EQUIPMENT DESIGN LLOYD E. BROWNELL Professor of Chemical and Uni ichigan EDWIN H. YOUNGDESIGN OF SHELLS CHAPTER FOR FLAT-BOTTOMED CYLINDRICAL VESSELS roughout the chemical and petrochemical gas09, liquids, and soli tored, accumulated, or proc essed in vessels of vations shapes 3 Such a large number of storage vessels or tanks are used by these indus tries that the design, fabrication, sels have become a specialty of a number of companies, 1 result of economic considerations, only a few compa the process industries now design storage vessels having large volumetric capacity, and the usual practice is to con tract for this equipment with companies specializing in this field. However, the design of this equipment invalves basic principles which are fandamental to the design of other types of more specialized equipment, ‘This and the follow- ing chapter cover these fundamentals, Before te extensive use of welding as a means of fabriea- tion, vessels fabricated of metal were assembled either by bolting or riveting (80). At the present time most fluids held at atmospheric or low pressure are cal tanks of welded construction. Because of the large quantities of petroleum and its products stored in this manner, the American Petroleum Institute has established specifications governing the design of welded, cylindrical tanks for oil storage abov. specification code, API Standard 12 © ¢ provide the oil industry with design spe industries, nd erection of these ves As vertic ground. This is intended to fications for tanks ‘of adequate safety and reasonable economy in a wide variety of capacities. Tt is recommended for use by the ofl indus- ty in all sections of the United States exoept those areas which are subject to local regulations that conflict with it. Although these specifications were devised primarily for the osign of storage vessels for petroleum and its products, they are useful guides in the design of a variety of vessels for 26 storage of other fluids Kk. Figure 3.1 shows a typical welded vilstorage 3.1 MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS ds used in the construction of storage vessels are usually metals, alloys, clad-metals, or materials with linings which are suitable for containing the fluid. Where xno appreciable corrosion problem exists, the cheapest and sos ely fabricated construction matoral 8 unl hot rolled mild (low-carbon) steel plate. ‘The py Of steel plate sperifed by APY Standard 12 (are SAT (open-hearth or electri co processes only), SA-283, Grade for all thicknesses greater then 114 in., or SA-283, Grade D for thicknesses less than 11% in, steel, which is not specified by this code tages i Copper-bearinse hhas some advan. SA for structural steel shapes such as angles, channels, and Teams, and ASTM-A-27 grade 60-30 fully od is specified for steel castings. physical properties and chemical composition of these plain earhon steels are listed in Table 3.1 Low-carbon stecls are rather soft. and ductile and are easily sheared, rolled, and formed into the various shapes used in fabri esisting atmospheric corrosion, is specified These steels are also easily welded to give joints of uniform strength relatively free from localized stresses. The ultimate tensile strength is usually between 35,000 and 65,000 psi and the carbon 0.15% and 0.25% both the ultimate strength and the carbon content, cannot be spect fied since one is a function of the other. Tn Table 3.1 the ultimate strength is spe on content Low-alloy, high-strength steels are a specific class of low- carbon steels which are made stronger by the addition of a content betwee fied but not. the eMeterial Specifications — 37 E a Rte Fig. 3.1, Welded itstoroge tank, Humble Ol and Rel Company} all amount of alloying clements. Such steels have yield Most. manufactures claim their low-alloy, high-strength yi 1 steels to be readily “weldable.” However, this is not a points that are consider her than plain carbon. of the same carbon content and also have higher ultimate precisely defined characteristic, and it should be anderstoos! tensile strengths. The chief disadvantage of some of the that such “weldability” refers to conventional metalare high-strength alloy stecls of moderate alloy content is thal welding. processes usually employer for plain carbon steel Ukey are more difficult to fabricate because they have low Table 3.2 gives properties of low-alloy, high-strength stools ductility. Some have an ineveasing tendency to air-harden, recommended by API Standard 12 C195 which may result in localized tresses in_welded joints In select material for large-diameter vertical vessels However, these disadvantages may be avoided if the alloy ‘content and the carbon content. are both kept relatively low, they are in low-alloy, high-strength steels. Many steel manufacturers do not produce these steels to standard specifications as they do plain carbon steels but use a Variety of formulas marketed under various nld he given to the Lypes of failure that ‘curred in the past. In 1952 two unisual tank fil uurred in England while the tanks were being hydro statically tested with water at 40° F (91). Figuee 2 shows the eatastrophie nature of the failure. One tank was rule names, rude-oil storage tank LO ft X 54 ft with a floating ro Table 3.1. Properties of Plain Carbon Steels, Recommended by API Stondard 12 € (Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute) 1 2 @) © Steel Phosphorus, Sulfur,* ‘Tensile Blongation Specit mus, max, Strength, Yield Point min, pox cent ations percent percent psi tin, psi Te 2 in Tntin Plate SA-Tand Acid 0.06 0.05 60,000-72,000 33,000 ( 1,500,000 Basic 0-04 insite sivonstht Acid 0.06 0.05 35,000-65,000 30,00 at ( 1,500,000 ) asic OF Tensile strength Structural Shape Requirements ate same as given above for A-T pla Stool Castings ASTM-A-27, 0059.06. 60,000 min $0,000. 24 Grade 60-30) fully annealed * From ladle analysis made by monufucturer; eheck analysis fom finished material by purchaser may show 25% more, {See exceptions listed in particular specification, — Copper when coppersteel plates or structural ‘minimum percentage, 0.20. pes are specified38 Design of Shells for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels ‘and the other was a gas-oil storage tank 150 UX 48 fe with ‘cone roof, A fairly large number of similar tanks failed in this eountey. ‘These failures and those encountered in welded “Liberty” ships and T-2 tankers (02, 93) have stimulated studies on the reason for such failures (53, 94, 95, 96) “The failures of the two British ta in the welds in the shell. In the c tank, the flaw initiating was incomplete penetra in a weld-probe replae ted across the first hori- zontal welded joint. The crack progressed vertically in both directions with brittle fracture up to the fifth course: the fracture of the upper four courses was by shear. signifi were traced to flaws ‘of the crude-oil storage Ihis wnt that, the rupture occurred entirely across the ny of the vert The gas-oil storage tank failed in a similar ‘manner. In this ease the flaw was in a paetially repaired crack in the top 10 in, of a yertieal joint in the top of the first course. As in the il tank, this erack peogressed vertically in both directions with brittle frac in the frst four courses a ing upper courses, The fracture accarred chiefly across the plates as in the other failure except for the fifth course where it traveled through a vertical welded joint Those two ruptures appear to be examples of foilure by plates and not along al welded joints in the ase of the erade- nd with shear fracture in the remsin- notch brittleness as a resnlt of a erack existing in the length greator than gation, See Chapter ess and eri late aa location of high stress and bavi the critical erack length for erack pro 2 for discussion of noteh brittlen lengths. A complete investigation was made of samples of ste from the two tanks which failed. The samples were impact tested at vari pared with corresponding data for other steels used for vyossol construction (53, 91, 94, 95). construction of these tanks was id British steel similar to SA-283, G cal crack ures and the results were com 0s tempe} ‘The steel used in the ptified as BSL fade C, Some of the Table 3.2. Principal Provisions of Specificat resulls ofthese tests are given in Fig. 2.9 (58), in the previous chapter. The conclusion made was that the British stool hhad properties within the specification given and was as American steels of equivalent quality. ‘The steol at the time of hydrostatic test was at. temperature (40°F) within the transition-temperatnre range (see Fig, 2.9). Tf the flaws had been smaller in size, or if a more ductile steel had been used, or if the hydrostatic test had been carried out at-a higher temperature, the vessel prob- bly would not have failed good as simil ‘Those failures demonstrate th inspection of welded joints Even if eracks cannot be avoided, a high degree of protec: tion against brittle fracture can be obtained with low-carbon steels if the steel has a minimum specification of 15 ft-lb in the Charpy V-noteh test-at the lowest sorvioe temperature (47, 96). When specifying fine-grained steels or semikilled steels of low ngnese, a 30 fLb Chi V-notch value would give similar protection (96) majority of the steels presently used for storage: struction do not mect this specification at temperatures elow 50°F. It is recommended that for service tompera below 50°F, steels meeting the above specification |, such as ABS, class C or SA-201, Grade B (67) and that all weld joints in the shell be radiographed. of sound welding procedures and thorough bon with py The atk cor 3.2 ESTIMATED COST OF TANKS Storage tanks require considerable cxpital investment. Ifa Fimited quantity of fuid is to be handled, a single tank may suffice, in which ease the magnitude of the proportions is controlled by the volume of fuid to be stored. Where a large nuumbor of tanks are requized, itis generally true that, Iarger tanks give a lower cost per unit. yolume of storage ‘than amaller tanks, This is indiented in Fig. 8.3, which shows that the total installed cost of a 1,000,000-gal con roofed tank is approximately $32,000 whereas. the corte sponding eost of a 10,000-gal tank is about.83000, 2 hundred. 19s on Low-alloy, High-strength Steels, Recommended by API Standard 12. (Gourtesy of American Petroleum Institute) mM ¢ a) Chemical Requirements Mani Phos- phorus Carbon Sulfur ASTM.A.242 Ladle Analysis k Analysis -knesses Bq to 34 in. incl, Over 3 to 134 in cl 0.050 0.063, 134 to Sin, inl SAE 950 ‘Thicknesees: 0.0710 to 0.2299 in., inc 7300 to 34 in. inc. Over 36 to 1 in. incl Over 1 to 2 in, incl, 0.200 1.25 0.150 0.050 ‘max, per cont ¢ o ) ® o ensile Requirements, mia. Tensile Yield Strength, Point, Elon min, per cont Silicon psd psi in Bia 70,000 50,000, 18 67,000 46,000, 19 000 42,000 4 yw 0.90 50,000 : 50,000 1,500,000 100 ey Tensile strensthFig. 32. Fallre of Betih sage tok ol Fawley, England (90. Couteny of Fold increase in volume for approximately 11 times the cost of the smaller tank. However, the large tanks are 1 always selected b of the greater f ‘bility peemitted i storing a variety of fluids in a battery of smaller tanks, For such reasons no general rule can be made for the selec ptimum number of tanks. ist of various types of large-sized storage tanks is given in Fig. 34 (97). ‘The eost doe ‘of the foundation. ‘The cost of tanks fa ‘ous materials (18), field-ereeted steel tanks (98 tanks under 1000 zal (99) bas orto in the literate (See also Figure 3.5 shows the weight of steel and the cost in dollars per tom for larg thnks (97). 1 inckude the cost and small and 28.) diameter 3.3. OPTIMUM TANK PROPORTIONS Before a storage tank ean be des height to diameter must be established col tanks f at atmospheric pressure usually range from 10 to 220 fu 6 to 6b. Typical tank dimen: E. No general rule ean be given for the selection of the hoight-tord tio because this ratio is often a function land area, gud, the proportion of ‘The diameters of and the heights vary from ons are listed in Appendix of the processing reaicements, bight Figure 3.6 tanks of various height-to-diameter ratios mitations 8 group of vil-storage The volume of a single tank, which may be one of a » Optimum Tank Proportions 108 10" 10 108 olumeticcapacty in ellons Fig. 22. Estimated cow of smell ond medumsized Mat bottomed cone Steet Bote cont -F extras {freight = 6b fetal weight X (6e + fabcaion cout + erection cost40. Design of Shall for Flt bottomed Cylndiol Vessels ro , vol 3 oo bo | s Topi ‘curve is a straight line between = 6 i ged ais snd he ore — ; Tiree nas a 7 ‘optimum propor pe stn cols pet ton Weight in Capacity in thousands of bares sais and other considerations such as prosiuetion ile vd seasonal variations in storage requiren mn of the tank diameter, D, vo height, H, ies bet : BOG) 7 B99 100 T0120 130 140 180 Ted 170 ied 190 200 tory of tanks, may be determined hy the process require- exists with tanks of small volume i bility and corrosion control the thicknesse ‘=. ‘The the optimum ratio of D/H occurs when the shell thicknesses junction of both Dand H, and the unit Prot ele erlinit forthe optimum bottom and roof are independent of Dand #7. This cond tntio of D/H oceurs when the shell, bottom, and roof costs tion exists with t Fig. 34, Etimoted insoled (G1. (Coutesy of Pew Procesing, MeGrew-Hit ‘hing Cod which clastic stability The upper limit for rea costs of the f large volume. unit area are independent of Dand H. "This condition "The optimum proportions of a tank are influenced by the 700, 0 «00| 7 ~ “weit of tanks J a _|__ wth'pontoen root 480] 400) 250] | ost of contrat Jans pr ton tT rot ony Lees | I See ee ww IO BBO 108 HO TO 1 ‘Copaity in thousands of barrels mee 75 160" 170 180 156 200 Fig. 3.5. Weight ord cst per ton af lorge-diometer tots (971 (Courtesy of Potoleum Proves Ing, McGraw Hl Fusing CoOptimum Tank Proportions 4) fig, 46, Olsorage tanks of varius heightto-dlameter rai, Three 96,000-bbl tanks 120 fn dianatar by 48 leon Warts cometor by 24 f high oppaor athe backgroud. (Courtecy of Horm ‘cost of the foundations and the cost of the land in the tank area that, is chargeable to the tank as well as by the eost of the bottom, shell, and roof, if rexuited. ‘The value of the land chargeable to the tank may be expressed in tr ‘snnual eost per unit a ms of an a. For purposes of tank proportion- ing, itis also convenient to express the eust of the founda tion, bottom, shell, and 1 tunit area as follows F, if used, in terms oF ext per Let D ~ diameter of the vessel, feet FH = bwight of the vessel, feet V = yolume ofthe vessel cubic feet = EPH neat uy De When Ay foot = x DI Ag = area of the vessel bottom or the projected cof the roof, squate feet sre of the shell, <4 Dt t ey = annual cost of fabricated shell, dollars per square foot 4 = annual cost of fabeieated bottom, dollars per square foot 5 = annual cast of the fabrical square foot of projected area roof, dollars per {¢4 = annual cost of the installed foundation under the vessel, dollars per square foot of tank- bottom area ¢5 = annual cost of the land ia the tank ates chargeable to the tank, dollars per square foot of tank-bottom area = total annual cost of the vessel, dollars per then C= (he) + Ade tetate) @2 Substituting for the areas Ay and Aa, we obtain © ee Dae abet en To determine the optimum tank proportions by using Eq. 33, are variables prior to difforentiation, 33a Tanks Hoving Shell Thickness Independent of D cond 11, ‘The stress in the shell is a function of both the diameter and the height of the lank, as indicated in Eqs B.18and 3.19, Forreasonsof elastic stability, the minimum, sholl thickness is limited to 34 in, for 15-f¢ tanks and smaller and to %4 in, for tanks of larger diameters. ‘Therefore, is necessary to determine whieh of the cost terms42 Design of Shells for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels tanks having shell thicknesses of 14 in. oF less may be cone sidered to have a shell thickness independent of FT and D. Substituting 1(-in. shell thickness into Eqs. 3.18 and 3.19, results in the following 0.25 = 0,0001456 (H ~ 1)D D(H = 1) = 1720 for butt-welded shells (3.4) and D(H ~ 1) ~ 1815 for Inp-welded shells (3.5) Thus all tanks with butt-welded or lap-welded shells haying a value of D(H — 1) equal to or less than 1720 oF 1615 respectively fall into this category. ‘Tanks of small volume falling into the eategory of Eq. 3.4 ‘or Eq. 35 have shell, bottom, and roof costs per unit ares which may he considered independent. of D and H. Using Eq. 3.3 and differentiating the total cost, C, with respect to the diameter of the vessel, D, and considering th V, to be known and the cost factors, er ¢2 €2 ¢4 and egy a8 volume, constant known factors for the volume considered, Wwe obtain: ac Wo), xD pr pet ye tatatea. Actually, the individu: various. tank comps proportions and with design considerations, tank costs ‘corzelationsindiente that for purposes of estimating installed tank costs, the cost is primarily a function of the total volume and that total installed costs do not bly with the wait costs off component parts. the consideration of unit-cost, factors reasonable ayproxim For minimum cost. the slope of the curve of cost versas and 4, of the ik ctors such as als will vary somewhat with nk volume and other Many corre ave heen presented in the literature tions for estimating These appre Therefore the diameter of the vessel to contain the fixed volume, V rust be equal to zero (dC/aD = 0). Therefore te tate) <0 Solving for D, we obtain: on Gra tata) Substituting for the volume V, we obtain: a (3.6) er bes bey Fee 3.36 Tonks Having Shell Thicknesses Dependent upon D and H. Tanks having heights and diameters such that, the quantity D(H = 1) exeeeds 1720 for butt-welded shells or 1515 for lap-welded shells have shell thicknesses which are depondent upon D and H. The cost of the shell per init atea, cy, i @ function of D and Hand for purposes of proportioning may be assumed to be dive e shell thickness as follows: = el = DD @n "Hb ce Substituting Big. 3.7 for ey in Kap. 3.3 gives: {Vlei — 19D), xD* D t c (ee bea beste Expanding and substitating For A by aV xD* (22) ort tate aD xD* a Beh? Deatatate) = Me Substituting By. 8.1 for Vand Ey 3:8 for eg gives: De, be spe Potatate = (ata) re) D, teeted = De Petatase = (aH) (iG) Since H ~ 1 for large tanks is approximately equal to H. it will be assumed that (H— 1) =H. Therefore ey bes) = dell In most designs the Dex pau( 3.3¢ Estimation of Cost Factors. east Factors, ee, and so on, cannot bs ncourately evaluated ‘until the design of Ube tank is known, a requirement which nevessitates suocessive approximations in determining the optimum proportions. ‘The eosts of the tank components, shell, bottom, and roof, are a function of the phate thick: ness, grade of steel, cost of fort and so forth, and include the cost of the accessories such cost of field welding, nozzles, manholes, pumps, ladders, platforms, and so forth, attached to the which a ious components, These factors are all interrelated, and in order to make ‘an estimate it is usually more convenient Lo express them in terms of Uho cost of the Fabricated component parts of the vessel per pound of fabricated material because infor- mation concerning enst per pound is more readily avaible 3.3d_ Simplified Cases of Optimum Proportions. To demonstrate the use of Ea. 2.6, theve simplified cases will be presented. For the first case, consider a small open tank and diste For sapall tanks ard the costs for land and foundationthe shell thickness is often the If the cost per square foot of shell, ¢ the cost per square foot of bottom, ies, en 5 = 0, then, by Eq. 3.6, is taken as equal to then e: = e4; and b= 2H" ~2H G10) aro+oro However, the shell is generally more expensive than the bottom partly because of the additional eost of rolling the shell plates, For the second case, consider a small elosed vessel having the same cost per unil-arca for shell, roof, and bottom and Aisrogard the ecst of foundations and land, And ie and os D : =H eu) eke Fo For closed vessels also the cost of the shell per unit area is generally greater than the cost of the hottoms per unit ea for the reasons previously stated, Furthermore, the erally greater than the bottom costs per unit area because of the structural steal requited for the roofs of all but. si roof costs are I vessels For the third ease, consider a large closed tank in which the roof and shell costs are twice the cast of the bottom. per unit. area And if cy and ¢5 = 0, D =in @.12) 2+0 Introducing the actual values of foundation and land costs, c4 and ¢s, into the equations has the obyious effect of increasing the heizht-to-diometer ratio. It is apparent that in arwas where land is cheap and the tanks can be easily supported on the soil without. expensive foundations Table 3.3. (Courtesy of Amet Approximate Working Capacity, bbl Outside 166, 200 266 366 11-1000 1500 L-1000 2000 3000 Shell Design of Large Storage Tanks 43 esigns rosull in tanks having Tow he ameter ratios 3.4 SHELL DESIGN OF SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED ‘VESSELS (PRODUCTION TANKS) Small and medium-sized vertieal vessels with flat bottoms, called production vessels in contradistinetion to storage vessels) are usually fabricated from steel plate of a sing thickness. ‘Their optimum proportions are similar ta these discussed previ =H). The design ‘of such vessels is simple and has been standardized for te oil industry (100, 101) as described in Fig, 3.7 and Table 3.3. The shells of such yossols are usually fabricated of either 3{¢-in. or 24-in. plate with plate widths preferably not less than 60 in. A mild steel meeting SA-7, SA-283, Grade C or D (open-hearth or electrie steel only) is speci fied. ‘The shell plates are usually either douhle-welded Dutt joints with complete penetration of weld motal or single-welded butt joints with backing strips with complete Penetration of weld metal. ‘The design of the bottom and roof (deck) is covered in Chapter 4, usly in ease two ( 3.5 SHELL DESIGN OF LARGE STORAGE TANKS. ‘The majority of tanks and vessels are eylindrieal because @ oylinder has great structural strength and is easy to fabricate Ariel shel Several types of stresses may occur in a eyline These may be recognized as 1 Longitudinal stress resulting from pressure within the vessel, 2. Circumferential stress resulting. from pressure within the vessel; 3. Residual weld stresses resulting from localized heating; 4. Stresses resulting from superimposed loads such wind, snow, and io auniliary equipment, and impact loads, 5. Stresses resulting from thermal differences: 6. Others, ‘has may be encountered in practice 35a Stresses in Thin Shells Based on Membrane Theory. Simple equations may be derived to determine the ‘minimum wall thickness of a Uhin-walled cylindrical vessel Typical Dimensions for Production Tanks (100, 101) can Petrole Height of Walkway Location of FillLine Connection, tions, 4 LW u im44 Design of Shells for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels 28" 36" cleanout lov Be. 316 %' holes \ Drain-tine “\ Aaichannel ‘ran (options) sie edge of tank Det, thlef-hatehoutet Overtow-tne verfow-in connection ‘connection. Faltine ‘annecton Ventcne connection E pene connection Thie-hateheatout K 28 Yi holes “into flange on) 20'-diam dome Vent-hne / Fitting Detail of dome fe Be min 4" bolt oes — +f | \ [ec | orate pS | mais Trot | - [i Asien | sos ie | walwoy bracket gs ff Ti j vation Fig. 27. Standard design for small ard masiom-ied vows (production fonts] a: teconmended by API Slandard 12 0. (S00 Table 3. fr dimensions} {Coutesy of Ametcon Patol ute)Fig. 38. Loncitdinal forces acing on thn cylinder under iternal re 3.8 shows a di representing a thin-walled eylindri form stress, may he assumed to occur in the wall as result "The nomenckature used in Figs. 3.8 with am internal pressure. Fi ran vessel in which a uni ‘of internal pressure, and 3.9 i = length, inches = inside diameter, inches f= thickness of shell, inches ‘p= internal pressure, pounds per square ineh gage Longitudinal Stress, Ion stresses only, the longitudinal force, P, resulting from a limits the analysis to pressure internal pressure, p, acting on a thin eylinder of thickness f, length f, and diameter d is: P force tending Lo rupture vessel longitudinally pe? 4 and a = avea of metal esisting longitudinal rupture etd Therefore 0 PAIN _ Pl induced stress, pounds — ca tire inch (3.13) Cincumrenentiat Stans. [Cone refers to Fig. 2.9 and considers the circamferentiol stresses caused by internal pressure only, the following nalysis may be developed P= force tending to rupture vessel eizcumforentially pall a = area of metal resisting force at P_ pall _ pd ae geen atl tu bt (3.14) Shell Design of Large Storage Tanks 45 A comparison of Ey. 3.13 with specific allowable stress, fi fer and given pres: sure, the sin the pressure for the condition of Eq. 3.11 is twiee that required for the condition of Eq. 3.13. Therefore, the Eq. 3:14 is “controlling” and is the commonly used “thin walled exquation” referred to in the various codes for vessels 4. 3.14 indicates that for diam hickness required to eo hiekess as determined by This equation makes no allowance for corrosion and does not recognize the fact that welded seams or joints may eause weakness Jows Erricrencres ap Conrosto Anowance. In vessels for atmospheric storage the welded joints are seldom aphed stress relieved or radio ‘The welded seam may wy a8 the adjoining rolled-steel plate of the a found from experience that an allowance de for such weakness by introduc efficiency factor,” FB into Kgs. 3.18 and 3.14. This factor is always less than unity and is specified for a given type of welded construction in the various codes. ‘The thickness of metal, ¢, allowed for any anticipated rot be as stro shell, Tt has may be then added to the calculated required thickness, and the final thickness value rounded off to the nearest, nominal plate size of equal or greater thicknes 3.18 ec Exquati pd fo ‘ (as) et c and Eq. 3.14 becomes: pa : t- e G6 ae t y whore { = thickness of shell, inches 1p ~ internal pressure, pounds per square inch @ = inside diameter, inches f= allowable working stress, pounds per square inch F = joint efficiency, dimensionless (see Table 13.2) ¢ = corrosion allowanee, inches Mopiricarion or Equarions, maxima allowable working st usidered approxi fone third of the ultimate tensile strength of ‘the steel; that is, a safety factor of 3 is employe For storage vessels the whieh is common For static structural loads on steel. ‘The stresses TAA NES) Cemferetal forces acting on thin ylnder under internat45 Design of Shells for Flot-b computed on the assumption that the tank is filled level with water at 60°F (density 62.37 Ib per eubie £0) fand that the tension in each ring is ealeulated at a point 2 in. above the conter line of the lower horizontal joint. of the horizontal row of welded plates being considered. ‘Tho hydrostatic pressure in cylindrical storage tanks varies from @ minimum at the top of the upper most course to a maxinsum at the bottom of the le determining the plate thickness for a particular course, a ‘course, In design based upon the pressure at the bottom of the course resulta in overdesign for the rest of the plato and therefore A design based ‘upon the pressure at the top of the couse would resull in does not represent maximum economy. underdesign, which would not be good engineering practice However, some consideration should be given to the addi- restraint offered by the plates adjoining » particular se, the plates of the vessel hot- ble restraint. to the bottom shell course. "This additional restraint of the bottom edge is effective for fan appreciable distance or height. from the bottom of the lowest conse course. In the lowest tom offer consider In an intermediate course with a course of heavier plates below, the top of the heavier plates will be tunderstressed; this will tend to cancel any overstressing the Therefore, a design haved upon the pressure at-a height of 1 ft from the bottom of the course may he considered conservative. The fol 1s may be derived if one assumes that. the density of the fluid will not exceed that of water, which is used for the hydrostatic test of the tank. (4-1) =e stom of the course question low (7) here p = density of water at 60°F = 62.87 Ib per cubie fk = height, in feet, from the hottom of the course under consideration to the top of the top angl ‘or to the bottom of any overflow which limits the tank's filing height p= internal pressure, pounds per square inch For double-welded bultjoint construction, the above definition of p may be substituted into Eq. 3.16. When ‘one uses an allowable design stress of 21,000 psi for SA-T plate and a joint efficiency of 0.85 for doubled-welded butt Joint construction, the following substitution results: 62.37H — 2) 22i,000)(0.85)(144) | therefore 6 = 0.000145 (HD+ 8) where 1 = shell thickness, inches HI = hight as dofined in Eq. 8.17, feet D = inside diameter, feet ¢ = corvosion allow nee, inehes If doublo-full-fillet lap-joint consteuet corresponding joint efficiency, B, is 0.75. Thon becores: 1 = 0.0001650¢EF If Iowalloy h allowable stress is taken as 60% of the minimum yield DD +e igh-steength steel is used, the maximum tomed Cylindrical Vessels point. When one uses double-welded butt joint and low- alloy high-strength steel construction Eq. 3.18 becomes: 90(D\(H + S Fe (3.20) uw For lap-welded construction, 1 (DH — 1) ey es where fo, = minimum specified yield point of steel plate pounds per equare inch Steels of different: composition should not be mixed in any course of a vessel, with the exception that itis permissi- bie to use a different steel for providing reinforcing arca for shell openings. In ease two different steoks are used in any part of an axca of reinforcement the stress contesponding to the weaker stocl should be used to determine the thick ross of shell metal to he reinforced. Equations 8.18 and 8.29 are given in API Standard 12C ‘and apply only to the steel mate When other materials of construction are used, the con- sats of these equations must be recaleulated through the use of the proper value for the allowable stress. 3.5b Practical Considerations in Selecting Shell-plate Tt should he emphasized that Eqs. 8.15, 3.16, 3.19 are useful only for predicting the thickness of 1 required to withstand the internal pressure, Other ability, live Toads, wind, ice fon procedures must he eon Minimumthickness specifications for tanks by 1d 12 € include some of the als approved by the code Dimensions. 31 factors such as structural s and snow loads, and fabri sidered, API St ‘other eonside tions: they are listed in the tables of Appendix: summarize the important points of these tables, consider first the thickness of the tank shell. Tt should not be less than 4 in, for tanks 50 to 120 ft in diameter, ®q in, for tanks 120 to 200 ft, und 36 in. for tanks over 200 ft; oF Tess in, for tanks smaller than 50 ftin diameter. ‘These re derived from practical onsiderations of stiffness, corrosion allowance, wind loads, and so on. ‘Tanks having: shell thicknesses greater than these minima may use decreas ing thicknesses for the upper courses The thickness for the upper courses necessary to contain the hydrost ‘pressure may he determined by substituting the appropriate depth of liquid into Bq. 3.18 or 8.19. nese should not be less than the minimum, Trt should be noted that these mi fmetions whieh ec However, the thick are expressed in respond to mill plates of standard thick ness. In general it is more economical to fabricate the smaller vessels from mill plate of standard thiekness than to order plate rolled to a specified thickness the large vessels the hydrostatie pressure However, for shell must be thicker to withstand the With this grea ity and corrosion are no longer the controlling factors er shell thickness, Some reduetion in eost may result fron ordering these phstes rolled Lo thickness, especially if the required plate thickness lies about midway between standard plate sizes In specifying shell-plate widths « compromise must be made between the costs of the material and the costs of field welding including plate preparation such as edgew iE butt ont Double-bevel double weides bit jant outa welded Top pat Horizontal Joints Plates 80 to 90 in, oride may be purchased at base cost without the inclusion of a price Plate widths ovor 90 in. cary “width extra” charge which increases appresiably with increase in width, Thotefore, it is advantageous to use the widest phite possible that does not involve an excessive extra cost, Asa result, plates having a width of 96 in. are most exten sively used. working for butt welding extra for width, In specifying plate lengths, there are no price extras for lengths between 8 and 50 ft when mill plates are purchased. “Poerefore, the longest plates which ean be readily handled and shipped are specified. Thus plate lengths of approxi imately 20 Lo 30 ft, are selested since longer plates are dif cult to handle, ‘The exact length of the plates is determined by dividing the eireunférenee by the number of shell pla with proper allowance made for the vertical weld joints. 35¢ Butt-welding versus Lap-welding. The plates of the shell may be butt- or lap-welded depending upon the Gesign and economic considerations, However, 3 in. is the maximuin plate thickness for lap-wolded horizontal joints and 3¢ in. is the maximum plate thickness for lap: Welded vertical joints, Butt-welded joints may he used for shell plates for all thicknesses up to and including 134 in. for plain carb in. for low-alloy high-strength steel plates. Scaring of the plates for lap-welded joints is not necossary. For this reason, plates for lap-welded joints are less expensive; however erection by butt welding is somewhat, faster. Because of the present high labor casts most tanks are now fabricated sool-plates and up to and including 13,4 The plates for Ihutt welded joints must be squared. oC oS ‘Typical shi ints recommended by API Stondord 12 C Shell Design of Large Storage Tanks 47 of Vo (— y C J double-weldes Dovble-weked iat je ‘uit, Vertical Joints (courtesy of American atcteum lnsiee) bby butt welding, Bach course of the tank must be inside the course beneath it when the horizontal joints are lap welded, any of three consecutive courses ‘Vertical seams should not be in alignment for ‘against localized conditions of stenss at welds and aids in assuring the distribution of the siresses uniformly Unrough: foul the vessel ‘The requirement of 2 minimum distance ‘of 2 ft between vertical joints in adjacent courses is an additional Tn the butt welding of the shell, the joints should pre ably be doubled welded with complete penetration and fusion, A single-welded butt joint. with backing may be used instead, with the same joint efliioney. It is partieu- larly important that the vertical butt joints haye comple penetration and fusion because tunder the full tensile stress in the shel. not under this. tensile stress joints a ‘The horizontal joints are However, for Structural strength against wind loads, and so on, and for prevention iy noteh brittleness, all horizontal single-beveled ints should have complete peneteation, as shown in Fi 10s. With squared plates (square-groave) and donbl beveled butt plates for horizontal joints, as shown in Fig 1a and ¢ respectively, incomplete penetration may be used for the sake of economy. However, with partial pen tration the thickness of the unwelded portion should not exceed one-third the thickness of the thinner plate, and the unwelded portion should he located at- approximately the center of the thinner plate, If a horizontal butt joint is offaet because of different plate thicknesses, the inside surfaoes should be flush, of failure= r IL, IL, . o Lap joints should have an overlap of at least 5. ¢ inches, and in no ease should the overlap he less than 1 in, al lop joints should have continuous full-filet. welds fdde and out. On horizontal lap joints, as shown in Fig. 3.11, the fillet should have a size not less than one third the thickness of the thinner plate, and in no case should it be less than $46 i, Figure 3.11 also shows a horizontal butt-welded shell of a storage vessel Jt the base courses are plain Note that the heavier courses fare V butt-wolded, whereas the upp butt-welded. 3.5d_ Cold Forming of Shell Plates. Plain carbon-steel shell plates having a thickness of 345 to 3{ in. for tanks having a diameter of 40 or more oF low-alloy high-strength stecl plates for tanks having a diameter of 50 flor more ean be deflected on erection and therefore need not he cold formed by rolling to the radius of curvature of the shell If the diameter is 60 ft or more for plain carbon steel or 100 ft or more for low-alloy high-strength steel, shell plates hhaving a thickness of 3¢ to 14 in. may be deflected on erec- tion without cold forming. Plain carbon-stecl plates of and diameters over 120 ft However, all plain carbon-stec] 1g a thickness of 5 in. and over and all low- alloy high-strength steel phites having a thickness of 14 in, or aver must he cold formed to the shell radius regardless of the shell diameter. Figure 3.12 shows the field welding of horizontal butt-welded seams of the shell of a lange tank 3.5e Shell Parts In addition to the shell plates variety of other shell paris and accessories must be consid- cred in the shell design. Figure 3.13 shows typical tank accessories including shell nozzles, manholes, ladders, and nena. Noznes. from the tank are a into the tank shell sand may be fal thicknesses from 1% to % in. tneed aot be cold formed, plates havi Pipe lines which bring the fluid to and wched Lo short pipe connections welde ‘These connections are called “nozzles ted of serowed pipe fittings if the pipe size is not over 8 in, nominal pipe size. For small pipe sizes, screwed fittin are usually preferred! because they thon flange fittings pipe with Ler tan 2 in, is rather difficult Lo fit because such heavy pipe is so ¥ that it cannot be deflected Unreads during fitting. Therefore, for practical reasons it is recommended that any nozzle having a nominal size seater than 2 in. have flange fitings. It is usually desira ble to locate nozales for filling and discharaing near the bottom of the tank to obtain the benefit of gravity in dis charging and to avoid pulling a partial vacuum on fluids which are volatile, are cheaper However, serewed fittings having a nominal size gre to aid in aligning the However, water and sludge may sepa rate and collect. on the bottom. To avoid sludge out of the discharge line, the discha usually placed on the shell a short distance above the bat tom, “Another nozzle with a sump is placed at the bottom, to remove material accumulating below the disch nozzle and to completely drain the vessel. Typical nozzles of both the screwed/-fiting and flange-fitting type are shown in Fig, 3.14, and standard dimensions for these nozzles ate siven in Items 1 and 2 of Appendix P. Sueit Manuones. Manholes are necessary in closed vessels to permit inspection, cleaning, repairs, and so on, These manholes may be located on the shell of on the roof or at both locations. “Manholes located on the shell have the advantage that it is somewhat easier to use a shell Shell manholes have ‘opening to clean or repair a vessel the disadvantage that they usually cannot be opened wnless the vessel is emply and therefore are not used as often for inspection as roof manholes, 1 of Appendix Fo. a2 Hammond tron Works) Feld welding of shell cicomferetial but flat, (Courtesy ofgives typical dimensions for shell manholes and manhole cover plates designed as shown in Fig. 3.15, All openings such shell in which the Reavroncrarnr oF Sut, OPENINGS. as nozzles and manholes, made in th ‘opening is over 2 in. in diameter should be reinforced. The reinforcement. provents. local 0% around the opening. ‘of the reinforcement should nat. be less than the product ‘of the vertical diameter of the hole cut in the tank shell times the shell plate thickness. ‘The cross-sectional ares ‘ol the reinforcement is measured parallel to the axis of the shell neross the center of the opening, wstressing of tho shell "The minisum cross-sectional area @ Fre vent ® conzenaton vert. ® sheave i “ cncten | © ft . © soe any wien o © Nowe @ soien © Water draw-ott 7 Shell Design of Large Storage Tonks 49 sidered as available for reinfo four times the neck-wall thickne side of the shell. ‘The metal ia the nock lying within the sheti-plate thickness may also be included. If the neck of the fitting extends both inward and outward as shown in the center and right of Fig. 3.15, credit. may be taken for ‘ance of eight Uieknesses plus the shell thickness, ment out to a distance of measured from the out the metal of the neck ove a yeck-wall Tn the case where two or mv together and the toes of th plates for these ope fillet welds fixing the reinforcing . ings come within twice tho shell th @ Goce mater. /@ fost manne B tceatr a) =f Tank goee es (Fose nantae SB ei, 8 orin 7A Fg, 2.12, Uwl accesories and figs on sandard conereof tanks. (Courety of Hammond kon Works) Included os standard Incloded os ero 1. One 20" sell manhole 9. Sune 15. Conecton for fom chamber One 20" roof manhole 10. Swing ine wt compote 16, Drain One 6 gouge hath 1. Water deawof 7. ame oreser oof neste for ve! {12 or 13) 12. Conservation ven vote produ) 1, Anitrocre valve edd (l ton oly 13, Fran vont onward) 1-8 Este units Spiral oirway 14 Co) ToraeLtype flat gouge 5. (al Inde ladder Flange for woter draw-of Reinforcement metal may include any one of the Four metal parts listed below or any combination of them: tal in the attachment flange of an attached 2. The metal of a reinforcing plate 3. The metal of any excess shell-plate thickness beyond that. oquired from a calculation of the minimum plate thickness, 1. The metal in the neck of a fitting. This ean be con- sidered as part of the reinforcement area. If the fitting ‘extends only outward. the metal in the neck may be con- : 14. (6) Gromd-reading-type Roa! gauge ness of each other, a single reinfor This plate should be proportioned for the largest opening in the group. I the reinforeing plates for one or more small, ‘openings are of such a size that. they lie entirely within the area of the reinforcement plate for the largest opening, the cluded in the normally de reinforcement plate for the largest opening without i ing Uhe size of this reinforcing plate, If, however, any ‘opening intersects the vertical center line of another open: ing, the width of the reinforcement (along the vertical center line of either opening) should not be less than the sum of the swidths of the toro plates that would normally be used ing plate should be used, small openings ean be i50 Design of Shells for Flot-bottomed Permissible Square cut Bolt holes sha straae the flange center lines Cylindrical Vessels + | be subsite forte pate, shown forthe 3" to Osi. size zs inclusive, prowided the ‘bometer of the crea plate Is mode equal to W ft tela enforcing pate may | foend reinforcing pate {Uo rads of lank shel Single Hane a) € nozzles ~, Toi desis Fg. 214. Shell nouses recommended by API Standard 12 C foe Heme tetate) Double fange @ Phase Vitauie ontivends Tank torn 2 ® Finally, if the normal reinforcing plates for the smaller the ‘openings do not fall within the area limits of the iment for the largest. opening, the group reinfore sh uld include within its outer limits the normal reinforcing inforce- Wi ig plate Tw plates for all openings in the group. to 3.5f_ Reinforcement of Top Course of Shell for Large is Open Tonks. Open vessels of large diameter may not have gird be made thicker, or sui Detail B | ond 2 of Append F for typical cimeenone) (Couraty of Amica Feral necessary inherent rigidity to. with hout. deforming and excessively straining the str 10 methods of stifle ng are available Use structure. ‘The use of thicker shell pl we costly than the use of ders or stiffening rings for 0 ning. gieders. shell plates: ma ble stiffening girders may be added usually nn tanks are located at or | | |Shell Design of Large Storage Tanks 51 OD x24" 1D tick Sata ca ternative designs of manholes Fg. 3.15, hell manoles recommended by API Standord 12.C(seeitoms3, 4, nd Sof Appendix Ffortpicl imemion. (Comteny of American Petrol wetive) near the Lop of the vessel on the top course of shell pla H = height of shell including any “freebo: The stffoning ring is placed preferably on the outside of the vided above the maximum filling height, shell rather than the inside . ; The ie nation metus as specified by APF Stand “The calculation of the available section modulus of the ard 12 Cfor the stiffening ring may be computed by Eq, _‘tillening ring may include a portion of the tank shell en Te which is considered to be ellective for a distance of 16 plate thicknesses from the ring, as indicated in Fig. 3.16. When 0.000107 a curb any attached to the top edge of the shell ring where z= section modulus, inches® by butt welding, this reinforcing distance should he reduced D = nominal diameter of the tank, feet by the width of the vertical leg of the angle. Table 3.452_Design of Shells for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels Fig. 3.16. Type rinforcoment for top course of shells For open vessels recommended by API Standard 12 C. notte) Tists the section moduli for the rings shown in F for two shell thicknesse’, Stiffening ring {structural sections or formed-plate sections or combinations of the two. TI Ininimum sie of the angle specified by Standard 12 C ther lone or with a built-up section is 21g x 244 X M4 ‘and the minimum plate thickness is 34 in, If the stiffening eTocated more than 2 ft below the top of the shell, num of a 214 X 244 X i» top curb angle is required for Sq-in. shells. A minimum of a 3X 3% ¥4 angle is required for }4-in. shells. Other members of equivalent Section modulus may be substituted, Drain holes should ‘hat may trap liquid. Stffening rings fare sometinaes used as walkways, in which ease they should provide at east 24in. of clear walking space and should be located preferably 3 ft, 0 in, below the top curb ane Any such angle having & horizontal web exceeding 16 times ‘the web thi support. TExawent: Duster 3,1, Winn Ganben rox Ove Vesse A. wind girder is required for an open vessel 80 f1, 0 in in inside diameter and 40 ft high, having thickness of 94 in ‘When one uses Eq. ‘may be made eitber be provided in rin ness requires suitable vertic top-course plate 3.22, the minimum section modulus cof the wind girder is 2 = 0.0001 = 0,0001,(80)"(40) When one uses the type of construction shown in detail B of Fig. 3:16, referring to Table 3.4, he finds that the appropriate dimension for the minimum width of the girder ‘web, b, it 12 in., which corresponds to a section modulus of 28.1 in? The rest of the sectional dimensions, including wind-girder plate thickness of }4 in., are fixed by detail E of Fig. 2.16, A stillening ring such as ths is fabricated by bending plate steel into the appropriate shape. Such a wide-webbed ring cannot be easily rolled to the required Table 3.4. Section Moduli of Verious Stiffening-ring Sections on Tank Shells, Recommended by APL Standard 12 C (Courtesy of American Petroleurn Institute) Shell Thickness, in, Member Size, he OM in, Section Moduli wle: detail A, Fig. 3.16 x om on jx 214 X He sl 052 x X36 0.89 oor Curb angle: detail B, F x BIg x 1G 16h Lz 25 x Se 204 x 248 x 335 ea 441 x 582 3.16 x 4) x35 Two angles: detail ax 4X 5 x 5 x ex 5x Formed plate: detail B, Fi 3.16 bin 10 7 2 1 “4 M3 a 108 v7 34) ed 0 105.1 nat 1.5 136.7 143.3ciameter because of its stiffaess. venient to weld steaight sections of formed plate, making a polygonal stiffening member. ‘The inside edge will be flame fut and made smooth to form an are having to that of the shell outside diamoter, Usually two or more ‘ections are welded end-to-end ia the shop to minimize the field welding required. Figure 3.17 shows a preliminary sketch of a wind-girder subassembly, using 20 equal sections with every two sections “Therefore, it more con- radius equal welded end-to-end for subassembly in the shop. For determination of web dimension, 2 ton, oF Wi, OF in. + 08 9” = 0.98769 192.25 0.98769 n= 480.25 in, = 18.135 in, = 1 ft, 6b in For determination of inside chord l th of subsssombly, Chord 40 fh, OF in. (sin 19°) Chord = 2480.25 in.)(0.30902) 206.814 in, = 24M, BEE in, For determination of outside chord length of subassembly Sheed = (40 ft, OF in.) + (fh, 6% in.) sin 18° Chord = 2(41 Ft, 63 in.}(0,30002) = 2(498.875)(0.50902) = 308.016 in = 250 8in For determination of outside chord length of section, Chord (A ft, 68 in.) sin 9° (498.975) (0.15648) 216 in, = 155. = 12n, UL Hin, Figure 3.18 shows typical detail designs for a wind girder for an open tank 80 ft in diameter and 40 f high as described in example design 3.1 3.5g Reinforcement of Top Course of Shell for Large Closed Tonks. Sucezs wir Roors Havine Conums Suevorr. If tanks are closed with a roof, the roof provides additional structural rigidity to the upper course of shell plates. As a result, smaller stiffening rings are used for closed vessels. For tankroofs with column supports having diameters of 35 ft or less, 234 x2 is the minimum- ars esr SE onan po #04 sy Fig. 221, Shell detail for example “dian 22. Perey het Section tveugh vert ents SNF Mack Description —_fs°%", Oraer 10 #2 PL 9SHW KOS” HI 44% 10 91 96"Y0-46 L (1200.34) — 10(0.1562: Bf, APE in. structural stability of the thin shell is the prime consdera- ae 10 120 731 abt in formed to the shell diameter. Frequently, however, thianerExample Design 3.2, Complete Shell Design for a Closed Vessel 36c Design of Top Angle. ‘The minimum-size wp angle for a tank larger than 60 ft, 0 in. in diameter with a roof supported on columns is 3 in. x 3 in, X36 in. and will, therefore, be used. Specifications will call for butt be sith welding of this angle to the top course, By using 10 lengths of top angle, the length of each angle section is ealeulated Figue as follows: 20 shows th Fig. 321 shows the shell PROBLEMS. 1. Ncone ‘optimum props incl tank having a filed eapacity of 100,000 bbl isto be designed, Determine the tion of D/H teow the following cost considerations. ‘The fabricated shell oof rafters, girders and columns), and bottom are estimated to cost 18, Li cents per Ib respietively, »Formdat ated to be $1000, Fixed annual charges including amortization, interest, and so on are estimated to be 10% per yenr based on initial installed cost. ‘The anawal charge for the land allocated to the tank avea is $500 2 A wind git wired hell Fabrica sections cocvespondi otis re ‘an open vessel 120 ft inside diameter and 48 ft high. ‘The from Yin. plate. If the wind girder consists of 30 identical ta detail Hof Fig. 3.16, determine the minimum section moduli and top course ofthe the girder dimensions. 3. Determine the required cross-sectional area of the stiffer ‘conical roof 30 [0 jn. in diameter having 4. The required shell plate thicknesses for the vessel described in proble mined from item 2 of Appendix E. Using these plate thi plot of circumferential stress versus heigl s ring for a self-supporting mangle @ of 15° with the horizontal be deter esses and 18 cours prepare a for the conditions of the hydrostatie text in which the vessel is filled with water ¥(1200.375) — 10(0.15625) Wxiz Hi in, elevation view of tank ss.” 7DESIGN OF BOTTOMS AND ROOFS FOR FLAT-BOTTOMED CYLINDRICAL VESSELS ‘additional loads, 4.) BOTTOM DESIGN The shape and design of the bottom for a storage vessel will depend upon such considerations as: the foundation hod for removal of the dogiee of sedimentation of suspended Interitont we Shall-to-botom jis ised to support the vessel, the m stored material, the inside Bottom pate Addo plate roe optional —, Sack wed Sinpe-welied ‘ofilet Sigf-welded but joint Top it wth Backing sp Botte-late joints Fa. A. Typical bottom joints recommended by API Stondard 12 C. (Courtesy of American Petrloum iste) * solids, corrosion of the bottom, and the size of the storage vessel, If ti a flat bottom and the safe bearing capacity of the soil is at least. 3000 Ib per sq ft the bottom is usually placed on a sand or gravel pad directly on the soil, If the tank hottom is diveetly supported by the ground, flexure of the bottom is prevented, and the bottom plates are under a simple compression load. ‘Theoretically « Tight age sheet metal, 16-gage or less would such a bottom fa thickness of at least 14 in. should be used. ions mentioned dictate the use of sufficient for However, to provide greater ease in weld- ind to allow additional metal for corrosion, plates i Por many years 5ig-in. phite was the most common plate thickness Bottom plates of 72 in, or more in width are proferred and plates 96 in, wide are usually specified. Plates of 14-in. thickness are usually hyp welded with a Jap margin of at least. 114 in, for all joints, ‘The bottom plates should extend beyond the shell-plate bottom weld at least. Lin, No more than three plate laps should be located within 12 in, of each other of of theshell. ‘Typ ‘eal welded joints for shell-to-hottom and bottom plates are shown in Fig. 41. Figure 4.2, a and by ai methods of shaping the sketch plates under the shell ring The sketch plates should he formed and welded in such a ‘manner that a smooth hearing surface for the shell plates is produced. ‘used for tank bott In regard to selecting the plates for the bottom, the lnrgest-sized plates available that can he Thandled and that have no cost extra for size are_usually the most economical. Plates 96 in, wide x 20 oF 30 ft Tong. are ofte Ie the hottom plates are laid symmetrically in relation Lo the center lines of the bottom plan, the number of different shaped plates will be reduced to a convenientlyExample Design 4.1, Bottom for a Tank 150 Ft, On. in Diameter 59 Shel late ) Fo. 42 Th ‘and eut in groups of four, when is an advantage hecause the plates can then be scribed if the bottom plates are symmetrical in relation to only one center fine, only two plates can be scribed and cut at one time. A bottom symmetrical along both center lines makes a large number of plates of differ ‘The simplest. sy metrical layout is to corners of four plates to intersect at the center of the tank bottom. Howe layout should not be used with Iap-welded construction because four plates will Iap at the joint. Also, this layout is sometimes wasteful ia that with some groups of din sions considerable serap may result from the plates atthe In stich a ease the bottom plates may be rear ranged with one plato eontered on the bottom. Tn this layout the center row is single, but all other rows have mates. ‘The center row will ha fe two perimeter plates of the same ize, but there will be four identical perimeter plates for each succeeding cow from center. ‘The sizes of plates and the location of euts on perimet Table 4.1. Dimensions of Welded Drew-off Elbow, Recommended by API Standard 12 C, All Dimensions in Inches-—See Fig. 4.5 Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute) Distance Distance from Distance from Diameter Diameter Center of from Center of of Hole of Rein- Elbow to Center of Outlet to in Tank foreing Face of Pipe Elbow to Bottom, Bottom, Plate, Outlet Sire* Shell, BC Dp Dg Flange, & alee eG 3% 3 BOT 44 ™ 18 4 9G Ty BE u Gm 936° 73g BBG a 8 Iaag 98 16GB * Extra-strong pipe, APE Standard 5 L Methods of sheping shah plates under the sel rng recommended by API Standard 12. Bt pate o [courtesy of American Pete Intite) plates can he readily calculated by use of Eq. 4.1 and by reference to Fig. BID — B) an yo a ates (ata) Means must be provided for the removal of liquid from the bottom of the vessel. A sump, shown in Fig. 44, may Flat-bottomed tanks using gravity or pump discharge may d means of a draw-off elbow, as illustrated Dimensions or a draw-off elbow ace given in Table 4.1 be used with a sump-pamp discharge. 4.2. EXAMPLE DESIGN 41, BOTTOM FOR A TANK 150 FT, 0 IN. IN DIAMETER A bottom is required f diameter. ‘The minimum allowable (2) plate thickness is in.: however, beeause of the lange tank size a plate thick- {a in. will be specified to provide additional pro- ‘inst loss by corrosion. ‘The bottom course of shell plates for this veseol is Ife in. thick, and a 5 in. il weld will Le used between the shell and the bottom plates. a tank 150 ft, 0 in. in inside Fig. 42. Relationship of bottom plate dierent66 Design of Botoms and Refs for Fla-bllomed Cylindrical Veses | ‘pening in batfom plate wT deve | yf Fig. 4A. Drow-of simp recommended by APY Standard 12°C (Courtesy of ‘erican Pertoum isi) tt weld ‘ematve for atom comer The bottom plates must extend a minimam of 1 in. beyond By Ba. to, the shell weld, or in this ease, the radius mast be inereased 2 minimum of (+ ¥¢ + He im.) or 284 in, A radius eat _g ff 75 ft, 3 ia, will be used for the bottom. ‘The cantral ‘ | bottom plates will be 96 in. wide by 31 f 8)4 in. in length. , | The bottom plates will he lap welded, and the joints will (150 ft, 6 in) 2 (15 1, 108 in be staggered so that no more than three plates are lapped 4 within 12 in, of each other or of the shel 024 Figure 4.6 shows a layout for such a hottom. Tt should be noted that the Jayout is symmetrical with respect to one axis, and thus only half of the bottom is shown. Tt is also evident that, except for the necessary staggering of the therefore plates, it is symmetrical with respect to the other axis 4 = 7300, 62 in ‘To demonstrate the use of Bq. 4.1 in this design, sions A and C will be calculated for points 2 and y on the ‘0 obtain the width of phate $-2 at point z, 8)s-in. plate layout, At point sr dimension Cis equal to one half the widths less (10 — 1) laps of 134 in. must he subtracted plate length of 31 ft, 84 in., and D is 150 ft, 6 in from dimension A. ‘The plate width is 96 in. ) — BB fh 0 in) 31M, 8h in S22 plate width at. 5 ft, 105 plate width, 15 ft, 108 in (67 11, OF in.) = 611, 6 in 2 9 in.) = (73M, 62 in te | | Tonk sett emt e Fig. 45. Welded draw-off albow ftrastong recommended by APL Standard 12 C. | Pipe {see Table 41 for dimononal 1 4 [courtesy of American Fetroloum | iatute) i 907-bng-rai ig elbow lgExample Design 4.1, Bottom for @ Tank 150 Ft, 0 In, in Diameter 61 at pla of btm avousarsto toe Biot sgns Saction through comer Section through lp il of Moteriot hsp Mork Descrption AMIS wt Mo Order Similarly, at point y dimension C is equal to 154 plat 47 SW32 Mle-96x/215" 3) BM AT Panse'xiRIs 31 8% phate widths less 3 plate Tape of 114 in., oF lengths plus 10 SHOE As-SEXIRTF 23 91 10 Me-B6/275" 23 96 4 SW18 Pe-M6HIOTEE IS WH 4 M-B6°N2 TS 1S 1h © = 15031, 8tin) + 2G, 0in) — atin) 4 OF) AesennBe 2 Me-s61275¢ 16 2 252 mesexrerse 2 e-t611275" 6 6h (681, 6f in) = Bin 4 59 mesexest 2 AL-s6Hi2IS* 19 0% 48 meseniaist 2 Aet612T* 1s of = 68 fi, 28 in 455 Arsene 2 M9412 758 22 9% 2 66 meseiese 2 Mr96°H12 5" 283% By Bq. dla 257 peeserreise 2 eB6°H1275" 155% 2 STA pe-sexrerse eee 2 68) Me-serrerse 2 Me96n1275* 21 186 re 2 SHA MesKae Bt Ce eearees 2 AeA 8 He = 662.562 — (68 f, 28 in.)? 4 S10 assure 7st 2 mes10075" 1 8 4 Si miseries 2 A964125" 20 is = 562.562 ~ 396.610 4 Fe mesexeTse 2 hacs6-n1275" 29.5% ae 2 58 Aeserers 2 Me SHIRTS" 12 18 pea nees oa | A= 401, 913 in, Fig. 46, Typcatbotlom layout for @ 150-- diameter tonkeoabs Jed punod—toek vel u Jook eu pepeesve 20 pajobe poe mone 70.Gem, "278 spunod o2 spunod og spuned ot SJ spunod o» RE Design of Bottoms and Roofs for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels asefore, for the layout shown in Fig. 4.6, the dimen- on for $-8 at point y is (an? (40 1, 948 jn) in) +4 6 ft, Ads in. 4.3. ROOF DESIGN "Tho most common shape for a tank root ia eo although In addition to th shape classifications, tank roofs may be ch types, self-supporting and nonsell-supporting, Regardless of shape or method of support, tank roofs are designed to carry a minimum live load of 25 Ib per sq ft in addition to the dead lond. figure whieh allows for combined wind and snow loads and eight. plant personnel who may travel across a roof a. the vessel-or to reach a manhole and 80 on, 1.7 shows the maximum snow londs to be antici- pated in yarious parts of the United States (137). 43a Self-supporting Conical Roofs. A self-supporting roof is one which is supported only on its periphery without the aid of additional support from columns. ‘Tank di eters for self-supporting roofs generally do not excoed 60 ft sand usually are Tess than 40 fe such heavy rafters that it is simpler to use one or more sup- domo of umbrella roofs are also used, fed into two ‘This live load is an average Any greater spans require porting columns and th eby reduce the span. Such roofs usually consist of roof plates supported on rafters, ized flat ottomed cylindrical tanks having eapacities of 400 and 3000 bbl or under respectively we extensively used in the petroleum industey (100, 101) ff the previous chapter shows proportions fi tanks, and Table 3.3 gives typical dimensions. ‘The roofs of these tanks are known as “decks” and are fabrieated. ‘of mild steel having specifications meeting ASTM-A-% ASTM-A.283 grade C or D (open-hearth or elect steel only). ‘The deck plates have th the shell plates, and a slope of I in, in 12 in, is used for the AL 39-in. ph the deck must. be reine forced with structural support if it is 1534 ft or larger in diameter but does not require additional reinforcing it itis Small and medium: Fi smaller indi x. If ¥4in. plate is used, no support is needed for 1514-f1 diameter tanks, but support is roquired for all Targer-diameter tanks, ‘The deck may he attached to the shell by one of the following methods. The deck may be flanged and welded hy: a doable-welded butt joint with complete penetration, a single-welded butt joint with, backing strip, or a full-fillet double-welded lap joint. If the deck is not flanged, it shoulel have fullfillet wel Iboth inside and outside. ‘For larger tanks with cone roofs the equation for stress in a cone under eit joints an internal or external pressnce can he derived as shown in Chapter 6 (seo Eq. 6.139). The roximum stsess will exist at the greatest diameter of the cone and will be: pd a (4) Lisi ce) whe ‘p= internal or external pressure inch gage pounds per square Roof Design 63 oe {= cone shell thickness, inches ameter, inches 0 = angle between cone element and horizontal ‘The stress as calculated by Eq. 4.2 will be eontsolling ‘only in the oase of thick eones used with press ‘of limited diamoter. In the case of large-diame roofs such as those used for storage tanks, the controlling factor is elastic instability prossive sttess that causes failure of a curved plate by ‘wrinkling is given by Eq. 224 + eonieal ‘The theoretical ertical com- Senses = 0.68! (2.24) where H = modulus of elasticity of material, pounds per equase inch 1 = thickness, inehes r= radius of curvature, inches (see Fig. 4.8) fossa = theoretical eritieal stress at which failure by ‘wrinkling occurs, pounds per sqiage inch ‘The safe compressive steoss that can he carried without wrinkling was investigated by Wilson and Newmark (43) in a series of experimental tests, AS a result of these tests d others (44), it was found that the safe compressive stress that can he imposed on a steel eylindeical shell with- ‘out failure by wrinkling is one twelfth of the theoretical critical stress and can be expressed for ras follows: vote! Fatowstte © 1 yield point (2.25) Equation 2.25 can be modified for use with a conival rool 1D = ciameter of tn, fest 1 rads of curate of cone at periphery inches = angle of cone element ‘i hoi Fig. A8. Ross of carvature of conical roof