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    Dominguez (1993) Boundary Elements in Dynamics - J. Dominguez - International Series On Computational Engineering, Har - DSK, - Computational Mechanics Publications

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    Dr. APS. Selvadurai Department of Civil Engineering Room 277, C.J. Mackenzie Building Canada K1S 5B6 Professor P. Skerget University of Maribor Faculty of Technical Sciences ‘YU-62000 Maribor Smetanova 17 P.O. Box 224 Slovenia Professor M.D. Trifunac Department of Civil-Engineering, KAP 216D University of Southern California Los Angeles, CA 90089-2531 USA : Professor R.P. Shaw S.ULN.Y. at Buffalo_ - Department of Civil Engineering - School of Engineering and Applied Sciences 212 Ketter Hall Buffalo, New York 14260 USA Dr PP. Strona Centro Ricerche Fiat S.C.p.A. Strada Torino, 50 10043 Orbassano (TO) Italy Professor N.G. Zamani University of Windsor Department of Mathematics and Statistics 401 Sunset “Windsor Ontario Canada NOB 3P4 Boundary Elements in Dynamics J. Dominguez Escuela Superior de Ingenieros Industriales Universidad de Sevilla Computational Mechanics Publications Southampton Boston Co-published with Elsevier Applied Science 3 London New York ELSEVIER J. Dominguez Escuela Superior de Ingenieros Industriales Universidad de Sevilla Av. Reina Mercedes, s/n 41012 Seville Spain Co-published by Computational Mechanics Publications Ashurst Lodge, Ashugst. Southampton, SO4 2AA; UK Computational Mechanics Inc 25 Bridge Street, Billerica, MA 01821, USA. and Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd Crown House, Linton Road. Barking, Essex IG11 8JU, UK British Library Cataloguin, Publication Data A Catalogue tecord for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 1-85861-02i-4 Elsevier Applied Science, London, New York ISBN 1-85312-258-0 Computational Mechanics Publications, Southampton ISBN 1-56252-182-9 Computational Mechanics Publications, Boston Library of Congress. Catalog Card Number 93-72572 ‘No responsibility is assumed by the Publishers for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any meth- ods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. © Computational Mechanics Publications 1993 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Cromwell Press Ltd, UK All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publisher. Pilar who wanted this book to be published more than I did only because I wanted it myself. To my children Beatriz and Pelayo for their patience during the writing of this text. CONTENTS PREFACE INTRODUCTION 0.1. Why Boundary Elements in Dynamics? 0.2. Historical Sketch. 0.3. Qutline of Contents. 0.4. ~ References. 1. BASIC EQUATIONS AND FUNDAMENTALS OF WAVE PROPAGATION 1.1. Introduction. 1.2. Basic Equations of Linear Elastodynamics. 1.3. Formulation of the Elastodynamic Problem in Terms of Dilatation and Rotation. 4. Formulation in Terms of Displacement Potentials. 5. Reciprocal Theorem in Elastodynamics. 6. Integral Representation in Elastodynamics. 7. Some Simple Elastic Wave Propagation Problems. 8. Pressure Waves in Fluids. 9. Reciprocal Relation for Scalar Wave Propagation Problems. 0: Integral Representation for Scalar Wave Propagation Problems 1. References. aa WW i 15 17 19 38 42, 43 HARMONIC PROBLEMS: INTEGRAL FORMULATION AND BOUNDARY ELEMENTS FOR TWO DIMENSIONS Introduction. Plane Harmonic Waves in Elastic Solids. Reflection and Refraction of Plane Harmonic Elastic Waves. Surface Waves. Reciprocal Theorem for Time-Harmonic Elasticity. Dynamic Behaviour of Viscoelastic Media. Fundamental Solution and Boundary Integral Formulation for Anti-plane Problems. Boundary Elements. Constant Elements. Computer Code for Anti-plane Problems using Constant Elements (CONDAPEH). . Linear Elements. . Quadratic Elements. . Computer Code for Anti-plane Problems using Quadratic Elements (QUADAPEH). . Fundamental Solutions and Boundary Integral Formulation for Time-harmonic Elasticity. . Boundary Elements. Constant Elements for Plane Problems. . Computer Code for Plane Problems using Constant Elements (CONDPLEH). . Quadratic Elements for Plane Problems. . Computer Code for Plane Problems using Quadratic Elements (QUADPLEH). .. Boundary Element formulation for Time-harmonic Scalar Wave Propagation. 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. HARMONIC PROBLEMS: BOUNDARY ELEMENTS FOR THREE DIMENSIONS Introduction. Scalar Wave Propagation. Computer Code for Three-dimensional Scalar Wave Propagation using Constant Elements (CONDTHSH). Computer Code for Three-dimensional Scalar Wave Propagation using Quadratic Elements (QUADTHSH). Elastodynamics, Computer Code for Three-dimensional Elastodynamics using Constant Elements (CONDTHEH). Computer Code for Three-dimensional Elastodynamics using Quadratic Elements (QUADTHEH). 4s 45 49 62 67 81 104 110 129 147 156 165 170 190 196 207 209 209 209 223 239 264 270 288 3.8. _ Free Vibration Analysis. 3.9... Additional Aspects of the B.E, Solution of Time-harmonic Probléms. 3.10. Numerical Examples. 3.11, References. 4. TIME DOMAIN FORMULATION 4.1. Introduction. 4.2. Fundamental Solution and Boundary Integral Formulation for Transient Scalar Wave Propagation. 4.3. Two-dimensional Formulation. 4.4. Boundary Elements for Two-dimensional Scalar Problems. 4.5. Eomputer Code with Space-constant Elements (CONDPLST). 4.6. CBimputer Code with Space-quadratic Elements (QUADPLST). 4.7, Findamental Solution and Boundary Integral Formulation for Transient Elastodynamics. 4.8. Two-dimensional Formulation. 4.9. Boundary Elements for Plane Elastodynamics. 4.10. Computer Code with Space-constant Elements (CONDPLET). 4.11. Computer Code with Space-quadratic Elements (QUADPLET). 4.12. Numerical Aspects Related to Discretization. Examples. 4.13. References, 5. DUAL RECIPROCITY APPROACH FOR TRANSIENT ‘ELASTODYNAMICS 5.1. Bitroduction. 5.2. Boundary Integral Formulation. 5.3, Transformation of the Domain Integral. 5.4. Boundary Elements. 5.5. Two-dimensional Formulation. 5.6. Internal Degrees of Freedom. 5.7, Step-by-step Time Integration. 5.8. Computer Code for Plane Transient Elastodynamics using Quadratic Elements (QUADPLED). 5.9. Numerical Examples. 5.10. Other Applications of the Dual Reciprocity Approach. 5.11. References. 6. DYNAMIC FRACTURE MECHANICS Introduction. 307 316 341 343, 343, 344, 355 360 367 380. 393 402 407 414 428 453 455, 455 456 458 460 464 466 468 469 491 495 500 503 503 6.2. Some Basic Fracture Mechanics Ideas. 6.3. Dynamic Stress Intensity Factors. 6.4. Singular Quarter-point Element. 6.5. Time-harmonic SIF Computations. 6.6. Transient Dynamic SIF Computations. Step by Step Approach. 6.7. Transient Dynamic SIF Computations. Frequency Domain Approach. 6.8. Transient Dynamic SIF Computations. Dual Reciprocity Approach. 6.9. Dynamic Crack Propagation. 6.10. Moving Singular Element. 6.11. Dynamic Crack Propagation Examples, 6.12. References, 7. DYNAMIC SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERACTION: 8.1. 8.2. 8.3. 8.4. 8.5. 9.1. 9.2. 9.3. 9.4. 9.5. Introduction. Dynamic Stiffness of Foundations. Three-dimensional Foundations. Strip Foundations. Axisymmetric Foundations. Seismic Response of Foundations. Remarks on the use of the BEM for Boundless Domains. Non-Linear Contact Between Soil and Foundation. References. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF DAM-SOIL-RESERVOIR SYSTEMS Introduction. Some Characteristics of the B.E. Model. Gravity Dams. Arch Dams, References. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF POROELASTIC MEDIA Introduction. ~ Basic Equations for Dynamic Poroelasticity. Boundary Integral Formulation. Thermoelastic Analogy. Fundamental Solution for 2-D Time-harmonic Thermoelasticity and Poroelasticity. 503 507 509 512 518 528 532 534 538 541 547 547 550 552 564 S71 590 598 601 602 607 615 628 645 649 649 650 | 652 655 657 9.6. 9.7. 9.8. 9.9. Boundary Element Formulation. Constant Elements. Computer Code for Two-dimensional-Time-harmonic Poroelastic Problems using Constant Elements (CONDPOEH). Numerical Examples. References. APPENDIX A: NUMERICAL INTEGRATION APPENDIX B: DISKETTE CONTENTS AUTHOR INDEX SUBJECT INDEX 662 666 683 689 691 699 mk 705 The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Prof. J. Aracil who- was the first person in whom he saw what an engineering professor should be, to Prof. C. Brebbia who gave him the opportunity to work in the BEM and to Prof. J. M. Roésset who introduced him to the fields of continuum dynamics and dynamic soil-structure interaction. Special feelings of gratitude go to Prof. E. Alarcén who was the authors graduate advisor and much more than that, his friend and model since 1975. It has been fortunate for the author to be a inember of the engineering mechanics group that Prof. E. Alarcén started in Seville back in 1975. Special thanks goes to F. G. Benitez, M. Doblaré, J. Dominguez (the author’s brother), M. S. Gémez-Lera, A. Martin, F. Paris and R. Picén, with whom he has shared hours of work and discussion. The author also thanks Profs. H. Antes, D. Beskos. A. H-D. Cheng, G. Schmidt and J. L. Tassoulas for their kindness-in cooperating with him in dynamic B.E. projects. Finally, thanks 0 Elaine Larson who carefully read the manuscript and very specially to Rosa Vela who patiently typed and retyped the many ‘drafts of it. J. Dominguez _ Seville, January 1993. PREFACE This book is a development of the author’s involvement in the field of Boundary Elements (B.E.), and of Boundary Elements in dynamics in particular, over a period of sixteen years, The intent is for it to summarize the current state of the Boundary Element Method (BEM) in dynamics of continua. The main emphasis is on the development of the different B.E. formulations for time- dependent probléms and the necessary mathematical transformations to produce computer codes which are able to solve scalar, elastic and poroelastic wave propagation problems. Nevertheless, there is also a substantial part of the book which covers the application of the BEM: to important engineering problems in dynamics. The mathematics involved in the book has been developed to the necessary degree to make it as self-contained as possible, Readers with almost no background in B.E. or in dynamics should be able to follow the text. A very difficult aspect of writing a book is to give references that appropriately acknowledge the work of the various researchers in the field. However, the compilation of a bibliography including all the publications in any technical field is an impossible task nowadays. The bibliography of this book is aimed at finding a balance between having a reasonable size and being comprehensive enough to include the most important publications. In spite of this effort to be comprehensive, the author may have forgotten to refer important work published by some of the people working in the area of dynamic BEM. Should that be the case, he would like to.apologize here to those researchers and to the reader for not having always referred to the most appropriate work. The book has been written with a dual purpose. The intent is for it to be not only a reference book for researchers and engineers, but also a book from which scientists, graduate students and practising engineers can learn in detail the formulation, implementation and practical applications of the BEM in dynamics. The book could serve as a text to a course on Boundary Elements in Dynamics or as a supplement to other books in a more general course. Since the book is a consequence of years of work with many people and in particular with different students, it contains a lot of work developed with them. Because of that, and although the author has been writing thjs book and the responsibility for it rests with him, the names of some of those former students appear in the headings of chapters which contain a substantial part of their work. The author expresses his gratitude to his former students R. Abascal, M. Arrebola, S. Cabrera, F. Chirino, A. Corz, JM. Emperador, R. Gallego, O. Maeso, J. Martinez, F. Medina and A. Sdez for their cooperation. The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Prof. J. Aracil who ‘was the first person in whom he saw what an engineering professor should be, to Prof. C. Brebbia who gave him the opportunity to work in the BEM and to Prof. J. M. Roésset who introduced him to the fields of continuum dynamics and dynamic soil-structure interaction. Special feelings of gratitude go to Prof. E. Alarcén who was the author’s graduate advisor and much more than that, his friend and model since 1975. It has been fortunate for the author to be a inember of the engineering mechanics group that Prof. E. Alarc6n started in Seville back in 1975. Special thanks goes to F. G. Benitez, M. Doblaré, J. Dominguez (the author ’s brother), M. S. Gémez-Lera, A. Martin, F. Parfs and R. Picén, with whom he has shared hours of work and discussion. The author also thanks Profs, H. Antes, D, Beskos, A. H-D. Cheng, G. Schmidt and J. L. Tassoulas for their Kindness,in cooperating with him in dynamic B.E. projects. Finally, thanks t0 Elaine Larson who carefully read the manuscript and very specially to Rosi Vela who patiently typed and retyped the many drafts of it. J, Dominguez Seville, January 1993. INTRODUCTION 0.1. Why Boundary Elements in Dynamics ? The reader who gets this book in his(her) hands may perhaps ask himself (herself) the above question with two different meanings. On one hand the question gould be: Why should engineers who need to solve continuum dynamic problems.se the Boundary Element Method (BEM) ? The second meaning could ~ be; Why. “should a book on. Boundary Elements in Dynamics be written? Some general reasons for both things are given in this section. Obviously the reader will find clearer answers to these questions as he(she) progresses in reading the book. The BEM is a numerical technique based on integral equation formulations of the continuum mechanics problems. There are two types of integral equation formulations. Qne contain: ic unknowns, quantities with a clear physical ing and in terms of which the known boundary condi ions are given. This ‘type _is ca . In the second type, known as indirect formulation, the basic unknown quant Giiantities have no physical meaning. The physical variables are obtained from these sources. The term BEM is almost exclusively used for the numerical approach based on the direct formulation. This book deals witht only, ‘that approach. In it, the integral equ knowns are the boundary values of the basic field variables (for instance, displacements in elasticity) and their_derivatives, which also have a physical meaning (tractions in elasticity). ‘These: fiinctions are approximated over the boundary by means of their values at, a selectéd number of points (nodes) and previously selected interpolation functions. To make the interpolation and the subsequent integration process easier the boundary is divided into pieces (elements). There are some general characteristics of the BEM which represent clear advantages for the analysis of static and dynamic continuum mechanics problems. First of all, the problem is formulated on the boundary. Therefore, only the boundary has to be discretized as opposed to in domain techniques, such as the Finite Element Method (FEM) and the Finite Difference Method (FDM) which require the discretization of the domain. As a consequence, the resulting system of equations is smaller in the BEM. Another consequence ig that the mesh generation process, which only involves the surface, is simpler than in domain type methods. This advantage is important to design as it may require a series of modifications of the geometry and consequently of the mesh. It is also important for situations where the geometry changes throughout the solution process. There 2 Boundary Elements in Dynamics is, however, a price to be paid for the above advantage: The final system of algebraical ¢ equations is non-symmetric and fully-y ‘populated, ‘This fact may lead.to fonger computer times, as compared to F-E. solutions, in some.types of problems. A second characteristic of the BEM is that it produces highly accurate solutions on the boundary. and in particular at.any selected internal point. This feature makes the method very appropriate for problems where high accuracy is required. Among the disadvantages of the BEM one could mention its difficulty in dealing with non-linear material properties. In such cases the integral equations include domain integrals and the advantages of a boundary formulation vanish if extensive zones of non-linear material exist. It is the opinion of the author that both the FEM and the BEM are powerful tools for engineers as general purpose numerical techniques. There are problems for which one is more adequate than the other and vice versa. Both should be used in design as alternative or complementary approaches. - The above Comments are-of-a general nature-and can-be-applied both to. static and dynamic continuum mechanics problems. There is, however, an. additional difference between the BEM and the domain type numerical methods that should be pointed out here because of its importance to the solution of certain dynamic problems. When dealing with infinite or semi-infinite regions, the domain numerical methods require a discretization which should extend towards infinity. Obviously, the discretization has to be finished at a certain distance where an artificial boundary of some kind is located. These boundaries can be used without problems in statics. In dynamics, however, spurious reflections of waves which distort the solution of the problem take place at the artificial boundaries. On -the contrary, the BEM is based on an integral equation formulation, which in the case of external regions, consist of integrals extending only over the internal boundaries. Therefore, those are the only boundaries to: be discretized. The behavior of the boundless domain is naturally represented by those integrals over the internal boundaries. This important feature, in addition . to the fact that most dynamic analyses are restricted to linear behavior, has made. the BEM the most adequate numerical alternative for problems of important engineering fields such as dynamic soil-structure interaction or open-air acoustics. Having established that the BEM is a powerful, easy to use numerical tool for the solution of continuous dynamic problems, it is obvious that engineers and researchers working in dynamics should be familiar with it and use it for analysis and design. The formulation and implementation of the BEM in dynamics require a theoretical background and numerical developments which fully justify this book, =~ -0.2. Historical-Sketch - The BEM is based on integral formulations of the potential and elasticity theories which appeared at the end of the nineteenth-century and beginning of the Introduction twentieth; i.e., more than fifty years after the differential formulations of these problems had been established. The first rigorous work on integral equations was published by Fredholm (1905). Previously, Somigliana (1889)-(c.f-Love, 1944) had established an integral equation representation for elastostatics.. About sixty more years and, what is more important, the appearance of modern digital computers, were needed to produce numerical methods based on those “classical” formulations. The starting points for the direct BEM formulation can be set at three papers by Jaswon (1963), Symm (1963) and Jaswon and Ponter (1963) for static potential problems, and at a paper by Rizzo (1967), for elastostatics. In those papers the discretization of the boundary and numerical solution of the integral equation by transforming it into a system of algebraical equations were carried out for the first time. The works by Lachat (1975) and Lachat and Watson (1976) represented the-next important advance in the development of the BEM as a consistent numerical technique. They incorporated into the BEM the shape functions, so tong‘in use in the FEM, as a systematic way of represéntation of the boundary variables. The term Boundary Element Method was used for the first time in 1977. It appears in at least three publications that came out that year: the Ph. D. Thesis of Dominguez (1977) where the name appeared in Spanish (“Método de los Elementos de Contorno"), a paper by Banerjee and Butterfield (1977) which is part of a book based on communications from a previous conference, and a journal paper by Brebbia and Dominguez (1977) where they related the BEM to other numerical techniques introducing a weighted residual interpretation. There is some doubt regarding who first used the term or the acronym BEM. The author cannot say which one of the above publications was written first, all he can say is that the four people involved in those publications amicably talked about the method and its name in England at the beginning of 1977 (Butterfield was Professor, Brebbia and Banerjee, Lecturers, and Dominguez was a "Visiting Fellow” finishing his Ph. D. Thesis). Information on.the BEM for elastostatics and potential problems can be found in the general books of Banerjee and Butterfield (1981), Brebbia et al. (1984), Beskos (1987a, 1988), Brebbia and _ Dominguez (1989) and Hartman (1989). The early developments of the BEM in dynamics where independent of the above-mentioned works of Jaswon, Ponter, Symm and Rizzo on the direct formulation of the method. Friedman and Shaw (1962) and Banaugh and Goldsmith (1963a, b) did the first numerical solution of acoustic and elastodynamic problems using an integral equation formulation. Many of the basic ingredients of the BEM were in these papers written before or at the same time as Jaswon’s pioneering one in statics. It was in 1968 when Cruse and Rizzo (1968) and Cruse (1968) derived the direct BEM in conjunction yith Laplace transform to solve transient elastodynamic problems. That same year Wheeler and Sternberg (1968) set the last theoretical basis of the BEM in elastodynamics, in particular in those aspects related to infinite domains. Years later Manolis and Beskos (1981) improved the method of Cruse and Rizzo for solution of transient 4 Boundary Elements in Dynamics elastodynamic problems in combination with Laplace transform. : The solution of transient problems by means of the Fourier transform and the frequency domain BE formulation was obtained by Niwa et al. (1975, 1976). Dominguez (1978a, b) for the first time studied dynamic soil-structure interaction problems using the frequency domain formulation of the BEM. . The first general time domain BEM formulation for two-dimensional elastodynamics was presented by Cole et al. (1978); however, only anti-plane, i.e. scalar wave, examples were shown in that paper. Mansur (1983) and Mansur and Brebbia (1982a, b, 1983, 1985) presented the general time domain formulation and studied the implementation problems for two-dimensional scalar and elastic wave propagation problems in detail. Antes (1985) completed Mansur’s work by including non-zero initial conditions. Spyrako$ (1984) and Spyrakos and Beskos (1986) préSented a different formulation, .for- time-domain two-dimensional problems; however, as shown by Gallego and Dominguez (1990) this is only a particular case of the previous one. Niwa et al. (1980) used a three-dimensional formulation to derive a time-domain BEM for the analysis of plane strain problems. A similar approach was used by Manolis (1983) in a paper where he compares the time-domain, the frequency-domain and the Laplace transform approaches for the solution of plane problems. The time-domain formulation and implementation for three-dimensional elastodynamics were studied by Karabalis and Beskos (1984), Karabalis et al. (1984) and Karabalis and Beskos (1985). Applications to dynamic soil-structure interaction problems were presented in those papers. Nardini and Brebbia (1983, 1985) derived a BE approach for dynamic problems where a mass matrix and a stiffness matrix are obtained using the integrals of the static formulation. In this so-called Dual Reciprocity approach the resulting system of dynamic equilibrium equations is solved as in the FEM. ‘There are some important fields of-Gontinuum dynamics where the BEM has had an outstanding development because of its suitability for certain types of problems. Among those fields one should mention dynamic soil-structure interaction and fracture dynamics. Reference to the work in these two areas of application is made in the chapters dedicated to them. Extensive information on the BEM for dynamic problems can be found in Teview type papers such as Dominguez and Alarcén (1981), Geers (1983), Kobayashi (1987), Banerjee et al. (1987), Karabalis and Beskos (1987), Dominguez and Abascal (1987), Dravinski (1988) and Tassoulas (1988). Special attention should be given to the review paper by Beskos (1987b) and the book by Manolis and Beskos (1988). 0.3. Outline of Contents A detailed discussion of the general elastodynamic and wave propagation Introduction theories is out of the scope of this B.E. book. It is, however, instructive for the reader who is going to study the formulation, implementation and application of the BEM in continuum dynamics to review briefly the basic equations and concepts of elastodynamics and scalar wave propagation. This review appéars in Chapter 1. One of the most important fields in dynamics is the study of time-harmonic problems; in other words, the frequency domain analysis of linear time-dependent problems. This study is carried out in Chapters 2 and 3. A brief analysis of plane harmonic elastic waves and a review of the behavior of viscoelastic media under time-harmonic motion are contained in the first few sections of Chapter 2. The main part of Chapter 2 begins in section 2.7. It is devoted to the integral equation formulation of the general time-harmonic-elastic and scalar wave propagation problems and to their Boundary Element treatment for two dimensions. Readers with a good background in continuum dyramics could start this book, at this point, othersthan to refer back rotations, The anti-plane elasticity formulation (scalar field) and impleitientition is“ treated first. Then, “the formulation for general elastodynamics arid the B.E. implementation for plane elastic problems. Finally a reference to the general plane scalar wave problem, which has the same B.E. treatment as the antiplane elastic problem, is done. The B.E. implementation is treated with the necessary detail to develop computer codes. Chapter 2 includes codes for the solution of plane elastic and scalar wave {antiplane elastic) problems using constant and quadratic elements. Numerical examples are also included in this and other Chapters of the book. In Chapter 3 the Boundary Element formulation and implementation for three-dimensional time-harmonic problems are discussed. Computer codes for elastic and scalar wave problems using constant and quadratic elements are presented. To conclude the study of time-harmonic problems, aspects like: radiation conditions, fictitious eigenfrequencies, low frequency behavior and free vibration analysis, which require some special attention, are treated in the last sections of Chapter 3. The most direct way_of solving transient dynamic problems is to work in. the time domain. One only has to discretize the time into steps and follow a marching scheme. However, in spite of being conceptually simple, the time domain formulation of the BEM has somewhat more numerical involvement than the frequency domain formulation. However, this approach is the best suited for the solution of some types of problems. The time domain’ formulation and implementation of the BEM are discussed in Chapter 4, first for scalar wave Propagation and then for elastodynamics. Computer codes for two-dimensional problems using constant and quadratic elements are presented for both types of problems. Numerical examples and aspects related to the application of the method are also analyzed in this Chapter. The Dual Reciprocity B.E. approach is based on a dynamic integral 6. Boundary Elements in Dynamics equation obtained by using a static fundamental solution. The inertia term is taken to the boundary and a system of equations with mass and stiffness matrices is obtained. The formulation and implementation of this BE. approach, which constitutes a simple alternative for transient problems, are studied in Chapter 5. A computer code for plane transient elastodynamics using quadratic elements is developed and some numerical examples are shown. Chapters 6 to 8 are devoted to the two most important fields of application of the BEM in a dynamic context, namely: fracture mechanics and soil-structure interaction. The number of researchers working in these fields is significant. Reference to their work is made; however, those chapters are not a collection of problems solved by other researchers using different approaches. The applications discussed in those Chapters have been analyzed using the formulations and implementa ideas presented in Chapters 1 to 5. Some additional concepts required foreach specific type of problem are discussed in the corresponding Chapters. Thg;codes used are not exactly the same as those given in Chapters 1 to 5 because they require more memory and features like subregions, which have been omitted in the codes of the book for the sake of simplicity. They contain, however, the same type of elements and the same basic routines as those in the book. The application of the BEM to dynamic fracture mechanics is studied in Chapter 6. A singular element is presented and used in combination with the frequency domain, time domain and Dual Reciprocity formulations, to compute dynamic stress intensity factors. A moving singular element is studied and applied to the solution of dynamic crack propagation problems. Two classical dynamic soil-structure interaction problems (computation of stiffnesses of foundations and evaluation of tle seismic response of foundations) are studied in Chapter 7. The advantages and particular aspects of the use of the BEM for the dynamic analysis of boundless.segions are discussed in that Chapter. Three- and two-dimensional problems age studied. A formulation for axisymmetric problems is derived and applied to the analysis of cylindrical foundations. Chapter 8 is devoted to the study of the seismic response of dams. This is an important and complicated problem where infinite or very large solid and fluid regions are coupled. The BEM has proven to be an excellent tool for its analysis. Two- and three- dimensional models for gravity and arch dams respectively, are discussed. Results for actual dams are shown. If the coupling of solid and fluid regions introduces some difficulties in the BE implementation, a completely different behavior with different governing equations appears if both media are together as phases of the same material; i.e., as part of a saturated porous medium. The dynamic behavior of these media is of interest in geophysics and engineering. The Boundary Element formulation and implementation for time-harmonic poroelastic problems is studied in Chapter 9. A computer code using constant elements for two-dimensional problems is presented. Some numerical examples solved with this code are shown. Introduction 7 To end the present section, it is worthwhile to point out that the computer codes. developed in this book are intended-to be as close as possible to the formulatiotis discussed. Because of that they- May sometimes not be as: ‘efficient. as possible from a computational point of view. The author has preferred to present codes which run in small computers and can be easily followed once the formulation has been studied, He is sure that readers who are skilful in the development of codes will transform them into their own versions. 0.4. References Antes, H., 1985, "A Boundary Elements Procedure for Transient Wave Propagation in Two-Dimensional Isotropic Elastic Media”, Finite Elements s., Vol. 1, pp. 313-322. id Goldsmith W., 1963a, “Diffraction of Steady Acoustic Waves @s of Arbitrary Shape", J..xAcoust. Soc. Am.. Vol. 35, pp. 1590- ~ Banaugh, R.P. and Goldsmith W., 1963b, "Diffraction of Steady Elastic Waves by Surfaces of Arbitrary Shape”, J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 30, pp. 589-597, Banerjee, PK. and Butterfield, R., 1977, “Boundary Element Method in Geomechanics”, In Finite Elements in Geomechanics, G. Gudehus (ed.), pp. 529-570, J. Wiley, London. Banerjee, P.K. and Butterfield, R., 1981, “Boundary Element Method in Engineering Science", McGraw-Hill, London. Banerjee, P.K., Ahmad, S. and G.D. Manolis, 1987, "Advanced Elastodynamic Analysis", In Boundary Element Methods in Mechanics, D.E. Beskos EA) de-PR, 257-284, North-Holland, Amsterdam. Ed.), 1987a, “Boundary Element Methods in Mechanics", North- Beskos, DE. ok ), 1988, "Boundary ‘Element Methods in Structural Analysis" > American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. Brebbia, C.A. and Dominguez, J., 1977, "Boundary Element Methods for Potential Problems”, Appl. Math. Modelling, Vol. 1, pp. 372-378. Brebbia, C.A., Telles, J.C.R and Wrobel, L.C., 1984, "Boundary Element Techniques”, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Brebbia, C.A. and Dominguez, J., 1989, "Boundary Elements: An Introductory Course", CMP and McGraw-Hill, Southampton and New York. Cole, D.M., Kosloff, D.D. and Minster, J.B., 1978, "A Numerical Boundary Integral Equation Method for Elastodynamics- -I", Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., Vol. 68, pp. 1331-1357. Cruse, T.A.. and Rizzo, F.J.,. 1968. "A Direct Formulation and Numerical Solution for the General Transient Elastodynamic Problem-I", J. Math Anal. Appl., Vol., 22, pp. 244-259. 8 Boundary Elements in Dynamics ‘Cruse, T.A, 1968, °A Direct Formulation and Numerical Solution of the General os Transient Elastodynamic Problem-II”, J. Math. Anal. Appl., Vol., 22, Pp. 341-355. Dominguez, J., 1977, “Computation of Stresses Near Anchor Plates: An Application 4 the Boundary Element Method", Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. of Seville (In Spanish). Dominguez, J., 1978a, "Dynamic Stiffness of Rectangular Foundations", Report. R78-20, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of ‘Technology, Cambridge, Mass. Dominguez, J., 1978b, “Response of Embedded Foundations to Travelling Waves”, Report R78-24, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. Dominguez, J. and Abascal, R., 1987, "Dynamics of Foundations". In Topics in Boundary Element Research, Vol. 4, C.A. Brebbia (Ed. , pp.27-75. - Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Dominguez, J. and Alarcén, E., 1981, “Elastodynamica".” tn” Progress in Boundary Element Methods, Vol. 1, C.A. Brebbia (Ed.), pp. 213-257, Pentech Press, London. Dravinski, M., 1988, “Elastodynamics". In Boundary Element Methods in Structural Analysis D.E. Beskos (Ed.), pp. 63-192. American Society of Civil Engineering, New York. Fredholm, I., 1905, "Solution d’un Probléme Fondamental de la Theorie de L’elasticité", Arch. Mat. Astronom. Fysik., Vol. 2. Friedman, M.B. and Shaw, R.P., 1962, "Diffraction of Pulses by Cylindrical Obstacles of Arbitrary Cross Section", J. Appl. Mech. , Vol. 29, pp. 40- 46. Gallego, R. and Dominguez, J., 1990, "A Unified Formulation of Two Existing Time-Domain Boundary Element Approaches", Comm. App. Num. Meth., Vol. 6, pp. 17-25. Geers, T.L., 1983, "Boundary Element Methods fof Transient Response Analysis", In Computational Methods for Transient Analysis, T. Belytschko & T. J. R. Hughes (Eds.), pp. 221-243, North-Holland, Amsterdam. Hartman, F., 1989, “Introduction to Boundary Elements", Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Jaswon, M.A., 1963, "Integral Equation Methods in Potential Theory.I", Proc. Roy. Soc., Ser. A, Vol. 275, pp. 23-32. Jaswon, M, A. and Ponter, A. R., 1963, "An Integral Equation Solution of the Torsion Problem", Proc. Roy. Soc. Ser. A, Vol. 273, pp. 237-246. Love, A.E.H., 1944, “A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity", 4th ed., Dover, New York. Karabalis, D.L. and Beskos, D.E., 1984, "Dynamic Response of 3-D Rigid ~ Surface: Foundations by Time- Domain Boundary Element Method", Earthquake Engng. Struct. Dyn., Vol. 12, pp. 73-93. Karabalis, D.L. and Beskos, D.E., 1985, "Dynamic Response of 3-D Flexible Foundation by Time Domain BEM and FEM", Soil Dyn. Earthquake Introduction 9 Engng. , Vol. 4, pp. 91-101. . _ Karabalis, D:L. and Beskos, D.E., 1987, "Dynamic Soil-Structure Interaction", “Tn Boundary Element Methods in Mechanics, D. E. Beskos (Ed.), pp. 499- 562. North-Holland, Amsterdam. Karabalis, D. L., Spyrakos, C. C. and Beskos, D, E., 1984, "Dynamic Response of Surface Foundations by Time Domain Boundary Element Method", In Dynamic Soil-structure Interaction, D. E. Beskos, T. Krauthammer & I. Vardoulakis (Eds.), pp. 19-24, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam. Kobayashi, S., 1987, "Elastodynamics", In Boundary Element Methods in Mechanics, D.E. Beskos (Ed.), pp. 191-255, North-Holland, Amsterdam. Lachat, J. C., 1975, "A Further Development of the Boundary Integral Technique for Elastostatics", Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. of Southampton. Lachat, J.C. and Watson, J.0., 1976,” "Effective Numerical Treatment of Boundary Integral Equations: A Formulation for Three-Dimensional Elastostatics”, Int. J. Num. Meth. Engng., Vol. 10, pp. 991-1005. Manolis, G:D., 1983, "A Comparative Study on Three Boundary Element Method- Approaches to Problems in Elastodynamics”, Int. J. Num. Meth. Engng., Vol. 19, pp. 73-91. Manolis, G.D. and Beskos, D.E., 1981, "Dynamic Stress Concentration Studies by Boundary Integrals and Laplace Transform.", Int. J. Num. Meth. Engng., Vol. 17, pp. 573-599. Manolis, G.D, and Beskos, D.E., 1988, "Boundary Element Methods in Elastodynamics", Unwin Hyman, London, 1988. Mansur, W.J., 1983, "A Time-Stepping Technique to Solve Wave Propagation Problems Using the Boundary Element Method”, Ph. D. Thesis, University of Southampton. Mansur, W. J. and Brebbia, C.A., 1982a, "Numerical Implementation of the Boundary Element Method for Two-Dimensional Transient Scalar Wave Propagation Problems", Appl. Math. Modelling, Vol. 6, pp. 299-306. Mansur, W. J. and Brebbia, C.A., 1982b, "Formulation of the Boundary Element Method for Transient Problems Governed by the Scalar Wave Equation", Appl. Math. Modelling, Vol. 6, pp. 307-311. Mansur, W. J. and Brebbia, C.A., 1983, “Transient Elastodynamics Using a Time-Stepping Technique", In Boundary Elements, C. A. Brebbia, T. Futagami & M Tanaka (Eds.), pp. 677-698, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Mansur, W. J. and Brebbia, C.A., 1985, "Transient Elastodynamics”, In Topics in Boundary Element Research, Vol. 2, C. A. Brebbia (Ed.), pp. 124-155, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Nardini, D, and Brebbia, C.A., 1983, “A New Approach to Free Vibration Analysis Using Boundary Elements", Appl. Math. Modelling, Vol. 7, pp. 157-162. Nardini, D. and Brebbia, C.A., 1985, "Boundary Integral Formulation of Mass -Matrices for Dynamic. Analysis", In Topics in Boundary Element Research, Vol. 2, C. A. Brebbia (Ed.), pp. 191-208, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. io Boundary Elements in Dynamics Niwa, ¥., Kobayashi, S. and Azuma, N., 1975, "A Analysis of Transient Stresses Produced Around Cavities of Arbitrary Shape During Passage of ‘Travelling Waves", Mem. Fac. Engng., Kyoto Univ., Vol. 37, pp. 28-46. Niwa, Y., Kobayashi, S. and Fukui, T., 1976, “Applications of Integral Equation Method to Some Geomechanical Problems," In Numerical Methods in Geomechanics, C.S. Desai (Ed.), pp. 120-131, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. Niwa, Y., Fukui, T., Kato, S. and Fujiki, K., 1980, "An Application of the Integral Equation Method to Two-Dimensional Elastodynamics", Theor. Appl. Mech., Vol. 28, pp. 281-290. . C. C., 1984, "Dynamic Response of Strip-Foundations by the Time s Domain BEM-FEM Methods", Ph. D. Thesis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Spyrakos, C. C. and Beskos, D.E., 1986, "Dynamic Response of Rigid Strip- Foundations by a Time-Domain Boundary Element Method", Int. J. Num. Meth. Engng., Vol. 23, pp. 1547-1565. Symm.,G. T., 1963, “Integral Equation Methods in: Potential Theory. II", Pro, ,. Soc. Ser. A, Vol. 275, pp. 33-46. Tassoulas, J. L., 1988, “Dynamic Soil-Structure Interaction", In Boundary Element Methods in Structural Analysis, D.E. Beskos (Ed.), pp. 273-308, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. Wheeler, L. T. and Sternberg, E., 1968, "Some Theorems in Classical Flastodynamics”, Arch. Rational Mech. Anal., Vol. 31, pp. 51-90. CHAPTER 1 BASIC EQUATIONS AND FUNDAMENTALS OF WAVE PROPAGATION 1.1. Introduction The general equations governing linear elastodynamics and scalar wave propagatiofi“are briefly studied in this:chapter. Section 1.2 is devoted to the ~ fundamental equations of linear elastodynamics.-Some of the basic ideas of wave propagation phenomena are also presented in that section. The formulations in terms of dilatation and rotation and in terms of displacement potentials are summarized in Sections 1.3. and 1.4., respectively. The reciprocal theorem is derived in Section 1.5 to obtain the integral representation of the general elastodynamic problem in Section 1.6. Using very simple problems, a brief discussion of the basic ideas of wave propagation is carried out in Sections 1.7 and 1.8. Finally, the reciprocal relation and integral representation for scalar wave propagation are presented in Sections 1.9 and 1.10, respectively. Only the basic equations and ideas needed to develop the Boundary Element solution of elastodynamic and scalar wave propagation problems are studied in this chapter. There is a large number of publications where the elastodynamics theory and the wave propagation phenomena are studied in depth. The interested reader may find a complete treatment of these subjects in the books by Pao and Mow (1973), Achénbach (1973) and Eringen and Suhubi (1975). 1.2. Basic Equations of Linear Elastodynamics A system of fixed rectangular cartesian coordinates is used to present the theory. Light-faced ietters stand for scalars while letters in boldface denote vectors and second-order tensors. The summation convention is used, whereby a repeated subindex implies a summation. Quantities with one or two subindexes denote components of a vector or of a second-order tensor, respectively. ‘The coordinate axes are denoted by x,, where j = 1,2,3. The displacement -vector at a point x and time ¢ is u(x,r). Commas indicate spatial differentiation and dots time derivatives. 2 Boundary Elements in Dynamics Kinematic relations ~ The small strain tensor ¢, at a point x-of a body 0 at time ¢, is defined by a=, +4) at It is also useful to define the rotation tensor w by =U, 7 4D a2) It is obvious that ¢ is a symmetric tensor (2, = 2,) whereas w-is an antisymmetric “one (ws = + w,). Equilibrium equations The Cauchy’s first law of motion for the points of an elastic body is obtained from the balance of linear momentum. +e b= pay @.3) where o(x,/) is the stress tensor, 5(x,t) is the body force per unit mass and p(x) is the mass density. The balance of angular momentum implies that the stress tensor is symmetric (aj = 94). Constitutive law The linear relation between the components of the stress tensor and the components of the strain tensor for elastic isotropic solids, known as Hooke’s law, is o, = 06, ey + Bee, 4) where \ and p are two material parameters known as Lamé’s constants, and by is the Kronecker delta (= 1 fori = j and = 0 fori = /). The Lamé’s constants ‘can’ be written in terms of the more familiar Young’s modulus E and Poisson’s ratio v Basic Equations and Fundamentals of Wave Propagation NZ ~~; de E 1.5) tray. bape. with which the constitutive law can be written as 1+ E &, (6) = a gM 8y * or E v + : an %* ay aay te For some particular problems (especially in soil mechanics) one may prefer to use the bulk modulus X. In these cases one defines the deviatoric stress and strain components 5, (1.8) = ey 5 ay (19) Thus the constitutive equations are expressed as og=2pe,, pr-Ke, 2.10) where p is the mean pressure oe (1.1L) and (1.12) i“ Boundary Elements in Dynamics In general, for isotropic elastic materials, all material constafits can be expressed in terms of two independent constants. Field equations The stress equilibrium equations (1.3), kinematic relations (1.1) and Hooke's law (1.4) give a complete system of equations governing the motion of homogeneous, isotropic, linear elastic bodies. By substitution of (1.1) and (1.4) into (1.3) one obtains the displacement equations of motion (equations of Navier) Buy tAt wD Hy +0 0 = 0 e, 13) In vector form: pVutA +p VVu+pbh=pii (1.14) or QA +2) VVeu-pVxXVXutpb=pit .15) The equilibrium equations, the kinematic and constitutive relations and hence, the Navier’s equation, must be satisfied at every interior point of the body a. Boundary conditions The stress components are projected at any point of the boundary I° of the body @ and produce surface tractions, denoted by p;,, such that P70; on? 16 where n, are the components of the unit outward normal to the boundary at the point. The tractions are assumed to be given on the I’, part of the boundary and they are the "natural" boundary conditions. - Do=P, onl, 17) Basic Equations and Fundamentals of Wave Propagation and the displacements are assumed to be given on the I part of tlie boundary and they are the "essential" boundary conditions - 4u, =u, on T, (1.18) being f, UT, =TandT, OT, = @ Initial conditions To complete the problem statement the initial conditions are defined in 0 at times = 0 ue , 0) = u,(x) (1.19) ule , 0) = v,(2) : (1.20) for all the points x of the body 2. 1.3, Formulation of the Elastodynamic Problem in Terms of Dilatation and Rotation The integration of the displacement equations of motion (1.13) for different bodies, boundary conditions and initial conditions constitute the essential target of the dynamic theory of linear elasticity. It was Poisson (1829a and b) who introduced what appears to be the earliest theorem concerning the general integration of the equations of motion. Since then, numerous researchers have presented different procedures to transform the Navier's equations into simpler mathematical formulations of the problem. In the following the integration of the equations is approached by a differentiation process, first presented by Stokes (1849), which leads to simpler differential equations in terms of variables with a clear physical meaning: the dilatation @ and the rotation vector . 0 =e, 2 Ven (1.21) o=Vxu (1.22) Notice that the components of the rotation vector defined by (1.22) are the non-zero independent terms of the rotation tensor defined by (1.2) except for a factor of 2. 16 Boundary Elements in Dynamics ‘Taking. the. divergence of the equations of Navier (15) one obtains: QA +2 VV Vu tp Vb =p Ved (1.23) which can be written as Ve +V-b =8 (1.24) where c= Nt (1.25) p ‘Teing the curl of (1.15) using the identities for a vector field v: Viy=VV-y-¥ x VX vand V-(V xX v) = 0, and the identity for a scalar field V x Va = 0 the following equation is obtained aGVatVxb=a (1.26) where qzt (1.27) pe The two constants c, and c, have dimensions of velocity and depend on the density and elastic constants of the solid. For a given density c, and c, can be used to define the elastic characteristics of the solid. The ratio of these two constant is related to the Poisson's ratio by: a 2a -y (1.28) G1 dv The equations of Navier have been transformed into equations (1.24) and (1.26). These equations are both of the same type, the former being a scalar wave equation with propagation velocity c, and the later a vector wave equation with propagation velocity c,. Basic Equations and Fundamentals of Wave Propagation G Since equation (1.24) refers to the dilatation and equation (1.26) refers to the rotation, c, and c, are called irrotational and equivolumial wave velocities, respectively. The type of solution of the wave equation “and somé of the characteristics of the wave propagation phenomena are discussed in section 1.7. 1.4. Formulation in Terms of Displacement Potentials The process of integration of the equations of Navier can be simplified somewhat by writing the field variable u in terms of potential functions. Several of these potentials have been proposed. Some of the most useful are those developed by Lamé (1852), Papkovich (1932), Neuber (1934) and Iacovache (1949). A study of the different displacement potentials used for the integration of the equations of Navier, and the relations among them, may be found in the paper by Sternberg (1960). The Lamé potentials are among the simplest and most useful ones. They are based on the idea of the Helmholtz decomposition of a vector which states that any vector b piecewise differentiable in a finite open region, or in an infinite region, provided that it decreases to zero at large distances r from the origin at least as rapidly as r *, may be decomposed into irrotational and solenoidal parts, or, in other words, it admits the representation b=VB+Vx@Q (1.29) The scalar B and the vector Q for a given vector b in a region @ can be obtained from the following expressions: se. L 1 7 . a : Boe) = -= [5 V-dE) ane) (1.30) -J 1 Ox.) = = Io > VY x de 0 ane) (1.31) for 3-D, and Bey = | ind y-a(e,0) dace) (1.32) 2x jo or 18 Boundary Elements in Dynamics Oe.) = +s i int V x BED do ® (1.33) for 2-D, where the function @Q satisfies the condition ¥V-Q = O andr =|x-&{. A proof of the above decomposition can be found in the book by Achenbach (1973) among others. Let us now assume a scalar function $(x,¢) and a vector function ¥(x,1) and write w=Vot+Uxy¥ (1.34) Substitution of (1.34) into the field equation (1.14), where the body force vector has been decomposed according to (1.29), yields VIVO + VX ¥] + Ara VIVE +V x H+ (1.35) - t+pIVB+Vx Q=pVer+v x ¥] and taking into account that V-V x ¥ = 0, one obtains V(X + Bw Ve tp B+ VX We +p Q- . » (1.36) =pVGtpvx¥ This equation is satisfied identically if ¢ and ¥ are solutions of Ve +B=d 4.37) GvVr+Qg=¥ 38) where c? = (A + 2p)/p and c? = p/p. Equations (1.37) and (1.38) are of the same kind of non-homogeneous wave equations with velocities c, and c, as those obtained with the representation in terms of dilatation and rotation. Equation (1.34) relates three components of the displacement vector to four other functions. This. indicates that ¢ and the components of ¥ should be subjected to an additional constraint. This condition is normally taken as Basic Equations and Fundamentals of Wave Propagation vee «0 €.39) which is consistent with the Helmholtz decomposition of a vector. The question is now whether the solution of (1.37) and (1.38) is complete in the sense that every solution of the field equation can be obtained from those equations and the representation given by (1.34). The completeness has been proven by several authors since Somigliana. Most of them assume that the vector ¥ should satisfy V-¥ = 0. Compact proofs of the completeness may be found in the books by Achenbach (1973) and Eringen and Suhubi (1975). To end this section and to relate it with the previous one, it might be worthwhile to relate the dilation @ and the rotation w with the potentials ¢ and ¥. Assuming the usual constraint V-¥ = 0 it can be easily shown by substitution of (1.34) into (1.21) and (1.22) that 0=Vu =o (1.40) we Xue wy ast) It can also be pointed out that each one of the two parts into which the displacement has been decomposed (u' = V¢ and u? = V x ¥) also satisfies the wave equation with body forces 5! = VB and b’ = V x Q, respectively. This can be easily obtained by taking divergence of (1.37) and rotational of (1.38). 1.5. Reciprocal Theorem in Elastodynamics The reciprocal theorem in élastodynamics is an extension of Betti‘s classical reciprocal theorem of elastostatics. The theorem, known as Graffi’s Reciprocal Theorem, was stated by Graffi (1946). Wheeler and Sternberg (1968) extended it to infinite regions. In the following the theorem will be proven starting from a weighted residual statement. In this way the process towards the final integral representation is consistent with that used frequently in the Boundary Element literature for many other different continuum mechanics static and dynamic problems. Nevertheless, the line of thought of the present proof is similar to that followed by Wheeler and Sternberg in the previously cited work where a rigorous proof for unbounded domains may be found. - Some properties of the Riemann convolution are reviewed first. Consider two scalar functions g(x,#) and A(x,‘) continuous in the space (Q x T*); where @ isa region and T* the half open time interval [0, 0). The Riemann convolution is defined as 20 Boundary Elements in Dynamics gehe f . (x,t - 7) A(t) dr forall (x,t) EQ x T* 0.42) @*h=0 forall) € 2x T 1.43) Some:tiseful properties of the Riemann convolution are: gthehag a4) Ze + ee = m+ g(e0) Wen (1.45) a Beta hege hy (1.46) The Riemann convolution of two vectors u(x,t) and u’(x,f) is defined as oer uy aay, and that of two tensors o(x,1) and é(x,s) as o* 820, * by (.48) The proof of the reciprocal theorem now starts from the equilibrium equation. For an elastodynamic state in a body Q with boundary TI’, the following equation is satisfied at any time oy, +p db, -p a, = 0 49) Assuming a continuous vector function u”(x,f) which is the displacement of another elastodynamic state with stresses ” and body forces b* defined over Q, one can write the following weighted residual statement: Basic Equations and Fundamentals of Wave Propagation fa Cus * wD aa + [2G * ug) dQ (1.50), ~f,2G * uw) aa =0 which holds for any continuous function x,'(x,/). Using the rule of spatial derivation given by equation (1.46) one may write - (qj * Ur) = Oy # Uy + oy * ey ast) a and using the. ‘Givergence theorem 8G eu aay 4.) ao 52) . J, Ge « ue) my at = {7 «uy a A formula for the spatial integration by parts of the first convolution product of (1.50) may be obtained from (1.51) and (1.52) Jo ny * me) dO = . . @.53) ~ foe wD ae [ae a Taking into account symmetry of the strain tensor, Hooke's law and the distributivity and commutativity of convolutions, one can easily show Oy * Wy Ay * by = eye Oy = Uy * OF (1.54) A second integration by parts of (1.53) yields: 22 Boundary Elements in Dynamics fo ocr * wD aA =f * oFJdd- fw, * pe) do “99 +f, G + uw) ae ‘To transform the acceleration term of equation (1.50) the following identities can be obtained in accordance with (1.45). 4 (4 * ul) =a ul +g (1.56) 2 & (u, * uy) -2 (uy, * ay) + Ugg te” (1.57) z (uy * Ue) = Uy + Vg le + Uy Oe 0.58) at? where U, = uy (x,0) and r_ = u, (x,0), and the reciprocal 2 at Fa us a 4.59) dy * Uy t+ Vo Uy + Ue Oy The first terms of (1.58) and (1.59) are identical. Hence eM Ug = OH Uy + VL Uy + Ue Oy - Vig Uy” - Uy ty” (1.60) Substituting (1.55) and (1.60) into (1.50) yields Basic Equations and Fundamentals of Wave Propagation fae P- hd a - fe * ped ate . . 61) [Gee WIG «fo + uy at - en fa? Ge + Met Yak tet tak th ~ Yor te” ~ Moe Hy”) a = 0 It was assumed that u(x,t) was the displacement field of another elastodynamic state in 2. Then O55 7 Pi = -p by (1.62) Substitution of (1.62) into (1.61) leads to the mathematical expression of the reciprocal theorem between two elastodynamic states. feet WI dD + [pO + Wo wy ty’ + ym) P= 4 65 -{.@ * uy dT + |p (be * Uy + en thy + Vox) dO 1.6. Integral Representation in Elastodynamics Let 2 be a regular elastic body with material properties p, c, and c, and with boundary I’. Consider an elastodynamic state with displacements u(x,t), prescribed tractions and displacements on the boundary, p(x,) on Ty-and u(x, on T’,, respectively, body forces b(x,r), and prescribed initial conditions uo(x) and vo(x). The so-called Love's (1904) integral representation of the displacement field can be derived using the reciprocal theorem as done by Wheeler and Sternberg (1968). A second elastodynamic state corresponding to a unit impulse applied at t = 0 at point & in the direction of the x,-axis in the infinite region is assumed. The state corresponds to a body force p by = 8) Hx - £) by (I fixed) (1.64) with zero initial conditions. The function 6 is the Dirac delta functiog whereas 5, is the Kronecker delta. The displacements in the infinite region corresponding to this second state considering each direction of load as independent, are denoted by 24 Boundary Elements in Dynamics we = une By BEF 1.65) and the stresses by og = out 83 8) e (1.66) where x denotes the point for which the displacement or the stress is written, ¢ the instant of time, £ the point where the load is applied at s = 0 and e, the J component of the unit vector in the direction of the load. The tractions at a point x on a surface with unit outward normal n are Prom ont 3 De = Pace es He, 4.67) The reciprocal theorem is now applied between the actual state and that corresponding to the unit impulse load in the infinite region. Since both states should be defined on the same region Q, one can assume that for the second state Q is part of the infinite region. Taking into account the properties of the Dirac delta function when it is integrated in space and time (Jones, 1966), the following expression is obtained from equation (1.63) eo) WED = fd * Py - pe uy at + . . . (1.68) + fe We #6) D+ | Wa Me + ty tee) AO where cy (€) = 5, when & € Qand cy (~y = 0 when — Z Q. In the cases of & € T the boundary integrals include a singularity which can be taken out by a limiting process. From this process one may compute the value of cy(£), which depends on the geometry of the boundary at point £. The integrals are interpreted in the sense of Cauchy Principal Value. The above integral representation has been obtained from the reciprocal theorem of elastodynamics. A similar process can be followed for many other boundary value problems like those of elastostatics, Laplace’s equation problems, scalar wave propagation, thermoelasticity, poroelasticity, etc. In all those cases one may obtain an integral representation of the problem using a reciprocal relation in combination with the solution of the infinite domain under the effect of a point source. In the present case, the point source solution, i.e. the fundamental solution, corresponding to the response of an infinite elastic region to a concentrated body force with time-dependent magnitude is originally attributed to Stokes (1849). The problem is known as Stokes’s problem and the corresponding elastodynamic state, as the Stokes’s state. The expressions for the Basic Equations and Fundamentals of Wave Propagation a displacements and tractions.of the Stokes’s problem will be given in Chapter 4 when the Boundary Element formulation for transient problems is studied. Fundamental solutions for simpler cases such as three-dimensional or plane time harmonic elasticity will also be studied in the corresponding chapters. 1.7. Some Simple Elastic Wave Propagation Problems The field equations of linear elastodynamics become much simpler than the general Navier's equations for certain particular problems. In this section, some simple elastic wave propagation problems will be discussed to show the fundamental ideas of wave propagation. The basic equation that governs wave propagation phenomena has been obtained above after some transformations of the equations of Navier. When zero body forces are assumed the wave equation can be written as (1.69) Vwe where c is a constant with dimensions of velocity and w can be a scalar or a vector variable depending on the kind of wave. Equation (1.69) appears not only in elastodynamics but also in all basic wave propagation problems such as electromagnetism, pressure waves in fluids, etc. Half-space under pressure Assume an initially undisturbed linear elastic half-space (x, 20) to which a uniform surface pressure p(t) is appiied (Figure 1.1). a Pref tthe p(t) Figure 1.1. Half-space under normal pressure. Because of the symmetry no other displacement but uy exists and all the field variables are independent of x, and x3. The only non-zero strain component is: 26 Boundary Elements in Dynamics — 1.70) Only normal stresses exist and all the stress components can be written in terms of ou, O% = A + 2x) %, @.71) From the first equilibrium equation one may write: 2, a iis aaa 725 ax; gy Ot where c? = (A + 2p)/p. The general solution of (1.72) can be easily obtained as follows. Calling a = ¢- x,/c, and 8 = f + x/c,, equation (1.72) becomes au, = 4.73) da OB ° and consequently iy, = fle- 2 + ge + 7) a Cy The term fit - x,/c,) represents a perturbation propagating in the positive x-direction whereas g(t + x,/c,) represents a perturbation propagating in the negative x,-direction. In order to visualize these meanings of the fand g functions one may assume a certain space distribution for a perturbation atr = 75 Ff = fl-x,/c,). The same space distribution will exist at time f + 4 7 for points with another space coordinate x', if fe -") app ear - Fy " 4.75) Basic Equations and Fundamentals of Wave Propagation which is satisfied as long as 1.76) or x =x, +c, AF 4.77) In oth¢r words, whatever happens at a point x, at ¢ = f will happen at the point x, + ;c, Af after Af, The perturbation propagates in the positive % direction. In the case of g(¢ + x,/c,), the function g reproduces itself after Af at points that satisfy 7+ Af + x'J/e, =F + x/e, ie, x’) = x, -¢, Af The perturbation propagates in the negative x,-direction. To solve the problem completely one needs the initial conditions and the boundary conditions. The initial quiescence conditions are: fl-xle) + gee) =0 forx, > 0 (1.78) Fle) + gale) =0 forx, > 0 (1.79) where primgs stand for differentiation with respect to the argument. And the boundary ¢fndition at x, = 0. - 2229 (P@ - #0) + m0 4.80) , It can easily be shown (Achenbach, 1973) that the solution which satisfies the above conditions is: 44(x,,0) = x Py i pS) ds fort > 2 ast) ‘tl 28 * Boundary Elements in Dynamics u,(z,2) = 0 fort < 2 : (1.82) ‘1 and the normal stress oy = “ptt - * fort > 3 (83) 1 1 x a, 70 fort< 3 (1.84) Gq. It shoulc be noticed that due to p(t) applied on the surface, a perturbation propagates into the half-space along x, with a velocity c,. A point at x, = x, remains at rest until the perturbation reaches it; i.e., until ¢ = x,/c,. Reflection and transmission Assume sow that the one dimensional perturbation strikes an infinite plane free surface nosmal to x, at x, = @. The perturbation is reflected into the body as shown below ~ The stress of the incident wave is @), Re ~ 3) 85) : The redected wave would be Ay (we = 8 + >) (1.86) Ss The boundary condition at x, = a, for ¢ > alc, is (+ Ode = 0 (1.87) Basic Equations and Fundamentals of Wave Propagation 4.88) For any value of t > a/c, the function a) = ve - 28) (1.89) : being s = ¢ + a/c, . This means that the g function for any value of its argument is equal and opposite to the f function for an argument which is the same of g minus 2a/c,. Therefore x, x7 a Gude = 8 * 2) = Ae z Ao £0.90) The reflected stress wave has the same shape of the incident wave with a change in sing after reflection. Tensile stresses become pressure stresses and vice versa. The wave travels in the negative x, direction with a time origin at ¢ = a/c, and with a space origin at x,= a. Assume now that at x, = 0 instead of an infinite plane free surface normal to x, there is an infinite plane interface with another material with different properties (irrotational wave velocity = c',, density = p') as shown in Fig. 1.2. Figure 1.2. Wave reflection and transmission. One can expect that part of the perturbation wiil be transmitted to the other side of the interface and part will be reflected back. The waves may be represented as 30 Boundary Elements in Dynamics 4o,), = At ~ 2 aon oy (a), = 8 - 2 1.92) a @,), = AG - 4.93) cq ‘The equilibrium and compatibility boundary conditions at x,-= a are (dr * Cdk = Owe .94) ly * thy * ty 0.95) The first boundary condition yields _2 - 2) eng - 2% : ft a) a ne me for any ¢ (1.96) The second is established taking into account that ou, buy al 9 z oa ap a.97) and similarly Bye Buy aap ea Hence, the second boundary condition can be written as Basic Equations and Fundamentals of Wave Propagation a “4 _ ay _@ 4 -1 - 4: Gp Lae a fe a} aor Lhe 2) 0.99) 1 From equations (1.96) and (1.99) one obtains 8(s) = Cy fis) Ais) = C, fis) 100) where Cyetk- Il (k+l), C= WKIMEF 1). and k = p'c',/ ce, Then (dy = Cp At - zt (101) G, = GA - 2 (1.102) The coefficients C, and C, are known as the reflection and transmission coefficients, respectively. They indicate the amplitude of the reflected and transmitted waves, respectively in relation to the amplitude of the incident »zve. The shape of the reflected and the transmitted waves are the same as that of the incident wave; i.e. the functiomf Half-space under shear Assume now the same initially undisturbed linear elastic half-space (z. > 0), under the effects of a uniform shear applied on its surface, say in he 1 direction. The displacement is now in a plane normal to the x,-axis. The only non-zero stress and strain components are: Oy = Oy = 2b by (1.193) 1 Gi fete a et 198) 1 For zero body forces, the second equilibrium equation in terms of the stresses becomes, 32 Boundary Elements in Dynamics Os = 9 @.105) Substituting (1.103) and (1.104) into (1.105) the homogeneous wave equation is obtained for uy, a a wlio (1.106) where c,? = p/p. This equation is identical to (1.72) which was obtained for u, in the case of-a-uniform pressure excitation with the only difference being that c, is used instead.o£¢, . The solution of (1.106) is the same as in the previous case. uy 0) = fe - Ay + g(t + Xy @.107) % % Waves propagate into the half-space along the x-direction. The transmission and reflection coefficients are the same except for the wave velocities which are now c; and c”, instead of ¢, and c’,, respectively. The waves are in this case equivolumial with displacements perpendicular to the direction of propagation and a propagation velocity c, = (4/p)'”. ‘Two-dimensional problems The twozexamples shown above are one-dimensional. Another situation ‘Simplification of the field equations is that of two-dimensional problems; i.e..-problems in which the body forces, geometry and boundary conditions are independent of one coordinate, say x,. All the field variables are independent of x; and the governing equations become uncoupled in two independent systems. The equilibrium equations can be written as: Og tp d= pth (108) Fg +P b, =i, 1.109) where the Greek indices take the values 1 and 2. ‘Taking into account that u, = 4,(x,,x2,2) Basic Equations and Fundamentals of Wave Propagation Oy = bly (110) and equation (1.108) in terms of u, becomes CF yyy + By = ty QL which is the wave equation governing the antiplane motion. The other problem, uncoupled from the first, corresponds to the in-plane motion where displacements 4,(x,,x,,f) and u,(x,,x;,f) exist, and u, = 0. The equilibrium equation (1.109) and Hooke's law O =E,, 112) yield Navier’s equation for two dimensions H Ung +A +H) Ugg, + 0b, =H, 1.113) The in-plane problem defined above is a plane strain one. It is well known from basic elasticity that the so-called plane stress state can be defined for thin plane domains. The field equation (1.113) remains the same for that case and only the stress and strain expressions in terms of u, and u, are different. It shouldbe noted that the two uncoupled problems appearing for two- dimensional situations are very different. In the first one, the displacements are governed direatly by the wave equation and only equivolumial waves exist. In the second case,. the’ Navier’s fieid equations remain in their original form and will have to be transformed as in the three-dimensional case to obtain wave equations. Equivolumial and irrotational waves exist in this case. Plane waves A plane displacement wave propagating in a direction defined by a unit vector q = (I,m,n) is a perturbation for which all the points in any plane Perpendicular to g have the same displacement at the same time. The displacement vector in this case is of the form a= fle - gra) bod - (114) where d is the unit vector defining the direction of motion and x is the position Py, Boundary Elements in Dynamics vector. Notice that the product q-x is a constant for all the points on a plane perpendicular to the vector q. - ‘The characteristics of the motion of the points under the effects of plane waves in elastic media can be analyzed using the field equations in terms of dilatations @ and rotations w as presented in section 1.3. These variables have to satisfy equations (1.24) and (1.26) respectively, which for zero body forces become 1 wa-sb @.115) Cr Pors 116), oy The general solution of equation (1.115) with the form of a plane wave is Of (t - g-xle,) =f (¢ - (x, + mx, + nx] / ¢) (117) where 2 + mm? + 7° = 1 to satisfy equation (1.115). The displacements associated to these waves can be written as (1.118) uy = c, 1 g(t - qrxle,) a cm alt - qrxle,) @.119) us = en ge - qexic) (1.120) where the furcsion g(s) is such that (1.121) 8's) = fis) “Basic Equations and Fundamentals of Wave Propagation 35 Direction of propagation Displacement Figure 1.3, Displacements corresponding to longitudinal waves The motion takes place along the direction of propagation g = (I,m,n) with a velocity of propagation c, (Figure 1.3). The vector d of equation (1.114) is in this case d = g. These waves are called longitudinal waves, irrotational waves (due to V x u’ = 0), or P-waves ("Primae waves"). The latter name was given in seismology because in the event of an earthquake they are the first waves to arrive at-a certain location. The general solution of equation (1.116) with the form of a plane wave is w= AE - g'exic,) 122) where q'= (I',m',n') indicates the direction of propagation with /"? + m'? + n'? = 1, and A is a vector of amplitudes which determines the amplitude {|A| and direction of the vector w. From the definition of w one can write V-w = 0 and hence A, 0 +A, m' + A,r =0 1.123) The rotation vector is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The displacements associated to these waves can be written as 6 Boundary Elements in Dynamics uy = c, (WA, = m'A,) rt ~.g' +x!) (1.124) uy = c, (A, ~ nA) rt - g'+x/c,) 125) us = ¢, (m'A, - I'A) rt - g'+x/c,) @.126) where the function r(s) is such that r'(s) = -A(s). Equations (1.124) to (1.126) indicate that the motion u* has no component along the direction of propagation; ie. the vector of displacements is perpendicular to the direction of propagation (Figure 1.4). Thus, the direction of propagation, the rotation and the displacement are three orthogonal vectors. The waves of this type, which propagate with velocity c;, are called shear waves or equivolumial waves as mentioned above. They are also called S-waves (“Secundae waves") because in the event of an earthquake they arrive after the P-waves. Direction of propagation Displacement Figure 1.4. Displacements corresponding to shear waves If the cartesian axes are chosen in a way such that the direction of Propagation of the plane P-waves is contained in the (x, x,)-plane, the motion is in the plaze and one has a two-dimensional in-plane problem with u, = 0 and all the 4/ax, = 0. If the cartesian axes are chosen in a way such that the direction of propagation of the plane S-waves is contained in the x, x,-plane, the motion due to the S-waves can be decomposed in two parts, one contained in the x, x,-plane and the ether along the x-axis. The two parts are uncoupled. One is a two- dimensioeal in-plane problem and the other an antiplane problem. “ Basic Equations and Fundamentals of Wave Propagarion B7 Time-harmonic waves Time-harmonic waves are those whose time dependence is of the cos(wt), sin(wt); where w is the circular frequency. Using complex notation the time dependence can be written as exp [iwt] or exp [-iwt]. In this case only the real or the imaginary part of the function has a physical meaning. The study of time-harmonic waves in linear media is very interesting because by virtue of the superposition principle, other perturbations can be written in terms of harmonic waves. Using the Fourier series one can represent periodic waves as a series of harmonic waves. Non-periodic perturbations can also be written in terms of harmonic waves using the Fourier transform. Going back to the one-dimensional problem of the half-space under uniform pressure, assume that the pressure has a-harmonic time dependence. In general pi) = Pe airy The displacement solution of equation (1.72) is 4) 2dr eae? @.128) where A and A’ are amplitudes independent of x, and ¢. The funccions expi(a/c}(c#-~ x,)] and exp[i(w/c) (ct + x,)] clearly belong to the general Zorms St - a/c) and g + x,/c), and represent travelling waves in -the positive and negative x,-diréction, respectively. All the reasoning already donel for the general functions f (¢ - x,/c) and g (¢ + x,/c) is valid for this particular and simpler case, The constant c takes the values c, and c, for irrotational and equivolumial waves, respectively. The argument (w/c) (ct - x) is called the phase of the wave and c the phase velocity. The displacement x, is a time-harmonic function with a time period T, where T = 2x/u, and a wave length X = c (2x/w) = c T. The quantity k = w/c is known as wavenumber. It indicates the number of wavelengths within a length 2 ( k = 2x/A). When the phase velocity, i.e, the propagation velocity, does not depend on the frequency, the system is said to be non-dispersive. Elastic materials are non-dispersive while non-elastic mazerials are, in general, dispersive. A certain perturbation can always be decomposed into “time-harmonic components..[f all the components have the same propegation velocity independent of their frequency, the perturbation maintains its shape (does not disperse) as it propagates through the body. 38 Boundary Elements in Dynamics Equation (1.128) represents a one-dimensional time-harmonic wave. Time- harmonic plane waves have the form sa-e (1.129) ude d where 4 is the real valued or complex amplitude, d defines the direction of the motion and g the direction of propagation. Plane time-harmonic waves are a particular case of the plane waves discussed above. The results of that discussion are applicable. In particular, it may be remarked that there are two types of time- harmonic waves in the infinite domain, the P-waves and the S-waves with phase velocities ¢; and ¢, respectively, The displacements follow the propagation direction“tor the P-waves and are perpendicular to the propagation direction for ~ the S-waves. A more detailed study of plane harmonic waves is included in the next chapter which is dedicated to harmonic problems. 1.8, Pressure Waves in Fluids ‘The Navier-Stokes equations governing the motion of a compressible fluid can be written as (see, for instance, Bachelor 1967): Continuity equation: ap, str VG) +0 (1.130) Equilibrium equation: ay, ae tan Va tee @.131) where 1% and P; are the density, velocity and pressure, respectively. The constant « is the viscosity. For small perturbations, the variables can be linearized Basic Equations and Fundamentals of Wave Propagation 39 Pye Pot P 4.132) yay ty 133) Py = Py *P 1.134) where p, p and y are the dynamic pressure, the change of density due to pressure and the change of velocity, respectively. The variables po, vo and p) correspond to the initial state. If the fluid is originally at rest y= 0 and -v =v 1.135) By substitution in equations (1.130) and (1.131) and neglecting the second order terms, one obtains a 4 +p Vw =0 (1.136) ty Bap rey 4.137) In the case of non-viscous fluids, equation (1.137) can be written as av a s-¥ .138) mF P 4.138) which relates the pressure gradient with the time derivative of the velocity. The scalar equation which completes the system of field equations in addition to (1.138), is obtained by taking the time derivative of equation (1.136) and the divergence of (1.138) ao a <2 SVs 139) az mY 0 .139) tb ¥ev =-Vp (1.140) 40 Boundary Elements in Dynamics Svbstitution of (1.140) into (1.139) yields site 141) Calling 2 = p/p, which is a characteristic of the fluid, for certain’ pressure and temperature conditions, equation (1.141) becomes the homogeneous scalar wave equation with wave propagation velocity c. = 1 % 142) Verse (1.142) = cuaton (I. 142) governs the pressure wave propagation in non-viscous fiuids fer small perturbations. The relation between pressure and fluid velocity needed

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