RESEARCH ARTICLE | JULY 21 2021

Pico-hydro system as an alternative energy generator

Mariah Awang  ; Muhamad Adnan Bin Zulkanai; Nor Hapira Nadia Binti Nafrizon; ... et. al

AIP Conference Proceedings 2347, 020248 (2021)

https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0052113

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 Pico-Hydro System as An Alternative Energy Generator
Mariah Awang1,a), Muhamad Adnan Bin Zulkanai1, Nor Hapira Nadia Binti
Nafrizon1, M A A Rahman1, M M Syafiq Syazwan1, Mohd Shahril Abdul
Rahman2, Mohd Kamaruzaman Musa1, Nuramidah Hamidon1 and Fatimah Yusop1
1
Faculty of Engineering Technology, University Tun Hussein Onn,84600 Pagoh, Muar, Johor, Malaysia.
2

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Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia.

Corresponding author: a)mariah@uthm.edu.my

Abstract. Pico-hydro system is a renewable energy source which uses a small motor or generator that is connected to
turbines to generate electricity without relying on any non-renewable energy sources. The power generated by the pico-
hydro system is less than 5 kW. Currently, the distribution of fuel consumption for electricity generation is 44.7% using
coal, 42.5% gas-based, 3.7% oil-based, and 5.7% hydro-based. The Malaysian government has set a clear goal and strategy
that small hydropower (mini, micro, and pico) will contribute up to 500 MW to the national power grid/electricity
generation in 2020. In this study, the model built is the pico-hydro system with the operating system powered by pumps
with a 10 W solar panel. The purpose of this study is to build a model of a pico-hydro system as an alternative energy
generator, to gauge the energy produced by this pico-hydro model, and to analyse the performance and effectiveness of the
pico-hydro system in terms of power and output. Among the tests performed were testing on battery charger controllers
and battery charging time rates, water flowrate testing, system efficiency, and relationship analysis between the head height,
rotation, and output of power. This model produced the maximum flow of 0.22 A from the generator to the charger
controller with a head height of 0.63 m. The hydraulic efficiency test showed that the system had an efficiency percentage
of 9.2%. Further studies should be done to improve the efficiency of the system and enhance the energy generation.

INTRODUCTION
Facility Management involves several aspects such as communication, emergency preparedness, and business
continuity, environmental stewardship and sustainability, finance and business, human factor, leadership and strategy,
operation and maintenance, project management, quality, real estate, and property management renewable energy and
technology[1]. Alternative energy refers to renewable energy without affecting non-renewable energy. At present,
alternative energy is also widely used to replace conventional resources due to the impact [2]. Various types of
renewable energy sources are available in Malaysia. Among the resources of this energy, biomass, hydroelectric, and
solar energy are the most potential renewable energy sources in Malaysia [2]. For the implementation period of the
Eleventh Malaysia Plan (RMK-11) from 2016 to 2020, the government aimed to increase the electricity coverage rate
to 99% by 2020 from the current coverage of 94% (Sabah) and 91% (Sarawak) [3].
Hydroelectric power has been widely used in other countries and it is one of the most renewable energies that is
effective for producing electricity and power [3]. The energy in the water movement is converted to mechanical energy
by using turbines. Hydropower technology converts the energy capacity in the water to electricity after the water spins
the turbines.
The term pico-hydro is used for hydroelectric power generators whose output are under 5 kW [3]. This generator
is useful for small remote areas that require low electricity consumption such as to light one or two lightbulbs,
televisions, or radios [4]. Although there are already diesel generators, they have undesirable effects such as sound
pollution generated by the motor that turns on the generator. Besides, they also cause air pollution where the generators
release carbon monoxide as a result of diesel combustion.

Proceedings of 8th International Conference on Advanced Materials Engineering & Technology (ICAMET 2020)
AIP Conf. Proc. 2347, 020248-1–020248-12; https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0052113
Published by AIP Publishing. 978-0-7354-4118-7/$30.00

020248-1
 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Malaysia is a developing country with increasing population rate and growth of economic activities, especially in
the manufacturing sector. The improvement in the quality of life and development of the growing technology have
resulted in a rapidly increasing demand for energy consumption. The continued use of energy resources has resulted
in the shortage of the existing energy storage. Currently, the distribution of fuel consumption for electricity generation
is 44.7% using coal, 42.5% gas-based, 3.7% oil-based, and 5.7% hydro-based. However, by 2020, it is estimated that
a total of 60% of electricity supply will be generated from coal source, 23% gas, 15% hydropower, and 2% from other
renewable energy source [5].
The Malaysian government has set a clear goal and strategy that small hydropower (mini, micro, and pico) will
contribute up to 500 MW to the national power grid/electricity in 2020. In the implementation of the Eleventh Malaysia
Plan (RMK-11) from 2016 to 2020, the government has targeted to increase the electricity coverage rate to 99% by
2020 from the current coverage of 94% (Sabah) and 91% (Sarawak) [3]. In Malaysia, the mini-hydro or pico-hydro
project only contributes to a low percentage of energy production compared to conventional fossil fuel power stations
(coal and natural gas) [3]. Table 1 shows the projected energy generation from 2018 to 2025 as indicated by the
Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water.

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TABLE 1. Projection of energy generation by type of fuel in Peninsular Malaysia.

Years Power Generation (MW)

Gas Coal Hydro Solar Biomass Biogas TOTAL
2018 10,924 11,066 2,548 261 151 40 24,990
2019 10,719 12,066 2,548 306 163 49 25,851
2020 10,397 12,066 2,704 334 184 58 25,743
2021 12,797 12,066 2,704 334 207 67 28,175
2022 11,882 12,066 2,836 334 228 76 27,422
TOTAL 56,719 59,330 13,340 1,569 933 290

Therefore, the research on the pico-hydro system as an alternative energy is important in the process of achieving
the goals of the Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water in increasing the amount of energy generated
through the hydropower system in Malaysia. The increasing amount of energy generation from the hydropower system
can further enhance national development.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Hydropower is one of the cleanest renewable powers, scalable, cheap, and can be putative between all renewable
technologies, and it can be used to supply electricity in rural areas either in developing or less developed countries.
Besides, hydropower is the most widely used renewable energy technology around the world where 19% of
electricity/energy generation in the world is contributed by both large- and small-scale hydropower stations [6].
Hydropower is an alternative energy that is obtained from water movement energy. Hydropower has been widely used
in other countries, and it is one of the most effective renewable energies for producing electricity and power [6].
For this study, the researchers used a small-scale hydropower concept, classified as pico-hydro. Pico-hydro is a
hydroelectric power station that produces energy in a small amount of up to 5 kW.

Classification of Hydroelectric Power Stations

There is no specific way or standard to classify the categories of hydropower. Different countries, organisations,
and research groups may use different types of references in each of the hydropower categories [3]. In general,
hydroelectric power stations are categorised according to the power output size/electric, head range, and system use.
The types of classification and their descriptions are listed in Table 2.

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 TABLE 2. A hydro-power station classification [3].
Type of classification Description
a. Power Output
Large >100 MW
Medium 10–100 MW
Small 1–10 MW
Mini 100 kW–1 MW
Micro 5–100 kW
Pico <5 kW
b. Head
High head Above 100 m
Medium head 3–100 m
Low head 0.5–30 m
c. Operation System
Type of river This type of system does not control river flow; it suffers from water
shortage in the dry season and is loaded with water resources during

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Type of reservoir
Type of pump storage
the rainy season.
This type of scheme stores several water resources that are excessive
from the river and controls power production based on seasonal load
requests.
This type uses the power of water supply to pump the source from the
water reservoir located at a lower level to the top of the water reservoir.

Pico-Hydro System
Pico-hydro system is the smallest hydropower system and produces a maximum electricity output up to 5 kW.
This system has attracted the attention of many researchers as the best alternative to electricity generation in isolated
and rural areas [7]. A pico-hydro unit is easily customisable with the environment without any concerns, for instance,
storage of large water resources and re-founding of the population. Moreover, pico-hydro is probably a choice with
the lowest costs, including operation cost, compared to other technologies. Fig. 1 shows the components of a pico-
hydro system.

FIGURE 1. Schematic drawing of a pico-hydro system [3].

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 Head and Water Flow
Basar et al. indicated that the head and water flow are two main factors that need to be considered a pico-hydro
generation system (PHP) [6]. The head refers to water pressure, or it can be specified as a vertical source of water. In
general, the head is represented as vertical distance (H, in meters) or pressure (N/m2). Water flow or water flowrate
refers to the total quantity of water. The simplest method to determine the rate of water flow for a small hydro generator
is with a bucket method [7].

METHODOLOGY
Figure 2 shows the methodology chart for the implementation of this project. The first phase of this project was
project planning which involved selecting appropriate titles for this project and discussions with supervisors for the
project.

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FIGURE 2. Methodology Chart.

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 Once the title was set, the process was started to identify problems that lead to the implementation of this project.
Literature reviews were conducted to collect data and information from reliable sources such as journals, books, press
articles, and theses written by qualified persons or organisations in the relevant field. Research data were collected,
analysed, and discussed. The data were collected from articles, journals, and theses related to pico-hydro technology
as well as efficiency tests performed on this system previously.
In the second phase of this project, the components of the pico-hydro system were designed according to the
specifications classified as pico-hydro low head with the pump storage operating system as stated by [3]. This was to
ensure that the objectives of the study can be implemented and in turn, can be achieved. The model was prepared to
determine the materials used in the production, as shown in Fig. 3.

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FIGURE 3. The pico-hydro Model built.

The functions of each important component in the pico-hydro system are as follows:
i. Hydro turbine
 The turbine is the main part of the hydropower generator and is a rotating engine that transforms the
energy of water gravity capability to the mechanical power rotation. Commonly used turbines
consist of a stator, reef, and shaft [8]. The water will hit the turbine blades and rotate the turbines
attached to the generator with the shaft.
ii. Penstock
 The penstock is the pipelines that bring water from dams or water retention to water turbines.
Determining the material, length, internal diameter, and tuner layout are important because all these
factors affect the cost of capital and the overall performance of the pico-hydro system. The penstock
makes the flow of water faster and more powerful to propel the water turbines [3].
iii. Generator
 The generator is a necessary hydropower component because it converts the rotation power
produced by the turbine to electricity. Generally, the shaft rotates in the generator and produces a
magnetic field, which is then converted to current/electricity in the coil generator by the induction
of the electromagnetic field.

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 For the third phase of this project, several tests were carried out on this model to investigate the efficiency and
power output of the built pico-hydro system. After testing and data collection were completed, each test was analysed
to determine the performance of the system. In this third phase, this model was simulated at the UTHM Building
Service Laboratory. The multimeter and time recorder method is among the devices used in the simulation. Fig. 4
shows the schematic of a pico-hydro system. The steps in the simulation of the pico-hydro system are as follows:
i. Feet to place the main drain tank erected with the height set as shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3. Head height setting.

No. Head (m) Rotation Turbine (rpm) Voltage (V)
1 0.43 P1 V1
2 0.48 P2 V2
3 0.53 P3 V3
4 0.58 P4 V4
5 0.61 P5 V5

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ii. The major drainage tanks were filled with water. The taps were closed first before water was filled.
iii. Distribution tanks together with turbines were placed in the position of the main drainage tank.
iv. The wires were connected to the generator or DC motor to the battery’s charging controller. The battery was
also connected wirelessly to the battery charger controller.
v. Drainage was installed on the distribution tank linking water pumps and major drainage tanks.
vi. The simulation was started by opening a tap on the main drain tank. The water flowed from the main drain
to the turbine and gathered into the distribution tanks, and the water was pumped back to the main drain tank.
The water flowing to the turbine rotated the turbines and produced mechanical energy. Then, the mechanical
energy was transformed into electricity by the generator.
vii. In the test, the voltage and current readings were obtained from the generators by putting a positive and
negative multimeter needle on the circuit.
viii. The main drain tank taps were closed to stop the water flow.
ix. Steps (vi) to (ix) were repeated with different head height.

FIGURE 4. Schematic figure of a pico-hydro system.

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 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Data obtained from this model are the result of several experiments that have been carried out on this pico-hydro
model in the UTHM Building Service Laboratory. Four experiments were performed in the formulation based on a
functional and two measurement measures. The practical test carried out was voltage measurement and the outflow
of energy generators for the pico-hydro system, battery charging control test, the dab of the production of its output
voltage, and the rotation of turbines.
A digital multimeter was used in the experiment to measure input and output voltage and the flow produced by
this pico-hydro model and battery charger controller. The time recorder was used to record the time for turbine rotation
per minute.
To ensure that the pico-hydro system can operate as a power collector for alternative energy generators, two tests
were performed on the battery charger controller and charging time rate. The data collected were analysed to find out
the time rate required for fully charged batteries.

Battery Charging Control Test

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Table 4 shows the inclusion and output of the voltage and the current for the model with a height of 0.63 m, which
is the original height of this model. Some readings were taken in the test of the battery charger controller.

TABLE 4. Actual output of battery charging controller.

No. Input Output

Voltage (V) Current (A) Voltage (V) Current (A)

1 0.58 0.22 12.5 1.8
2 0.59 0.22 12.5 1.8
3 0.56 0.22 12.5 1.8
4 0.56 0.22 12.5 1.8
5 0.58 0.22 12.5 1.8
6 0.60 0.22 12.5 1.8

Even though the voltage entry was manipulated, the voltage and the output line were fixed as shown in Fig. 5. The
output voltage always changes due to the water pressure that always changes. A high water pressure will increase the
output rate from this pico-hydro model generator. The voltage withdrawn from the battery charger controller does not
change even though the voltage rate inserted into the battery charger is continuously changed due to the voltage
coming from the charging device of the battery being on the battery.
Based on the tests performed by [3] on a pico-hydro model, the non-fixed voltage entry due to the ever-changing
water pressure did not affect the output voltage of the battery charger controller.

FIGURE 5. Input and output voltage of battery charging controller.

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 Battery Charging Time Test
Based on the data obtained from the battery charger controller test, the time taken for the battery to be fully charged
by using the pico-hydro model was measured by using Equation (1):

𝑇 (1)

where
𝑇 time (h)
𝐴ℎ battery capacity
𝐴 current (A)
Calculation example,
.
𝑇 32.7 32 h
.

The time taken by this model to fully charge the battery was 32 h. It is too long because the flow output from the

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generator was too low. To shorten the time, this model must produce a high flow rate. This pico-hydro device will
produce higher voltage efficiency, as a higher voltage is higher. To determine the appropriate current value to ensure
that the system can fully charge the battery with the minimum time, Equation (2) can be used:

𝐴 20% (2)

To gauge the energy rates derived from this pico-hydro system, the water flow rate and the competency for this
hydro-efficiency were investigated. These two are closely connected because the data from the water flow rate test
were used to determine the efficiency percentage of the pico-hydro system.

Water Flowrate Testing

The easiest method to determine the rate of water flow for a small hydropower generator is with a bucket method.
For this method, the distributed water was grouped into a bucket or container. Then, the time (𝑡) was taken for water
to enter the container [8]. The total volume of the container is (𝑉). The rate of water flow, 𝑄 (𝑚3/s or L/s) was
calculated as follows:
𝑄 𝑉/𝑡 (3)
For example,
.
Water flowrate, 𝑄 0.023 𝐿/𝑠

For this test, the time for the water to fill the plastic container of 7.02 L was recorded. The flow rate for this hydro-
pico model is 0.023 𝐿/𝑠. The water flowrate test can determine the water speed rate and water pressure channeled to
the turbines. With a higher water flowrate, the total turbine rotation for this model will increase.

Pico-Hydro Efficiency Test

Basically, the productivity of the pico-hydro system was evaluated and determined by using the following formulae
[8]:

Efficiency (ⴄ) = 100% (4)

The output power (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) is derived from the power test delivered. The input power (𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡) is obtained from
the open circuit test data while performing the maximum power test sent. The formulae for any input or power output
of the HP/PHP system are:
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝 𝑔 𝐻 𝑄 (5)
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 ⴄ 𝑝 𝑔 𝐻 𝑄 (6)

020248-8
where
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = power input (hydropower)
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = power output (W)
𝑝 = water density (kg/m3)
𝑔 = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
𝐻 = head or pressure efficiency (m)
ⴄ = hydraulic water turbine efficiency (%)
𝑄 = water flow rate (m3/s or L/s)
For example,
Efficiency (ⴄ) = 100%
.
(ⴄ) = 100 9.2%
.

The reading rate for 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 is 1.41 W and 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 is 0.13 W. From this data, the efficiency percentage for the
built-in pico-hydro model was determined, which was 9.2%.

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The efficiency for this pico-hydro system was low because the difference between 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 and 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 was too
noticeable. To obtain maximum efficiency, these models need to produce higher output power. According to [13] in
most studies on a small hydro system, the power turbine had an efficiency of 80% to 90%.
The third objective of this study was to analyse the performance and effectiveness of the pico-hydro system in
terms of its output power. To achieve this third objective, readings for output voltage and the number of turbines
rotation were taken at different head heights.

Relationship Between the Head, Output Voltage and Power Turbine (RPM)
Table 5 shows the relationship between the head height, turbine, and number of turbine rotation. These three
components are mutually dependent. The purpose of this comparison is to study the relations between the head height,
turbine, rotation and voltage. As the simulation was carried out on this model, the head height was manipulated. The
head was changed to five different heights, and the reading was taken for number of turbines rotation and voltage
generated by the generator. Based on a study [12] on small turbines, output power increased when the head height and
number of turbine rotation an increased.

TABLE 5. The turbines rotation and voltage readings of different head heights.

Figure 6 shows the relationship between the head height and the voltage output of the generator. The graph shows
that the voltage increases proportionally with head height. The higher the head height is, the higher the voltage reading
would be. However, the voltage reading is also influenced by turbines.
Figure 7 shows that the rotation of turbine also increases in parallel with the head height. The test shows that a
higher head resulted in higher water pressure. High water pressure rotates the turbines faster and produces large
mechanical energy. The mechanical energy is converted into electricity by the generators. The higher mechanical
energy results in higher electrical energy, depending on the type of generator used. Based on a study [12] on the
performance of small turbine rotation, the output generated from the generators increased when the head and number
of turbine rotation an increased.

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FIGURE 6. Graph of voltage versus head height.

Figure 7 shows that the rotation of turbine also increases in parallel with the head height. The test shows that a
higher head resulted in higher water pressure. High water pressure rotates the turbines faster and produces large
mechanical energy. The mechanical energy is converted into electricity by the generators. The higher mechanical
energy results in higher electrical energy, depending on the type of generator used. Based on a study [12] on the
performance of small turbine rotation, the output generated from the generators increased when the head and number
of turbine rotation an increased.

FIGURE 7. Graph of Power Turbine versus head height.

CONCLUSION
The tests were conducted by doing a simulation of this pico-hydro model. The data collected using a multi-meter
were based on the voltage value and the flow generated from this pico-hydro model. Meanwhile, the data of the turbine
rotation were taken based on the observation method. These data were further reviewed and analysed to be compared
with a previous study. With the comparisons, the researchers can determine the actual performance of pico-hydro
models to produce an optimal energy output. In this pico-hydro model, each component in this system impacts the
performance of the pico-hydro system.
The results were analysed to understand and explain the basic concept of hydropower generation. However, the
constructed model did not give the maximum results due to the performance of each component in the model. The

020248-10
graphs show that when water pressure increased, the rotation of turbines per minute also increased, and consequently,
the output voltage also increased. The maximum voltage and flow values produced by this model are 0.6 V and 0.22
A. Further studies should be done to further enhance the efficiency of the pico-hydro model system.

SUGGESTIONS
The need to understand the concept of electrical power generation using a hydropower system requires information
not only from theory but also real circumstances. To better understand the concept of hydropower energy, observations
should be made at hydropower stations to see how the turbines operate as water is released and how the energy
generated from the turbine rotation is stored and channelled to the user.
Besides, the model’s design can be improved in the future with a more user-friendly structure to produce more
energy. There are several suggestions to improve this model to enhance system efficiency in this model. Among the
things that can be improved are:
1) Type of materials
 Wood was used to support the shaft's turbine on this model. The wood is a material that will decay,

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and its lifespan is short in a humid environment. The wood can be replaced with stainless steel to
ensure that the prototype can last longer even in humid circumstances.
2) Penstock
 The position of hydropower penstock is one of the important factors in determining the efficiency
of a hydropower generating system. A high position increases the water pressure of the water that
is flowing out of the water collection. High water pressure increases the rotation speed of the turbine.
The faster rotation of the turbine produces higher amount of energy.
3) Tank
 Apart from the penstock, the number of the water reservoir is also a factor to produce high water
pressure. A higher amount of water retention steadily increases water pressure. Larger capacity of
water retention can be applied to this model to increase the amount of energy generated.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work would not have been possible without the financial support of the grant project Vot. H251 and “Geran
Penyelidikan Pascasiswazah” (Vot. H595) by Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM). We are grateful to all
of those with whom we have had the pleasure to work during this and other related projects.

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