noise / losses in transmissions. EBG structures are also known as high impedance surface due to their ability to suppress the surface wave at certain operational frequencies. EBG structures are widely used in microwave and low millimeter-wave region, for example, in electronically scanned phased arrays, high- precision GPS, Bluetooth, mobile telephony, waveguides, antennas, low loss-coplanar lines, and compact integrated filters. The unique electrical properties of EBG structures have led to many applications in antenna engineering. These applications include:LOOPANTENNAAND HELICAL ANTENNA 3.27 1) Surface Wave Suppression on Conducting Planes Generally, Surface waves are created over dielectric coated surfaces. They can also be created on a periodic structure without dielectric, due to periodic ‘coupling. When an antenna is placed close to aground plane, : it couples energy into the ground plane. When this happens, the overall efficiency of the antenna decreases. To avoid this, EBG structures can be used as isolation barrier between the antenna and ground plane. In the EBG's band gap, EBG's surface behaves like a high impedance surface, and this helps to decouple the antenna from the ground plane which helps to increase the radiation efficiency of the antenna. Surface wave suppression is also useful in an antenna array, when the coupling between adjacent antennas is enough, it will affect the performance of the antenna array by introducing blind scan angles. This can be cured by placing EBG structures between antenna elements, as shown in Figure 3.17. Figure 3.17: EBG structure placed between two patch antennas to eliminate mutual coupling i ress coupling between adjacent antennas by ae ee es i fae so i scan angles are eliminated. Another See e see ooo the surface wave suppression of BBG structures is useful is when annoy ai .d to pass acertain band and reject another band. This suppression aeurface's a a designing EBG structure band-gap to fall in the frequency iu Es ia required and make the pass band fall outside the band gap band where I of the EBG.3.28 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION, 2) Low profile antenna design In wire antennas, low profile and high gain can be obtained by using EBG structures as in Figure 3.18. Usually high gain is achieved by mounting wire antennas perpendicular to the conducting ground plane, this makes the antenna high-profile, to make it low profile the antenna can be mounted parallel to the EBG structure, Due to the Artificial Magnetic Conductors (AMC) behavior of the EBG structure in its band gap, backward radiated energy is reflected in phase with respect to forward radiated energy, enhancing the gain of the antenna while maintaining a low profile, Figure 3.18: Low profile wire antenna using EBG structure 3) Improving the Gain of Antennas EBG structures can be used to obtain high gain antennas.Example resonator antenna, where 19 dBi of gain is obtained from a small patch antenna by using an EBG structure above it to create a resonator antenna with high gain, as shown in Figure 3.19. Woodpile EBG material Vy x ee Metallic ground plane Figure 3.19: High gain resonator antenna achieved by using EBG structure with a patch antennaLOOPANTENNAAND HELICAL ANTENNA 3.29 4) Filtering & phase shifting Band gap of EBG can be designed to behave like a band stop filter, while frequencies away from band gap behave like pass band of the filter. Periodic nature of EBG structures can be used to electrically steering an antenna array. 5) Frequency Selective Surfaces (FSS) In a communication system that operates at multiple bands, EBG structures (FSS layers) can be used to separate bands. Consider an example of a satellite ground system that operates in L, S and C bands using the same optics. Using FSS layers on sub-reflector L and S bands can be separated into a feed placed at prime location of the optics, while C band can be separated into a feed placed in cassegrain position. Solved problems 1. For a 20 turn helical antenna operating at 3 GHz with circumference C = 10 cm and the spacing between the turns is 0.34. Calculate the directivity and HPBW. Solution: Given S=034, f= 3 GHz, C=10em N=20 6 cL pits =0.4m f 3x10 nan 15NSC* Direetivity, D-— 15x20x.9Ax(10x10)" 7 15x20x.3x(10x10") (ay D=90 | 82 [regres Half power beam width, HPBW =C\ns legre HPBW = 52 10x10" HPBW = 21.23 |3.30 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATIoy, 2. Calculate the directivity in db of 20 turn helix, having o = 120 7 circumference equal to one wave length. Solution: Given C=A, a = 12°, N=20 Directivity, p -15NSC* nF tan a = S/C or S=Ctana S =A (.2126) 15x20 0.21262" perro’ 4? D = 63.78 D in db = 10 log, D = 10 log,, 63.78 D=18db 3. A 16 turn helical antenna has a circumference of 4 and turn spacing ’ of 2/4. Determine half power beam width and axial ratio. Solution: Given N=16,C=”2, & S=4 Half er beam width Hppw === a falf power beau h, =C\NS uppw = [2 2 82h Adige %V4E 2B 4 = 26° N+1 2N 2(16)+1 33 = eee ati 26) 37108 Axial ratio = 1.03LOOP ANTENNAAND HELICALANTENNA 3.31 OO a 4, In a microwave link, two identical antennas operating at 10 GHZ are used with power gain of 40 dB. If the transmitter power is 1 watt, find the received power if the range of the link is 30 km. Solution: For identical antennas, G, = G,= G = 40 dB. By friss transmission formula, Power received, R= RAahe watts ar where Given GindB = 40 10 log, @ = 40 log, G = 4 G = 10' = 10,000 3x108 —,n “70 «10° » = 0.03 m "(axa 30x 10°), P, = 0.634 » watts. roximately the radiation resistan of 3 MHZ (0 = 100 m). ce of a 10 m square loop 5. Calculate app! antenna at frequency Solution: 2 A Radiation resistance , R, © 31200 (4) ohmsANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION, Given, radius of loop = 10m Area A =a = 314m? 2 = 100m. 2 R, ~31200| "4, (100) R, 30.8 ohms. Two Marks Questions and Answers 1. id Define loop antenna. The loop antenna is a radiating coil of more turns carrying RF currents. Name the different shapes of loop antenna. (@ Square f any covenient cross section of one or (a) Rectangular (b) Triangular (© Cireular What is frame? A loop antenna having more than one turns is called as frame. What are the applications of loop antenna? Loop antenna is used in radio receiver, aircraft receivers, direction finding and UHF transmitters. What are the field components of a loop antenna? Es 120n°[I]Asin® . He a[I]Asin® te rh" . me where, [I]- retarded current; r - distant point; 2. - wavelength; A - area of the loop Name an antenna that produces circularly polarized wave Helical antenna produces circularly polarized waves. What is the radiation resistance of loop antenna? R, = 81200 (4/22)? ohms. Radiation resistance, 2 is the wavelength where, A is the area of the loop;LOOPANTENNAAND HELICAL ANTENNA 3.33 8. Define pitch angle. What happens when a = 0° & ¢ = 90°? It is the angle between a line tangent to the helix wire and the plane normal to the helix axis, Pitch angle, «= tan (3) nD. where, S is helix turn spacing; Dis the diameter of helix. when, &=0°, helix becomes a loop; when 0.=90°, helix becomes a linear conductor, 9. What are the various modes of operation of helical antenna? i) Normal mode ii) Axial mode 10. What is the relationship between C, a, S and L? Pitch angle, a =tan* (3) i nD. L=V$?+0? ae turn spacing; D-diameter of helix; C-circumference of helix (= nD) 11. Give the expressions for the field components of a helical antenna j60nS[I]sin0 | px 2208" [Aine aa ee 12. What is axial ratio of a helical antenna? The ratio of magnitudes of E, and E, gives the axial ratio. Ee] E, =2Sk AR=1+ Axial ratio, AR =|—-*)= (ey Nn’ 13. Write down the expressions for HPBW, BWEN and airectlay of anita antenna. nee 3 115 [2° deg res * == Jo eS uepw = ee degrees; BWEN=-—> Je degrees, 15NSC* a Directivity, D=14. What are the important parameters to be considered for the design of an helical antenna? The important design parameters are 2) Gain 3) Axial ratio 4) Impedance 1) Beam width 45. List out the applications of helical antenna? Helical antenna is used in VHF transmission such as satellite communication e Space telemetry link with ballistic missiles, satellites, etc. 16. What are the advantages of helical antenna? e Very simple e Higher directivity e Wideband operation is possible e Circular polarization is obtained 17. What is a monofilar helical antenna? ucted by a single conductor. Monofilar helical antenna is an antenna constr" 18. What is multifilar helix? ar helix is an antenna constructed by using more than one conductors. Amultifil antenna? 19. What are the I e Bandwidth is very narrow * Efficiency of radiation n is low es of loop antenna? 20. What are the disadvantag' It is not suitable for high frequency applications imitations of normal mode operation of a helical ansmission efficiency is low e Tri 2 Spurious induced voltages are produced if near by loops are present Long Answer Questions 4. Derive the fields radiated from a small loop antenna and also find its radiation resistance. 2. Write short notes on helical antenna. 3. What are the different modes of operation of helical antenna? Explain in detail- a