Physics

Moment of a force:
Moment of a force = force x perpendicular distance of the line if
action if the force from fulcrum

Law of moments:
When a body is in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise moments
about any point equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments
about the same point.

Centre of mass:
I. Centre of mass is the point where whole mass of the body
assumes to be concentrated.
II. If the vertical line through the centre of mass is outside the
base it will be a topples but if it’s passed through the base it will be
stable.

The stability of the body is increased by:

1.Lowering its centre of mass.
2. Increasing the area of the base.
 Energy measurement:
Work is set to be done when a force is applied at an object and the
object is moved in the direction of the force.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Kinetic energy:
All moving objects have kinetic energy.
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)2
2
Potential energy:
The energy due to change in position, shape, or state.
𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Power:
It’s the rate at which it transfers energy from one form to another.

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Efficiency:

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒

𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 × 100%
 Pressure:
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = 𝑝𝑎
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑝𝑎
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
= 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠

Speed

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Velocity

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Acceleration

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Uniform acceleration
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 Vsecond

speed Ufirst

speed
𝑠 = (𝑢 + 𝑣 ) 𝑡
2

1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡2
2

𝑣2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
 The heat equation
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
× 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

Specific heat capacity:

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat required to
produce a 1℃ rise in 1 Kg

Specific heat capacity of water

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟(𝐽)
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝐾𝑔) × 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝. 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒(℃)

Thermal capacity:
It’s the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of the
whole body by1℃.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

Specific latent heat of fusion:

The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity of
heat needed to change unit mass from solid to liquid without
temperature change.
 Specific latent heat of fusion
𝑄 = 𝑚 × 𝑙𝑓

Specific latent heat of vaporization:

The specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is the
quantity of heat needed to change unit mass from liquid to vapor
without change of temperature.

Specific latent heat of vaporization

𝑄 = 𝑚 × 𝑙𝑣

Heat supplied by a heater:

𝑄 = 𝑃 × 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑡𝑉

Speed of wave
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Circular motion:
𝑚𝑣2
𝐹=
𝑟
 The Ampere and the Coulomb
The unit of current is the Ampere (A) which is defined using the
magnetic effect.
The unit of charge, the Coulomb (C)
The Coulomb is the charge passing any point in a circuit when a
steady current of 1 ampere flows for 1 second,
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠(𝑄) = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠(𝐼) × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑡)
Series and parallel circuit
The current is the same at all points in a series circuit
The current is different in the branches of a parallel circuit
Direct and alternating current
In a Direct current (d.c) the electrons flow in one direction only.
In an Alternating current (a.c) the direction of flow reverses
regularly.
Voltages round a circuit
In series: The voltages at the terminals of a battery equal the sum of
the voltages across the devices in the external circuit from one
battery terminal to the other.
In parallel: the voltages across devices in parallel in a circuit are
equals.
𝐸
𝑉=
𝑄
𝐸 =𝐼×𝑡×𝑉
 Resistance
The opposition if a conductor to a current is called its resistance.
The resistance of a wire of a certain material:
i) Increases as its length increases
ii) Increases as its cross-section area decreases
iii) Depends on the material
The Ohm
The ohm is the resistance of a conductor in which the current is 1
ampere when a voltage of 1 volt is applied across it.

𝐼×𝑅
Resistors in series:
𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1, 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2, 𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3. Also, if R is the combined resistance,
𝑣 = 𝐼𝑅 and so 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2+𝐼𝑅3
Dividing both sides by I, 𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
Resistors in parallel

𝐼 = 𝑉
, 𝐼2 = 𝑉
, 𝐼3 = 𝑉 .Also, if R is the combined resistance,
1 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 and so 𝑉 = 𝑉
𝑉 𝑉
𝑅 𝑅1 + 𝑅 + 𝑅3
2

Dividing both sides by V,1 = 1

1 1
𝑅 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
 For simpler case of two resistors in parallel

1 1 1 𝑅2 𝑅1
=
𝑅 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 𝑅1𝑅2 + 𝑅1𝑅2

1 𝑅2 + 𝑅1
𝑅 = 𝑅1𝑅2
Inverting both sides,

𝑅1𝑅2
𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠

Capacitor
It stores electric charge and is useful in many electronic circuits.
Effects of capacitors in d.c and a.c circuits
The capacitor block d.c
The capacitor passes a.c
Electric power

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝐸 =𝐼×𝑡×𝑉
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
Electronic system
Any electronic system consists of three parts:
i) An input sensor or transducer
ii) A processor
 iii) An output transducer
A transducer is a device to convert a non-electrical input into an
electrical signal or vice versa.
The processor decides on what action to take on the electrical
signal receives from the input sensor;
The output transducer converts the electrical energy supplied by
the processor into another form.
Light dependent resistor (LDR)
It’s a type if variable resistor where resistance depends in the
amount of light falling on it. It is used in circuits to detect the level
of light
Dark high resistance less current
Light low resistance more current

Thermistor
It’s a type of variable resistor where resistance depends on the
temperature.
Cold high resistance less current
Hot low resistance more current
Relays
It’s a type of switch that works using an electromagnet.
 Diode
It’s a component that allows the electric current to flow in one
direction only. It’s also known as Rectifier. It changes alternative
current to direct current.

Magnetization of iron and steel

Magnetic materials like IRON which magnetize easily but readily
lose their magnetism (are easily demagnetized) are said to be
SOFT.
But those like STEEL which are harder to magnetize than iron but
stay magnetized are HARD.
 Simple d.c electric motor
A direct current (DC) motor is a fairly simple electric motor that
uses electricity and a magnetic field to produce torque, which turns
the motor.
Parts of the Motor
 DC power supply of some sort
 Armature or rotor
 Commutator
 Brushes

Lenz’s law
An induced current is always in such a direction as to oppose the
motion or change causing it
 Sensitivity of a thermometer

It is the length of increase of the liquid per degree rise in

temperature. More sensitive means more noticeable expansion .
Linear scale
When the fixed points of the thermometer have been marked, the
distance between them is divided into equal degrees which are the
range of the thermometer.
Range of thermometer
The temperature limits of the thermometer. The lower limit and
the upper limit.
Linear expansivity
The expansion can be calculated if:
i) The length of the bridge,
ii) The range of temperature it will experience, and
iii)The linear expansivity of the material to be used,
Are all known
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒

Weight
The weight of a body is the force of gravity on it.
 Mass
Mass is the amount of matter in an object and is measured in Kg.

Hooke’s law:
Within elastic limit, the force is directly proportional to the
extension produced.

Plastic
If a force is applied to an abject, the object changes its shape, and
it stays the same shape when the force if removed.

Elastic
If you put a force on an object making the object change shape and
it returns to its original shape after removing the force. We say the
object is Elastic.

Conditions of equilibrium:
I. The sum of the forced in one direction equals the sum of the
forces in the opposite direction
II. The law of moments must apply.

Stable equilibrium
The body is in stable equilibrium when it slightly displaced and
then released, it returns to its previous position.
 Unstable equilibrium
A body is in unstable equilibrium if moves farther away from its
previous position when slightly displaced and then released.

Neutral equilibrium
A body is in neutral equilibrium if it stays in its new position when
displayed.

The gas laws

Boyle’s law:
The pressure of fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its
volume if its temperature is kept constant.
𝑘
𝑝=
𝑣
𝑃1𝑉1 = 𝑃2𝑉2
Charles’ law:
The volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature if the pressure is kept constant.
𝑉1
𝑉2
𝑇1 = 𝑇2
 Pressure law:
The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature if the volume is kept constant.
𝑝1
𝑝2
𝑇1 = 𝑇2

Combining laws:
𝑃1𝑉
𝑃2𝑉2
1 = 𝑇2
𝑇1