Spectrum notes for revision

Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–84)

 Haidar Ali accused the English of breaking their promise and not following the
Treaty of Madras in 1771.
 He was attacked by the Marathas during this time, and the English didn't come to
his aid, which made him upset.
 Haidar Ali needed weapons like guns, saltpetre, and lead for his army, and he found
the French more helpful than the English in providing these.
 He used Mahe, a French possession on the Malabar Coast, to get some French war
materials for his army.
 The American War of Independence was happening, and the French were
supporting the American rebels against the English.
 Haidar Ali's friendship with the French worried the English even more.
 The English tried to capture Mahe, which Haidar Ali believed was under his
protection.
 Haidar considered the English's attempt to take Mahe as a direct challenge to his
authority.

Certainly, here are some objective questions to revise the points from the provided
paragraph:

Why did Haidar Ali accuse the English of breaking their promise and not following
the Treaty of Madras in 1771?
a) Because the English attacked him
b) Because the Marathas attacked him
c) Because he wanted to start a war
d) Because the French asked him to do so

What materials did Haidar Ali's army require, and why did he turn to the French for
help?
a) Guns, saltpetre, and lead; the French were more helpful than the English.
b) Horses and food; the French had an abundance of these.
c) Medicines and clothing; the French had better quality.
d) Gold and silver; the French offered favorable trade terms.

During the American War of Independence, which side were the French on?
a) They supported the British.
b) They remained neutral.
c) They supported the American rebels.
d) They supported the Spanish.

Why did Haidar Ali's friendship with the French worry the English?
a) Because the French were invading England.
b) Because the French were interfering in Indian affairs.
c) Because the French were planning to attack Haidar Ali.
d) Because the French didn't like the English.
What action did the English take in response to Haidar Ali's friendship with the
French?
a) They offered an alliance with Haidar Ali.
b) They declared war on the French.
c) They tried to capture Mahe.
d) They sent gifts to Haidar Ali as a gesture of goodwill.

Why did Haidar Ali consider the English attempt to capture Mahe a direct challenge
to his authority?
a) Because Mahe was a French possession.
b) Because the English wanted to trade with Mahe.
c) Because Mahe was a part of Haidar Ali's kingdom.
d) Because the English wanted to make peace with Haidar Ali.

Course of War:

Formation of Alliance: Haidar Ali formed an anti-English alliance with the Marathas
and the Nizam.

Attack on Carnatic: Haidar Ali launched an attack in the Carnatic, which included
capturing Arcot and defeating the English army under Colonel Baillie in 1781.

English Actions: The English, led by Sir Eyre Coote, managed to detach both the
Marathas and the Nizam from Haidar's side during the conflict.

Defeat at Porto Novo: Despite facing setbacks, Haidar Ali remained undeterred and
boldly confronted the English. However, in November 1781, he suffered a defeat at
Porto Novo.

Regrouping and Victory: After his defeat, Haidar Ali regrouped his forces and
managed to defeat the English. He also captured their commander, Braithwaite.

Haidar Ali's Death: Haidar Ali passed away on December 7, 1782, due to cancer.

Tipu Sultan's Leadership: Following Haidar Ali's death, his son Tipu Sultan
continued the war for one more year, although without achieving a clear victory.

Treaty of Mangalore:
8. End of War: Frustrated by the inconclusive war, both sides, the English and Tipu
Sultan, opted for peace.

9.Negotiation: They negotiated the Treaty of Mangalore in March 1784.

Territorial Exchange: According to the treaty, each party agreed to return the
territories they had taken from the other during the conflict.

Who did Haidar Ali forge an anti-English alliance with during the course of the war?
a) Marathas
b) Nizam
c) Both Marathas and Nizam
d) French

In 1781, Haidar Ali captured which important location in the Carnatic?

a) Madras
b) Bombay
c) Arcot
d) Calcutta

Who was the English commander defeated by Haidar Ali's forces in 1781?
a) Sir Eyre Coote
b) Colonel Baillie
c) Braithwaite
d) Tipu Sultan

How did the English manage to weaken Haidar Ali's alliance during the war?
a) Through diplomatic negotiations
b) Through military victories
c) By seeking French support
d) By making financial offers

In which battle did Haidar Ali face defeat in November 1781?

a) Arcot
b) Porto Novo
c) Mangalore
d) Madras

Who succeeded Haidar Ali as the leader of the war after his death?
a) Sir Eyre Coote
b) Marathas
c) Nizam
d) Tipu Sultan

Why did both sides opt for the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784?
a) Due to Haidar Ali's victory
b) Because they had run out of resources
c) To negotiate a trade agreement
d) To finalize colonial boundaries

What was the main outcome of the Treaty of Mangalore?

a) Territorial exchanges between the English and Tipu Sultan
b) The establishment of a new government in the Carnatic
c) A permanent alliance between the English and the Marathas
d) An agreement to continue the war
Third Anglo-Mysore War

 Background:

 Origin of Dispute: A dispute emerged between Tipu Sultan and the state of
Travancore.
 Dutch Territories: Travancore had purchased Jalkottal and Cannanore, which
were Dutch territories, in the Cochin state.
 Tipu's Reaction: As Cochin was under Tipu's suzerainty, he saw Travancore's
purchase as a violation of his sovereignty.
 Declaration of War: In April 1790, Tipu declared war against Travancore to
reclaim what he perceived as his rights.
 Course of War:
 5. English Support: The English sided with Travancore and joined the conflict
against Tipu Sultan.

 Early Battles: In 1790, Tipu Sultan defeated the English forces led by General
Meadows.
 Leadership Change: In 1791, Lord Cornwallis took command of the English
forces and led a large army.
 March to Seringapatam: Cornwallis advanced through Ambur, Vellore, and
captured Bangalore in March 1791. He then proceeded to Seringapatam.
 Coimbatore Capture: The English temporarily captured Coimbatore, but they
lost it. Later, with Maratha and Nizam support, they attacked Seringapatam for
the second time.
 Tipu's Opposition: Tipu Sultan offered strong resistance, but the odds were
against him.
 Treaty of Seringapatam:
 11. Territorial Loss: Under the Treaty of Seringapatam in 1792, nearly half of
the Mysorean territory was taken by the victors.

 Territorial Changes: Baramahal, Dindigul, and Malabar regions went to the

English, while the Marathas gained areas around the Tungabhadra River and its
tributaries. The Nizam acquired areas from the Krishna River to beyond the
Pennar.
 War Indemnity: Tipu Sultan had to pay a war indemnity of three crore rupees as
part of the treaty.
 Hostages: To secure the payment, the English took Tipu's two sons as hostages.

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

 Background:

 Between 1792 and 1799, both the English and Tipu Sultan prepared for conflict.
 Tipu fulfilled the terms of the Treaty of Seringapatam and secured the release of
his sons.
 In 1796, Tipu refused to place the minor son of the Wodeyar dynasty on the
throne and declared himself sultan.
 His decision was driven by a desire for revenge and a response to the Treaty's
conditions.
 In 1798, Lord Wellesley became the new Governor-General, aiming to end Tipu's
independence or bring him under the Subsidiary Alliance.
 Charges against Tipu included plotting with the Nizam and Marathas and sending
emissaries to various places with questionable intentions.
 Course of War:

 The war started on April 17, 1799, ending on May 4, 1799, with the fall of
Seringapatam.
 Tipu was initially defeated by English General Stuart and later by General Harris.
Arthur Wellesley, Lord Wellesley's brother, also participated.
 The English received assistance from the Marathas and the Nizam. The Marathas
were promised half of Tipu's territory, and the Nizam had already accepted the
Subsidiary Alliance.
 Tipu displayed bravery but lost his life in battle.
 His family members were confined in Vellore, and the English seized his
treasures.
 The English appointed a boy from the earlier Hindu royal family of Mysore as the
maharaja, and they imposed the Subsidiary Alliance system on him

Mysore After Tipu

● Wellesley offered Soonda and Harponelly districts
of Mysore Kingdom to the Marathas, which the latter refused.
● The Nizam was given the districts of Gooty and
Gurramkonda.
● The English took possession of Kanara, Wynad,
Coimbatore, Dwaraporam, and Seringapatam.
● The new state of Mysore was handed over to the old
Hindu dynasty (Wodeyars) under a minor ruler Krishnaraja
III, who accepted the subsidiary alliance.
● In 1831, William Bentinck took control of Mysore
on grounds of misgovernance.
● In 1881, Lord Ripon restored the kingdom to its ruler.

Anglo-Maratha Struggle for

Supremacy
Rise of the Marathas:

 With the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Marathas emerged as a significant
power in India.
 They controlled a substantial part of the country and received tributes from areas
not directly under their rule.
 By the mid-18th century, they aspired to rule the North Indian empire and played
a key role in Mughal court politics.
 Challenges and Rebuilding:

 The Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, where they faced defeat by Ahmad Shah
Abdali, posed a significant setback.
 However, the Marathas regrouped, regained strength, and re-established
themselves as a powerful force within a decade.
 Leadership and Confederacy:

 Bajirao I (1720–40), one of the most prominent Peshwas, initiated a confederacy

of influential Maratha chiefs to manage their expanding influence.
 This confederacy aimed to appease the kshatriya section of the Marathas, led by
the Senapati Dabodi.
 Each chief within the Maratha confederacy was assigned a sphere of influence to
conquer and rule, all in the name of the Maratha king, Shahu.
 Prominent Maratha Families:

 Key Maratha families that emerged prominently within the confederacy included:
 Gaekwad of Baroda
 Bhonsle of Nagpur
 Holkars of Indore
 Sindhias of Gwalior
 Peshwa of Poona
 Confederacy Dynamics:

 The Maratha confederacy, led by figures like Bajirao I to Madhavrao I, operated

cooperatively.
 However, the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 had a significant impact on the
confederacy's dynamics.
 The defeat at Panipat and the later death of the young Peshwa, Madhavrao I, in
1772, weakened the Peshwas' control over the confederacy.
 While the chiefs of the confederacy occasionally united against the British (1775–
82), they often engaged in internal conflicts.
What opportunities did the Marathas seize as the Mughal Empire declined?
a) Economic expansion
b) Control of a significant part of India
c) Alliance with the British
d) Relocation to the Deccan Plateau

In the mid-18th century, what role did the Marathas aspire to play in North India?
a) Trade leaders
b) Rulers of the North Indian empire
c) Cultural ambassadors
d) Religious leaders

What was the significant setback faced by the Marathas in 1761?

a) The loss of political influence
b) Defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat
c) Economic recession
d) Decline of Maratha power

Who initiated the confederacy of prominent Maratha chiefs to manage their expanding influence?
a) Tipu Sultan
b) Aurangzeb
c) Bajirao I
d) Lord Wellesley

Which Maratha leader is considered one of the greatest Peshwas?

a) Madhavrao I
b) Gaekwad of Baroda
c) Bhonsle of Nagpur
d) Bajirao I

What role did the Marathas play in Mughal court politics during their rise?
a) Kings
b) Kingmakers
c) Advisors
d) Diplomats

Which key battle significantly impacted the dynamics of the Maratha confederacy?
a) Battle of Plassey
b) Battle of Haldighati
c) Third Battle of Panipat
d) Battle of Buxar

What was the primary purpose of the Maratha confederacy initiated by Bajirao I?
a) Economic expansion
b) Promotion of art and culture
c) Managing expanding Maratha power
d) Encouraging foreign trade

Entry of the English into Maratha Politics

The years between the last quarter of the 18th century and
the first quarter of the 19th century witnessed the Marathas
and the English clashing thrice for political supremacy, with
the English emerging victorious in the end.
The cause of these conflicts was the inordinate ambition of the English, and the
divided house of the Marathas that encouraged the
English to hope for success in their venture.
The English in Bombay wanted to establish a government on the lines of the
arrangement made by Clive in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
So, it was a longed-for opportunity for the English when
dissensions over a succession divided the Marathas.

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82)

Background:

 After the death of Madhavrao in 1772, his brother Narayanrao became the
fifth peshwa.
 However, Narayanrao's uncle, Raghunathrao, had him assassinated and
declared himself as the peshwa.
 Narayanrao's widow, Gangabai, gave birth to a son named 'Sawai'
Madhavrao, the legal heir to the peshwa title.
 Twelve Maratha chiefs, led by Nana Phadnavis, sought to name the infant as
the new peshwa and act as regents.

 Treaties of Surat and Purandhar:

 Raghunathrao, unwilling to relinquish power, sought English help and
signed the Treaty of Surat in 1775.
 Under this treaty, Raghunathrao ceded Salsette and Bassein territories to
the English in exchange for 2,500 soldiers.
 The Calcutta Council condemned the Treaty of Surat and sent Colonel
Upton to annul it and create a new treaty, the Treaty of Purandhar (1776),
with the regency renouncing Raghunath and offering him a pension.
 However, the Bombay government rejected this, and Raghunath found
refuge with them.

Conflict and Course of War:

 In 1777, Nana Phadnavis granted the French a port on the west coast,
leading to English retaliation.
 The English and Maratha armies clashed on the outskirts of Pune.
 The Maratha army, led by Mahadji Scindia, gave a tough fight to britishers.
 The Marathas used a scorched earth policy, burning farmland and poisoning
wells.
 The English surrendered in mid-January 1779 and signed the Treaty of
Wadgaon, forcing the Bombay government to relinquish territories acquired
since 1775.

Treaty of Salbai (1782): End of the First Phase:

 Unsatisfied by the treaty of wadagaon,warren hasting (GG of bengal ) sent a

large force and captured Ahmedbad in 1779,bassein in 1780,gwalior in
1780,and they finally defeated scindia in 1781.
 As a result ,scindia proposed a treaty of salbai which was RATIFIED BY
THE PHADNAVIS AND HASTINGS.

 The Treaty of Salbai was signed in May 1782, guaranteeing peace for twenty
years.
 Key provisions of the treaty included the return of conquered territories to
the Marathas, English retention of Salsette, and guarantees of peace between
the two sides.
 Mahadji Scindia was the mutual guarantor for the proper observance of the
treaty terms.(other proviosion learn from spectrum)

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05)

Background:

 The Second Anglo-Maratha war began under circumstances similar to the first war.
 In 1795, Peshwa Madhavrao Narayan committed suicide, creating a power vacuum.
 Bajirao II, the son of Raghunathrao, assumed the position of Peshwa, but he was
considered ineffective.
 Nana Phadnavis, who opposed Bajirao II, became the chief minister of the
Marathas.
 Internal conflicts and disagreements among the Marathas created an opportunity
for British intervention.
 The death of Nana Phadnavis in 1800 further favored the British, as it weakened
Maratha leadership.

Course of War:

 Provocation: On April 1, 1801, the Peshwa(bajirao II ) brutally murdered Vithuji, the

brother of Jaswantrao Holkar.
 Jaswantrao's Reaction: Furious Jaswantrao Holkar assembled his forces against the
combined armies of Scindia and Peshwa Bajirao II.
 Decisive Battle: On October 25, 1802, Jaswantrao defeated the armies of the Peshwa
and Scindia at Poona and placed Vinayakrao, son of Amritrao, on the Peshwa's seat.
 Peshwa's Treaty with the English: Fearing for his safety, Bajirao II fled to Bassein,
where on December 31, 1802, he signed the Treaty of Bassein with the English.
Treaty of Bassein (1802):

Key Provisions:
 Peshwa agreed to receive a native infantry of at least 6,000 troops, with artillery,
permanently stationed in his territories.
 Ceded territories yielding an income of Rs 26 lakh to the English.
 Surrendered the city of Surat.
 Relinquished(gave up) claims for chauth on the Nizam's dominions.
 Accepted the Company's arbitration in disputes with the Nizam or the Gaekwad.
 Agreed not to employ Europeans from nations at war with the English.
 Subjected his relations with other states to English control.

Reduced to Vassalage:

 Peshwa accepted the humiliating subsidiary alliance giving up his sovereignty however
scindia and bhosle attempeted to save maratha independence but failed at it as the
English under Arthur Wellesley defeated their combined armies.
 Separate subsidiary treaties were imposed on Scindia and Bhonsle.
 In 1804, Yashwantrao Holkar's attempt to form a coalition of indian rulers against the
English proved unsuccessful.
 The Marathas were defeated, reduced to British vassalage, and isolated from each other.
Treaty of deogaon-bhosle treaty of surji anjangao--scindia
Tresaty of rajpur ghat -holkar

Significance of the Treaty of Bassein:

 Though signed by a Peshwa with limited political authority, the treaty had significant
implications.
 The provision of permanently stationing English troops in Maratha territory strategically
benefited the English.
 It added Poona to the list of areas with English troops, enhancing their ability to respond
quickly to various regions.
 While the treaty didn't hand India to the English outright, it marked a major step towards
expanding their influence.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–19)

 Background:
 Lord Hastings aimed to establish British paramountcy in India.
 The Charter Act of 1813 ended the East India Company's monopoly of trade in
China, prompting the need for new markets.
 The Pindaris, initially mercenaries(a professional soldier ) in Maratha armies, turned to
plundering neighboring territories, including those controlled by the East India
Company.
 The English accused the Marathas of sheltering the Pindaris.
 Pindari leaders like Amir Khan and Karim Khan surrendered, while Chitu Khan
fled.

Impact of Treaty of Bassein:

 The Treaty of Bassein, seen as "a treaty with a cipher (the Peshwa)," offended
other Maratha leaders who viewed it as an absolute surrender of independence.
 Lord Hastings' actions against the Pindaris were seen as a breach of Maratha
sovereignty.
 This led to the unification of the Maratha confederacy.
 Bajirao II, in a final attempt in 1817, rallied Maratha chiefs against the English
in the Third Anglo-Maratha War.

Course of War:

 The Peshwa attacked the British Residency at Poona, Appa Sahib of Nagpur
attacked Nagpur's residency, and the Holkar prepared for war.
 However, by this time, the Marathas had lost key elements necessary for a strong
power.
 Maratha states faced political and administrative confusion and inefficiency.
 After Jaswantrao Holkar's death, Tulsi Bai took control in Poona but struggled to
administer the state effectively due to poor advisors.
 The Bhonsle at Nagpur and the Scindia at Gwalior had also weakened.
 The English, retaliating vigorously, prevented the Peshwa from regaining
control over the Maratha confederacy.

Result and Treaties:

 The Peshwa was defeated at Khirki, Bhonsle at Sitabuldi, and Holkar at

Mahidpur.
 Key treaties were signed:
 June 1817: Treaty of Poona with the Peshwa.
 November 1817: Treaty of Gwalior with Scindia.
 January 1818: Treaty of Mandasor with Holkar.
 In June 1818, the Peshwa surrendered, and the Maratha confederacy was
dissolved.
 The peshwaship was abolished, and Bajirao became a British retainer at Bithur
near Kanpur.
 Pratap Singh, a descendant of Shivaji, was made ruler of the small
principality of Satara, formed from the Peshwa's dominions.
Why the Marathas Lost
 Reasons for Maratha Defeat:

Inept Leadership:

 Maratha leaders like Bajirao II, Daulatrao Scindia, and Jaswantrao Holkar were
ineffective and selfish.
 They couldn't match the skills of English officials like Elphinstone, John
Malcolm, and Arthur Wellesley.

Defective Nature of Maratha State:

 Maratha unity was artificial and accidental and not organic or natural .It was not
based out of sense of unity but was on based on religious and nationalistic
movements.
 They lacked organized communal improvement, education, and societal
unification.
 This flaw became evident when they faced a well-organized European power like
the British.

Loose Political Set-Up:

 The Maratha empire was a loose confederation which had no real alligiance to
peshwa.
 powerful chiefs like Gaikwad, Holkar, Scindia, and Bhonsle ruling semi-
independent kingdoms paid only lip service to peshwa.
 Internal hostilities and lack of cooperation among Maratha chiefs weakened the
state.

Inferior Military System:

 Marathas lacked organization, advanced weaponry, disciplined action, and
effective leadership compared to the English.
 Divided command and treachery weakened their forces.
 They inadequately adopted modern warfare techniques and neglected the
importance of artillery.

Unstable Economic Policy:

 The Maratha leadership failed to establish a stable economic policy.

 Lack of industries and foreign trade opportunities hindered economic stability.

Superior English Diplomacy and Espionage:

 English diplomatic skills won allies and isolated the enemy.

 Maratha disunity made it easier for the English to achieve their goals.
 English maintained a strong spy network, while the Marathas lacked information
about their enemy.

Progressive English Outlook:

 English society was rejuvenated by the Renaissance, scientific advancements, and

colonial expansion.
 In contrast, the Marathas clung to medieval ideas, maintaining traditional social
hierarchies and the dominance of the priestly class.
 This contrast in outlook made the union of the Maratha empire difficult.
 In conclusion, the English attacked a divided and weakened Maratha house,
which gradually crumbled under the pressure of these factors.

Conquest of Sindh

English Interest in Sindh

 In the early 19th century, the English became interested in Sindh due to trade
facilities authorized by a farman from the Mughal Emperor in 1630.
Rise of Talpuras Amirs

 In the 18th century, Sindh was ruled by the Kallora chiefs.

 The English had a factory in Thatta in 1758, and the Kallora prince, Ghulam
Shah, granted privileges to the English through parwana system till 1775 which
was later discontinued by sarfaraz khan.

 The Talpura Baluch tribe, excellent soldiers, settled in Sindh in the 1770s.
 In 1783, the Talpuras established control over Sindh under the leadership of mir
faths, and the Kallora prince was sent into exile.
 The Talpuras divided the kingdom among themselves, becoming the Amirs or
Lords of Sindh.
Char yar is related to sindh and mir faths brother.

Gradual Ascendancy over Sindh

 In the late 18th century, there was a belief that Napoleon was conspiring with
Tipu Sultan to invade India.
 Negotiations by britishers under lord wellesly with Fath Ali Khan in Sindh to
counteract the French alliance failed.
 Treaty of 'Eternal Friendship' (sindh was visted by nicholas smith on the order
of lord minto) in 1820 aimed at excluding the French and Americans from
Sindh.
 In 1832, a treaty(initiated by william bentick)allowed free passage for English
traders and travelers and resolved border disputes.(other provision read from
spectrum)

.
Lord Auckland and Sindh

 Lord Auckland(GG in 1832) sought to consolidate British influence in Sindh to

prevent a possible Russian invasion and gain influence over the Afghans.
 A treaty in 1838 turned Sindh into a British protectorate.(they got this opportunity
when Ranjit singh captured some of the sindh territory)
 Provision---company troops at sindh on sindhs expense
--english can interfere in dispute b/w sindh and sikhs

Tripartite Treaty of 1838

 The English persuaded Ranjit Singh to sign a tripartite treaty for mediation in
disputes with the Amirs and financial gains.
 Also made emperor shah shuja to relinquish his sovereign right on sindh.

Sindh Accepts Subsidiary Alliance (1839)

 The Amirs agreed to a subsidiary alliance with the English, stationed British
troops, paid an annual fee for their maintainance, and had restrictions on
negotiations with foreign states without the company consent.

Capitulation of Sindh

 The First Anglo-Afghan War occurred on Sindh's soil from 1839 to 1842, which
the Amirs of Sindh did not support. They disliked the presence of British troops
in their region.
 Despite their opposition, the Amirs were required to pay for the British presence
in Sindh, which they did, but they received no appreciation or rewards for their
cooperation.
 The Amirs were accused of being hostile and disloyal to the British government,
and they faced charges of treasonable activities against the British.
 To deal with the difficult situation during the Afghan war, Lord Ellenborough
sent Outram to make a new deal with the Amirs.

 Under the new treaty, the Amirs were compelled to cede important provinces as a
penalty for their past actions. They were also required to supply fuel for the
Company's steamers on the Indus and stop minting coins.

 Additionally, the British intervened in a succession dispute among the Amirs and
initiated a war when the Amirs rose in revolt.

 As a result, Sindh surrendered quickly, and the Amirs were captured and
banished from the region.

 In 1843, during Governor General Ellenborough's tenure, Sindh was integrated

into the British Empire, and Charles Napier was appointed as its first governor.

 The English accused the Amirs of treasonable activities and, through negotiations
and war, took control of Sindh in 1843.

Criticisms of the Conquest

 Historians criticize the British acquisition of Sindh a form of bullying and

deception to compensate for their losses in the First Afghan War.

Conquest of Punjab
Consolidation of Punjab under the Sikhs

 Banda Bahadur's Rebellion (1715): After Guru Gobind Singh's death(murder of

last guru), a section of Sikhs led by Banda Bahadur revolted against the
Mughals(bahadur shah rule). Banda Bahadur was defeated in 1715 by
farrukhsiyar and put to death in 1716.

 Sikh Unity (1721): Sikhs, initially divided into Bandai(liberal) and Tat
Khalsa(orthodox) groups, united under the influence of Bhai Mani Singh in 1721.

 Formation of Dal Khalsa (1784): Kapur Singh Faizullapuria organized Sikhs

into Dal Khalsa in 1784, aiming for political, cultural, and economic unity.
 The khalsa had two section--budha(old) dal and tarun(young)
dal

 Misl (equal )System: Sikhs(the above dals ) further consolidated in military

brotherhoods called misls, taking advantage of political turmoil in Punjab.

 Misl rule in punjab (1763-73)---from saharanpur to attock

and from north to multan

Ranjit Singh's Rise to Power

Early Life: Ranjit Singh, born in 1780, was the son of Mahan Singh, leader of the
Sukarchakiya misl. He showed political acumen from an early age.

Disintegration of Other Misls: By the late 18th century, most misls, except
Sukarchakiya, were in a state of disintegration.

Exploiting Political Turmoil: Afghanistan was in civil war due to power struggles,
which Ranjit Singh exploited to establish his rule.
He followed the policy of blood and iron and carved out area in central punjab.

Acquisition of Lahore (1799): Ranjit Singh was appointed the governor of Lahore by
Zaman Shah, the ruler of Afghanistan, in 1799.

Control of Amritsar (1805): By 1805, Ranjit Singh gained control of Jammu and
Amritsar, making Lahore and Amritsar the political and religious capitals of Punjab.

Alliances: Ranjit Singh maintained good relations with the Dogras and Nepalese and
included them in his army.

Ranjit Singh and the English

French and Russian Threat: The English were concerned about a possible Franco-
Russian invasion of India via the land route. This prompted Lord Minto to send
Charles Metcalfe to Lahore in 1807.

Ranjit Singh's Offer: Ranjit Singh accepted the metcaf propsal annd offered an
offensive and defensive alliance to the English under certain conditions. He wanted
the English to stay neutral in a Sikh-Afghan war and recognize him as the sovereign
of the entire Punjab, including the Malwa territories. However, the negotiations failed.

Treaty of Amritsar (1809): Due to changing political circumstances and the receding
Napoleonic threat, Ranjit Singh agreed to sign the Treaty of Amritsar with the English
in April 1809.

Significance of the Treaty: The Treaty of Amritsar marked the boundary of Ranjit
Singh's dominions, recognizing the Sutlej River as the boundary line. With this, he
redirected his efforts towards the west and expanded into Multan (1818), Kashmir
(1819), and Peshawar (1834).

Tripartite Treaty (1838): In June 1838, Ranjit Singh was compelled to sign the
Tripartite Treaty with the English. However, he refused to allow the British army
passage through his territories to attack Dost Mohammad, the Afghan Amir.

Ranjit Singh's Weak Position: The relations between Raja Ranjit Singh and the
English from 1809 to 1839 showed his weak position. Despite his awareness of this
weakness, he did not form a coalition with other Indian princes or maintain a balance
of power.

Ranjit Singh's Death (1839): Ranjit Singh passed away in June 1839, marking the
beginning of the decline of his empire.

Punjab After Ranjit Singh

Beginning of Court Factions

Inefficient Successor: After Ranjit Singh's death, his legitimate son and successor,
Kharak Singh, proved to be inefficient. During his brief reign, court factions started to
emerge.

Anarchic Situation: In 1839, Kharak Singh died suddenly, and his son, Prince Nau
Nihal Singh, also died accidentally shortly after. This created chaos in Punjab, with
various groups eyeing for control of the throne.

Opportunity for English Intervention: The power struggles within Punjab's court
provided an opportunity for the English to take decisive action. The Sikh army, a key
pillar of the state, was not as strong as it seemed. Many of Ranjit Singh's capable
generals had already passed away, and there was growing discontent among the
troops due to irregular payments and the appointment of unworthy officers.

English Passages Through Punjab: The Lahore government, following its policy of
friendship with the English company, allowed British troops to pass through its
territory on two occasions – once as they fled from Afghanistan and again as they
returned to avenge their defeat. These passages caused disturbances and economic
disruption in Punjab.

Rani Jindan and Daleep Singh: After Nau Nihal Singh's death, Sher Singh, another
of Ranjit Singh's sons, took over as Maharaja but was murdered in late 1843.
Subsequently, Daleep Singh, a minor son of Ranjit Singh, was declared the Maharaja,
with Rani Jindan as the regent and Hira Singh Dogra as the wazir. Hira Singh was
later killed in a court intrigue in 1844.

Leadership Changes: The new wazir, Jawahar Singh, who was Rani Jindan's
brother, fell out of favor with the army and was deposed and executed in 1845. Lal
Singh, a lover of Rani Jindan, won the army's support and became the wazir in the
same year. Teja Singh was appointed as the commander of the forces.

First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46)

Causes of the First Anglo-Sikh War

Anarchy in Lahore Kingdom: After Maharaja Ranjit Singh's death, a power struggle
erupted within the Lahore kingdom, leading to instability. The court at Lahore and the
influential local Sikh army were striving for dominance.
Suspicions among Sikh Army: The Sikh army grew suspicious of English intentions
due to the English military campaigns to annex Gwalior and Sindh in 1841, as well as
the campaign in Afghanistan in 1842.

Increased English Troops: The presence of an increasing number of English troops

near the border with the Lahore kingdom raised tensions.

Course of the War

The war commenced in December 1845, the Sikhs under the command of Lal Singh.

But the Treachery from Lal Singh and Teja Singh led to five successive defeats for
the Sikhs at Mudki, Ferozeshah, Buddelwal, Aliwal, and Sobraon.
Lahore fell to the British forces on February 20, 1846, without a fight.

Treaty of Lahore (March 8, 1846)

The Sikhs were compelled to sign a humiliating treaty, which included:

 War indemnity of over 1 crore rupees to be paid to the English.

 Annexation of the Jalandhar Doab (between the Beas and the Sutlej) to the
Company's dominions.
 Establishment of a British resident at Lahore, represented by Henry Lawrence.
 Reduction in the strength of the Sikh army.
 Recognition of Daleep Singh as the ruler under Rani Jindan as regent(because the
ruler in minor) and Lal Singh as wazir.
 To cover their war indemnity, the Sikhs sold Kashmir, including Jammu, to
Gulab Singh, who paid 75 lakh rupees to the Company.

A separate treaty on March 16, 1846, formalized the transfer of Kashmir to Gulab
Singh.

Treaty of Bhairowal

Due to dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Lahore over the issue of kashmir, the Sikhs
rebelled, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Bhairowal in December 1846.

This treaty removed Rani Jindan as regent and established a council of regency for
Punjab, consisting of eight Sikh sardars presided over by the English Resident, Henry
Lawrence.

Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49)

Causes of the Second Anglo-Sikh War

 The defeat in the first Anglo-Sikh War and the humiliating provisions of the
treaties of Lahore and Bhairowal deeply humiliated the Sikhs.
 The mistreatment of Rani Jindan, who was sent to Benares as a pensioner, further
fueled Sikh resentment.

 The revolt of Mulraj, the governor of Multan, against the appointment of a new
Sikh governor ..

 Mulraj's revolt led to the murder of two English officers accompanying the new
governor. Sher Singh was dispatched to suppress the revolt but ended up joining
Mulraj, sparking a mass uprising in Multan.

 This uprising in Multan served as the immediate cause of the war, providing Lord
Dalhousie, the Governor General of India, with a pretext to annex Punjab
completely.

Course of the War

 Lord Dalhousie personally traveled to Punjab. Three significant battles were

fought before the final annexation of Punjab:
 Battle of Ramnagar, led by Sir Hugh Gough, the commander-in-chief of the
Company.
 Battle of Chillhanwala in January 1849.
 Battle of Gujarat on February 21, 1849. The Sikh army surrendered at
Rawalpindi, and their Afghan allies were driven out of India.
Results of the War

The war culminated in the following outcomes:

 Surrender of the Sikh army and Sher Singh in 1849.

 Annexation of Punjab.
 Lord Dalhousie was praised by the British Parliament and received a promotion.
 A three-member board was established to govern Punjab, comprising the
Lawrence brothers (Henry and John) and Charles Mansel.
In 1853, the board was dissolved, and Punjab was placed under a chief commissioner,
with John Lawrence becoming the first chief commissioner.

Significance of the Anglo-Sikh Wars

 The wars fostered them the mutual respect for the fighting capabilities of both the
British and Sikhs.

 The Sikhs went on to fight loyally on the British side during the Revolt of 1857
and in various other conflicts until independece.

Extension of British Paramountcy Through Administrative Policy

British Imperial Expansion Strategies: Two-Fold Approach

 Between 1757 and 1857, the East India Company pursued a dual strategy for
imperial expansion: (a) annexation through conquest or
 war(bengal,mysore,maratha and sikhs), and (b) annexation through
diplomatic and administrative means(policies discussed below)

Policy of Ring-Fence by Warren Hastings

 Warren Hastings assumed the role of governor general during a challenging time
when the British faced formidable Indian powers like the Marathas, Mysore, and
Hyderabad.

 This policy was in operation during war against maratha and mysore.

 He implemented the "ring-fence" policy, aimed at establishing buffer zones to

protect the Company's frontiers. This essentially meant defending neighboring
territories to safeguard their own.

 The primary threats to the Company's territories were from Afghan invaders and
the Marathas. To counter these threats, the Company arranged for the defense of
Awadh (Oudh) under the condition that the Nawab of Awadh would cover the
expenses of the defending army.

 Defending Awadh effectively meant defending Bengal during that period. States
brought under the ring-fence system were assured of military assistance against
external aggression, but they had to bear the cost. These allies were required to
maintain subsidiary forces, organized, equipped, and led by Company officers,
with the rulers of these states paying for their services.

Wellesley's Policy of Subsidiary Alliance

 Wellesley's policy of "subsidiary alliance" was an extension of the ring-fence

system. It aimed to further subordinate Indian states to the British government.

 The policy sought to reduce Indian states to a state of dependence on the British
administration.

Subsidiary Alliance

Introduction

 Lord Wellesley, who served as governor general from 1798 to 1805, employed
the subsidiary alliance system to expand British rule in India.
 This policy involved coercing Indian princely states to accept British dominance
by stationing British forces within their territories and paying a subsidy for their
maintenance.
 The Indian rulers had to allow a British resident in their court, seek Company
approval to employ any European, and consult the governor general before
going to war or engaging with other Indian rulers.
 In return, the British pledged to defend the Indian state from external
threats and refrain from interfering in its internal matters.
Goals and Context

 Wellesley's primary goal was to prevent the revival of French influence in

India, especially considering the fear of a potential French expedition from
Mauritius to the west coast of India.

 Indian rulers were required to dismiss non-British Europeans from their service to
keep French influence at bay.

 This system allowed the Company to position its troops strategically and
gradually bring more Indian territory under its control.
Consequences on Indian States

 Indian rulers lost their independence in exchange for security.

 They had to bear the financial burden of British troops and became subject to
British interference through the resident.

 This alliance weakened Indian rulers and made them less accountable(they were
now not afraid of any dissent), resulting in the exploitation of their subjects.

Evolution of Subsidiary Alliance

 The practice of hiring European troops to fight wars for Indian rulers began with
Dupleix.
 The subsidiary alliance was applied and perfected by various governor generals,
starting with Clive.
 The first state to accept a protection treaty similar to the subsidiary alliance was
Awadh in 1765, where the Company agreed to defend Awadh's frontiers in
exchange for financial support.
Stages of Subsidiary Alliance

There were four stages in the evolution of the subsidiary alliance:

 The Company offered troops to assist a friendly Indian state in its wars.
 The Company and the Indian state formed a common cause, fighting together
with their respective troops.
 Instead of troops, the Indian state provided money, and the Company committed
to maintain a designated force under British officers for the state's protection.
 The payment or protection fee was fixed, and if the state couldn't pay in time, it
was asked to cede certain territories to the Company.
Impact on Indian States

 British residents in the Indian states began to influence the process, eventually
leading to annexation.
Indian States Accepting Subsidiary Alliance

Various Indian princely states, including nizam of Hyderabad(1798-00),

Mysore(1799), Tanjore(1799), Awadh(1801), Peshwa)(1801), bhosle raja of
Berar(1803), Scindia(1804), and several Rajput
states(jodhpur,jaipur,bundi,bhartatpur), accepted the Subsidiary Alliance system, with
the Holkars being the last to do so in 1818.

Doctrine of lapse

Definition

 The Doctrine of Lapse stated that an adopted son could inherit his foster father's
private property, but not the state itself. The British paramount power had the
authority to decide whether to grant the state to the adopted son or annex it.

Foundation

 The doctrine was said to be based on Hindu law and Indian customs, but Hindu
law provided inconclusive guidance on this issue. Instances of Indian sovereigns
annexing a vassal's state due to a "lapse" (no heir) were rare.
 Maharaja Ranjit Singh had annexed some feudatory principalities for this reason,
and in 1820, the Company acquired a few minor Cis-Sutlej states due to the
absence of heirs.
However, there was no clear precedent of an adopted son being deprived of an entire
state or a state being considered a "lapse."

Application by Lord Dalhousie

 Lord Dalhousie (1848–56) is often associated with this policy, but he didn't
originate it. It was coincidental that several cases arose during his tenure where
the Doctrine could be applied.
 His predecessors generally avoided annexation if possible, while Dalhousie
aimed to annex states when it could be justified.

Annexed States under Doctrine of Lapse

 During Dalhousie's term, several Indian rulers died without male heirs, resulting
in the annexation of seven states under the Doctrine of Lapse. The notable ones
were Satara (1848), Jhansi, and Nagpur (1854), along with smaller states like
Jaitpur, Sambhalpur, and Baghat.
 In 1856, Dalhousie annexed Awadh by deposing(overthrow or removing) Nawab
Wajid Ali Shah for mismanagement.
 In his eight-year tenure, Dalhousie annexed around a quarter-million square miles
of Indian territory, nearly completing the expansion of British power in India that
began with the victory at Plassey in 1757.
Relations of British India with Neighbouring Countries

Background

British imperialists aimed to consolidate their administrative and political power in

the region, which often led to conflicts with neighboring countries.

Anglo-Bhutanese Relations
 In 1826, the British occupied Assam, bringing them in close contact with
Bhutan, a mountain state.
 Frequent Bhutanese raids into adjoining territories in Assam and Bengal raised
tensions.
 In 1863–64, Elgin's envoy faced mistreatment,and other events with finally
leading to the British annexing these passes and ceasing the allowance paid to
the Bhutanese.
 In 1865, the Bhutanese had to surrender the passes in exchange for an
annual subsidy.
 The surrendered district became a productive area with tea gardens.

Anglo Nepalese relation

Background:

 Gorkhas took control of Nepal from the successors of Ranjit Malla of Bhatgaon
in 1760.
 They expanded their dominion, primarily in the southern direction as the
north was well defended by the Chinese.
 In 1801, the British annexed Gorakhpur, bringing their boundary and the
Gorkhas' boundary together.

Conflict and Treaty:

 The conflict arose due to the Gorkhas' capture of Butwal and Sheoraj during Lord
Hastings's period (1813–23).
 The war concluded with the Treaty of Sagauli in 1816, favoring the British.

Terms of the treaty included:

 Nepal accepting a British resident.
 Cession of the districts of Garhwal and Kumaon, and abandonment of claims
to Terai.
 Nepal withdrawing from Sikkim.

Advantages for the British:

 The British Empire expanded to the Himalayas.

 Improved trade facilities with Central Asia.
 Acquisition of sites for hill stations like Shimla, Mussoorie, and Nainital.
 A significant number of Gorkhas joined the British Indian Army.

Anglo-Burmese Relations:
Early 19th Century Burma:

 Burma was a free country and aimed to expand westward.

 British expansionist desires were fueled by the attraction of Burma's forest
resources, a market for British goods, and the need to counter French ambitions in
Southeast Asia.
 This led to three Anglo-Burmese Wars and the annexation of Burma into British
India in 1885.

First Burma War (1824–26):

 Fought due to Burmese expansion westwards and occupation of Arakan and

Manipur, posing a threat to Assam and the Brahmaputra Valley.
 The British expeditionary forces occupied Rangoon in May 1824 and reached
close to the capital at Ava.
 Peace was established in 1826 through the Treaty of Yandabo, which involved
various territorial and diplomatic adjustments.

Second Burma War (1852):

 Resulted from British commercial interests and Lord Dalhousie's imperialist

policies.
 British merchants sought to acquire timber resources and expand into the
Burmese market.
 The British occupied Pegu, the last coastal province of Burma, after overcoming
intense guerrilla resistance.

Third Burma War (1885):

 Occurred following the accession of Burmese King Thibaw, who was hostile
towards the British.
 British merchants in Rangoon and lower Burma complained of mistreatment and
unfavorable commercial treaties with rival powers.
 The British ordered the invasion and final annexation of upper Burma in 1885.

Aftermath:

 The British faced a strong guerrilla uprising and a nationalist movement in

Burma, and Burmese nationalists collaborated with the Indian National Congress.
 To weaken this connection, Burma was separated from India in 1935.
 The Burmese nationalist movement intensified during World War II, ultimately
leading to Burma's independence on January 4, 1948.

Anglo-Tibetan Relations:

Background:

 Tibet was under the rule of a theocracy led by Buddhist monks (lamas), with
nominal suzerainty of China.
 Previous British efforts to establish friendly and commercial relations with Tibet
had been unsuccessful.
 The Chinese suzerainty over Tibet was ineffective, and Russian influence in
Lhasa was on the rise.

Lord Curzon's Role:

 Lord Curzon, upon arriving in India, faced a deadlock in relations with Tibet.
 Alarmed by the increasing Russian influence and the flow of Russian arms and
ammunition into Tibet, he took action.
 Curzon sent a small Gorkha contingent under Colonel Younghusband to Tibet on
a special mission to reach an agreement with the Tibetans.

Treaty of Lhasa (1904):

Younghusband imposed terms on Tibetan officials in the Treaty of Lhasa, which

included:
 Tibet paying an indemnity of 75 lakh rupees, to be paid at the rate of one lakh
rupees per annum.
 The Indian Government occupying the Chumbi Valley (territory between Bhutan
and Sikkim) for 75 years as security for the indemnity payment.
 Tibet respecting the frontier of Sikkim.
 Establishment of trade marts at Yatung, Gyantse, and Gartok.
 Tibet not granting concessions for railways, roads, telegraph, etc., to any foreign
state and giving Great Britain some control over foreign affairs in Tibet.

Revised Treaty and Significance:

 Upon insistence from the Secretary of State and honoring a pledge to Russia, the
treaty was revised.
 The indemnity was reduced from Rs 75 lakh to Rs 25 lakh, and it was agreed that
the Chumbi Valley would be evacuated after three years (although the valley was
actually evacuated in January 1908).
 The outcome favored China, as the Anglo-Russian convention of 1907 stated that
negotiations with Tibet would only occur through the mediation of the Chinese
government.
 Curzon's policy countered Russian schemes in Tibet and helped safeguard British
interests in the region.
Anglo-Afghan Relations
Background:

In the early 19th century, increased Russian influence in Persia replaced British
influence and posed a threat to British interests, especially their route to India.
The Treaty of Turkomanchai (1828) heightened British concerns about potential
Russian plans regarding India.
The British sought to establish a secure scientific frontier from the Indian side,
focusing on the passes in the north-west that could be key entry points to India.
Forward Policy of Auckland:

Lord Auckland, who became the governor general of India in 1836, advocated a
forward policy to protect the boundary of British India from potential Russian threats.
The forward policy aimed to achieve this through treaties with neighboring countries
or annexation.
Dost Mohammed, the Amir of Afghanistan, wanted British friendship but conditioned
it on British help to recover Peshawar from the Sikhs, a condition the British rejected.
Dost Mohammed turned to Russia and Persia for support, leading to the British
government's decision to pursue the forward policy.
Tripartite Treaty (1838):

In response to the changing political situation, a Tripartite Treaty was formed in 1838,
involving the British, the Sikhs, and Shah Shuja, who had been living as a British
pensioner in Ludhiana.
Key provisions of the treaty included Shah Shuja being placed on the Afghan throne
with armed Sikh assistance, and the British providing financial support.
Shah Shuja was to conduct foreign affairs with advice from the Sikhs and the British,
and he gave up his sovereign rights over the Amirs of Sindh in return for a substantial
sum.
Shah Shuja recognized the Sikh ruler, Maharaja Ranjit Singh's claims over Afghan
territories on the right bank of the River Indus.
First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-42):

The Tripartite Treaty was followed by the First Anglo-Afghan War, initiated to
establish a permanent barrier against potential aggression from the north-west.
In 1839, an English army entered Kabul successfully after bribing most of the tribes.
Dost Mohammed surrendered in 1840, and Shah Shuja was made the Amir of
Afghanistan. However, Shah Shuja was not accepted by the Afghans.
After the British withdrew, the Afghans rebelled and forced the British to sign a treaty
in 1841, agreeing to evacuate Afghanistan and restore Dost Mohammed.
A new British expedition reoccupied Kabul in 1842 but, having learned from their
previous experience, reached a settlement with Dost Mohammed, acknowledging him
as the independent ruler of Afghanistan.
The First Afghan War cost India about 1.5 crore rupees and nearly 20,000 men.

John Lawrence (1864–69) and His Policy:

John Lawrence initiated a policy of "masterly inactivity" in response to the First

Afghan War's disasters and a practical understanding of the frontier problem.
This policy was based on two key conditions: maintaining peace at the frontier and
ensuring that no contender in Afghan civil wars sought foreign assistance.
Lawrence's approach aimed to cultivate friendship with Afghanistan, and even after
Dost Mohammed's death in 1863, there was no interference in Afghan succession
wars.
Lord Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve:

Lord Lytton, appointed by the Conservative government under Benjamin Disraeli

(1874–80), became the Viceroy of India in 1876.
He introduced a new foreign policy called "proud reserve" with the goals of
establishing scientific frontiers and safeguarding spheres of influence.
Lytton believed that relations with Afghanistan needed clarity and could no longer be
left ambiguous.
Second Anglo-Afghan War (1870–80):

Lytton offered a favorable treaty to Sher Ali, the Amir of Afghanistan, but Sher Ali
sought to maintain friendship with both Russia and British India while keeping them
at arm's length.
Sher Ali's refusal to have a British envoy in Kabul, similar to the Russians, displeased
Lytton, leading to the British invasion of Afghanistan.
Sher Ali fled due to the invasion, and the Treaty of Gandamak (May 1879) was signed
with Sher Ali's son, Yakub Khan.
The treaty stipulated that the Amir would conduct foreign policy with advice from the
Government of India, a permanent British resident would be stationed in Kabul, and
the Government of India would provide support against foreign aggression and an
annual subsidy.
However, Yakub Khan had to abdicate under popular pressure, and the British had to
recapture Kabul and Kandahar.
Abdur Rehman became the new Amir, and Lytton's plan for dismembering
Afghanistan could not be carried out.
Lord Ripon later adopted a policy of keeping Afghanistan as a buffer state.
British India and the North-West Frontier:

Various Indian rulers sought a scientific frontier between the Indus and Afghanistan.
The conquest of Sindh in 1843 and the annexation of Punjab in 1849 extended British
boundaries beyond the Indus and brought them into contact with independent Baluch
and Pathan tribes, with nominal suzerainty claimed by the Amir of Afghanistan.
The British occupied Hunza and Nagar in the Gilgit Valley during 1891–92, which
alarmed Abdur Rahman (Amir of Afghanistan). A compromise was reached, and the
Durand Line, a boundary between Afghan and British territories, was established in
1893.
Curzon, the viceroy from 1899 to 1905, followed a policy of withdrawal and
concentration. British troops withdrew from advanced posts, replaced by tribal levies
commanded by British officers.
Curzon's policies resulted in a peaceful North-West Frontier, with occasional tribal
uprisings.
In 1932, the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) was constituted as a governor's
province, and since 1947, it belongs to Pakistan.

Unit 3:Rising Resentment against Company

Rule
CHAPTER 6

People's Resistance Against British Before

1857

People’s Resistance: Meaning

People's Resistance Against British Rule in India

Definition of "People" in the Resistance

 "People" refers to various sections of Indian society affected by British rule.

 It includes peasants, artisans, tribals, ruling classes (active or dispossessed),
military personnel, and religious leaders.

Urban Movements

Examples of urban movements include:

 Agitation in Benares in 1810 against a house tax.
 Surat riots in 1814 against salt duty.
 Rising in Bareilly in 1816 against police tax and municipal taxes.
 Involved diverse groups like artisans, petty shopkeepers, and the urban poor.
 Different sections had various grievances but shared a common goal: ending
British rule.
Forms of People's Resistance

Bipan Chandra categorizes people's resistance into three broad forms:

 Civil rebellions.
 Tribal uprisings.
 Peasant movements.
Additionally, military revolts by Indians in the Company's forces are considered part
of people's resistance.
Genesis of People’s Resistance

Introduction:

 People in pre-colonial India often protested against rulers due to issues like high
land revenue, corruption, and harsh officials.
 However, the colonial rule had a more destructive impact on Indians and in
addition there was one one to hear their grioevances , as the British mainly aimed
at extracting revenue and profits from India.

Factors for Uprisings:

 Colonial Land Revenue settlement: The British introduced new taxes and
evicted peasants from their lands, imposing a heavy burden of new taxes on the
peoples.
 Rural Exploitation: The growth of intermediary revenue collectors, tenants, and
moneylenders led to further exploitation.
 Tribal Lands: The expansion of revenue administration into tribal areas caused
the loss of tribal people's control over their lands.
 Impact on Industries: British policies favored their own manufactured goods
and imposed heavy exports duties on Indian industries, devastating handloom and
handicraft industries.
 Migration to Agriculture: As indigenous industries were destroyed, workers
moved from industries to agriculture, increasing the pressure on land and
agriculture.
These factors contributed to people's resentment and uprisings against the colonial
rule, as they faced economic hardships and loss of control over their land.

Introduction to Civil Uprisings:

 "Civil" uprisings were those not related to the military and were often led by
deposed native rulers, former landlords, and religious leaders.
 Mass support for these uprisings came from peasants, unemployed artisans,
and demobilized soldiers.

Causes of Civil Uprisings:

 Economic and Administrative Changes: The Company rule brought rapid

changes in the economy, administration, and land revenue system, negatively
affecting the people.
 Loss of Land and Revenue: Many former zamindars and poligars lost control
over their land and its revenues due to colonial rule, leading to personal grudges
against the new rulers.
 Ego of Traditional Rulers: Traditional zamindars and poligars felt their status
was diminished by government officials and a new class of merchants and
moneylenders.
 Impact on Artisans: Indian handicraft industries suffered due to colonial
policies, leaving millions of artisans in poverty as their traditional patrons and
buyers such as princes,chieftains and zamindars disappeared.
 Religious Influence: The priestly classes instigated rebellion against foreign rule
because they depended on the traditional elite such asfeudal lords ,zamindar and
their fall affected them., which was affected by colonial changes.
 British Contempt: The foreign nature of British rulers and their disrespectful
treatment of the native people hurt the pride of the Indians.
Characteristics of Civil Uprisings:

 These uprisings aimed to restore earlier forms of rule and social relations.
 They were often based on local grievances and had localized consequences.
 Leaders of these uprisings were typically traditional and sought to bring back
past systems of governance.

Important revolts

1. Sanyasi Revolt (1763–1800)

 Cause: Harsh British economic policies and the 1770 famine.

 Participants: Sanyasis from the east, peasants, evicted landholders, and rural
poor.
 Actions: They raided British factories and treasuries, and fought against the
British forces.
 Significance: Warren Hastings had to use force to suppress the sanyasis. Both
Hindus and Muslims were actively involved, and it's sometimes called the Fakir
Rebellion. Important leaders included Majnum Shah, Chirag Ali, Musa Shah,
Bhawani Pathak, and Debi Chaudhurani. Debi Chaudhurani's participation
highlighted the role of women in early resistance against the British.(bankim
chnadra novel devi chadhrani)

2. Revolt in Midnapore and Dhalbhum (1766–74)

 Background: The English controlled Midnapore in 1760, and there were initially
good relations between zamindars and ryots(peasant/farmers).
 Change: The English introduced a new land revenue system in 1772, leading to
conflicts between ryots and English revenue officials.
 Outcome: Zamindars in regions like Dhalbhum lost their zamindaries by 1800.
 Leaders: Notable leaders included Damodar Singh and Jagannath Dhal.

3. Revolt of Moamarias (1769–99)

 Challenge: The Moamarias, low-caste peasants in Assam, revolted against the

Ahom kings.
 Teachings: They followed the teachings of Aniruddhadeva.
 Affected Regions: Rangpur and Jorhat were significantly affected.
 Assistance: The Ahom ruler had to seek British help to crush the revolts.
 Consequences:Although the Ahom kingdom survived the rebellion but The
Moamaria revolts weakened the Ahoms and eventually led to Burmese invasion
and finally under British rule in Assam.

4. Civil Uprisings in Gorakhpur, Basti, and Bahraich (1781)

 Background: Warren Hastings aimed to earn money in order to meet the war
expenses against the marathas and mysore by involving English officers as
revenue farmers(izaradars) in Awadh .
 Involvement: Major Alexander Hannay was assigned the izara of Gorakhpur and
Bahraich, amounting to 22 lakh rupees for one year.
 Oppression: Hannay's excessive revenue demands caused panic and unrest
among the local population.
 Rebellion: In 1781, zamindars and cultivators rose against these exactions,
leading to a rebellion.
 Outcome: The rebellion was eventually suppressed, Hannay was dismissed,
and his izara was forcibly removed.

5. Revolt of Raja of Vizianagaram (1794)

 Background: A treaty was made between the English and Ananda

Gajapatiraju(ruler of Vizianagram) to oust the French from the Northern Circars,
the mission was successful but the English failed to honor the treaty's terms.
 Demand for Tribute: Following the death of Anand The East India Company
demanded a tribute of three lakh rupees from the Raja of Vizianagaram, which
led to his anger as there were no dues to be paid.
 Revolt: The Raja and his subjects revolted against the English. The Raja was
captured in 1793 and ordered to go into exile with a pension, which he refused.
He died in battle in 1794, and Vizianagaram came under the Company's
rule.which later they handed over to raja son.

6. Revolt of Dhundia in Bednur (1799–1800) against wellesely

 Origin: Dhundia Wagh, a Maratha leader(he was put into jail by tipu ), was
released after the fall of Seringapatam. He organized a force consisting of anti-
British elements.
 Leadership: After a defeat in August 1799, he sought refuge in the Maratha
region and instigated disappointed princes to fight against the English. He
became a leader himself.
 Outcome: In September 1800, Dhundia was killed while fighting against the
British forces under Wellesley. Although he failed, he became a revered leader
among the masses.

7. Resistance of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (1797; 1800–05)

 Background: Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, also known as Kerala Simham,

was the leader of Kottayam in the Malabar region.He fought haider and tipu also.
 Anglo-Mysore War: The Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–92) extended British
control over Kottayam, violating an earlier agreement that recognized
Kottayam's independence.
 New Raja and Taxation: The British appointed Vira Varma as the Raja of
Kottayam, who imposed high taxes on peasants to meet revenue targets.
 Peasant Resistance: Peasants, led by Pazhassi Raja, rebelled against these taxes
in 1793, leading to a mass resistance.
 Peace Treaty: In 1797, a peace treaty was made, but a conflict over Wayanad in
1800 reignited the insurgency.
 Rebellion and Allies: Pazhassi Raja organized a force of Nairs, supplemented by
Mappilas and Pathans, former soldiers of Tipu Sultan.
 Death: In November 1805, Pazhassi Raja died in a gunfight near the Kerala-
Karnataka border.

8. Civil Rebellion in Awadh (1799)

 Awadh Situation: Wazir Ali Khan became the Nawab of Awadh in 1797 with
british help but had a deteriorating relationship with the British. He was replaced
by his uncle, Saadat Ali Khan II.
 Massacre of Benares: In January 1799, Wazir Ali Khan killed a British resident
and attacked other Europeans, known as the Massacre of Benares.
 British Response: Wazir Ali assembled an army but was defeated by General
Erskine. He fled to Butwal and sought asylum in Jaipur.
 Extradition: Arthur Wellesley requested the Raja of Jaipur to extradite Wazir
Ali, who was eventually surrendered in December 1799.
 Confinement: Wazir Ali was placed in confinement at Fort William, Calcutta.

9. Uprisings in Ganjam and Gumsur (1800, 1835–37)

 Ganjam Rebellion: In the Northern Circars, Ganjam and nearby regions revolted
against British rule.
 Rebel Leaders: Strikara Bhanj, a zamindar of Gumsur, refused to pay revenues
in 1797 and openly rebelled in 1800. He was joined by Jlani Deo of Vizianagar
and Jagannath Deo of Pratapgiri.
 District Assignment: The English had to assign certain districts to Strikara
Bhanj, and in 1807–08, Dhananjaya Bhanj, Strikara's son, rebelled against the
English but was eventually forced to surrender in June 1815.
 Second Rebellion: Dhananjay Bhanj rose in rebellion again when the British
forces occupied Gumsur and Kolaida in November 1835.
 Government Response: The revolt reduced the government's authority, and
Russell was appointed with discretionary powers to deal with the situation.
 End of Struggle: The struggle lasted until February 1837 when Doora Bisayi, a
formidable leader, was arrested, and the zamindari of Gumsur was forfeited.

10. Uprisings in Palamau (1800–02)

 Complicated Situation: Palamau faced political complexity due to issues of

agrarian landlordism and a feudal system.
 Rebellion Leader: In 1800, Bhukhan Singh, a Chero chief, led a rebellion.
 British Response: Colonel Jones camped in Palamau and Sarguja for two years
to suppress the rebellion.
 Rebellion Calms Down: The insurrection calmed down after Bhukhan Singh's
death in 1802.

11. Poligars’ Revolt (1795–1805)

Origins of the Conflict:

 The poligars, or palayakkarargal, in South India resisted British rule between

1795 and 1805, with major uprisings occurring in regions like Tinneveli,
Ramanathapuram, Sivaganga, Sivagiri, Madurai, and North Arcot.
 The conflict had its roots in the arrangement made in 1781, when the Nawab of
Arcot granted the management of Tinneveli and the Carnatic Provinces to the
East India Company. This arrangement caused discontent among the poligars
who considered themselves as independent sovereign authorities in their
territories.
The First Phase of the Revolt:

 The initial revolt of the poligars was primarily about taxation but had a broader
political dimension as the English regarded the poligars as enemies.
 Veerapandiya Kattabomman Nayakan, the poligar of Panjalankurichi, led the
insurrection between 1795 and 1799. He defeated the Company forces, leading to
a price on his head and further rebellion by the poligars.
 With reinforcements, the British eventually defeated Kattabomman, who fled into
the Pudukottai forests. Betrayal by Ettappan, the Raja of Pudukottai, led to
Kattabomman's capture and subsequent execution. Other rebels were also
punished.
The Second Phase of the Revolt:

 The more violent second phase began in February 1801 when imprisoned poligars
in the fort of Palamcotta escaped. They took control of forts and captured
Tuticorin.
 British forces were reinforced from Malabar. Fugitives led by Oomathurai,
Kattabomman's brother, joined the rebellion of the 'Marudus' led by Marathu
Pandian, which was suppressed in October 1801.
 The fort of Panjalankurichi was destroyed, and the name of the place was
removed from all district documents. Meanwhile ,The Nawab surrendered control
of Carnatic territories to the Company.
Poligar Rebellion in North Arcot (1803–1805):

 Between 1803 and 1805, the poligars of North Arcot rebelled when their right to
collect kaval fees was taken away. Kaval was a hereditary village police office
with specific rights and responsibilities.
 The region, particularly in Chittur and Chandragiri palayams, was in a lawless
state. The poligar of Yedaragunta, joined by the dispossessed poligar of
Charagallu, led the revolt.
 By February 1805, the rebellion was suppressed. Some chiefs were ordered to
reside in Madras, while others received an allowance based on their estate
revenues.
Widespread Rebellion:
 The poligar rebellion extended across a significant portion of South India. The
rebels believed in a mass movement against foreign rule, seeking independence
from the British.

12. Uprisings in Haryana Region (1803-1810)

 British Takeover: The British East India Company acquired the Haryana region
through the Surji-Arjungaon treaty in 1803.
 Opposition to Company Rule: Sikh chiefs of Ambala, Karnal, and Thanesar
opposed the new rule. Muslim Bhatti Rajputs in western Haryana led resistance
against the British.
 British Military Response: After failed attempts to subdue the uprising, a large
British contingent was sent to attack various regions in November 2009.
 Victory and Subjugation: The British emerged victorious in battles, but
rebellion continued in regions like Rohtak, Bhiwani, and eastern Hisar.
 British Military Action: Lord Minto advised military action against the rebels,
and a substantial force was sent to suppress the uprising, mainly involving Jats
and Ranghars.
 Capture of Bhiwani: The British captured Bhiwani after a fierce battle, and the
fort of Hansi was turned into a military cantonment.

13. Diwan Velu Thampi’s Revolt (1808–09)

 Background: The East India Company imposed harsh conditions on Travancore

after a subsidiary alliance arrangement in 1805.
 Causes of Resentment: The ruler couldn't pay the subsidy, and the British
resident interfered in internal affairs.
 Leadership: Prime Minister Velu Thampi led the rebellion with Nair troops.
 Kundara Proclamation: Velu Thampi's call to taking up arms in gethering in
Kundara resulted in large-scale rebellion.
 British Response: A significant military operation was undertaken to restore
peace.
 Outcome: The Maharaja of Travancore did not fully support the rebellion, and
Velu Thampi ultimately killed himself to avoid capture, leading to the end of the
rebellion.

14. Disturbances in Bundelkhand (1808–12)

 British Conquest: Bundelkhand was conquered by the British during the Second
Anglo-Maratha Wars (1803–05).
 Resistances: The Bundela chiefs resisted British rule from their forts.
 Lakshaman Dawa: The resistance of Lakshaman Dawa, killadar (fort
commander)of Ajaygarh Fort, was suppressed in 1809.
 Darya Singh: Killadar of Kalanjar, Darya Singh, led resistance but was
suppressed in January 1812.
 Gopal Singh: A significant threat came from Gopal Singh, who eluded(escaped
in cunning way) British forces for four years.
 Solution: To stop disturbances, the British bound down hereditary chieftains with
contractual obligations(ikarnamah).
15. Parlakimedi Outbreak (1813–34)

 Location: Parlakimedi in Ganjam district faced resistance from zamindars and

rajas.
 British Acquisition: When the Company acquired Ganjam, resistance from
Narayan Deo forced the dispatch of an army under Colonel Peach.
 Appointment of Commissioner: In 1832, George Russell was appointed as
commissioner with full powers to pacify the region.
 Resolution: Russell successfully pacified the region by 1834.

16. Kutch or Cutch Rebellion (1816–32)

 Background: A treaty was signed between the British and Maharaja Bharamal II
of Kutch in 1816.
 Internal Struggles: A power struggle between the maharaja and chieftains led to
British interference.
 Raja Bharmal II's Actions: In 1819, Raja Bharmal II raised troops to remove
the British from his territory, supported by chieftains(he chieftains were minor
kings who controlled pockets of land ). i.
 British Response: The British defeated and deposed Raja Bharamal in favor of
his infant son.
 Administrative Changes: A british resident governed the areas as the defacto
ruler with help of regency council.The regency council made administrative
innovations but imposed excessive land assessment, leading to resentment.
 Continued Rebellion: Some chieftains rebelled, and news of British
reverses(retreat) in the Burma War encouraged the chiefs.
 Conciliatory Policy: Extensive military operations failed to control the situation,
leading the Company's authorities to adopt a conciliatory policy.

17. Rising at Bareilly (1816)

 Cause of Uprising: The imposition of a police tax led to resentment among the
citizens.
 Religious Aspect: Mufti Muhammad Aiwaz's petition to the magistrate turned
the issue into a religious one.
 Violent Event: A scuffle between the Mufti's followers and the police occurred
when they injured a woman during tax collection.
 Rebellion: Armed Muslims from nearby areas rose in rebellion for religious and
Mufti's defense.
 Violence: In April 1816, the insurgents killed the son of a judge, and the British
had to use military forces to suppress the uprising.

18. Upsurge in Hathras (1817)

 Location: The stronghold of Dayaram, a talukdar, was in the fort of Hathras.

 Background: The Company had settled Hathras estate with Dayaram as a
farmer, but he consistently failed to pay arrears and harbored government
fugitives.
 British Attack: In February 1817, the Company attacked Hathras with a large
army.
 Resistance: Dayaram fought bravely for over 15 days but ultimately submitted
and received a pension.
 Raja of Mursan: Bhagwant Singh, Raja of Mursan, also submitted to the
government.

19. Paika Rebellion (1817)

 Paiks of Odisha: The Paiks were a traditional militia with rent-free land tenures
for military service and policing.
 Causes of Resentment: English conquest of Odisha, dethronement of the Raja of
Khurda, and oppressive land revenue policies caused resentment.
 Leadership: Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar, a military chief, led the rebellion.
 Rebellion's Spread: The initial success of the rebels encouraged the entire
province to rise against British rule.
 Suppression: The rebellion was brutally repressed in 1818, and Jagabandhu
eventually surrendered in 1825.
 Outcomes: The rebellion resulted in remissions of arrears, reduced assessments,
suspension of estate sales, and a new settlement.

20.) Waghera Rising (1818–20)

 Cause: Resentment against alien rule and exactions from the Gaekwad of Baroda
led the Waghera chiefs of Okha Mandal to take up arms.
 Inroads: The Wagheras conducted incursions into British territory during 1818–
19.
 Peace Treaty: A peace treaty was signed in November 1820.

20. Ahom Revolt (1828)

 Background: The British promised to withdraw from Assam after the First
Burma War (1824–26) but attempted to incorporate Ahom territories, sparking a
rebellion in 1828.
 Leadership: Gomdhar Konwar, an Ahom prince, led the rebellion along with
others.
 Rebellion's Outcome: The Company adopted a conciliatory policy and handed
over Upper Assam to Maharaja Purandar Singh Narendra, partially restoring the
Assamese kingdom.

21. Surat Salt Agitations (1840s)

 Anti-British Sentiment: Surat residents attacked Europeans in 1844 due to the

government's plan to raise the salt duty.
 Government Response: The government withdrew the additional salt levy due
to popular resistance.
 Bengal Standard Weights and Measures: In 1848, the government was forced
to withdrew the introduction of Bengal Standard Weights and Measures due to
people's boycott and passive resistance.

22. Kolhapur and Savantvadi Revolts

 Gadkaris Revolt: The Gadkaris were a hereditary military class garrisoned in

Maratha forts. They were disbanded in Kolhapur state after 1844, causing
unemployment and leading to a revolt. The Gadkaris occupied Samangarh and
Bhudargarh forts.
 Savantvadi Revolt: Discontent in Savantvadi areas led to multiple revolts
against the British in 1830, 1836, and 1838, the last of which was due to the
British deposing their ruler. The British introduced laws to control the region.

23. Wahabi Movement

 Origins: The Wahabi Movement was an Islamic revivalist movement inspired by

the teachings of Abdul Wahab of Saudi Arabia and Shah Waliullah of Delhi.
Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly led this movement.
 Aims: Syed Ahmed advocated a return to pure Islam and opposed Western
influences on the religion. He declared a jihad against the Sikh kingdom of
Punjab after the defeat of the Sikh ruler and the incorporation of Punjab into
British India in 1849.
 Impact: The Wahabis played a significant role in spreading anti-British
sentiments .

24. Kuka Movement

 Founding: The Kuka Movement was founded in 1840 by Bhagat Jawahar Mal
(Sian Saheb) in western Punjab. Baba Ram Singh became a major leader of the
movement.(he founded the namdhari sect)
 Transformation: After the British took over Punjab, the movement evolved from
a religious purification campaign to a political campaign.
 Beliefs: The Kukas aimed to abolish caste and discrimination among Sikhs,
discourage meat and alcohol consumption, promote intermarriage, widow
remarriage, and women's empowerment. Politically, they sought to remove the
British and restore Sikh rule over Punjab, advocating Swadeshi, non-cooperation,
and boycotting English laws and products.
 Suppression: Between 1863 and 1872, the British took several steps to suppress
the Kuka Movement, eventually deporting Baba Ram Singh to Rangoon in 1872.

Peasant Uprisings in India (Pre-1857):

 Peasant uprisings were protests against evictions, rent increases, and
moneylenders' exploitation, with the aim of securing occupancy rights for
peasants.
 These revolts were led by local leaders and driven by the peasants themselves.

1. Narkelberia Uprising:

 Led by Mir Nithar Ali (Titu Mir), a Muslim tenant in West Bengal.
 A revolt against Hindu landlords who imposed a beard tax on Faraizis and British
indigo planters.
 Often considered the first armed peasant uprising against the British, with a
religious dimension.
 This uprising later merged into the Wahabi Movement.

2. The Pagal Panthis:

 A semi-religious group mainly consisting of Hajong and Garo tribes in the

Mymensingh district(bengal)
 Founded by Karam Shah and later organized by his son, Tipu, to resist oppression
by zamindars.
 From 1825 to 1835, the Pagal Panthis refused to pay rents beyond a certain limit
and attacked zamindars' houses.
 The government introduced an equitable arrangement to protect these peasants,
but ultimately the movement was violently suppressed.

3. Faraizi Revolt:

 The Faraizis were followers of a Muslim sect founded by Haji Shariatullah of

Faridpur in Eastern Bengal.
 Advocated radical religious, social, and political changes and aimed to expel the
English from Bengal.
 Shariatullah and his son Muhsinuddin Ahmad (Dudu Miyan) organized their
followers and supported tenants against zamindars.
 Faraizi disturbances persisted from 1838 to 1857, and many Faraizis joined the
Wahabi ranks.

4. Moplah Uprisings:

 Moplahs of Malabar faced increased revenue demands, reduced field sizes, and
official oppression, leading to widespread peasant unrest.
 Twenty-two rebellions occurred between 1836 and 1854, but none were
successful.
 The second moplah occurred during Non cooperation movemment and it was
organised by the congress and the khilafat supporters.but it also failed and
moplah was subdues in 1921.

Peasants' Role in the 1857 Revolt:

 Peasant participation in the 1857 rebellion was more active in certain areas,
mainly in western Uttar Pradesh.
 Peasants often joined local feudal leaders to fight against foreign rule.
 After the revolt, British policies favored landed classes, and peasants' conditions
deteriorated.
 In some regions, peasants had to pay additional taxes as punishment for their
participation in the 1857 revolt.

Tribal Revolts under British Rule:

 Tribal movements were frequent, militant, and often violent during British rule
in India.
 These movements can be categorized into mainland tribal revolts and frontier
tribal revolts concentrated mainly in the northeastern part of India.

Mainland Tribal Revolts:

 Impact of British Land Settlements: Mainland tribal rebellions were triggered

by several factors, including issues related to tribal lands and forests. British
land settlements disrupted the traditional joint ownership practices among
the tribals and disrupted their social structure.
 Agricultural Expansion and Land Loss: The expansion of settled agriculture
by the British led to tribal land loss and an influx of non-tribals into tribal areas.
 Restriction of Shifting Cultivation: Shifting cultivation in forests was restricted,
and reserved forests were established, primarily to meet the British demand for
timber for shipping and railways.
 Exploitation and Alienation: Exploitation by the police, traders, and
moneylenders, many of whom were outsiders, added to the tribals' suffering. The
imposition of general laws was resented by tribals who had their own customs
and traditions.
 Christian Missionary Interference: The presence of Christian missionaries in
these regions interfered with tribal customs and traditions, leading to resentment
as they were seen as representatives of alien rule.

Frontier Tribal Revolts (Northeastern Region):

 Distinct Characteristics: The tribal movements in the northeastern frontier were

different from non-frontier tribal revolts in several ways.
 Political Autonomy and Independence: Tribes with cultural links across the
country border did not align with the nationalist struggle but sought political
autonomy within the Indian Union or complete independence.
 Land and Forest Control: These movements were not based on forests or
agriculture as the tribals were generally in control of land and forests. British
entry into the northeastern areas occurred later than in non-frontier tribal regions.
 Duration of Revolts: Frontier tribal revolts under British rule continued for a
longer duration than non-frontier tribal movements.
 De-sanskritisation Movements: De-sanskritisation movements(among the
frontier tribal), like the Meiteis' movement against neo-Vaishnavite Brahmins,
took place during British rule in the northeastern region.

Characteristics of Tribal Revolts:

 Tribal Identity and Solidarity: Common characteristics of tribal uprisings

included tribal identity and ethnic ties as the basis for solidarity.
 Selective Targeting of "Outsiders": Not all "outsiders" were seen as enemies;
violence was directed towards moneylenders and traders perceived as extensions
of the colonial government.
 Resentment against Imposed Laws: Resentment against the imposition of laws
by the "foreign government" aimed at destroying the traditional socio-economic
framework of tribals.
 Erosion of Tribal Rights: Erosion of tribal rights over land and forests due to
British-imposed rules was a root cause of many tribal movements.
 Leadership by Messiahs: Many uprisings were led by messiah-like figures who
promised to end suffering brought about by "outsiders."
 Disadvantages of Outdated Weapons: Tribal uprisings were often
disadvantaged due to their outdated weapons compared to the modern arms and
techniques used by their opponents.

Important Tribal Movements of the Mainland

 Some of the important tribal movements are discussed below.
It may be noted that most tribal movements, if we leave out
the frontier tribal areas, were concentrated in central India,
the west-central region, and the south.
 The tribals of Chotanagpur and Santhal Pargana in the
region that is now known as Jharkhand have a long history
of resistance against the British administration and its non
tribal collaborators, such as the jagirdars and zamindars.

Introduction to Pahariyas:

 The Pahariyas were hill folk who inhabited the region around the Rajmahal hills.
 They primarily depended on forest resources and practiced shifting cultivation

Geographical Isolation:

 The Pahariyas considered the entire region their land and were hostile to
outsiders.
 Their geographical isolation helped them maintain their independence before
British colonial rule.

Conflict with Settled Agriculturists:

 In times of scarcity, the Paharias often raided the plains occupied by settled
agriculturists.
 These raids were a way of asserting power over the settled communities.
 The zamindars on the plains paid a tribute to the Pahariyas to maintain peace, and
traders paid the hill chiefs for using controlled passes.

Impact of Expanding Agriculture:

 The reduction of forest and pasture areas due to british policy of clearing
forest ,increased hostilities between the hill folk and settled cultivators.

British Response:

 In the 1770s, the British launched a brutal attack on the Pahariyas, aimed at
hunting them down and killing them.
 The Pahariyas rebelled in 1778, led by Raja Jagganath.
 In the 1780s, the British initiated a policy of pacification, offering Paharia chiefs
an annual allowance in exchange for ensuring proper behavior among their
people.

Resistance of Some Pahariyas:

 Not all Pahariyas accepted the British pacification policy.

 Some of them retreated deeper into the mountains, hiding from hostile forces, and
continued their war against the "outsiders" or "diku."

Revold led by Tilka Manjhi

 Tilka Manjhi, also known as Tilka Majhi or Jabra Paharia, was a Santhal leader.
 He opposed the British policy of "divide and rule."

Resistance Against British Rule:

 Tilka Manjhi operated in Santhal Pargana and led a rebellion against the British
colonial rule.

Guerrilla Warfare and Attacks:

 Tilka Manjhi and his followers engaged in guerrilla warfare.

 They attacked boats of the East India Company moving along the Ganga and
looted the British treasury.
 The loot was shared with the poor.
 Santhal women also participated in these actions.

Encounters with British Soldiers:

 Many encounters took place in the jungles of the Tarai region between Tilka
Manjhi and his followers and the British soldiers.
 In 1778, Tilka captured the Ramgarh Camp from the British, forming a joint front
with Paharia Sardars.
 In 1784, Tilka led an attack on Bhagalpur, and he is said to have shot the British
magistrate of Rajmahal, Augustus Cleveland.

Capture and Execution:

 The British launched a concerted attack on Tilka Manjhi and his followers.
 Eventually, they captured Manjhi and hanged him in 1785.
 Tilka Manjhi is considered the first Adivasi leader to take up arms against
the British.

Reasons for the Revolt:

 The primary reason for the revolt led by Tilka Manjhi was the policy of
exploitation, extortion, and harassment by revenue collectors, police officers, and
agents of landlords.
 The drought of 1770 led to starvation in the region, leading to protests.
 Instead of addressing the issues, the British responded with more oppression.

Jungle Mahal Revolt (Chuar Uprising):

Background and Location:

 Jungle Mahal refers to an administrative unit lying between Chota Nagpur and
the plains of Bengal, including parganas in Birbhum, Bankura, and Midnapore.
 The area experienced disturbances due to the Bhumij tribe's actions, leading to its
division among neighboring districts in 1833.
Chuars:

 The Chuars were originally Bhumij tribals.

 They settled in Midnapur, Bankura, and Purulia districts of Bengal after leaving
the Chotanagpur plateau.
 Chuars were primarily farmers and hunters and sometimes worked under local
zamindars.

Phases of Chuar Uprisings:

 The Chuar uprisings occurred in multiple phases, each with its own
characteristics, leaders, and epicenters.
First Chuar Rebellion (1768):

 It was a reaction to the increase in revenue by jungle zamindars.

 Moreover,The British government's decision to demolish their mud forts in 1767
offended the zamindars.
 In 1768, Jagannath Singh, the zamindar of Ghatsila, and thousands of Chuar
followers rebelled, leading to the government's surrender.

Rebellion of 1771:

 Chuar sardars, Shyam Ganjan of Dhadka, Subla Singh of Kaliapal, and Dubraj,
rose in rebellion.
 This rebellion, however, was suppressed.

Significant Uprising (1798):

 Led by Durjan Singh in 1798, this was the most notable Chuar rebellion.
 The East India Company's revenue and administrative policies, including the
Permanent Settlement and police regulations, led to the hiring of local paiks
becoming redundant.
 The aggrieved paiks and ordinary Chuars joined hands with jungle zamindars in
the Chuar rebellion of 1798.

Suppression and Leaders:

 The revolt of 1798 was brutally suppressed by the British in 1799.

 Other leaders of the Chuars included Madhab Singh, Raja Mohan Singh, and
Lachman Singh.

Clash of Ways of Life:

 The uprisings involved people associated with the land, including zamindars,
paiks, and ordinary Chuars.
 It represented a clash of ways of life as the intrusion of colonial forces disrupted
their agrarian society and exposed them to a new situation.
 The Chuars were not prepared to accept outsiders (non-Adivasis).

Tamar Revolt:

Location and Background:

 The tribals of Tamar, in the Chotanagpur region, rose in revolt in 1798 under
Bholanath Sahay (or Bholanath Singh).
 The uprising was a reaction to the faulty and alien systems imposed by the
British.
Involvement of Munda Tribals:

 Munda tribals and their chiefs joined forces with Bholanath in the revolt.
 The uprising expressed anger against the "diku" (outsiders).
 Suppression:

 The uprising was firmly suppressed by an expedition led by Lt. Cooper.

 Several more revolts by the tribals of Tamar followed.

Kol Mutiny (1831):

 The Kols and other tribes were inhabitants of Chhotanagpur, including regions
like Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamau, and parts of Manbhum.
 Trouble began in 1831 due to large-scale transfers of land from Kol headmen to
oppressive Hindu, Sikh, and Muslim farmers and moneylenders.
 British judicial and revenue policies negatively affected traditional social
conditions, leading to resentment.
 In 1831, under Buddho Bhagat's leadership, the Kol rebels killed or burned about
a thousand outsiders, requiring large-scale military operations to restore order.

Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820–37):

 The Raja of Parahat organized Ho tribals to revolt against the occupation of

Singhbhum.
 The revolt continued until 1827 when the Ho tribals were forced to submit.
 In 1831, they organized another rebellion, joined by the Mundas of Chotanagpur,
protesting the newly introduced farming revenue policy and entry of Bengalis
into their region.
 The revolt was extinguished in 1832, but Ho operations continued until 1837.
Santhal Rebellions (1833; 1855–56):

 Santhals migrated to the Rajmahal area in the late 1770s and early 1780s from
regions like Cuttack, Dhalbhum, Manbhum, Hazaribagh, and Midnapore.
 They were persuaded by the British to settle in the foothills of Rajmahal and
engage in settled agriculture.
 Conflict between Santhals and Paharias (hoe vs. plough) was ongoing, resolved
through the formation of Damin-i-koh in 1832-33 by british.
 By the 1850s, Santhals felt the need to rebel against zamindars and moneylenders
due to land loss and heavy taxes.
 The rebellion, called 'hul,' turned into a movement against the British colonial
state.
 The British suppressed the rebellion with force in 1856, leading to the death of
leaders Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu.
 The Santhal Pargana was created after the revolt in 1855-56.
 It became illegal to give santhal land to non santhal.

Khond Uprisings (1837–56):

 From 1837 to 1856, Khonds in hilly tracts extending from Odisha to Andhra
Pradesh revolted against Company rule.
 Chakra Bisoi led the Khonds, opposing human sacrifice, new taxes, and entry of
zamindars.
 With Chakra Bisoi's disappearance, the uprising ended.

Koya Revolts:

 Koyas in the eastern Godavari track joined by Khonda Sara chiefs rebelled in
various years, including 1803, 1840, 1845, 1858, 1861, 1862, and 1879-80.
 Their complaints included oppression by police, moneylenders, new regulations,
and denial of customary rights over forest areas.
 Tomma Sora organized another rebellion in 1886 after the death of Tomma Sora.

Bhil Revolts:

 Bhils in the Western Ghats revolted against Company rule in 1817–19 due to
famine, economic distress, and misgovernment.
 The British used both force and conciliatory efforts to control the uprisings.
 Bhils revolted again in 1825, 1831, and 1846.
 Govind Guru helped Bhils in south Rajasthan organize for a Bhil Raj by 1913.

Koli Risings:

 Kolis living near Bhils rebelled against Company's rule in 1829, 1839, and during
1844–48.
 They resented the imposition of Company's rule, which led to large-scale
unemployment and dismantling of their forts.

Ramosi Risings:

 Ramosis, hill tribes of the Western Ghats, resisted British rule and the British
pattern of administration.
 They resented the policy of annexation and loss of means of livelihood.
 Ramosis rose in various years, and disturbances were finally restored with
superior British force.
Tribal movement of the North-east
Khasi Uprising:

 The Khasi Uprising occurred in the hilly region between Garo and Jaintia Hills.
 The East India Company aimed to build a road linking the Brahmaputra Valley
with Sylhet, which led to the influx of outsiders, including Englishmen, Bengalis,
and laborers from the plains.
 The Khasis, Garos, Khamptis, and Singphos organized themselves under Tirath
Singh to drive away the strangers from the plains.
 The uprising developed into a popular revolt against British rule in the area.
 By 1833, the superior English military force had suppressed the revolt.
Singphos Rebellion:

 The Singphos rebellion in Assam began in the early 1830s but was immediately
quelled.
 However, the Singphos continued to organize revolts, with an uprising in 1839
that saw the death of the British political agent.
 Chief Nirang Phidu led an uprising in 1843, which involved an attack on the
British garrison and the death of many soldiers.
Smaller Movements:

 The Mishmis had their movement in 1836.

 There was a Khampti rebellion in Assam between 1839 and 1842.
 The Lushais' revolt occurred in 1842 and 1844 when they attacked villages in
Manipur.
Sepoy mutiny
Causes of Discontent among Sepoys:

Rising discontent among sepoys against British rule due to several reasons:
 Discrimination in payment and promotions.
 Mistreatment of sepoys by British officials.
 Refusal of the government to pay foreign service allowance while fighting in
remote regions.
 Religious objections of high-caste Hindu sepoys to Lord Canning's General
Service Enlistment Act (1856), which required all recruits to be ready for service
both within and outside India.
 Sepoys shared the discontent and grievances, including social, religious, and
economic issues, that afflicted the civilian population.
 Over the years, upper-caste sepoys found their religious beliefs in conflict with
their service conditions, leading to mutinies on various occasions.
Important Pre-1857 Mutinies:

 Mutiny of Sepoys in Bengal (1764): Early uprising.

 Vellore Mutiny (1806): Sepoys protested against interference in their social and
religious practices and raised a banner of revolt, unfurling the flag of the ruler of
Mysore.
 Mutiny of the Sepoys of the 47th Native Infantry Unit (1824): Occurred due to
various grievances.
 Revolt of the Grenadier Company in Assam (1825): A significant uprising in
Assam.
 Mutiny of an Indian Regiment at Sholapur (1838): Another instance of mutiny.
 Mutinies of the 34th Native Infantry (N.I.), 22nd N.I., 66th N.I., and 37th N.I.
(1844, 1849, 1850, 1852): Various mutinies in different regiments.
Weaknesses of People's Uprisings:

 These uprisings were localized and occurred at different times in different

regions.
 They mainly stemmed from local grievances.
 Leadership was semi-feudal, traditional, and did not offer alternatives to the
existing social setup.
 The rebellions did not have a common 'national' impulse or coordinated effort but
protested against common oppressive conditions.
 These revolts had centuries-old forms and ideological content.
 Some revolts were pacified through concessions by the authorities.
 The methods and arms used by the fighters were outdated compared to the British
military's modern weaponry and tactics.
The Revolt of 1857
In 1757, after the Battle of Plassey, the British laid the first step towards getting
power in northern India. And in 1857 took place the major ‘Revolt’, which was a
product of the character and policies of colonial rule after 1757, and after which
noteworthy changes took place in the British policy of ruling over India.

Simmering Discontent (1757-1857):

 British expansionist policies, economic exploitation, and administrative

innovations negatively impacted various segments of society in India, including
rulers, sepoys, zamindars, peasants, traders, artisans, pundits, maulvis, etc.
 The cumulative effect of these policies and actions led to widespread discontent
among the Indian population.
 Types of Popular Uprisings and Movements:

 The period witnessed sporadic popular outbursts in various forms, including:

 Religio-Political Violence: Occurred as a response to British interference in
native religious and traditional customs, leading to resentment and rebellions.
 Tribal Movements: Indigenous tribal communities, facing challenges due to
British policies, organized movements to protect their rights and resist foreign
rule.
 Peasant Uprisings: Many uprisings emerged as a result of enhanced revenue
demands, even during famine years, causing anger and resistance.
 Agrarian Riots: Protests against the British administration's policies and
oppressive practices in the agrarian sector.
 Civil Rebellions: General resistance against the Company rule due to various
local and regional issues.
Continuation of Movements:

 Several of these movements continued even after the 1857 Revolt.

 Major revolts took place in different regions, including the south, east, west, and
the north-east, and they were often suppressed with brutality by the British East
India Company.

Economic Causes of the 1857 Revolt:

Destruction of Traditional Economic Fabric:

 Colonial policies of the East India Company disrupted the traditional economic
structure of Indian society.
 The peasantry faced debilitating conditions due to an unpopular revenue
settlement imposed by the British.

Heavy Taxation and Rural Indebtedness:

 Peasants were heavily taxed, leading to their impoverishment.
 To make ends meet, peasants borrowed from moneylenders/traders at exorbitant
interest rates, often resulting in eviction from their land for non-payment of debts.
 Moneylenders and traders emerged as the new landlords, while landless peasantry
and rural indebtedness became pervasive issues.
Decline of Artisans and Handicrafts:

 British rule adversely affected artisans and handicraft workers.

 Annexation of Indian states by the Company deprived craftsmen of patronage
from native rulers and nobles.
 British policies discouraged Indian handicrafts and favored British goods.
 Skilled Indian craftsmen struggled to find alternative employment opportunities,
which were limited.

Impact on Trade and Mercantile Class:

 British-imposed high tariff duties on Indian-made goods hindered Indian trade

and industry.
 British goods faced low tariffs when imported into India, encouraging their
dominance.
 Exports of Indian textiles, such as cotton and silk, declined significantly by the
mid-19th century.

Dispossession of Zamindars:

 Zamindars, the traditional landed aristocracy, often had their land rights forfeited
by the administration.
 This led to a loss of status for zamindars in villages.
 In Awadh, a focal point of the revolt, 21,000 taluqdars had their estates
confiscated, leaving them without a source of income.
Pauperization of the Country:

 The decline of Indian industry and the focus on agriculture resulted in an

unsustainable pressure on land.
 This one-sided development led to the impoverishment of the country as a whole.

Political Causes of the 1857 Revolt:

(a)Greedy Policies of the East India Company:

 The East India Company's aggressive expansionist policies, often accompanied

by broken pledges and promises, resulted in widespread contempt and loss of
political prestige.
 Policies like 'Effective Control,' 'Subsidiary Alliance,' and 'Doctrine of Lapse'
raised suspicions among ruling princes in India.
b)Denial of Succession Rights:
  Hindu princes were denied the right of succession, which created discontent
among the ruling aristocracy.
 The Mughals were humiliated when the next prince in line was asked to renounce
the regal title, ancestral Mughal palaces, and other privileges.
Administrative Causes:
a)Rampant Corruption:

 Corruption was prevalent in the Company's administration, particularly among

the police, petty officials, and lower law courts.
 This corruption contributed to the legacy of corruption in India's administrative
systems.
b)Absentee Sovereignty:
 British rule was seen as foreign and alien by Indians, imparting an absentee
sovereign look to the administration.
Socio-Religious Causes:
a) Racial Overtones and Superiority Complex:

 British administrators displayed racial superiority, leading to resentment among

the native Indian population.
b)Suspicion of Missionary Activities:

 Activities of Christian missionaries, aligned with the British, were viewed with
suspicion by Indians.
C)Interference in Social and Religious Matters:

 Socio-religious reforms such as the abolition of sati, support for widow-marriage,

and women's education were perceived as interference in Indian society by
outsiders.
 Government actions, like taxing mosque and temple lands and enacting laws that
modified Hindu customs, further fueled discontent.
Influence of Outside Events:
. a)Psychological Impact of British Losses:

 The revolt coincided with outside events where the British suffered significant
losses, including the First Afghan War(1838-42), Punjab Wars(1845-49), and
Crimean Wars(1854-56).
 These events weakened the perception of British strength, leading to a sense that
they could be defeated.
 These points illustrate the political, administrative, socio-religious factors, and
the external events that contributed to the outbreak of the 1857 Revolt in India.

Religious Conflicts:

 Restrictions on wearing caste and sectarian marks were seen as interference in religious
practices.
 Rumors of proselytism by chaplains were perceived as attempts to convert sepoys.

Loss of Caste Concern:

 The General Service Enlistment Act requiring overseas service was opposed, as it would lead to
caste pollution.
 Hindus believed crossing the seas would defile their caste status.

Pay and Allowance Issues:

 Sepoys were dissatisfied with their pay and allowances compared to British counterparts.
 Non-payment of foreign service allowance in Sindh and Punjab further exacerbated their
grievances.

Annexation of Awadh:

 The annexation of Awadh, home to many sepoys, fueled resentment and strengthened their sense
of loss.
 The sepoys viewed it as a violation of their homeland's autonomy.

Discrimination and Disparity:

 Sepoys faced racial discrimination and were denied equal opportunities for promotion and
privileges.
 This reinforced their sense of marginalization and contributed to their discontent.

Widespread Discontent:

 The grievances of the sepoys transcended military matters, reflecting the broader discontent with
British rule.
 Sepoys were seen as representatives of the populace, and their rebellion sparked a wider
movement against British authority.

History of Revolts:

 The British Indian Army had a long history of revolts, fueling the sepoys' sense of defiance and
willingness to challenge authority.
 Past uprisings served as a precedent for opposing British rule.

Beginning and Spread of the

Revolt
The Spark
Religious Concerns: The introduction of the Enfield rifle with greased cartridges
containing beef and pig fat deeply offended the religious sensibilities of both Hindus
and Muslims.

Administration's Failure: The British administration's indifference to the sepoys'

concerns only exacerbated their anxiety and fueled their resentment.

Underlying Discontent: The greased cartridges served as a trigger, igniting the

simmering discontent that had been brewing among the sepoys due to various
grievances.

Preexisting Issues: The sepoys had long been troubled by issues like religious
restrictions, unfair pay, and discriminatory treatment.
Trigger Event: The greased cartridges provided the spark that ignited the Sepoy
Mutiny.

Starts at Meerut

Meerut Uprising: The Sepoy Mutiny began in Meerut, located 58 kilometers from
Delhi, on May 10, 1857.

Rapid Spread: The revolt quickly gained momentum, engulfing a vast region
stretching from Punjab in the north to Narmada in the south, Bihar in the east, and
Rajputana in the west.

Preceding Incidents: Signs of discontent had surfaced earlier. In February 1857, the
19th Native Infantry at Berhampore refused to use the Enfield rifle and mutinied,
leading to their disbandment in March.

Mangal Pandey's Action: Mangal Pandey, a sepoy from the 34th Native Infantry, took
a more drastic step, firing at his unit's sergeant major in Barrackpore. Subdued, he
was executed in April, and his regiment was disbanded in May.

Awadh Regiment's Defiance: The 7th Awadh Regiment similarly defied its officers
on May 3 and faced a similar fate.

Meerut Mutiny Erupts: The incident that ignited the full-blown mutiny occurred in
Meerut. On April 24, 90 men of the 3rd Native Cavalry refused the greased cartridges.
On May 9, 85 of them were dismissed, sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment, and
shackled.

Uprising at Meerut: This sparked a general mutiny among the Indian soldiers
stationed at Meerut. On May 10, they liberated their imprisoned comrades, killed their
officers, and raised the banner of revolt. They marched towards Delhi after sunset.

Choice of Bahadur Shah as

Symbolic Head

Seizing Delhi: The sepoys who mutinied in Meerut marched towards Delhi, where
they joined forces with the local infantry and seized control of the city.

Proclaiming Bahadur Shah: The sepoys installed the aged and powerless Mughal
emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as the Emperor of India.

Symbolic Significance: Bahadur Shah's coronation transformed the mutiny into a

revolutionary war and united the rebels under a common figurehead.

Political Motivation: The uprising was driven by a desire to overthrow British rule,
transcending religious differences.
Call for Unity: Bahadur Shah urged Indian rulers to form a confederacy to expel the
British.

Widespread Revolt: The revolt spread rapidly, encompassing Awadh, Rohilkhand, the
Doab, Bundelkhand, central India, Bihar, and parts of East Punjab.

Civilians Join

Widespread Civil Upheaval: The sepoy mutiny triggered a widespread rebellion

among the civil population, particularly in the North-Western Provinces and Awadh.

Opposition to British Rule: The populace, driven by pent-up grievances, rose in

unison to challenge British authority.

Broad-Based Participation: The participation of various social groups, including

peasants, artisans, shopkeepers, day laborers, zamindars, religious mendicants, priests,
and civil servants, transformed the uprising into a popular revolt.

Attacking Oppressors: Peasants and petty zamindars seized the opportunity to vent
their anger against moneylenders and zamindars who had dispossessed them of their
land.

Destruction of Evidence: They destroyed the records of debt and accounts maintained
by moneylenders, symbolizing their rejection of oppressive practices.

Targeting British Institutions: They targeted British-established institutions like law

courts, revenue offices, revenue records, and police stations, signaling their rejection
of British rule.

Massive Civilian Casualties: Estimates suggest that over 100,000 civilians lost their
lives during the fighting in Awadh, accounting for a significant portion of the total
casualties.

Rapid Spread of Revolt: Within a month of the capture of Delhi, the revolt had spread
across vast regions of the country.

Storm Centres and Leaders of the Revolt

Leadership in Delhi:

Symbolic leadership: Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah.

Real command: General Bakht Khan led the revolt of Bareilly troops.
Court of soldiers: Ten members, six from the army and four civilians, conducted state
affairs.
Leadership in Kanpur:

Nana Saheb expelled English, proclaimed himself Peshwa, acknowledged Bahadur

Shah as Emperor.
Sir Hugh Wheeler surrendered on June 27, 1857, and was killed.
Begum Hazrat Mahal took over at Lucknow, with her son proclaimed nawab.
Lucknow Siege:

Henry Lawrence killed during the siege; Brigadier Inglis took command.
Sir Colin Campbell evacuated Europeans with Gorkha regiments in March 1858.
Leaders in Other Regions:

Bareilly: Khan Bahadur resisted British with an army of 40,000 soldiers.

Bihar: Kunwar Singh, a zamindar in his 70s, led the revolt against British.
Awadh: Maulvi Ahmadullah fought against British troops and became a leader.
Outstanding Leaders:

Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi, a key figure in the revolt.

Tantia Tope joined forces with Rani Laxmibai after the loss of Kanpur.
Gwalior Recapture:

Nana Saheb proclaimed Peshwa, plans for a march into the south.
Gwalior recaptured by the English in June 1858.
Common Masses' Sacrifices:

Shah Mal, a local villager in Pargana Baraut, organized rebels against British rule.
Organized attacks on government buildings, destruction of bridges, and roads.
Shah Mal killed by an English officer, Dunlap, in July 1857.
Rebel Persistence:

Despite heavy odds, rebels carried on the struggle for more than a year.
Suppression of the Revolt

Delhi's Capture (September 20, 1857):

Prolonged and bitter fighting led to the capture of Delhi.

John Nicholson, leader of the siege, was badly wounded and later succumbed to
injuries.
Bahadur Shah, the Mughal emperor, was taken prisoner.
Royal princes were captured and publicly shot by Lieutenant Hudson, leading to the
complete extinguishment of the House of Mughals.
Emperor Bahadur Shah was exiled to Rangoon and died in 1862.
Suppression of Revolt Leaders:

With the fall of Delhi, the focal point of the revolt disappeared.
Military operations for Kanpur's recapture were linked to the recovery of Lucknow.
Kanpur was occupied on December 6, 1857.
Nana Saheb, defeated at Kanpur, escaped to Nepal in early 1859 and was never heard
of again.
Tantia Tope, Nana Saheb's associate, was captured in April 1859 and put to death.
Rani of Jhansi died on the battlefield in June 1858, and Jhansi was recaptured by Sir
Hugh Rose.
By 1859, key leaders like Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan, Khan Bahadur Khan of
Bareilly, Rao Sahib, and Maulvi Ahmadullah were dead.
The Begum of Awadh hid in Nepal.
Benaras rebellion was suppressed by Colonel Neill by the end of 1859.
British Authority Restoration:

British authority over India fully re-established by the end of 1859.

The British government invested significant resources in men, money, and arms to
suppress the rebellion.
Indians later had to repay the entire cost of the suppression.

Why the Revolt Failed

Limited Participation:

Absence of all-India participation.

Limited territorial spread; eastern, southern, and western parts unaffected due to
earlier brutal suppressions by the Company.
Class and Group Differences:

Not all classes joined the revolt; some worked against it.
Big zamindars acted as barriers; Awadh taluqdars withdrew support after promises of
land restitution.
Moneylenders and merchants suffered from mutineers' actions and saw their class
interests better protected under British patronage.
Educated Indians viewed the revolt as backward-looking and supportive of the feudal
order, favoring British modernization.
Lack of Ruler Support:

Most Indian rulers refused to join and often assisted the British.
Non-participating rulers included Scindia of Gwalior, Holkar of Indore, rulers of
Patiala, Sindh, Sikh chieftains, and the Maharaja of Kashmir.
Limited Impact:

Estimated that not more than one-fourth of the total area and one-tenth of the total
population were affected by the revolt.
Poor Arms and Equipment:

Indian soldiers poorly equipped with swords and spears; lacked guns and muskets.
European soldiers had the latest weapons like the Enfield rifle.
Uncoordinated and Poorly Organized:

Lack of coordination and central leadership.

Rebel leaders (Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope, Kunwar Singh, Laxmibai) were not as
strategic as their British counterparts.
No Unified Ideology:

Mutineers lacked a clear understanding of colonial rule, a forward-looking program,

coherent ideology, political perspective, or societal alternative.
Rebels represented diverse elements with differing grievances and political concepts.
Lack of Unity:
Lack of unity among Indians at this stage of history.
Modern nationalism was unknown; the revolt of 1857 played a role in bringing Indian
people together and fostering a sense of belonging to one country.

Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor

Throughout the revolt, there was complete cooperation between Hindus and Muslims
at all levels—people, soldiers, and leaders.
Rebels acknowledged Bahadur Shah Zafar, a Muslim, as the emperor.
Hindu sepoys' first impulse at Meerut was to march to Delhi, the Mughal imperial
capital.
Unity and Loyalty:

Maulana Azad highlighted two prominent aspects:

Remarkable sense of unity among Hindus and Muslims during the 1857 uprising.
Deep loyalty towards the Mughal Crown was evident among the people.
Respect for Sentiments:

Rebels and sepoys, irrespective of their religious backgrounds, respected each other's
sentiments.
Immediate banning of cow slaughter was ordered in areas where the revolt was
successful, considering Hindu sentiments.
Inclusive Leadership:

Hindus and Muslims were well represented in leadership roles.

Nana Saheb had Azimullah, a Muslim expert in political propaganda, as an aide.
Laxmibai had solid support from Afghan soldiers.
Demonstration of Communal Harmony:

Events of 1857 demonstrated that the people and politics of India were not
fundamentally communal or sectarian before 1858.

Nature of the Revolt

British Historians' View (Sepoy Mutiny):

Some British historians, like Sir John Seeley, considered it a mere 'Sepoy Mutiny.'
Described as an unpatriotic and selfish event with no native leadership and popular
support.
Diverse Perspectives on Nature of the Revolt:

Dr. K. Datta views it primarily as a military outbreak, utilized by discontented princes

and landlords affected by the new political order.
Described as localized, restricted, and poorly organized.
Absence of cohesion and unity of purpose among various rebel sections.
Evolution of Interpretation:

V.D. Savarkar interpreted it in the 20th century as a planned war of national

independence, the first war of Indian independence.
Dr. S.N. Sen sees it as starting as a fight for religion but evolving into a war of
independence.
Dr. R.C. Majumdar questions its classification as the first national war of
independence, considering large parts of the country unaffected.
Marxist Perspective:

Some Marxist historians see it as a struggle of the soldier-peasant democratic combine

against foreign and feudal bondage.
Questioned due to leaders' feudal backgrounds.
Views of Nehru, M.N. Roy, and R.P. Dutt:

Jawaharlal Nehru sees it as essentially a feudal uprising with some nationalistic

elements.
M.N. Roy views it as a last-ditch stand of feudalism against commercial capitalism.
R.P. Dutt acknowledges the significance of the peasantry's revolt against foreign
domination, defending the old feudal order.
Difficult to Categorize:

The revolt is challenging to categorize, with varied views on its nature.

Some extreme views, like it being a war of fanatic religionists against Christians, are
easily dismissed.
Seed of Nationalism and Anti-Imperialism:

The revolt had seeds of nationalism and anti-imperialism.

Doubtful if separate communities participated due to a sense of common nationhood.
First Great Struggle Against British Rule:

Some consider it the first significant effort to throw off British rule.
Questioned by historians who argue that earlier uprisings were equally serious but
received less attention.
Real Approach to India's Freedom Movement:

S. B. Chaudhuri observes the revolt as the first combined attempt of many classes to
challenge foreign power, a remote approach to India's later freedom movement.
Consequences

Administrative Changes:

British Parliament passed an act for the Better Government of India on August 2,
1858.
Declared Queen Victoria as the sovereign of British India.
Established the appointment of a Secretary of State for India, with direct
responsibility assumed by the British Crown, abolishing Company rule.
Queen's Proclamation (November 1, 1858):

Announced the assumption of the Government of India by the sovereign of Great

Britain.
Governor General acquired the additional title of 'Viceroy.'
Promises made in the proclamation appeared positive to Indians.
Indian States and People's Rights:

Indian states were to recognize the paramountcy of the British Crown.

British promised to respect the dignity and rights of native princes.
People were promised freedom of religion without interference.
Army Reorganization:

British military policy adopted the idea of "division and counterpoise."

Reduced the number of Indian soldiers, increased European soldiers.
Adopted the concept of divide and rule, creating separate units based on
caste/community/region.
Army Amalgamation Scheme (1861) moved Company's European troops to the
services of the Crown.
Reforms and Discrimination:

The European troops were periodically revamped through visits to England.

All Indian artillery units, except a few mountain batteries, were made defunct.
Higher posts in the army and artillery departments reserved for Europeans.
No Indian was considered fit for the king's commission until the first decade of the
20th century.
Reformist Zeal Ends:

Reformist zeal of Victorian liberalism declined.

New conservative brand of liberalism denied the aspirations of educated Indians for
power-sharing.
The era of reforms came to an end.
Autocratic Rule and Counter-Productivity:

Conservative reaction in England made the British Empire in India more autocratic.
Denied aspirations of educated Indians, leading to frustrations and the rise of modern
nationalism.
Policy of Divide and Rule:

The policy started earnestly after the Revolt of 1857.

British used one class/community against another, causing social deterioration.
Economic Exploitation:

Territorial conquest ended, but systematic economic exploitation of India began.

Indian Civil Service Act (1861):

Passed in accordance with Queen's Proclamation of 1858.

Gave the impression of equality under the Queen but maintained the higher services
as a close preserve of colonizers.
Racial Hatred and Suspicion:

Legacy of the revolt included racial hatred and suspicion.

Newspapers and journals in Britain portrayed Indians as subhuman.
Imperialism proponents viewed the entire Indian population as unworthy of trust,
causing insults and contempt.
Remodeling of Indian Government:
Complete structure of the Indian government was remodeled based on the notion of a
master race.
Philosophy of the 'Whiteman’s burden' widened the gulf between rulers and the ruled.

significance
Revelation of Shortcomings:

The Revolt of 1857 exposed significant shortcomings in the Company’s

administration and its army.
The British promptly rectified these defects, learning from the revealed weaknesses.
Influence on the Struggle for Freedom:

The Revolt had a major influence on the course of the struggle for freedom in India.
Brought grievances of people and sepoys into the open, highlighting genuine issues.
Realization of Inequality in Arms:

Revealed that the primitive arms possessed by Indians were no match for the
advanced weapons of the British.
Impact on Indian Intellectuals:

Senseless atrocities committed by both sides during the Revolt shocked Indian
intellectuals.
This shock contributed to the growing conviction among intellectuals that violence
should be avoided in any struggle for freedom.
Preference for Orderly Approach:

The educated middle class, a growing section, did not believe in violence and
preferred an orderly approach to achieve their goals.
Establishment of Local Traditions of Resistance:

The Revolt of 1857 established local traditions of resistance to British rule.

These traditions became helpful in the later course of the national struggle for
freedom.
Factors Giving Rise to Desire for Reform

Birth of a Modern Vision (19th Century):

The dawn of the 19th century witnessed the emergence of a modern vision.
This vision was embraced by enlightened sections of Indian society.
Enlightened Vision's Impact:

The enlightened vision played a crucial role in shaping events for decades and
even beyond.
Reawakening and Renaissance:

The period of reawakening, sometimes referred to as the 'Renaissance,'

characterized this enlightened movement.
However, it didn't always follow a linear path and resulted in some unintended
consequences.
Undesirable By-Products:

The reawakening process gave rise to undesirable by-products.

These by-products have become integral to daily existence in the entire Indian
subcontinent.
Mixed Impact on Society:

While the reform movements associated with the modern vision brought
positive changes, there were also negative aspects.
The fruits of reform movements coexist with the challenges and drawbacks
introduced during this period.
Impact of British Rule
Complex Role of Colonial Government:

The presence of a colonial government on Indian soil played a complex and

decisive role in modern Indian history.
Differential Impact of British Rule:

The impact of British rule on Indian society and culture differed significantly
from the experiences with earlier invaders.
Interaction with Earlier Invaders:
Earlier invaders who settled in India were either absorbed by its superior
culture or interacted positively with it.
They became part of the land and its people.
Distinctive Nature of British Conquest:

The British conquest was different from earlier invasions.

It occurred during a time when India, unlike an enlightened Europe of the 18th
century, appeared as a stagnant civilization with a static and decadent society.
Contrast with Enlightened Europe:

The contrast is highlighted by the fact that while Europe in the 18th century
was influenced by science and a scientific outlook, India presented a picture of
stagnation in every aspect.

Social Conditions Ripe for Reform

Religious Superstitions and Social Obscurantism:

Indian society in the 19th century was entangled in a web of religious superstitions and social
obscurantism.
Hinduism, in particular, had become steeped in magic and superstition, with priests wielding
overwhelming influence.
Influence of Priests:

Priests exercised an unhealthy influence on the minds of the people.

Idolatry and polytheism reinforced their position, and their monopoly of scriptural knowledge created
a deceptive character for religious systems.
Depressing Position of Women:

Social conditions, especially the position of women, were distressing.

Attempts to kill female infants were not uncommon.
Child marriage prevailed, and polygamy, including unions with very young girls, was practiced.
Sati, the practice of widows immolating themselves on their husband's funeral pyre, was expected,
especially among higher castes.
Caste System:

The caste system was a debilitating factor, entailing a hierarchical segregation based on ritual status.
Untouchables, or scheduled castes, faced severe disabilities and restrictions.
Caste divisions became a major obstacle to the growth of a united national feeling and the spread of
democracy.
Caste Consciousness Beyond Hindus:

Caste consciousness, including untouchability, existed among Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs, though
in a less virulent form.
Under a rigid caste system, social mobility was restricted, social divisions grew, and individual
initiative was thwarted.
Untouchability and Human Dignity:
The humiliation of untouchability, integral to the caste system, went against the principles of human
dignity.

Opposition to Western Culture

The establishment of colonial rule in India was followed by
a systematic attempt to disseminate colonial culture and
ideology as the dominant cultural current. Faced with the
challenge of the intrusion of colonial culture and ideology,
an attempt to reinvigorate traditional institutions and to
realise the potential of traditional culture developed during
the 19th century.
New Awareness among Enlightened
Indians

Impact of Western Culture and Defeat:

The impact of modern Western culture and the consciousness of defeat by a foreign power led to a new
awakening among enlightened Indians.
Awareness of Colonization and Weaknesses:

There was an awareness that India, despite its vastness, had been colonized by a handful of foreigners
due to weaknesses within the Indian social structure and culture.
Diverse Reactions:

The realization of lagging behind in the race of civilization produced diverse reactions among the
populace.
Some English-educated Bengali youth, for example, developed a revulsion for Hindu religion and
culture, adopting practices offensive to Hindu sentiments.
Common Need for Social and Religious Reform:

Despite varied responses, a common conviction emerged about the need to reform social and religious
life in India.
Nationalism and Democracy Movements:

During the last decades of the 19th century, the rising tide of nationalism and democracy found
expression in movements to reform and democratize social institutions and religious outlook.
Factors Driving Reform:

Factors such as the growth of nationalist sentiments, emergence of new economic forces, spread of
education, impact of modern Western ideas and culture, and increased awareness of the world
strengthened the resolve to reform.
Socio-cultural Regeneration:

The socio-cultural regeneration of 19th-century India was occasioned by the colonial presence but not
solely created by it.

Social and Ideological Bases of Reform

Social Base of Reform:

The 19th-century regeneration was driven by the emerging middle class

and educated intellectuals, both traditionally and Western educated.
A contrast existed between middle-class ideals derived from Western
awareness and a predominantly non-middle-class social base.
Middle-Class Model and Professions:
The 19th-century intelligentsia sought its model in the European middle
class.
Rooted in government service or professions like law, education,
journalism, or medicine, often combined with a connection to land.
Intellectual Criteria for Reform:

Ideological unity was based on rationalism, religious universalism, and

humanism.
Rationalism was used to judge social relevance, evaluating socio-religious
practices from the standpoint of social utility.
Rational Approach to Tradition:

Reformers used a rational approach to study tradition, replacing faith

with rationality.
In the Brahmo Samaj, infallibility of the Vedas was repudiated, and the
Aligarh Movement emphasized reconciliation of Islamic teachings with
modern needs.
Secular Outlook and Universalistic Perspective:

A rational and secular outlook was evident in challenging prevailing social

practices.
Reformers viewed different religions as national embodiments of universal
theism, defending universal principles while critiquing specific aspects.
Humanitarian Morality and Social Reform:

Social reform movements embodied a new humanitarian morality,

emphasizing human progress and individual interpretation of religious
scriptures.
There was a general attack on priestly domination of religious practices.
Worldly Focus and Cultural Concerns:

Attention shifted to worldly existence, focusing on issues beyond salvation.

Movements aimed at reconstructing traditional knowledge, developing
vernacular languages, creating an alternative education system, defending
religion, revitalizing art and literature, emphasizing Indian dress and food,
and researching pre-colonial technology.

Classification of Reform Movements:

Two broad categories of reform movements emerged: reformist movements and revivalist
movements.
Reformist Movements:

Examples include the Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and the Aligarh Movement.
These movements aimed at reforming existing religious practices and beliefs.
Revivalist Movements:

Examples include the Arya Samaj movement and the Deobandi movement.
These movements sought to revive and restore the perceived lost purity of the respective religions.
Appeal to Lost Purity:

Both reformist and revivalist movements appealed to the lost purity of the religions they sought to
reform or revive.
The key difference between the movements lies in the degree to which they relied on tradition versus
reason and conscience.
This classification highlights the dual nature of the reform movements, with some emphasizing reform
through reason, while others focused on reviving traditional purity.

Direction of Social Reform

Humanistic Ideals:

Newly educated middle class inspired by humanistic ideals of social

equality and equal worth of individuals.
Link between Social and Religious Reforms:

Social reform movements were initially linked to religious reforms as

social issues like untouchability and gender-based inequity were often
legitimized by religion.
Over time, social reform movements gradually dissociated from religion
and adopted a more secular approach.
Evolution of Social Reform Movement:

Initially, the social reform movements had a narrow social base, primarily
among the upper and middle classes and upper castes.
Later, these movements expanded to reach the lower strata of society,
revolutionizing and reconstructing the social sphere.
Key Organizations and Individuals:

Organizations such as the Social Conference, Servants of India Society,

and Christian missionaries played instrumental roles in social reform.
Enlightened individuals like Jyotiba Phule, Gopalhari Deshmukh, K.T.
Telang, B.M. Malabari, D.K. Karve, Sri Narayana Guru, E.V.
Ramaswami Naicker, and B.R. Ambedkar contributed significantly.
Leadership and Organization from National Movement:

With the onset of the 20th century, the national movement provided
leadership and organization for social reform.
Media Used for Propagation:

To reach the masses, reformers utilized Indian languages and various

media such as novels, dramas, poetry, short stories, the press, and later,
the cinema.
Two-Point Agenda of Social Reform Movements:

Fight for the betterment of the status of women in society.

Fight to remove disabilities arising out of untouchability.

Fight for Betterment of Position of Women

Low Status of Women:

Women in 19th-century India were generally accorded low status and considered
inferior to men.
Suppressed by practices such as purdah, early marriage, ban on widow-marriage, and
sati.
Both Hindu and Muslim women were economically and socially dependent on male
relatives.
Social Reformers' Objectives:

Social reformers aimed at improving the status of women as a crucial step for societal
progress.
Radical change in the domestic sphere was seen as essential for reformed homes and
reformed men.
Issues Addressed by Reformers:

Reformer's appealed to individualism and equality, challenging degrading customs like

polygamy, purdah, child marriage, and restrictions on widow marriage.
Emphasis on establishing educational facilities for women and advocating favorable
legislations.
Measures Taken to Improve Women's Condition:

Abolition of Sati: Regulated by the government, making it illegal and punishable by

criminal courts (1829).
Prevention of Female Infanticide: Regulations declared infanticide illegal (1795, 1804).
Widow Remarriage: Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act (1856) legalized widow
remarriage.
Controlling Child Marriage: Native Marriage Act (1872) prohibited child marriage,
later reinforced by the Age of Consent Act (1891).
Education of Women: Initiatives by Christian missionaries and prominent Indian
figures like Jyotirao Phule, Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and others.
Health Facilities: Dufferin hospitals opened in the 1880s.
Post-Independence Developments:

Social reform movements continued post-independence.

Women actively participated in the swadeshi, anti-partition, Home Rule movements,
and political activities.
Voting, standing for elections, and getting elected to legislatures became common.
Women's Organizations:

Formation of women's organizations like Bharat Stree Mahamandal (1910), Ladies

Social Conference (1904), and Arya Mahila Samaj.
National Council of Women in India formed in 1925.
All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) founded by Margaret Cousins in 1927.
Legislative Reforms by Women's Organizations:

AIWC worked towards legislative reforms, including the Sarda Act (1929), Hindu
Women’s Right to Property Act (1937), and others.
Advocacy for social justice, equal rights, and opportunities.
Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation
Caste-Based Division in Hindu Society:

Later-Vedic society's four-fold division led to numerous sub-castes.

Caste determined education, property ownership, professions, social interactions, and
even basic aspects of daily life.
Discrimination Against Untouchables:

The most affected were the 'untouchables' or scheduled castes/dalits.

Discrimination was based on birth, humiliating, and inhuman.
Factors Mitigating Caste-Based Discrimination:

British Rule:
Unintentionally undermined caste consciousness.
Introduction of private property, free sale of land, and modern commerce disrupted
traditional caste equations.
British administration promoted equality before the law and secular education.
Social Reform Movements:
Various organizations like Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, and
individuals worked against untouchability.
Criticized the hereditary basis of caste distinctions and the religio-philosophic defense of
the caste system.
National Movement:
Inspired by principles of liberty and equality.
Opposition to caste privileges, advocacy for equal civic rights, and individual
development.
Congress governments in provinces introduced measures for the upliftment of depressed
classes.
Individual Efforts:
Awakening among lower castes themselves.
Jyotiba Phule, Gopal Baba Walangkar, Kisan Faguji Bansod initiated movements for
education and social equality.
Role of Leaders:

Jyotiba Phule:
Led a movement against brahminical domination.
Prioritized education for lower castes, especially girls.
Gopal Baba Walangkar:
Founder of Anarya Dosh-Parihar Mandali, aimed at removing caste discrimination.
First Dalit to launch a newspaper, Vital Vidhvasak.
Babasaheb Ambedkar:
Fought against upper-caste tyranny throughout his life.
Started newspapers Mooknayak and Bahishkrit Bharat.
Founded All India Scheduled Castes Federation in 1942, condemned the entire caste
system.
Others:
Maharaja of Kolhapur encouraged the non-brahmin movement.
E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker led the Self-Respect Movement in South India.
Sri Narayana Guru in Kerala advocated for a casteless society.
Constitutional Measures:
Post-Independence:
The Constitution of free India declares equality and non-discrimination on the basis of
caste imperative.
Abolishes untouchability and forbids restrictions on various public facilities based on
caste.
Directive Principles emphasize the promotion of social justice.

Socio-Cultural Reform Movements and their Leaders

Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj

Raja Rammohan Roy:

Father of Indian Renaissance and maker of Modern India.

Believed in modern scientific approach, human dignity, and social
equality.
Advocated monotheism and translated Vedas to support his convictions.
Atmiya Sabha (Society of Friends):

Founded in 1814 in Calcutta.

Propagated monotheistic ideals of Vedanta.
Campaigned against idolatry, caste rigidities, and meaningless rituals.
Rationalism and Departure from Scriptures:

Influenced by rationalist ideas.

Asserted that Vedanta is based on reason; departure from scriptures is
justified if reason demands it.
Precepts of Jesus (1820):

Separated moral and philosophical message of the New Testament from

miracle stories.
Advocated incorporating the message of Christ into Hinduism, facing
opposition from missionaries.
Creative Selection of Cultures:

Stood for a creative and intellectual process of selecting the best from
different cultures.
Faced orthodox reactions against this approach.
Brahmo Sabha and Brahmo Samaj:

Founded in August 1828; later renamed Brahmo Samaj.

Committed to worshiping the Eternal, Unsearchable, Immutable Being.
Opposed idolatry and meaningless rituals; no graven images allowed.
Long-term agenda: purify Hinduism and preach monotheism based on
reason, Vedas, and Upanishads.
Incorporated teachings of other religions, emphasized human dignity, and
criticized social evils like sati.
Rammohan Roy's Intentions:

Did not aim to establish a new religion but to purify Hinduism.

Progressive ideas faced opposition, especially from orthodox elements like
Raja Radhakant Deb.
Roy's death in 1833 was a setback for Brahmo Samaj's mission.
Features of Brahmo Samaj:

Denounced polytheism and idol worship.

Discarded faith in divine avataras.
Denied scriptures as ultimate authority beyond human reason and
conscience.
No definite stand on karma and transmigration, left to individual belief.
Criticized the caste system.
Political Uplift through Social Reform:

Roy's ideas aimed at the political uplift of the masses through social
reform.
Had nationalist undertones in his efforts.

Raja Rammohan Roy’s Efforts at Social Reform

Anti-Sati Crusade (1818):

Started efforts against the inhuman practice of sati in 1818.

Cited sacred texts and appealed to humanity, reason, and compassion.
Visited cremation grounds, organized vigilance groups, and filed counter
petitions.
Government Regulation in 1829 declared sati a crime, rewarding his
efforts.
Advocate for Women’s Rights:

Condemned the subjugation of women.

Opposed misconceptions leading to inferior social status for women.
Attacked polygamy and advocated for the rights of widows, including
inheritance and property.
Promotion of Education:

Supported the founding of Hindu College in 1817.

Established a Vedanta college in 1825, offering courses in Indian and
Western sciences.
Contributed to Bengali language enrichment through grammar book and
modern prose style.
Linguistic Proficiency:

Gifted linguist, knowing over a dozen languages including Sanskrit,

Persian, Arabic, English, French, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew.
Linguistic proficiency broadened his range of study.
Freedom of the Press and Journalism:

Bold supporter of freedom of the press.

Pioneered Indian journalism with journals in Bengali, Hindi, English, and
Persian.
Used journalism to educate the public, represent grievances, and inform
the government.
Political Activism:

Condemned oppressive practices of Bengali zamindars.

Advocated for the fixation of maximum rents and abolition of taxes on tax-
free lands.
Called for a reduction of export duties on Indian goods and abolition of
the East India Company’s trading rights.
Demanded Indianization of superior services, separation of executive from
judiciary, and judicial equality.
Internationalism and Vision:

Internationalist with a vision beyond his times.

Advocated cooperation, thought, and brotherhood among nations.
Supported revolutions in Naples and Spanish America.
Condemned oppression in Ireland by English landlordism and threatened
emigration if reform bill not passed.
Associates:

Had notable associates including David Hare, Alexander Duff,

Debendranath Tagore, P.K. Tagore, Chandrashekhar Deb, and
Tarachand Chakraborty.
Raja Rammohan Roy's multifaceted efforts encompassed social reform,
women's rights, education, linguistic proficiency, journalism, political
activism, and an internationalist vision.

Debendranath Tagore and Brahmo Samaj

Debendranath Tagore's Contribution (1817–1905):

Father of Rabindranath Tagore, joined Brahmo Samaj in 1842.

Previously led Tattvabodhini Sabha, devoted to the study of India’s past with a rational outlook.
Association with Tattvabodhini Sabha brought vitality to Brahmo Samaj.
Brahmo Samaj became a reformist movement within Hinduism, opposing Christian missionaries.
Reformist Agendas:

Supported widow remarriage, women’s education, abolition of polygamy, improvement in ryots’

conditions, and temperance.
Keshab Chandra Sen's Leadership (1838–1884):

Became the acharya in 1858, popularized the movement outside Bengal.

Introduced radical ideas like cosmopolitanization of Samaj's meetings and strong views against the
caste system.
Dismissed from the position in 1865 due to differences with Debendranath Tagore.
Keshab and followers founded the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1866, while Debendranath's Samaj
became the Adi Brahmo Samaj.
Split in Keshab’s Brahmo Samaj (1878):

Controversial marriage of Keshab's daughter led to a split.

Progressive followers accused Keshab of authoritarianism.
Sadharan Brahmo Samaj was established in 1878 by disgusted followers of Keshab.
Social Reform Initiatives:

Attacked dogmas, superstitions, and Hindu prejudice against going abroad.

Advocated for a respectable status for women—condemned sati, worked for abolition of the purdah
system, discouraged child marriage and polygamy.
Crusaded for widow remarriage and educational facilities.
Condemned casteism and untouchability, achieving limited success in these areas.
Geographical Impact:

The influence of Brahmo Samaj remained concentrated in Calcutta and Bengal.

Did not have a lasting impact beyond these regions.
The Brahmo Samaj, under Debendranath Tagore and Keshab Chandra Sen, played a crucial role in
advocating social reforms within Hinduism but faced internal divisions that impacted its broader
influence

Prarthana Samaj

Formation of Prarthana Samaj (1867):

Keshab Chandra Sen assisted Atmaram Pandurang in establishing the Prarthana Samaj in
Bombay.
Brahmo ideas had already spread in Maharashtra before the formation of Prarthana Samaj.
Precursor: Paramahansa Sabha:

Paramahansa Sabha, a precursor to Prarthana Samaj, aimed to spread liberal ideas and break
down caste and communal barriers.
Key Leader: Mahadeo Govind Ranade (1842–1901):

Joined the samaj in 1870, played a significant role in making the samaj nationally influential.
Emphasis on monotheism, but the primary focus was on social reforms rather than religion.
Other Leaders:

R.G. Bhandarkar (1837–1925) and N.G. Chandavarkar (1855–1923) were also leaders of the
samaj.
Social Reforms Agenda:

Four-point social agenda:

Disapproval of the caste system.
Promotion of women’s education.
Advocacy for widow remarriage.
Push for raising the age of marriage for both males and females.
Approach to Social Change:

Relied on education and persuasion rather than confrontation with Hindu orthodoxy.
Leaders in Social Reform:

Dhondo Keshav Karve and Vishnu Shastri were prominent figures in the social reform
initiatives with Mahadeo Govind Ranade.
Widow Remarriage Movement:

Ranade, along with Karve, founded the Widow Remarriage Movement.

Established the Widows’ Home Association to provide education and training to widows for
self-sufficiency.
The Prarthana Samaj, under the leadership of Mahadeo Govind Ranade and others, played a
pivotal role in advocating social reforms with a focus on education, persuasion, and a four-
point social agenda

Young Bengal Movement and Henry Vivian Derozio

Young Bengal Movement (Late 1820s to Early 1830s):

A radical intellectual trend among the youth in Bengal.

Inspired by the ideas of the French Revolution.
Leader: Henry Vivian Derozio (1809–31):

Taught at the Hindu College from 1826 to 1831.

Leader and inspirer of the Young Bengal Movement.
Advocated free and rational thinking, questioning authority, love for liberty, equality,
and freedom.
Supported women’s rights and education.
Considered the first nationalist poet of modern India.
Impact and Challenges:

Limited long-term impact due to prevailing social conditions not being conducive to
radical ideas.
Derozio was removed from the Hindu College in 1831 due to his radicalism.
Lack of support from other social groups or classes.
Failed to establish a real connection with the masses; their radicalism remained bookish.
Continuation of Rammohan Roy’s Tradition:

Carried forward Rammohan Roy’s tradition of public education on social, economic,

and political issues.
Advocated for the induction of Indians in higher grades of services, protection of ryots
from oppressive zamindars, better treatment for Indian labor abroad, revision of the
Company’s charter, freedom of the press, and trial by jury.
Legacy Described by Surendranath Banerjea:

Surendranath Banerjea later described the Derozians as "the pioneers of the modern
civilization of Bengal, the conscript fathers of our race whose virtues will excite
veneration and whose failings will be treated with gentlest consideration."
The Young Bengal Movement, led by Henry Vivian Derozio, played a crucial role in
promoting radical and progressive ideas in Bengal, despite facing challenges and
limitations in terms of societal readiness for such ideas.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar:

Great scholar and reformer with a blend of Indian and Western thought.
Believed in high moral values, deep humanism, and generosity to the poor.
Academic Contributions (1850 onwards):

Became the principal of Sanskrit College in 1850.

Determined to break the priestly monopoly of scriptural knowledge.
Opened Sanskrit College to non-brahmins.
Introduced Western thought in Sanskrit College to break isolation in Sanskritic
learning.
Evolved a new methodology for teaching Sanskrit.
Devised a new Bengali primer and evolved a new prose style.
Social Reforms:

Started a movement supporting widow remarriage.

Contributed to the legalization of widow remarriage.
Crusader against child marriage and polygamy.
Active in promoting women’s education.
Contributions to Women’s Education:

As the government inspector of schools, organized 35 girls’ schools, many at his own
expense.
Secretary of Bethune School (established in 1849), a pioneer in higher education for
women in India.
Bethune School in Calcutta was a result of the powerful movement for women’s
education in the 1840s and 1850s.
Faced difficulties and social opposition, including abuse and social boycott of students
and parents.
Vidyasagar's multidimensional contributions spanned academic reforms, social
initiatives, and significant strides in women's education.

Balshastri Jambhekar (1812–46):

Pioneered social reform through journalism in Bombay.

Attacked brahminical orthodoxy and aimed to reform popular Hinduism.
Started the newspaper Darpan in 1832 and Digdarshan in 1840.
Known as the father of Marathi journalism.
Used Darpan to promote social reforms like widow remarriage and advocate a scientific
approach to life.
Founded the Bombay Native General Library and the Native Improvement Society.
First professor of Hindi at Elphinston College and director of the Colaba Observatory.
Paramahansa Mandali (Founded in 1849):

Founded in Maharashtra as a secret society for reforming Hindu religion and society.
Founders include Dadoba Pandurang, Mehtaji Durgaram, and others.
Ideology closely linked to the Manav Dharma Sabha.
Believed in worshiping one god, with real religion based on love and moral conduct.
Encouraged freedom of thought and rationality.
Primarily interested in breaking caste rules, promoting widow remarriage, and
advocating women’s education.
Had branches in Poona, Satara, and other towns in Maharashtra.
Balshastri Jambhekar's journalistic efforts and the Paramahansa Mandali's secretive
yet impactful approach played crucial roles in challenging societal norms and
promoting progressive ideas in 19th-century Maharashtra.

Jyotirao or Jyotiba Phule (1827–90):

Born in Satara, Maharashtra, belonged to the mali community.

Founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers’ Society) in 1873.
Leadership from backward classes - malis, telis, kunbis, saris, and dhangars.
Main aims: (i) Social service, (ii) Spread of education among women and lower caste
people.
Advocated social transformation, not just reform, emphasizing education for the masses.
Coined the term 'dalit' to describe those outside the varna system.
Introduced the Satyashodhak marriage ceremony, simple and inexpensive, challenging
brahminical practices.
Works like Sarvajanik Satyadharma and Gulamgiri inspired the masses.
Symbolized by Rajah Bali, opposing the brahmins' symbol of Rama.
Aimed at complete abolition of the caste system and socio-economic inequalities.
Against Sanskritic Hinduism, sought to give identity to depressed communities.
Savitribai (1831–1897):
Married to Jyotiba Phule at a young age, both from the mali community.
Despite facing abuse, she became an instrumental figure in girls' education.
Established two educational trusts, Native Female School, Pune, and Society for
Promoting the Education of Mahars, Mangs, and others.
Campaigned against social evils, advocated widow remarriage, and raised awareness
about women’s rights.
Organized Mahila Seva Mandal and a barbers’ strike against inhumane practices.
Set up Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha to prevent infanticide and provide safe deliveries
for unwed mothers and widows.
Fought against untouchability by opening her water storage to everyone.
After Jyotiba's death, took over the Satyashodhak Samaj, presiding over meetings,
guiding workers, and working for plague victims.
Died in 1897, infected by the plague while caring for a patient.
Wrote poetry, collections include Kavyaphule and Bavankashi Subodh Ratnakar.
In 2014, the University of Pune was renamed Savitribai Phule Pune University in her
honor.
Jyotiba and Savitribai Phule played pivotal roles in advocating for social justice,
education, and the upliftment of oppressed communities in Maharashtra during the
19th century

Gopal Baba Walangkar (Gopal Krishna) - circa 1840–1900:

Pioneered the upliftment of Dalits from socio-economic oppression.

Considered by Ambedkar as the pioneer of the Dalit movement.
Born into a Mahar family near Mahad in the Raigad district of Maharashtra.
Served in the army until retirement in 1886, deeply influenced by Jyotiba Phule.
Subscribed to Phule’s Aryan invasion theory, contending that Dalits were indigenous,
and brahmins came from invading Aryans.
Formed a group of Mahar astrologers to empower Mahars and reduce brahmin
influence.
Founded the Anarya Dosh-Parihar Mandali (Society for the Removal of Evils Among
the Non-Aryans).
Raised a petition against the government's discontinuation of Mahar recruitment in the
army.
In 1888, started publishing the monthly journal Vital Vidhvansak (Destroyer of
Brahmanical or Ceremonial Pollution).
Published a pamphlet in 1889, Vital Viduvansan (Annihilation of Ceremonial Pollution),
criticizing the position of untouchables.
Called "the first intellectual rebel from the Dalit community" for his scathing criticism
of the caste system and the position of Dalits.
Advocated for change in attitude rather than direct opposition to elites in society.
Wrote Hindu Dharma Darpan published in 1894.
Contributed to Marathi language journals such as Sudharak and Deenbandhu to raise
awareness among the depressed classes.
Faced opposition from upper castes when appointed to the local taluk board of Mahad
in 1895.
Gopal Baba Walangkar's efforts marked a significant intellectual rebellion against the
caste system and discrimination, aiming for awareness and attitudinal change.

Kisan Faguji Bansod (1879–1946):

Born in a Mahar family at Mohapa village near Nagpur, Maharashtra.

Advocate for the education of Dalit boys and girls.
Established the Chokhamela girls’ school at Nagpur.
Founded his own press in 1910, publishing journals Nirashrit Hind Nagarik, Vital
Vidhvansak, and Majur Patrika.
Secretary of the All India Depressed Classes Conference in 1920.
Influenced by the Bhakti cult, Brahmo Samaj, and Prarthana Samaj.
Subscribed to the theory of Dalit enslavement due to Aryan invasion but advocated
reforms within Hinduism for Dalit upliftment.
Vitthal Ramji Shinde (1873–1944):

Born in a Marathi family in Karnataka.

Influenced by Tukaram, Eknath, Ramdas, Hari Narayan Apte, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar,
Mahadev Govind Ranade, Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar, and G.B. Kotkar.
Joined the Prarthana Samaj and worked towards removing untouchability.
Established a night school for untouchable children in Pune in 1905.
Founded the Depressed Classes Mission in Bombay in 1906, aiming to eradicate
untouchability and provide educational facilities.
Gave evidence before the Southborough Franchise Committee in 1919, advocating
special representation for untouchables.
Resigned as executive of the Depressed Classes Mission due to differences but continued
working for depressed classes.
Opposed the caste system, idol worship, inequities on women and depressed classes,
meaningless rituals, hereditary priesthood, and the need for a priest to mediate between
devotee and God.
Participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement and was imprisoned in Yerawda
Central Jail.
Author of Bharatiya Asprushyatecha Prashna.

Gopalhari Deshmukh ‘Lokahitawadi’ (1823–92):

Social reformer and rationalist from Maharashtra.

Held a judge position under British rule but wrote for the weekly Prabhakar using the
pen name Lokahitawadi on social reform issues.
Advocated the reorganization of Indian society based on rational principles and
modern, humanistic, secular values.
Criticized Hindu orthodoxy, supported social and religious equality, and condemned the
caste system.
Started the weekly Hitechhu and played a role in founding periodicals like Gyan
Prakash, Indu Prakash, and Lokahitawadi.
Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856–95):

Educationist and social reformer from Maharashtra.

Co-founder of the New English School, the Deccan Education Society, and Fergusson
College.
Principal of Fergusson College and the first editor of Kesari, a journal started by
Lokmanya Tilak.
Started his periodical Sudharak, which spoke against untouchability and the caste
system.
Servants of India Society (Founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1905):

Founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale with the help of M.G. Ranade in 1905.
Aimed to train national missionaries for the service of India, promote the true interests
of the Indian people, and prepare selfless workers for the country's cause in a religious
spirit.
Published the Hitavada in 1911 to project the views of the society.
Chose to remain aloof from political activities and organizations like the Indian National
Congress.
Continued to function after Gokhale's death, focusing on education and providing
ashram-type schools for tribal girls and balwadis.
Social Service League (Founded by Narayan Malhar Joshi):

Founded by Narayan Malhar Joshi in Bombay.

Aimed to secure better and reasonable conditions of life and work for the masses.
Organized schools, libraries, reading rooms, day nurseries, cooperative societies, police
court agents' work, legal aid, advice to the poor and illiterate, excursions for slum
dwellers, facilities for gymnasia, theatrical performances, sanitary work, medical relief,
boys' clubs, and scout corps.
Founder of the All India Trade Union Congress in 1920.

Ramakrishna Movement and Swami Vivekananda:

Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–86), a poor priest at the Kali temple in Dakshineshwar,

influenced many with his spiritual experiences and teachings.
He didn't write books but spoke in simple parables, emphasizing universal relevance.
Objectives of the Ramakrishna movement: (i) Establish a band of monks dedicated to
renunciation and practical spirituality, (ii) Carry out preaching, philanthropy, and charitable
works for all, irrespective of caste, creed, or color.
Ramakrishna Math was founded by Paramahamsa to fulfill the first objective, with young
monastic disciples as a nucleus.
Swami Vivekananda, after Ramakrishna’s death, founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897
to fulfill the second objective.
The headquarters of Ramakrishna Math and Mission are at Belur near Calcutta, legally and
financially separate but working in tandem.
Paramahamsa sought salvation through traditional ways, recognizing the oneness of all
religions and emphasizing diverse paths to God.
Swami Vivekananda carried forward the mission, promoting the idea that service to humanity
is service to God.
Ramakrishna was married to Saradmani Mukherjee, later known as Sarada Devi, considered
the embodiment of the Divine Mother.
Sarada Devi played a crucial role in the work of the math, supporting and encouraging young
disciples in their mission.

Swami Vivekananda:

Early Life:

Born as Narendranath Datta (1862–1902).

Later known as Swami Vivekananda.
Spread Ramakrishna’s message and adapted it to contemporary Indian society.
Preacher of neo-Hinduism.
Philosophical Basis:

Influenced by spiritual experiences of Ramakrishna, Upanishads, Gita, Buddha, and Jesus.

Subscribed to Vedanta, considering it a rational system.
Aimed to bridge the gap between spirituality and day-to-day life.
Key Beliefs and Values:

Believed in the fundamental oneness of God.

Advocated a synthesis of Hinduism and Islam for India's progress.
Emphasized social action, stating knowledge without action is useless.
Criticized Hindu isolationism and religion's approval of oppression.
Chicago Parliament of Religions (1893):
Impressed with learned interpretations.
Advocated a healthy balance between spiritualism and materialism.
Called for a blend of Western materialism and Eastern spiritualism for global harmony.
Lectures and Return to India:

Gave Vedanta lectures in the USA and London.

Returned to India in 1897.
Contributions in India:

Infused pride in India's past and faith in its future.

Unification of Hinduism by highlighting common foundations.
Advocated for the upliftment of the downtrodden using practical Vedanta principles.
Founding the Ramakrishna Mission (1897):

Focused on humanitarian relief and social work.

Advocated the doctrine of service for all beings.
Used technology and modern science for the service of mankind.
Global Outreach:

Mission runs schools, hospitals, and dispensaries worldwide.

Provides relief during natural calamities.
Recognizes the value of image worship while emphasizing essential spiritual principles.
Belur Math:

Acquired land at Belur in 1898 for the Ramakrishna Math.

Open to all men without discrimination based on caste or creed.

Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj:

Founder and Background:

Founder: Dayananda Saraswati (Mulshankar) born in 1824.

Wandered as an ascetic for 15 years in search of truth.
Founded Arya Samaj in 1875, with headquarters in Lahore.
Philosophical Views:

Published views in "Satyarth Prakash" (The True Exposition).

Vision of India: Classless, casteless society; united India; free from foreign rule.
Inspiration from the Vedas, slogan "Back to the Vedas."
Modern Outlook:

Accepted modernity and displayed a patriotic attitude.

Advocated for a revival of Vedic learning and purity, not a return to Vedic times.
Educational Background:

Received Vedanta education from Swami Virajananda in Mathura.

Emphasized individual interpretation of scriptures.
Philosophical Standpoints:

Criticized Hindu beliefs in maya, advocated distinct entities of God, soul, and matter.
Attacked prevalent beliefs in niyati (destiny) and emphasized karma and reincarnation.
Launched a frontal attack on Hindu orthodoxy, caste rigidities, untouchability, idolatry, and
more.
Social Reforms and Principles:
Arya Samaj's principles:
God is the primary source of true knowledge.
Vedas are books of true knowledge.
Dharma (consideration of right and wrong) should guide actions.
Social well-being placed above individual well-being.
Advocated fatherhood of God, brotherhood of Man, equality of sexes, justice, and fair play.
Supported intercaste marriages and widow remarriages.
Fixed minimum marriageable age.
Educational Contributions:

Arya Samaj involved in social service during calamities.

Promoted education; established Dayananda Anglo-Vedic (D.A.V.) College in 1886.
Post-Dayananda Period:

Differences over curriculum led to a split in 1893 between College Party and Mahatma Party.
College Party favored government curriculum and English education.
Mahatma Party focused on Sanskrit, Vedic philosophy, and vegetarianism.
Swami Shraddhanand founded Gurukul Kangri, emphasizing Vedic education with modern
sciences.
Impact and Communalization:

Arya Samaj gave self-respect and confidence to Hindus.

Launched the shuddhi movement to reconvert converts to Hinduism.
Led to increasing communalization during the 1920s and later.

Seva Sadan:

Founder and Establishment:

Founded by Parsi social reformer Behramji M. Malabari in 1908.

Co-founded with Diwan Dayaram Gidumal.
Social Reforms and Focus:

Advocated against child marriage and for widow remarriage among Hindus.
Efforts led to the Age of Consent Act, regulating the age of consent for females.
Specialized in caring for women exploited and discarded by society.
Services Provided:

Catered to all castes, providing destitute women with education, medical services, and welfare
support.
Contributions of Behramji M. Malabari:

Spoke vigorously against social issues.

Acquired and edited the Indian Spectator.
Dev Samaj:

Founder and Establishment:

Founded in 1887 at Lahore by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri.

Philosophical Emphasis:

Religious and social reform society.

Emphasized the eternity of the soul, supremacy of the guru, and the importance of good
action.
Ideal Social Behavior:

Advocated for ideal social behavior, including refraining from accepting bribes, avoiding
intoxicants and non-vegetarian food, and avoiding violent actions.
Teachings compiled in a book called Deva Shastra.
Dharma Sabha:

Founder and Establishment:

Founded in 1830 by Radhakant Deb.

Orthodox Standpoint:

An orthodox society standing for the preservation of socio-religious status quo.

Opposed even the abolition of sati but favored the promotion of Western education, including
for girls.
Bharat Dharma Mahamandala:

Formation and Purpose:

Formed in 1902 by combining various organizations defending orthodox Hinduism.

Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya played a prominent role.
Objectives:

Defense of orthodox Hinduism against teachings of Arya Samajists, Theosophists, and

Ramakrishna Mission.
Introduction of proper management for Hindu religious institutions and opening Hindu
educational institutions.
Radhaswami Movement:

Founder and Origin:

Founded in 1861 by Tulsi Ram, also known as Shiv Dayal Saheb.

Beliefs and Practices:

Belief in one supreme being, supremacy of the guru, and the importance of a company of
pious people (satsang).
Advocated a simple social life without the need for renunciation.
Considered all religions to be true.
No belief in temples, shrines, or sacred places; emphasized duties, faith, charity, service, and
prayer.

Founder and Background:

Initiated by Sree Narayana Guru Swamy (1856–1928) among the Ezhavas of Kerala.
Ezhavas, considered untouchables, faced discrimination, denial of education, and exclusion
from temples.
Aruvippuram Movement:

Began in 1888 with Narayana Guru installing a Sivalinga at Aruvippuram, challenging the
higher castes' monopoly on idol consecration.
Led to the removal of many discriminations in Kerala’s society.
Formation of SNDP:
Aruvippuram Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP) registered in 1903
under the Indian Companies Act.
Dr. Palpu played a crucial role in its formation, advocating social justice through various
movements.
Sree Narayana Guru's Ideals:

Advocated equality of all religions.

Condemned divisive factors based on caste, race, or creed.
Encouraged leaving the toddy-tapping profession and abstaining from liquor.
SNDP Yogam Initiatives:

Fought for the right of admission to public schools, government service recruitment, access to
roads and temples, and political representation.
Brought transformative changes like social mobility and a federation of 'backward castes.'
Other Movements:

Vokkaliga Sangha:

Launched an anti-brahmin movement in 1905 in Mysore.

Justice Movement (Madras Presidency):

Started in Madras Presidency by C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair, and P. Tyagaraja for job
opportunities and representation for non-brahmins.
Formation of Madras Presidency Association in 1917 demanding separate representation for
lower castes.
Self-Respect Movement:

Initiated by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in the mid-1920s.

Aimed at rejecting brahminical religion and culture, seeking formalized weddings without
brahmin priests.
Temple Entry Movement:

Vaikom Satyagraha in 1924 led by K.P. Kesava demanded the opening of Hindu temples and
roads to untouchables.
1931: Temple entry movement organized in Kerala during the Civil Disobedience Movement.
November 12, 1936: Maharaja of Travancore issued a proclamation opening government-
controlled temples to all Hindus.
1938: Similar step taken by the C. Rajagopalachari administration in Madras.

Indian Social Conference:

Founders and Purpose:

Founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao.

Met annually from 1887, coinciding with the Indian National Congress.
Focused on social issues, acting as the social reform cell of the Congress.
Agenda and Movements:

Advocated inter-caste marriages and opposed polygamy and kulinism.

Launched the 'Pledge Movement' against child marriage.
Wahabi/Walliullah Movement:

Inspiration and Ideals:

Inspired by Abdul Wahab of Arabia and Shah Walliullah.
A revivalist response to Western influences and the degeneration among Indian Muslims.
Emphasized harmony among four schools of Muslim jurisprudence and individual conscience
in religion.
Popularization and Political Perspective:

Popularized by Shah Abdul Aziz and Syed Ahmad Barelvi.

Attained a political perspective against un-Islamic practices and British influence.
Initially directed at Sikhs in Punjab, later turned against the British during the 1857 Revolt.
Titu Mir’s Movement:

Disciple of Syed Ahmad Barelvi, adopted Wahabism.

Advocated Sharia and organized Muslim peasants in Bengal against Hindu landlords and
British indigo planters.
Focused on social and economic issues rather than being purely militant.
Faraizi Movement:

Founded by Haji Shariatullah in 1819, later led by Dudu Mian.

Aimed at eradicating un-Islamic practices among Muslims in East Bengal.
Became revolutionary from 1840, organized paramilitary force against landlords, mainly
Hindus.
Ahmadiyya Movement:

Founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in 1889.

Based on liberal principles, advocated universal religion for humanity.
Opposed jihad, believed in separating mosque from the State, and promoted human rights and
tolerance.
Ahmadiyya Challenges:

Suffered from mysticism.

Mirza Ghulam Ahmad claimed to be the Messiah to end religious wars and reinstate morality,
peace, and justice.
Spread Western liberal education among Indian Muslims.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement:

Background:

Muslims viewed as main conspirators in the aftermath of the 1857 revolt.

Wahabi activities further heightened suspicions.
British rulers considered using Muslims as allies against rising nationalist activity, leading to
concessions.
Syed Ahmed Khan:

Loyalist member of the British government's judicial service.

After retirement in 1876, became a member of the Imperial Legislative Council in 1878.
Received knighthood in 1888.
Advocated reconciling Western scientific education with Quranic teachings, interpreted in the
light of contemporary rationalism and science.
Educational Initiatives:

Zealous educationist, opened schools, translated books into Urdu.

Established the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875, later becoming Aligarh
Muslim University.
Emphasized the adaptability of religion with time, encouraged a critical approach, and
freedom of thought.
Social Reforms:

Struggled for the improvement of women's position through education.

Opposed purdah and polygamy, advocated easy divorce, condemned the system of piri and
muridi.
Believed in the fundamental unity of religions and commonality of Hindu and Muslim
interests.
Political Stance:

Argued for Muslims to focus on education and jobs, catching up with their Hindu
counterparts.
Opposed active political participation by Muslims to avoid government hostility.
Unfortunately, later used by the colonial government in its divide and rule policy.
Ideological Dissemination:

Propagated progressive social ideas through his magazine Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq (Improvement

of Manners and Morals).
Aligarh Movement:

Emerged as a liberal, modern trend among Muslim intelligentsia.

Aimed to spread modern education without weakening allegiance to Islam.
Advocated social reforms related to purdah, polygamy, widow remarriage, women’s
education, slavery, and divorce.
Sought to harmonize Islam with modern liberal culture, imparting a distinct socio-cultural
identity to Muslims.
Aligarh became a center for religious and cultural revival of the Muslim community.

The Deoband School (Darul Uloom):

Origins and Objectives:

Organized by the orthodox section of Muslim ulema as a revivalist movement.

Twin objectives: propagate pure teachings of the Quran and Hadis, and keep alive the spirit of
jihad against foreign rulers.
Started at Darul Uloom in Deoband, Saharanpur district, in 1866 by Muhammad Qasim
Nanautavi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi.
Divergence from Aligarh Movement:

In contrast to the Aligarh Movement, Deoband focused on moral and religious regeneration of
the Muslim community.
Aimed to provide original Islamic religious education.
Political Stance:

Welcomed the formation of the Indian National Congress.

Issued a fatwa against Syed Ahmed Khan’s organizations in 1888, showcasing opposition to
him more than a positive political philosophy.
Leadership Shift:

Mahmud-ul-Hasan, a new Deoband leader, gave political and intellectual content to the
religious ideas of the school.
Synthesized Islamic principles with nationalist aspirations.
Jamiat-ul-Ulema, under Hasan's leadership, worked towards protecting the religious and
political rights of Muslims within the context of Indian unity.
Shibli Numani and Inclusive Education:

Shibli Numani, a Deoband school supporter, advocated including English language and
European sciences in the education system.
Founded Nadwat-ul-Ulama and Darul Uloom in Lucknow in 1894–96.
Believed in the idealism of the Congress and promoted cooperation between Muslims and
Hindus for creating a state where both could coexist peacefully.

Parsi Reform Movements:

Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (1851):

Founded for the regeneration of Parsi social conditions and restoration of Zoroastrian religion
purity.
Leaders: Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, K.R. Cama, S.S. Bengalee.
Reforms in Parsi religious rituals, practices, and social aspects.
Efforts to uplift Parsi women by removing purdah, raising marriage age, and promoting
education.
Sikh Reform Movements:

Singh Sabha Movement (1873):

Objectives: Provide modern education to Sikhs, counteract missionary activities, and uphold
Sikh doctrine.
Establishment of Khalsa schools for modern education.
Akali Movement (Gurudwara Reform):
Aimed at liberating Sikh gurudwaras from corrupt Udasi mahants.
Non-violent satyagraha in 1921 led to the Sikh Gurudwaras Act of 1922, giving control to
Sikh masses through SGPC.
Theosophical Movement:

Founded in 1875 by Madame H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel M.S. Olcott.

Headquarters moved to Adyar, India, in 1882.
Beliefs in universal brotherhood, reincarnation, karma, and exploration of unexplained laws
of nature.
Allied with Hindu renaissance, opposed child marriage, and advocated for the abolition of
caste discrimination.
Annie Besant's leadership in India, Central Hindu College (1898), and later Benaras Hindu
University (1916).
Contributed to self-respect among Indians fighting colonial rule, though impact limited to the
westernized class.
Critique of Theosophical Movement:

Viewed as vague and lacking a positive program by some.

Provided a false sense of pride in outdated traditions, yet glorified Indian religious and
philosophical traditions.

Positive Aspects of Reform Movements:

Liberation from Conformity:

Reformers faced opposition but contributed to freeing individuals from fear-driven

conformity and exploitation by priests.
Translation of religious texts into vernacular languages made worship a more personal
experience.
Emphasis on Individual Intellect:

Reform movements highlighted the capacity of the human intellect to think and reason
independently.
Emphasis on an individual's right to interpret scriptures.
Weeding Out Corruption:

Elimination of corrupt elements in religious beliefs and practices.

Enabled followers to counter the notion that their religions and society were decadent.
Cultural Roots for Middle Classes:

Provided cultural roots for the rising middle classes.

Helped reduce the sense of humiliation resulting from foreign conquest.
Modern, Secular Outlook:

Realization of the special needs of modern times, promoting a modern, this-worldly, secular,
and rational outlook.
Change in notions of 'pollution and purity.'
Integration of Modern Ideas with Indian Culture:

Reformers aimed at modernization rather than blind imitation of Western cultural values.
Sought to create a favorable social climate for modernization, ending India's cultural and
intellectual isolation.
Revival of Native Cultural Personality:

Underlying concern was the revival of the distorted native cultural personality.
Became an important instrument in the evolution of national consciousness.
Negative Aspects of Reform Movements:

Limited Social Base:

Narrow social base, primarily the educated and urban middle classes.
Needs of the vast masses of peasantry and urban poor were ignored.
Scriptural Authority and Pseudo-Scientific Thinking:

Reformers relied on scriptural authority, encouraging mysticism in new forms.

Fostered pseudo-scientific thinking, hindering the full acceptance of a modern scientific
outlook.
Compartmentalization and Alienation:

Tendency to compartmentalize different religious communities, alienating high-caste Hindus

from low-caste Hindus.
Contributed to creating a notion of two separate peoples.
Emphasis on Religious Aspects:

Magnified emphasis on religious and philosophical aspects of cultural heritage.

Insufficient emphasis on other aspects like art, architecture, literature, music, science, and
technology.
Selective Praise of the Past:

Hindu reformers confined praise of the Indian past to its ancient period, considering the
medieval period as an era of decadence.
Created divisions and did not resonate with low-caste sections that suffered religiously
sanctioned exploitation.
Communal Consciousness vs. Composite Culture:

Rise of communal consciousness alongside national consciousness among the middle classes.
Arrested the evolution of a composite culture evident throughout Indian history.
Contribution to Communalism:

While other factors also contributed, the nature of religious reform movements played a role
in the birth of communalism in modern times.

Constitutional, Administrative, and Judicial

Developments
Topic1
EIC Formation and transformation:
 Established in 1600 as a trading company. Initial focus on trade, not
governance.
 Transformation into Ruling Body (1765):
 Transformation from a trading entity to a ruling body.
 had Little immediate impact on Indian polity and governance initially.
Company Rule (1773-1858) and British Crown (1858-1947):Period
Overview:
 But Significant constitutional and administrative changes between 1773
and 1858 under Company rule and later under the British Crown till 1947.
 Changes were undertaken top serve the British imperial ideology.
Nature of Changes:
 Unintentionally introduced elements of the modern State(which is good for
any country) into India's political and administrative system.

Topic 2:constitutional development between 1773 and 1858

Constitutional Changes:

 Introduction of constitutional reforms during this period.

 Evolving governance structures under the Company and later under the
British Crown.

Administrative Changes:

 Implementation of administrative reforms to streamline governance.

 Establishment of administrative systems influenced by British models.

Impact on Indian Polity:

 Gradual influence on Indian political structures.

 Introduction of administrative practices that shaped the modern State.

British Imperial Ideology:

 Changes aligned with the broader goals of British imperialism.

 Unintended consequence: infusion of modern governance elements.
Transformation Over Time:

 Evolution from a trading company to a ruling body.

 Subsequent changes laid the foundation for the administrative and political
landscape of British India.
Legacy:

 Lasting impact on India's political and administrative framework.

 Paved the way for subsequent developments leading to independence in
1947.

After Battle of Buxar (1764):

 East India Company acquired Diwani (revenue collection rights) of Bengal,

Bihar, and Orissa.
 Annual subsidy to be paid to the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II, and
pension to Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-Daula.
 Company Appointment of Indian deputy diwans: Mohammad Reza Khan
for bengal and Raja Shitab Rai for bihar.

British Government's Intervention (1767):

 British government demanded a 10% share in the plunder, equivalent to 4

million pounds annually.
Dual System (1765-1772):

 Company had authority without responsibility; Indian representatives had

responsibility without authority.
 Period marked by corruption, excessive revenue collection, oppression of
peasantry, and Company's bankruptcy.

Topic 3:Regulating Act of 1773:

Centralized Administration:
 Recognized Company's role beyond trade, introduced central
administration.
Control Measures:
 Directors of the company required to submit correspondence(report) on
revenue affairs and administration to the British government(British
cabinet got control over Indian affairs).
Bengal Administration:
 Bengal administration by governor general and council of 4 members
representing civil and military govt with majority rule.
 Warren hastings was the product of this act.
Supreme court
 Supreme Court of judicature established in Bengal with original and
appellate jurisdiction.
Governor General's Powers:
 Governor general could exercise some powers over Bombay and Madras( a
vague provision which created conflicts)
Checks and Balances:
 Scheme based on checks and balances.
Amendments (1781):

 Supreme Court's Jurisdiction Defined:within calcutta and was to administer

the personal law of the defendant within Calcutta.
 Immunity for Government Servants if they did anything while discharging
their duties.
 Subjects' social and religious usages to be honored.

Impact:
 Gradual increase in controlling laws and regulations.
 Introduction of centralized administration in Bengal.
 Creation of checks and balances in the constitutional framework.

Topic 4:-Pitt’s India Act of 1784:

Company Subordination:

 British government gained greater control over the East India Company.
 Company became a subordinate department of the State.
 Company's territories termed 'British possessions.'

Board of Control:(different from board of director)

 It allowed the board of director to control commercial affairs and political

affairs aws given to board of control.

 Board of Control, comprising chancellor of exchequer, secretary of state,

and four Privy Council members(to be appoionted by the crown),
exercised control over companys civil, military, and revenue affairs.
 Thus Dual system of control was set up.

Governor General's Authority:

 Governor general in India was to have a council of three(including

commander in chief), presidencies of Bombay and Madras made
subordinate.
 General prohibition on aggressive wars and treaties (often breached).

Topic 5:-The Act of 1786:

Cornwallis's Powers:
 Cornwallis wanted the power and thus granted powers of both governor
general and commander-in-chief.
 GG Authority to override council decisions with personal
responsibility.Later this provision was extended to all the governors.

Topic 6:-Charter Act of 1793:

Commercial Privileges Renewed:

 Company's commercial privileges renewed for 20 years.

 Payment of 5 lakh pounds annually to the British government from Indian
revenues.These were the funds apart from the
salary,allowance,intererst,dividend etc from the Indian revenue.
Appointment Approval:

 Royal approval mandated for governor general, governors, and

commander-in-chief appointments.
 Senior officials required permission to leave India.
Trade Licences and Opium Trade:

 Company empowered to grant licenses(kown as privileges or country

trade) to individual as well as company employee for trade, facilitating
opium shipments to China.

Revenue Administration Separation:

 Separation of revenue administration from judiciary functions, leading to

the disappearance of Maal Adalats.
 Home Government members paid from Indian revenues which continued
till 1919.

Charter Act of 1813:

End of Monopoly:(spirit of laissez-faire and napolean continental system)

 Company's monopoly over trade in India ended, but retained trade with
China and tea trade.
Dividend for Shareholders:

 Shareholders given a 10.5% dividend on Indian revenue.

Territorial Possession and Revenue:

 Company retained possession of territories and revenue for 20 more years,

without prejudicing Crown sovereignty.
Board of Control Powers:

 Enlarged powers of the Board of Control.

Education Allocation:

 One lakh rupees allocated annually for the promotion of literature, learning,
and science among Indians.
Regulations to Parliament:
 Regulations by Councils of Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta required to be
laid before the British Parliament.The constitutional position was defined
for the first time.
Separate Accounts:

 Separate accounts for commercial transactions and territorial revenues.

Christian Missionaries:

 Christian missionaries permitted to come to India and preach their religion.

Charter Act of 1833:

Lease Extension and Crown Governance:

 20-year lease to the Company extended.

 Indian territories to be governed in the name of the Crown.
End of Monopoly and European Immigration:

 Company's monopoly over China trade and tea ended.

 Restrictions on European immigration and property acquisition lifted,
paving the way for European colonisation.

Financial and Administrative Centralisation:

 Governor general given power to superintend, control, and direct all civil
and military affairs.
 Bengal, Madras, Bombay, and other territories under complete control of
the governor general.
 All Revenues were to be raised under governor general's authority who
would have complete control over expenditure.
 Legislative powers of Madras and Bombay governments drastically
reduced.
Law Member and Codification:

 Law member added to governor general's council for professional advice.

 Indian laws to be codified and consolidated.
Equality in Employment:

 Declaration against denying employment based on religion, color, birth,

descent.
 Foundation for political agitation in India.
Slavery Abolition:

 Administration urged to ameliorate conditions of slaves and abolish slavery

(abolished in 1843).
Charter Act of 1853:

Continued Company Possession:

 Company to continue possession of territories unless Parliament decided

otherwise.
Court of Directors and Services:

 Court of Directors' strength reduced to 18.

 Company's patronage over services dissolved, open to competitive
examination.
Law Member's Role:

 Law member became a full member of the governor general's

executive council.

Separation of Executive and Legislative Functions:

 Legislative and executive wing got separated.

 Six additional members included for legislative purposes.

Indian Legislative Council:

 Legislative wing named Indian Legislative Council.

 Local representation introduced in Indian legislature.
 However ,Governor general had the power to veto any bill and needed his
assent.

Act for Better Government of India 1858:(1858 Act)

Post-1857 Revolt Accountability:

 Company's limitations in administration exposed by the 1857 revolt.

 Lack of accountability addressed by the 1858 Act.
Governing India in the Name of the Crown:

 India to be governed by and in the name of the Crown through Secretary of

state and a council of 15.
 Secretary of state had the initiative and final decision, council advisory in
nature.
 Dual system introduced by Pitt’s India Act came to an end.
Governor General to Viceroy:

 Governor general became the viceroy.

 Increased prestige, if not authority.
Symbolic Crown Assumption of Power:

 Assumption of power by the Crown symbolic rather than substantive.

 Formality that marked the end of the Company's administration.
Development after 1858 till Independence
Indian Councils Act 1861:

Advance in Legislative Representation:

 Introduction of non-official representatives in legislative bodies.

 Laws required due deliberation(decision after debate and discussion ) and
could only be changed through the same process.
Portfolio System and Cabinet Government Foundations:

 Portfolio system by Lord Canning laid the foundations of cabinet

government in India.
 Each branch of administration had its official head responsible for its
administration.
Legislative Devolution Foundation:

 Legislative powers vested in the Governments of Bombay and Madras.

 Provision for similar legislative councils in other provinces.
 However, councils had limited powers, couldn't discuss important matters
and no financial matters without government approval.
 They had no control over the budget.
 They could not discuss the executive action and viceroy approval was need
for any bill passing.
 After the viceroy approval ,secretary of the state can take it down.
Topic :Indian Councils Act 1892:

Expansion of Legislative Councils:

 Indian Legislative Council both central and provincial enlarged in response

to Congress demand for council reform.[Indian National congress was
founded in 1892)].

Introduction of Representation Principle:

 Universities, district boards, municipalities, trade bodies empowered to

recommend members to the provincial council.
 Through this ,Principle of representation introduced.
Indirect Election Elements:

 Indirect election elements introduced in the selection of non-official

members.
Financial Statements Discussion:
 Members entitled to express views on financial statements on the floor of
legislatures.
Questioning Executive Actions:

 Members could put questions to the executive on matters of public interest

with prior notice.
Topic :Indian Councils Act 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms):

Increase in Council Strength:

 Strength of Imperial Legislative Council increased.

 Indian member included in the Executive Council of the Governor General
for the first time.(satyendra prasas sinha,law member was the 1st)
 Increaese in the member of provincial executive council.

Enhancement of Legislative Powers:

 Increase in powers of central and provincial legislative councils.

Separate Electorates and Representation Issues:

 Introduction of separate electorates for Muslims created new problems.

 Muslims given representation exceeding their population, lower income
qualification for Muslim voters.
 Indirect election system and limited representation for the people at large.

Topic:Government of India Act 1919 (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms):

Gradual Introduction of Responsible Government:

 British government declared in 1917 its objective to gradually introduce

responsible government in India but as part of the British Empire.
 Constitutional progress determined by the British Parliament, not self-
determination of the Indian people.
Bicameral System at the Centre:

 Indian Legislative Council replaced by a bicameral system - Council of

State (Upper House) and Legislative Assembly (Lower House).whose
majority of member were directly elected.
 Direct election introduced, but franchise restricted based on property, tax,
or education qualifications.

Extension of Communal Representation:

 Principle of communal representation extended with separate electorates

for Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Muslims.
Provincial Dyarchy:

 Introduction of dyarchy in the provinces - a significant step towards

transferring power to the Indian people.
 Provincial legislature consisted of a single house (legislative council).
Separation of Provincial and Central Budgets:

 Provincial legislatures authorized to make their budgets.

 First separation of provincial and central budgets.
High Commissioner for India in London:

 Appointment of a High Commissioner for India to oversee Indian trade in

Europe.
 Transfer of some functions from the Secretary of State for India to the High
Commissioner.
Change in Secretary of State's Pay Structure:

 Secretary of State for India's pay shifted from Indian revenue to the British
Exchequer.

Administrative Experience for Indian Leaders:

 Indian leaders gained administrative experience, but responsible

government demand not fulfilled.
 Power devolved to provinces, but structure remained unitary and
centralized.
Limitations of Central Legislature:

 Central Legislature, though more representative, had limited powers.

 No power to replace the government; legislation and financial control
subject to the governor general's overriding powers.
Non-Sovereign Legislature:

 Indian legislature under the Act of 1919 was a non-sovereign law-making

body.
 Powerless before the executive in all spheres of governmental activity,
lacking authority against the governor general's veto and powers.

Topic: Simon Commission and Government of India Act 1935:

Simon Commission:

Royal Commission after 1919 Act:

 1919 Act mandated a Royal Commission after 10 years to assess its

working.
 Indian Statutory Commission, known as Simon Commission, appointed in
1927, reported in 1930.
Recommendations and Conferences:

 Simon Commission recommended abolishing dyarchy, extending

responsible government in provinces, establishing a federation of British
India and Princely States, and continuing communal electorates.
 Three Round Table Conferences held to discuss proposals.
 White Paper on Constitutional Reforms published in 1933, proposing
federal setup and provincial autonomy.

Government of India Act 1935:(it was originally a bill prepared on the

basis of the report prepared by the joint commiitte of the british
parliament under lord liinlithgow regarding set up for federation)

 Enacted with 321 articles and 10 schedules.

 Proposed All-India Federation, including Governors' and Chief
Commissioners' Provinces and willing Princely States.
 Dyarchy provided for in the Federal Executive.

Bicameral Federal Legislature:

 Federal Legislature with two chambers - Council of States (Upper House)

and Federal Legislative Assembly.
 Council of States permanent, provision for joint sittings in case of
deadlock.
Subject Lists and Powers:

 Three subject lists - Federal Legislative List, Provincial Legislative List,

and Concurrent Legislative List.
 Residuary legislative powers at the discretion of the governor general.
 Governor general could veto federal legislature bills; King-in-Council
could disallow acts assented by governor general.
Provincial Autonomy:

 Abolition of dyarchy in provinces.

 Full responsible government established, provinces deriving power directly
from the British Crown.
 Independent financial powers and resources for provincial governments.
Expanded Provincial Legislatures:

 Bicameral legislatures in six

provinces(bengal,madrs,bombay,up,bihar,assam), others retaining
unicameral legislatures.
 Extension of communal electorates and weightage to depressed classes,
women, and labor.
Franchise Extension:

 Franchise extended, approximately 10% of the population gaining the right

to vote.
Federal Court and Abolishment:

 Federal Court established in 1937 with original and appellate powers.

 India Council of the Secretary of State abolished.
Non-realization of All-India Federation:

 All-India Federation envisaged in the act did not materialize due to

opposition from Indian parties.
 Provincial autonomy introduced in 1937, but central government continued
under the 1919 Act.
Operative Period and Criticisms:

 Act in force until August 15, 1947.

 Criticized for lack of Indian involvement in its creation, rigidity, and
limited internal growth.
 Communal electorates and representation promoted separatist tendencies,
leading to India's partition.
 The congress demanded instead convening of constituent assembly whose
member to be elected based on adult franchise for making of constitution.
Post-1935 Developments:

 Series of developments post-1935, including the August Offer (1940),

Cripps Proposals (1942), C.R. Formula (1944), Wavell Plan (1945),
Cabinet Mission, and Mountbatten Plan (1947) and finally Indian
Independence Act, 1947, marked the end of British rule in India.

Evolution of Civil Services in India:

Introduction of Civil Service:

East India Company's Origin:

 Civil service introduced by the East India Company for benefits of its
commercial affairs.
 Initially used to distinguish commercial servants from military and naval
services.
Transformation and Expansion:

 Evolved into a structured administrative machinery for acquired territories.

 Civil servants gradually entrusted with additional responsibilities and
authority.
Cornwallis' Administration (1786–93):
Organization and Anti-corruption Measures:

 Cornwallis organized and established the civil services.

 Anti-corruption measures included salary increases, strict rules against
private trade, prohibiting presents and bribes, and promoting based on
seniority.
Wellesley's Contribution (1798–1805):
Fort William College and Training:

 Wellesley established Fort William College for new recruit training in

1800.
 Court of Directors disapproved for the establishment, leading to the
establishment of East India College in Haileybury, England, for a two-year
training.

Charter Act of 1853:

End of Company's Patronage:

 Charter Act of 1853 ended the Company's patronage.

 Recruitment shifted to open competition.
 But the relevant provisions were never implemented.
Exclusion of Indians:

Reasons for Exclusion of indian from the higher posts:

 Cornawallies believed that every indian is corrupt.
 Indians barred from high posts due to beliefs of incapability,
untrustworthiness, and insensitivity to British interests.
 High competition among Europeans for lucrative posts favored exclusion.

Indian Civil Service Act of 1861:

Reservation and Examination Changes:

 Reserved offices for covenanted civil servants.(for those who have signed
the agreement to serve as the civil servant and they will not go through
the examination)
 Examination held in England in English language, based on classical
learning.
 Gradual reduction in maximum permissible age.[23(1859)->22->21-
>19(1878)].
First Indian Qualifier:
 In 1863, Satyendra Nath Tagore became the first Indian to qualify for the
Indian Civil Service.
Statutory Civil Service (1878–79):(failed and abolished)

Introduction and Failure:

 Lytton introduced Statutory Civil Service,-> one-sixth of covenanted posts

for Indians through nominations(not through examination) follwed by
the approval of the secreatry of stateand viceroy.
 System failed and was eventually abolished.
Conclusion:
Changing Dynamics:
 - Evolving dynamics in the administration of civil services in response to
changing needs and circumstances.
 - Continuous adjustments and reforms in recruitment and training
processes.
Congress Demand and Aitchison Committee:

Congress Demand (after it was formed in 1885):

Indian National Congress demanded:

 Lowering the age limit for recruitment.
 Simultaneous examination in India and Britain.
Aitchison Committee Recommendations (1886):

Recommendations by the Aitchison Committee on Public Services (by

Dufferin):
 Abandonment of 'covenanted' and 'uncovenanted' terms.
 Classification into Imperial Indian Civil Service, Provincial Civil Service,
and Subordinate Civil Service.
 Increase in the age limit to 23.

Resolution in House of Commons (1893):

 House of Commons resolution supported simultaneous examinations in

India and England but the resolution was never implemented .
 Kimberley, the secretary of state, emphasized the indispensability(absolute
necessity) of having an adequate number of Europeans in civil service.

Montford Reforms (1919):

Realistic Policy and Recommendations:

 Montford reforms emphasized a realistic policy of recruiting the Indian in
public service for establishing responsible government in India.
 Recommendations included simultaneous examinations in India and
England.
 Proposed that one-third of recruitment be made in India, with an annual
increase of 1.5 percent.
Lee Commission (1924):

Commission's Recommendations:
Lee Commission recommended:
 Continued recruitment by the secretary of state for ICS, Irrigation branch,
and Indian Forest Service.
 Transferred fields like education and civil medical service to be recruited
by provincial governments.
 Direct recruitment to ICS based on 50:50 parity between Europeans and
Indians in 15 years.
 Immediate establishment of a Public Service Commission as per the
Government of India Act, 1919.

Government of India Act, 1935:

Public Service Commissions Establishment:

 1935 Act recommended the establishment(also established) of Federal and
Provincial Public Service Commissions.
 But the Positions of control and authority retained by British, hindering
effective political power transfer to Indians.
 Indian bureaucrats acted as agents of colonial rule without significant
political influence.

Evaluation of Civil Services under British Rule:

Exclusion of Indians:

 Systematic exclusion of Indians from law, policy-making bodies, and civil

service.
 Europeans maintained supremacy in civil service and governance.This was
done in two ways:-
Difficulty in Entry (Pre-1918):
 Although the indians began to enter the coveted posts of ICS ever since
1863,Indians faced difficulty in entering civil services.
 ICS entrance exam in London with English medium and classical subjects.
 Maximum age reduced from 23 in 1859 to 19 in 1878 under Lytton.
 All the key postion of power was held by the europeans.
European Dominance (Post-1918):

 Slow Indianisation after 1918 but key positions held by Europeans.

 Indian bureaucrats served British imperialist interests.
 Indianisation didn't transfer effective power to Indian hands.
Evolution of Police System in Modern India:
Pre-Colonial Era:

 Mughal and native states lacked a formal police system.

 There were a Watch guards protected villages and later unbder the
mughal ,faujdars for maintenance of law and order and amils for tax
collection and dealing with rebels, under the Mughals.
 Kotwals for the law and order in the cities.

Colonial Era Developments:

 Dual Rule in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa (1765-1772):

 Zamindars had responsibilities for maintaining law and order.

 They were expected to maintain staff, including thanedars, for law
enforcement.
Zamindar Negligence:
 Zamindars sometimes neglected their duties.
 Accusations of collusion with dacoits and sharing loot.
 Changes and Reforms:
  In 1770, the institutions of faujdars and amils were abolished.

 Warren Hastings restored the institution of faujdars in 1774.

 Zamindars were asked to assist faujdars in suppressing dacoits,

violence, and disorder.

 Faujdar thanas were set up in major towns of large districts in

1775.
 These were assisted by several smaller police stations.

 Cornwallis (1791) organized a regular police force with thanas(old system)

in district under the darogas(Indian) and SP at the head of district.He
relieve the zaminadars of their duty.

 Mayo (1808) appointed SPs aided by spies, but spies committed

depredations(attack or plunder) on local people.

 In 1814,By the order of court of director , the post of daroga and its
subordinate was aboslished except in bengal.

 Bentinck (1828-35) abolished SP post.The collector was now to head the

police force and the commissioner was to act as SP in each division(group
of district).But this arrangement failed because of heavy burden on
magistrate.

 Police Commission (1860) recommendations led to the Indian Police Act,

1861.

Recommendation:
 Civil constabulary system introduced, with hierarchy from constables to
SP.

 Inspector-general as the head in a province, deputy inspector-general as the head

in a range, and SP as the head in a district

Unsympathetic Attitude and Repression of police:

 Police successfully curbed criminal acts but had an unsympathetic attitude.

 Used to suppress the national movement.
 No creation of All-India Police but police system in each province which
was the guidelines presented by the Police Act, 1861.

Police Reforms (1902-03):

 Frazer Commission (1902-03) recommended far-reaching reforms.
 Suggestions included direct recruitment of senior officials, training schools
for constables and officers , increased strength of the police force, village
visits, higher salaries, and creation of a Criminal Intelligence Department at
the center.
 Department of Criminal Intelligence (DCI) established as the central
intelligence agency.
 CID were set up in all provinces which was later (1929) divided into
special branch,CID and crime branch.

Repression during Nationalist Movement:

 Police role clear in repressing the growing nationalist movement.

 The police lost empathy with the Indian masses in the process.

Military Under the British:

Pre-1857 revolt Military Structure:

 Two sets of military forces: Queen's army (Crown's military force on duty
in India) and Company's troops (mixture of European and Native
regiments).
Post-1857 Reorganisation:

 Systematic reorganisation after the 1857 revolt to prevent another uprising.

 Indian branch of the Army used for defending Indian territories from the
other powers in the region and also used for expanding in Asia and
Africa.while the british branch was used for occupation of india.

European Dominance:

 European branch dominance over Indian branches.

 Commissions of 1859 and 1879 insisted on a one-third white army as
against the 14% in the pre revolt army.
 Proportion of Europeans to Indians carefully fixed in different armies.(1:2
in bengal and 1:5 in bombay and madras)
Discriminatory Policies:

 Inferior quality rifles for Indians until 1900.

 Strict European monopoly in key departments and locations.
 No indian were allowed in high tech department until ww2
 No Indians allowed in high officer rank until 1914, highest rank limited to
subedar until 1918.
 Indian Sandhurst Committee visualised 50% Indianised officer cadre by
1952 in 1926.

Policy of Divide and Rule:

 The indian branch Reorganisation was based on the policy of balance and
counterpoise or divide and rule.
 Ideology of 'martial races'(good soldier from a particular race) and 'non-
martial races' developed, justifying discriminatory recruitment developed in
1880s undr lord roberts.
 Sikhs, Gurkhas, and Pathans targeted for recruitment due to their role in
suppressing the revolt.
 The soldiersa from awadh,bihar,central india and south india were declared
as the non martial race.
Encouragement of Divisive Factors:

 'Martial races' ideology used to encourage divisions among different

communities.
 Communal, caste, tribal, and regional consciousness encouraged to prevent
nationalist feelings among soldiers.
Isolation Measures:

 Soldiers isolated from the rest of the population.

 Conscious efforts to prevent access to newspapers, journals, and nationalist
publications.
Costly Military Machine:

 Despite re-organisation, the British Indian Army remained a costly military

machine.
 Aimed at maintaining control and preventing internal challenges.

Development of Judiciary in British India:

Pre-colonial Judicial System:

 Lack of proper procedures and organisation of law courts in the Mughal era
or even in ancient era.
 Litigation among Hindus decided by caste elders, panchayats, or
zamindars.
 For Muslims, qazis handled judicial matters in provincial capitals, towns,
and qasbas(villages)
 Kings were considered as the fountainhead of justice.
 The process delivering justice was arbitrary and there was no rule
governing it.

Introduction of Common Law System (1726):

 Began with Establishment of 'Mayor’s Courts' in Madras, Bombay, and

Calcutta by the East India Company.
 Transition from Mughal legal system to a common law system based on
recorded precedents.

Reforms under Warren Hastings (1772–85):

 District Diwani Adalats(under the colletor) for civil disputes, applying

Hindu law for Hindus and Muslim law for Muslims.
 The apeal from the district diwani went to sadar diwani under president and
2 members of supreme council.
 District Fauzdari Adalats for criminal disputes, under the Indian officer
assisted by the quazi and chief mufti.Appeal lay to sadar nizamat dalat
headed by deputy nizam assisted by chief quazi and chief mufti.
 Supreme Court established in Calcutta under the Regulating Act of 1773
with original and appellate jurisdictions.

Reforms under Cornwallis (1786–93) - Separation of Powers:

 Abolition of District Fauzdari Courts, establishment of circuit courts with

european judges and were to act as court of appeaql forn both civil and
criminal cases, in Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad, and Patna.
 Shifting of Sadar Nizamat Adalat to Calcutta under the governor general
and members of the Supreme Council assisted by chief qazi and chief
mufti.
 Designation of District Diwani Adalat as the District, City, or Zila Court
under a district judge.Collector was now responsible for the revenue
administration with no magisterial functions.
 Gradation of civil courts for both Hindu and Muslim laws.
(i) Munsiff’s Court under Indian officers,
(ii) Registrar’s Court under a European judge,
(iii) District Court under the district judge,
(iv) Four Circuit Courts as provincial courts of appeal,
(v) Sadar Diwani Adalat at Calcutta, and
(vi) King-in-Council for appeals of 5,000 pounds and
above.

Cornwallis Code introduced:

 Separation of revenue and justice administration.
 European subjects brought under jurisdiction.
 Government officials made answerable to civil courts for official actions.
 Establishment of the principle of the sovereignty of law(legal rules and
principles are the ultimate authority in a society.).

Reforms under William Bentinck

(1828–33)
● The four Circuit Courts were abolished and their functions transferred to
collectors under the supervision of the commissioner of revenue and circuit.
● Sadar Diwani Adalat and a Sadar Nizamat Adalat were set up at Allahabad
for the convenience of the people of Upper Provinces.
● Till now, Persian was the official language in courts. Now, the suitor had the
option to use Persian or a vernacular language, while in the Supreme Court,
English language replaced Persian.
1833 : A Law Commission was set up under Macaulay for codification of
Indian laws. As a result, a Civil Procedure Code (1859), an Indian Penal Code
(1860), and a Criminal Procedure Code (1861) were prepared.

Later Developments
1860 : It was provided that the Europeans can claim
no special privileges except in criminal cases, and no judge
of an Indian origin could try them.
1865 : The Supreme Court and the Sadar Adalats were
merged into three high courts at Calcutta, Bombay, and
Madras.
1935 : The Government of India Act provided for a
Federal Court (set up in 1937) which could settle disputes
between governments and could hear limited appeals from
the high courts.
Evaluation
Positive Aspects of Judiciary under the
British
● The rule of law was established.
● The codified laws replaced the religious and personal
laws of the rulers.
● Even European subjects were brought under the
jurisdiction, although in criminal cases, they could be tried
by European judges only.
● Government servants were made answerable to the
civil courts.
The Negative Aspects
● The judicial system became more and more
complicated and expensive. The rich could manipulate the
system.
● There was ample scope for false evidence, deceit,
and chicanery.
● Dragged out litigation meant delayed justice.
● Courts became overburdened as litigation increased.
● Often, the European judges were not familiar with
the Indian usage and traditions.

Major Changes in Administrative Structure after 1857:

Genesis of Administrative Changes:

Experience of 1857: The organized mass action of 1857 demonstrated the

potential threat to British rule.
Narrowing the Ruler-Subject Gap: Efforts made to reduce alienation by
narrowing the gap between rulers and subjects.
Native Inclusion in Administration: Recognizing the need to include natives in
administration for better understanding of customs and values.
Industrial Revolution and Global Competition (Second Half of 19th Century):

Intensification of Industrial Revolution: Further spread and intensification of

the industrial revolution globally.
Emergence of New Industrial Powers: USA, Japan, and European countries
becoming new industrial powers.
Competition for Colonies: Intense competition for colonies and sub-colonies
for raw materials, markets, and capital investment.
End of British Supremacy: British supremacy in finance and manufactured
goods trade coming to an end.
New Stage of Colonialism in India:

British Economic Interests: Focus on consolidating the colonial position to

secure British economic and commercial interests.
Imperial Control Renewal: Renewed upsurge of imperial control and ideology
in response to changing global dynamics.
Reactive Policies: Reflecting in reactionary policies during the vice-royalties of
Lytton, Dufferin, Lansdowne, Elgin, and Curzon.
Impact on Governmental Structure and Policies:

Shaping Modern India: Changes in governmental structure and policies shaping

the destiny of modern India.
Imperialist Ideology Influence: Strong influence of imperialist ideology in
shaping administrative decisions.
Curzon's Role: Significant impact of Curzon's vice-royalty on shaping colonial
policies and administration.

Administration: Central, Provincial, Local

Central Government (1858):

Transfer of Power: The Act for Better Government of India, 1858 transferred
power from the East India Company to the British Crown.
Secretary of State: The secretary of state, a cabinet member, gained authority
over India and was assisted by a council of 15.
Parliament Accountability: The secretary of state was accountable to the British
Parliament, ending the dual system introduced by Pitt's India Act, 1784.
Viceroy's Role: The governor general assumed the title of viceroy, assisted by
an executive council, but the real authority shifted to the secretary of state.
Indian Councils Act, 1861:

Council Composition: The viceroy's executive council added a fifth member, a

jurist, and could include six to twelve additional members for legislative
purposes.
Legislative Council Weaknesses:
No discussion on important matters without government approval.
No control over the budget or discussion on executive actions.
Final bill passing required viceroy's approval; the secretary of state could
disallow legislation.
Non-official Indian members represented elite sections, not the broader Indian
opinion.
Viceroy could issue emergency ordinances with six months' validity.
Limited Function: The legislative council endorsed official measures without
substantial legislative powers.
British Government in India: Remained an alien despotism with increased
influence of British industrialists, merchants, and bankers.
Impact on Indian Administration (Post-1858):

Viceroy's Subordinate Status: Concentration of authority in the secretary of

state reduced the viceroy's status to subordinate, alienating Indian public
opinion.
Reactionary Administration: Increased influence of British economic interests
led to a more reactionary Indian administration.
Limited Representation: Legislative councils lacked real power, and non-
official Indian members represented elite sections rather than diverse Indian
opinions.
Provincial Government (Post-1861):

Legislative Powers Return (1861):

The Indian Councils Act, 1861 restored legislative powers to provinces,

including Madras and Bombay, which had been taken away in 1833.
Legislative councils were established in various provinces.
Presidencies vs. Other Provinces:

Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta presidencies had more rights and powers.
Governed by a governor and an executive council of three, appointed by the
Crown.
Other provinces were administered by lieutenant governors and chief
commissioners appointed by the governor general.
Financial Decentralisation (1870-1882):

Lord Mayo initiated financial decentralisation steps:

Fixed sums from central revenues allocated to provincial governments for
services like police, jails, education, medical services, and roads.
Lord Lytton (1877) transferred heads of expenditure like land revenue, excise,
general administration, law, and justice to provinces.
Provinces received a fixed share of income from sources like stamps, excise,
and income tax.
Revenue Division (1882):

All sources of revenue categorized into three groups:

General (going entirely to the center).
Provincial (going entirely to the provinces).
Divided between the center and the provinces.
Supremacy of Central Government:

Despite decentralisation efforts, the central government retained supremacy.

Detailed control over provinces remained with the central government.
Both central and provincial governments were subordinated to the secretary of
state and the British Government.

Evolution of Local Bodies in British India:

1. Initial Formation (1864-1868):

Local bodies established with mostly nominated members.

Headed by district magistrates, primarily for additional tax collection.
2. Mayo’s Resolution (1870):

Financial decentralisation initiated by Indian Councils Act of 1861.

Provincial governments allowed local taxation to balance budgets.
Transfer of departments like medical services, education, and roads to
provincial control.
Local bodies created for managing funds for education, sanitation, medical
relief, and public works.
3. Ripon’s Resolution (1882):

Ripon called the father of local self-government in India.

Advocated the development of local bodies for improved administration and
political education.
Principles:
Local bodies for urban and rural affairs.
Majority non-official members, with elected officials.
Non-officials as chairpersons.
Minimal official interference; sanctions required for specific cases.
Acts passed between 1883 and 1885 to implement the resolution.
4. Drawbacks in Existing Local Bodies:
Elected members a minority in district boards and some municipalities.
Limited franchise.
District boards led by officials, though non-officials headed municipalities.
Government retained strict control, with the power to suspend or supersede
bodies.
5. Curzon’s Control (Late 19th Century):

Imperialistic views led to increased official control.

Lord Curzon took steps to enhance bureaucratic control over local bodies.
6. Royal Commission on Decentralisation (1908):

Identified financial constraints hindering local bodies' effectiveness.

Recommendations:
Empower village panchayats with judicial authority and increased
responsibilities.
Establish sub-district boards for separate duties and revenue sources.
Remove restrictions on taxation powers.
Stop regular grants-in-aid, except for significant projects.
Municipalities to take responsibility for primary education and other services or
be relieved by the government.

Evolution of Local Self-Government in British India:

1. Government of India Resolution (1915):

Official response to Decentralisation Commission's recommendations.

Most recommendations remained unimplemented.
Status quo from Lord Ripon's time continued.
2. Resolution of May 1918:

Review prompted by the announcement of constitutional advance in August

1917.
Emphasis on making local bodies representative and granting them real
authority.
Local self-government becomes a 'transferred' subject under Dyarchy in
Government of India Act, 1919.
Finance remains a 'reserved' subject, limiting the Indian ministers' actions in
local self-government due to funding constraints.
3. Simon Commission (May 1930):

Pointed out limited progress of village panchayats, except in some provinces.

Suggested increased provincial control over local bodies for efficiency.
Noted reluctance of elected members to impose taxes.
Criticized the deterioration in the management of local bodies' finances since
the reforms of 1919.
4. Government of India Act, 1935:
Provincial autonomy enhanced local self-governing institutions.
Portfolio finance under popular ministries allowed funds for local body
development.
Removal of taxation demarcation between provincial and local finance.
New acts passed in provinces to grant more authority to local bodies.
5. Challenges Post-1935:

Financial resources and taxation power for local institutions remained stagnant.
Some new restrictions on local bodies' power to levy or enhance taxes.
Provincial governments deviated from the liberal policy recommended by the
Decentralisation Commission (1908).
6. Post-Independence:

The Constitution of free India directs state governments to organize effective

village panchayats (Article 40).
Seventy-third and Seventy-fourth Amendments aim at strengthening rural and
urban local self-governing institutions.
Despite challenges, efforts continue to improve and empower local bodies for
effective governance.
Administrative Policies in British India:

1. Divide and Rule:

Contrary to pre-1857 intentions of modernization, British adopted reactionary

policies.
Practiced a policy of divide and rule to prevent united mass actions challenging their
authority.
Fostered divisions among princes, states’ people, regions, provinces, castes, and
religions.
2. Hostility Towards Educated Indians:

British authorities opposed the emerging middle-class nationalist leadership.

Nationalists demanded Indian participation in administration.
British perceived this as a challenge to their authority and adopted a hostile attitude
towards modern education and leadership.
3. Attitude Towards Zamindars:

British sought alliances with reactionary social groups like princes and zamindars.
Zamindars and landlords hailed as 'natural' and 'traditional' leaders.
Restored lands confiscated from Awadh taluqdars pre-1857.

Protected interests of zamindars against peasants, gaining their support.

4. Attitude Towards Social Reforms:

Withdrawing support to social reforms seen as stirring opposition from orthodox

sections.
Encouraged caste and communal consciousness, aiding reactionary forces.
5. Underdeveloped Social Services:

Disproportionate expenditure on the army, civil administration, and wars.

Limited resources for social services like education, health, sanitation, and
infrastructure.
Facilities mainly catered to elite sections and urban areas.
Legacy of underdeveloped social services continues to impact the country.

Labour Legislations in 19th Century India:

1. Early Working Conditions:

Miserable conditions in factories and plantations during the 19th-century industrial

revolution in India.
Long working hours for men, women, and children with low wages.
Poorly ventilated, overcrowded, and unsafe working environments.
2. Lancashire Textile Capitalist Lobby:

The first demand for workers' regulation came from Lancashire textile capitalists
fearing competition from cheap and unregulated Indian labor.
A commission was appointed in 1875 to investigate factory conditions.
3. Indian Factory Act, 1881:

Addressed primarily the issue of child labor (7 to 12 years).

Prohibited employment of children under 7.
Restricted working hours for children to 9 hours per day.
Mandated four holidays a month for children.
Required proper fencing of hazardous machinery.
4. Indian Factory Act, 1891:

Increased minimum age for child labor to 9 and maximum age to 14.
Reduced maximum working hours for children to 7 hours per day.
Fixed maximum working hours for women at 11 hours per day with a 1.5-hour
interval.
Provided a weekly holiday for all workers.
5. Exemptions for Plantations:

Laws did not apply to British-owned tea and coffee plantations.

Plantation labor faced ruthless exploitation and treatment akin to slavery.
Government supported planters with laws making it difficult for laborers to refuse
work.
6. Nationalist Pressures and 20th Century:

More labor laws passed under nationalist pressures in the 20th century.
Despite regulations, overall working conditions remained deplorable.

Restrictions on Freedom of the Press:

1. Utilization of Press by Nationalists:

Nationalists used advancements in press technology to educate the public, criticize

government policies, and foster national consciousness.
2. Vernacular Press Act, 1878:

Lord Lytton imposed restrictions on the Indian language press due to the fear of
increased nationalist influence.
The act faced public protest and was repealed in 1882.
Press enjoyed relative freedom for about two decades.
3. Repression in 1908 and 1910:
Press faced repression again during the swadeshi and anti-partition movements.
Restrictions were imposed in 1908 and 1910.
White Racism:

1. Maintenance of White Superiority:

Colonial rulers maintained the notion of white superiority.

Indians were systematically excluded from higher grades of civil and military
services, railway compartments, parks, hotels, clubs, etc.
2. Public Display of Racial Arrogance:

White racism manifested through beatings, blows, and even murders, reported as
accidents.
Elgin emphasized the need to maintain dominance to govern effectively.
3. Reservation of Control:

Elgin highlighted the reservation of control to the dominant race to ensure effective
governance.
Indians in services were encouraged, but ultimate control was reserved for the ruling
race.
Revenue Policies
Agriculture has always been the main occupation of the
people in rural India. When the British obtained the Diwani
rights of Bengal in 1765, the agrarian economy was the
mainstay of other sectors of the economy as well. The
policies of the British changed the agrarian structure as they
introduced new systems of land tenures and policies of
revenue administration; the main aim was to extract maximum
income from land with little care about the interests of the
cultivators.
Hastings’ System:

Introduction of Izaredari System:

Warren Hastings implemented the Izaredari system, also known as the farming
system, to streamline revenue collection.
The system aimed at bringing order to revenue administration.
Contractors as Revenue Collectors:

Revenue collection was entrusted to contractors, referred to as 'farmers,' selected

based on the highest bids.
Contractors were chosen for specific districts or subdivisions through a bidding
process.
Quinquennial Settlement:

Contractors held the power of revenue collection for five years (quinquennial
settlement).
Later, the collection became an annual process in 1777.
Issues and Consequences:
Extortion and oppression prevailed as contractors prioritized their profit over the
welfare of peasants.
Large bid amounts often exceeded the land's production capacity, leading to economic
strain on cultivators.
Traditional zamindars, considered mere tax gatherers, were discouraged from bidding,
resulting in their displacement.
Corruption reduced the revenue reaching the government.
Impact on Agriculture and Trade:

The policy led to impoverishment, diminishing agricultural productivity.

Decline in agriculture affected British trade items like silk and cotton.
Anticipated surplus revenue did not materialize, contributing to economic challenges.

Permanent Settlement (Zamindari System):

Introduction:

Recommendation (1776):

Philip Francis proposed a permanent settlement in land revenue in 1776.

Lord Cornwallis was later tasked with implementing this idea.
Formation of Committee:

Lord Cornwallis established a committee including himself, Sir John Shore, and
James Grant to examine the issue.
Cornwallis aimed to grant proprietary rights to zamindars.
Features of Permanent Settlement:

Zamindar Proprietary Rights:

Zamindars were granted ownership rights over their land.

Settlement Duration:

In 1790, a ten-year settlement of tax was made with the zamindars.

In 1793, the settlement was made permanent.
Tax Collection by Zamindars:

A fixed tax on the land was to be paid by the zamindar.

Revenue collection from cultivators (tenants or ryots) became the responsibility of the
zamindar.
Revenue Sharing:

Zamindars retained one-tenth to one-eleventh of the revenue.

The remaining revenue was given to the Company government.
Property Rights of Zamindars:

Zamindars could sell, mortgage, or transfer the land.

Heirs inherited land along with rights and liabilities.
Sunset Clause (1794):
Introduced a 'sunset clause': If tax was not paid by a certain date, the government
could auction the zamindari.
Empowered Rights (1793, 1799, 1812):

Regulations in 1793, 1799, and 1812 empowered zamindars to seize tenants' property
for unpaid rent without court permission.
Shortcomings of Permanent Settlement:

High Fixed Revenue Rates:

Fixed revenue rates were set high, leading to financial difficulties for many
zamindaris during calamities.
Absentee-Landlordism:

High rates forced zamindars to sell or mortgage land, leading to absentee-landlordism.

Subinfeudation:

Zamindars subdivided estates into small lots, called patni taluq, rented permanently to
holders (patnidar), starting the process of subinfeudation.
Lack of Written Agreements:

Zamindars were required to issue written agreements (pattas) to cultivators, but

exploitation occurred due to the absence of such agreements.
Peasantry Exploitation:

Peasantry faced exploitation, harassment, and serfdom as zamindars focused on rent

extraction.
Neglect of Agricultural Improvement:

Zamindars neglected land improvement and agricultural development, concentrating

solely on rent extraction.
Revenue Constraints for Government:

The government had no means to increase tax, limiting revenue growth and hindering
the Company's expansion efforts.

Ryotwari System:

Introduction:

Origins (1792):
Thomas Munro and Captain Alexander Read introduced a system in 1792 for the
Baramahal region, later known as the Ryotwari System.
Munro implemented it in Madras Presidency in 1820.
Implementation and Revenue Collection:

Direct Village Collection:

Revenue collected directly from villages, fixing each village's payment amount.
Revenue Maximization:
Aimed at maximizing revenue for the Company by eliminating intermediaries.
Munro's Reforms:

Munro reduced the tax to one-third of the gross produce.

Extended the Ryotwari System to areas in Madras Presidency (except those under
permanent settlement).
Economic Impact (1820s-1850s):

Peasants faced economic hardship as the fixed tax was nearly equal to economic
rental.
Lack of clear land assessment led to arbitrary tax fixation, known as 'putcut'
assessment.
Abuses and Coercion (1855):

Madras Torture Commission Report (1855) revealed coercion, bribery, and corruption
by subordinate officials.
Coercion tactics, torture, and exploitation to extract revenue led to peasants falling
into poverty.
Reforms and Improved System (1855 onwards):

Scientific Land Survey (1855):

A scientific survey of land and fresh revenue assessment started in 1855.

Revenue rate set at half the net value of the produce for a 30-year settlement.
Agricultural Prosperity (1864 onwards):

Reformed settlement introduced in 1864 led to agricultural prosperity.

Agriculture expanded, though interrupted by famines in 1865-66 and 1876-78.
Expansion Beyond Madras Presidency:

Bombay Presidency (1813-14):

In Gujarat, direct revenue collection from peasants began in 1813-14.

Ryotwari system introduced in Bombay Presidency post-1818, following the Madras
pattern.
Survey Issues and Over-assessment (1824-28):

Survey carried out in 1824-28 led to a state demand fixed at 55% of the net produce.
Faulty surveys and over-assessment caused widespread harassment, leading to fallow
lands.
Improvements (1836 onwards):

Wingate and Goldsmith improved the system around 1836.

Modified assessment covering most of the Deccan by 1865.
Extension to Other Regions:

Extended to Berar, East Bengal, parts of Assam, and Coorg.

Features of Ryotwari System:
Ownership and Occupancy Rights:

Ryots had ownership and occupancy rights with no limit on land extent.
Freedom to sublet, transfer, or sell land.
Direct Tax Payment:

Ryots paid tax directly to the Company, ranging from 45% to 55% based on estimated
production.
Flexible Revenue Collection:

Revenue not fixed, allowing adjustments based on higher production.

Non-permanent Settlement:

Settlement not permanent, subject to periodic revision.

Government-controlled Barren Land:

Barren land under government control could be cultivated, with shared revenue.
Confiscation for Non-payment:

Land could be confiscated if the revenue was unpaid.

Shortcomings of Ryotwari System:

Overassessment Issues:

Overassessment of revenue was common, exceeding the land's capacity.

Inflexible Collection Method:

Inflexible collection methods, involving torture, coercion, and exploitation for tax
extraction.
Corruption Growth:

Corruption grew as officers could be bribed during land assessment.

Land Value Devaluation:

High tax and harassment devalued land, reducing its market value.
Non-cultivating Landlords:

Non-cultivating landlords registered as owners, reducing actual cultivators to tenants

or bonded laborers.

Mahalwari System:

Introduction:

Consideration (1819):
Mahalwari system considered in 1819, recommended by Holt Mackenzie, the
secretary to the board of commissioners.
Formalized by Regulation VII of 1922.
Initial Challenges and Regulation (1833):
Complex Survey and High Revenue Demand:

Complex survey, high revenue demand, and harsh extraction methods led to initial
challenges.
Agricultural depression in 1828 worsened the situation, resulting in uncultivated land
and arrears.
Regulation of 1833:

William Bentinck, in 1833, simplified the procedure for estimating produce.

Merttins Bird, the Father of Land Settlements, supervised the new scheme.
Modified Scheme (1855):

State Demand Reduction (1855):

Lord Dalhousie, in 1855, limited the state demand to 50% of the rental value.
Known as a modified zamindari system, involving the village headman as an
intermediary.
Dual System:

The system operated with different names (mauzawar, malguzari) in various regions.
Dual system: collective settlement with the community and individual settlement with
landlords.
Features of Mahalwari System:

Unit of Assessment:

Mahal, denoting a village or group of villages, was the unit for tax assessment.
Revenue Determination:

Revenue based on the produce of a mahal.

Ownership Concept:

Village community considered the landowner; individual ownership with cultivators.

Tax Collection Responsibility:

Village headman (lambardar) or a community of leaders responsible for tax collection

and payment to the Company government.
Revenue Share and Modifications:

Initially, state's revenue share was 66% of the rental value; later modified to 50%.
Introduction of average rents for different soil classes.
Periodic Revenue Revision:

In mahalwari regions, land revenue revised periodically.

Shortcomings of Mahalwari System:

Complex Recording Requirements:

System required officials to record all rights of cultivators, zamindars, etc., and fix
taxes on each piece of land, often impractical.
Inaccurate Calculations and Manipulation:

Officials made inaccurate calculations, often based on guesswork.

Collectors manipulated figures, leading to revenue increase and corruption
opportunities.
Impact on Village Communities:

Exorbitant tax assessments ruined village communities, leading to dispossession and

impoverishment.
Land Transfer to Moneylenders:

Inability to meet tax rates led to transfer of land to moneylenders, merchants,

displacing old cultivating proprietors.
Impoverishment and Discontent:

Mahalwari system contributed to the impoverishment and largescale dispossession in

North India.
Resentment and discontent found expression in the popular uprisings of 1857.
Financial Inefficiency:

From the Company's perspective, the system led to more spending on collection than
the revenue collected.
Overall Impact of British Land Revenue Systems:

Mahalwari Settlement (30% of British Rule Area):

Introduced in about 30% of the total area under British rule, including North Western
Provinces, Central Provinces, and Punjab with variations.
Ryotwari System (51% of British Rule Area):

Covered approximately 51% of the British rule area, including parts of Bombay and
Madras Presidencies, Assam, and other regions.
Both settlements proved disastrous for farmers and zamindars.
Financial Impact:

High revenue rates led to defaults by many zamindars, resulting in property seizure.
Farmers faced lifelong indebtedness due to the excessive revenue fixed by the
systems.
Private Ownership and Inequality:

Various settlements led to a new form of private land ownership that did not benefit
cultivators.
Instead, it impoverished the peasantry and increased rural indebtedness.
Zamindar's Permanent Rights:

Zamindars' permanent rights on land contributed to unequal ownership.

Land Transactions:

Land became saleable, mortgageable, and alienable to protect government revenue.

Village community divided into land-owning class and landless peasantry, disrupting
stability.
Impact on Village Artisans:

Village artisans became jobless, transforming into landless laborers.

Legal Changes:

Law courts, lawyer's fees, and formal procedures replaced old customs under these
systems.
Exploitation and Commercialization:

British land revenue systems exposed Indian peasantry to moneylender and

middleman exploitation.
Arbitrary high government revenue demands led landlords to delegate collection to
middlemen, squeezing peasants.
Absentee Landlordism:

New systems gave rise to absentee landlordism through subletting revenue collection
rights.
Commercialization of Agriculture:

Exorbitant revenue demands contributed to the commercialization of agriculture.

British Social and Cultural Policy in India:

Till 1813 - Non-Interference:

British policy was non-interference in the social, religious, and cultural aspects of
India until 1813.
Post-1813 Transformations:

Post-1813, influenced by changes in Britain like the Industrial Revolution and

intellectual revolution, there was a shift towards transforming Indian society and
culture.
Factors Influencing Change:

Industrial Revolution: Aimed to make India a market for British goods, requiring
partial modernization.
Intellectual Revolution: New attitudes towards mind, manners, and morals.
French Revolution: Advocated liberty, equality, and fraternity, influencing democracy
and nationalism.
Characteristics of New Thought:

Rationalism: Faith in reason and a scientific attitude.

Humanism: Advocated the love of man, leading to liberalism, socialism, and
individualism.
Doctrine of Progress: Belief that societies must change with time and can be
remodeled on just and rational lines.
Schools of Thought:
Conservatives:

Advocated introducing few changes, respecting Indian civilization.

Believed Western ideas should be introduced gradually and cautiously.
Paternalistic Imperialists:

Critical of Indian society, justified economic and political enslavement.

Radicals:

Applied advanced humanistic and rational thought.

Advocated the introduction of modern Western science, philosophy, and literature.
Supported by reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy.
British Administration's Perspective:

Predominantly imperialistic and exploitative, focusing on modernization within limits

for easier resource exploitation.
Indian Renaissance:

Indian social reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
worked for legislation to eradicate social evils.
Dilemma Before the Government:

Fear of excessive modernization generating forces hostile to British interests.

Opted for 'colonial modernization,' introducing it selectively.
Role of Christian Missionaries:

Saw Christianity as superior, aimed to spread it through westernization.

Supported Radicals for their scientific approach undermining native culture.
Supported Imperialists for law and order, essential for their propaganda.
Sought business and capitalist support by promising that Christian converts would be
better customers.

ritish Retreat:

Post-1858 Modernization Shift:

Policy of hesitant modernization gradually abandoned after 1858.

Indian Response:

Indians rapidly shifted towards modernization and asserted their culture.

Demanded rule based on modern principles of liberty, equality, and justice.
British Alignment:

British started siding with socially orthodox and conservative elements.

Encouraged casteism and communalism.
British Policy Towards Princely States:

Two-Point Policy:
Guided by a two-point policy for princely states:
Using and perpetuating them as a bulwark of the empire.
Subordinating them completely to British authority.
Abandonment of Annexation:

After the loyalty shown during the revolt of 1857, the policy of annexation was
abandoned.
New policy focused on deposing or punishing, not annexing.
Guarantees to Princely States:

Territorial integrity guaranteed.

Right to adopt an heir respected.
Subordination Completed:

Queen's adoption of the title Kaiser-i-Hind in 1876 emphasized British sovereignty.

Princes ruled as agents of the British Crown, ending the fiction of independence.
British Interference:

Paramountcy gave the British the right to interfere in internal affairs through residents
or appointing/dismissing officials.
Modern communication developments facilitated interference (railways, roads,
telegraph, etc.).
Response to Nationalist Sentiments:

Suppressed nationalist, democratic sentiments in princely states for British survival.

Helped states adopt modern administrative institutions alongside suppressing political
movements.

British Foreign Policy in India:

Guiding Interests:

Guided by the interests of British imperialism.

Reasons for Conflicts:

Political and administrative consolidation of India led to conflicts with neighboring

countries.
Introduction of modern communication increased the need for natural, geographical
frontiers for internal cohesion and defense, resulting in border clashes.
Major Aims in Asia and Africa:

Protection of the invaluable Indian empire.

Expansion of British commercial and economic interests.
Keeping other European imperialist powers, with conflicting colonial interests, at
arm’s length in Asia and Africa.
Consequences:

British expansion and territorial conquests outside India’s natural frontiers.

Conflicts with other imperialist European powers, including Russia and France.
The interests served were British, but the expenses and casualties were borne by
India.
Impact on Neighboring Countries:

British actions influenced relations with various neighboring countries.

Survey of British relations with neighbors covered in the chapter 'British Expansion
and Consolidation in India.'

British Economic Impact:

British rule transformed India's economy into a colonial one, serving British interests.
India's share of the world economy dropped from 23% in the 18th century to 3% at
independence.
Deindustrialization:

British policies led to the ruin of Indian artisans and handicraftsmen.

One-way free trade favored British imports, causing Indian products difficulty in
European markets.
Tariffs of nearly 80% on Indian textiles hindered their competitiveness.
India went from being a net exporter to a net importer.
Lack of Industrialization:

Despite the loss of traditional livelihoods, India didn't experience industrialization.

This contrasted with other rapidly industrializing countries during the same period.
Ruralization:

Deindustrialization contributed to the decline of cities and a shift towards rural life.
Artisans, facing economic challenges, abandoned their professions for agriculture.
This ruralization added pressure on the agricultural sector, leading to increased
poverty.

Permanent Settlement System:

The government, focused on maximizing rents and revenue, implemented the

Permanent Settlement system.
Transferability of land under this system led to insecurity for tenants, losing
traditional land rights.
Little government spending on land productivity improvement.
Zamindars and Peasant Hardships:

Zamindars, empowered by the system, engaged in evictions and demanded illegal

dues, without investing in agriculture.
Overburdened peasants turned to moneylenders, who manipulated markets and
judiciary in their favor.
Peasants suffered under the triple burden of government, zamindars, and
moneylenders.
Emergence of Intermediaries:

By 1815, half of Bengal's land had shifted to merchants, moneylenders, and other
urban classes.
New zamindars engaged in landgrabbing and sub-infeudation, increasing the burden
on peasants.
Absentee landlordism rose, as zamindars lacked incentive to invest in agriculture.
Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture:

Peasants lacked means and incentive for agricultural investment.

Zamindars, with no ties to villages, and minimal government spending on education,
hindered the introduction of modern technology.
Fragmentation of land due to sub-infeudation contributed to perpetually low
productivity.
Famine and Poverty:

Regular famines became common, not just due to food scarcity but as a result of
poverty induced by colonial forces.
Between 1850 and 1900, around 2.8 crore people died in famines.

Commercialisation of Agriculture:

In the latter half of the 19th century, a significant trend emerged—the

commercialisation of agriculture.
Agriculture transitioned from a way of life to a business enterprise, influenced by
commercial considerations.
Shift in Crop Focus:

Specialised crops like cotton, jute, groundnut, oilseeds, sugarcane, tobacco, etc., were
now grown for sale in national and international markets.
Commercial crops proved more profitable than traditional foodgrains.
Plantation Sector Development:

Commercialisation reached its peak in the plantation sector—tea, coffee, rubber,

indigo—mostly owned by Europeans and produced for wider markets.
Factors Driving Commercialisation:

Several factors encouraged this trend, including the spread of the money economy,
shift from custom to competition, emergence of a unified national market, growth of
internal trade, improved communications (rail and roads), and British finance capital
entering international trade.
Forced Process for Indian Peasants:

For Indian peasants, commercialisation seemed forced as they had little surplus to
invest in commercial crops, living at a subsistence level.
Commercialisation linked Indian agriculture with international market trends, leading
to fluctuations affecting the peasants.
Impact on Peasants:

The process didn't benefit the cultivators significantly; the surge in cotton prices in the
1860s mostly benefited intermediaries.
When prices slumped in 1866, it hit cultivators the hardest, resulting in heavy
indebtedness, famine, and agrarian riots in the Deccan in the 1870s.

Destruction of Indian Industry:

British policies led to the destruction of Indian industries, notably textiles.

Payment for Indian textiles shifted to revenue from Bengal at low rates, further
impoverishing peasants.
Decline of Ship-Building Industry:

Thriving ship-building industries in Surat, Malabar, Bengal, and Masulipatnam were

crushed.
British ships had a trade route monopoly, and Indian ships faced heavy duties.
Laws in 1813 and 1814 restricted Indian-built ships, leading to the decline of the
Indian shipping industry.
Restrictions on Indian Steel Industry:

The British restricted the growth of the Indian steel industry.

Firms like the Tatas faced challenges, being forced to produce higher-quality steel for
British use, limiting their market.
Role of Indian Traders and Moneylenders:

Indian traders, moneylenders, and bankers played roles in British colonial

exploitation.
They provided loans, facilitated state revenue collection, distributed imported British
products, and aided in exporting Indian agricultural products.
Impact on Industrial Bourgeoisie:

The colonial situation hindered the development of a healthy, independent industrial

bourgeoisie.
Unlike countries like Germany and Japan, India's industrial growth was influenced by
British colonial policies.
Late Development of Modern Industries:

Modern machine-based industries started emerging in the second half of the 19th
century.
Foreign-owned industries, particularly British-controlled, dominated the scene.
Factors Driving Foreign Capital Influx:

Foreign capital rushed into India due to high profit prospects, cheap labor, readily
available raw material, a ready market in India, and abroad.
Challenges for Indian-Owned Industries:

Indian-owned industries in cotton textiles and jute faced challenges like credit
problems, lack of tariff protection, unequal competition from foreign companies, and
opposition from British capitalist interests.
Colonial Structural Changes:

The colonial factor caused lopsided industrial development, neglecting core industries
and power generation.
Regional disparities emerged, hampering nation-building efforts.
Social Impact:

The rise of an industrial capitalist class and a working class marked this phase of
industrial development.

Initial Support and Later Disillusionment:

Early 19th-century intellectuals initially supported British rule, expecting

modernization through technology and capitalist economic organization.
Disillusionment set in after the 1860s, prompting a critical examination of British rule
in India.
Prominent Economic Analysts:
Dadabhai Naoroji, Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade, Romesh Chandra Dutt, Gopal
Krishna Gokhale, G. Subramania Iyer, and Prithwishchandra Ray were key economic
analysts.
Essence of 19th-century Colonialism:

The analysts argued that 19th-century colonialism transformed India into a supplier of
foodstuffs and raw materials, a market for metropolitan manufacturers, and a field for
British capital investment.
Intellectual Agitations for Economic Independence:

Early nationalist analysts organized intellectual agitations, advocating the severance

of India's economic subservience to Britain and the development of an independent
economy based on modern industries.
British Policies Making India Poor:

The early intellectuals asserted that British imperialism made India poor and
exacerbated its economic backwardness.
They viewed poverty as a national issue, emphasizing the need to raise productive
capacity and promote national development.
Industrialization and Capital Source:

Development and industrialization were equated, with an emphasis on using Indian,

not foreign, capital.
Foreign capital was seen as suppressing Indian capital, causing economic drain and
strengthening British control.
Critique of Trade and Railways:

Analysts challenged British claims that foreign trade and railways implied
development for India.
Foreign trade was criticized for making India an importer of finished goods and an
exporter of raw materials.
The development of railways was seen as a commercial rather than industrial
revolution, benefiting foreign goods and industries.
Negative Impact of Railways:

The analysts argued that railways didn't align with India's industrial needs, allowing
foreign goods to outsell indigenous products.
Expenditure on railways was seen as an Indian subsidy to British industries, as
benefits accrued to the British.

Nationalist Perspective on Trade:

Nationalists argued that one-way free trade negatively impacted the Indian handicrafts
industry.
They believed it exposed India to unfair competition, favoring British capitalist
interests.
Tariff policies were seen as guided by British capitalist interests.
Financial Burden on the Poor:
Taxes were imposed, burdening the poor while sparing British capitalists and
bureaucrats.
Nationalists called for a reduction in land revenue, abolition of salt tax, income tax
imposition, and excise duties on luxury goods.
Government Expenditure Critique:

Nationalists argued that government expenditure primarily served colonial needs,

neglecting development and welfare.
Economic Drain Theory:

The drain theory suggested that India was being stripped of its productive capital.
Estimated economic drain was considered significant, surpassing land revenue,
constituting half of government revenue, or one-third of total savings.
Impact on National Unrest:

Economic issues fueled nationalist agitation, challenging the notion that foreign rule
was in the interest of Indians.
The agitation exposed the connection between British rule and India's poverty,
fostering intellectual unrest and national consciousness.
Evolution of Nationalist Demands:

Initially, nationalists sought political power and control over finances.

By the early 20th century, demands shifted towards self-rule, similar to the United
Kingdom or colonies, with figures like Dadabhai Naoroji leading this call.

First Stage - Period of Merchant Capital (1757–1813):

Objectives:
Acquiring a monopoly of trade with India, competing against other English or
European merchants and Indian traders.
Directly appropriating governmental revenues by controlling state power.
Characteristics:
No fundamental changes in administration, judicial system, transport, communication,
agriculture, industry, business management, education, or social organization.
Traditional Indian civilization, religion, laws, caste system, and family structure were
not seen as obstacles to colonial exploitation.
Changes focused on military organization, technology, and administrative efficiency
in revenue collection.
Wealth Drain:
Large-scale wealth drain from India, constituting 2–3% of Britain’s national income.
Played a crucial role in financing Britain’s industrial revolution.
Trade Dynamics:
No significant import of British manufactures into India; instead, there was an
increase in the export of Indian textiles.
Weavers suffered due to the Company’s monopoly, being compelled to produce under
uneconomic conditions.
This first stage marked the dominance of the East India Company, characterized by
monopolistic trade practices, direct appropriation of revenues, and significant wealth
drain from India.

Second Stage - Colonialism of Free Trade (1813–1860s):

Shift in Colonial Interests:

The stage emerged after the Charter Act of 1813 and lasted until the 1860s.
Debate in Britain about whose interests the colony would serve.
Industrial capitalists criticized the East India Company, demanding that India should
now serve British capitalist interests.
Economic Integration:

India's colonial economy became integrated with the British and global capitalist
economy.
Free trade introduced; import duties in India were removed or drastically reduced.
British Capitalist Ventures:

British capitalists had free entry to develop plantations (tea, coffee, indigo), trade,
transport, mining, and modern industries in India.
The British Indian Government actively supported and aided these capitalists.
Agricultural Transformation:

Introduction of the Permanent Settlement and Ryotwari system transformed the

traditional agrarian structure into a capitalist one.
Comprehensive Administration:

Administration expanded to include villages and outlying areas to facilitate the reach
of British goods to interior villages.
Legal and Educational Changes:

Personal law largely untouched, but changes in criminal law, contract law, and legal
procedures promoted capitalist commercial relations.
Modern education introduced to provide cheap manpower and transform India's
society and culture.
Taxation and Economic Impact:

Taxation and the burden on peasants increased significantly due to economic

transformation and costly administration.
India absorbed 10-12% of British exports and nearly 20% of Britain’s textile exports.
Railway Development and Military Use:

After 1850, large-scale import of engine coaches, rail lines, and other railway stores
into India.
The Indian Army used for British expansion of colonialism in Asia and Africa.
This stage saw a shift towards British capitalist interests, economic integration, legal
and educational transformations, and increased taxation, shaping the colonial
landscape in India.

Third Stage - Era of Foreign Investments and International Competition (1860s

onward):

Global Economic Changes:

Initiated around the 1860s due to global economic shifts.
Challenges to Britain's industrial supremacy from Europe, the United States, and
Japan.
Sharp increase in industrialization due to scientific advancements (use of petroleum
and electricity).
World Market Unification:

Means of international transport revolutionized, leading to a more unified world

market.
British Efforts to Consolidate Control:

Britain aimed to consolidate its control over India during this stage.
Liberal imperialist policies gave way to reactionary imperialist policies, reflected in
the viceroyalties of Lytton, Dufferin, Lansdowne, and Curzon.
Capital Investment in India:

British efforts aimed to attract capital to India and ensure security.

Significant British capital invested in railways, government loans, trade, and to a
lesser extent, in plantations, coal mining, jute mills, shipping, and banking in India.
Shift in British Rationale:

The notion of training Indians for self-government vanished.

British rule declared as permanent 'trusteeship' over Indians.
Indians portrayed as permanently immature, deemed in need of British control and
trusteeship.
Justification for British Rule:

Geography, climate, race, history, religion, culture, and social organization cited as
factors making Indians unfit for self-government or democracy.
British justified their rule in the name of civilizing a perceived barbaric people, often
referred to as "the White Man's burden."
This stage witnessed a shift in British policies, emphasizing control, consolidation,
and investment in India, accompanied by a change in the rationale for their rule
Initiation of Indian Newspapers (1780):

James Augustus Hickey started The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser in
1780, marking the beginning of newspapers in India.
The Bengal Gazette faced seizure in 1782 due to its outspoken criticism of the
government.
Subsequent newspapers included The Bengal Journal, The Calcutta Chronicle, The
Madras Courier, and The Bombay Herald.
Concerns and Early Regulations:

The Company’s officers were concerned about newspapers reaching London and
exposing their misdeeds.

Censorship of Press Act, 1799:

Enacted by Lord Wellesley anticipating a French invasion of India.

Imposed almost wartime press restrictions, including pre-censorship.
Relaxed under Lord Hastings in 1818, dispelling pre-censorship.
Licensing Regulations, 1823:

Enacted by John Adams, the acting governor-general.

Starting or using a press without a license became a penal offense.
Extended to cover journals, pamphlets, and books, particularly targeting Indian
language newspapers or those edited by Indians.
Press Act of 1835 (Metcalfe Act):

Metcalfe, the governor-general (1835–36), repealed the 1823 ordinance, earning the
title "Liberator of the Indian press."
Required printers/publishers to provide precise details of publication premises.
Allowed the government to demand cessation of publication if deemed necessary.
Licensing Act, 1857:
Imposed licensing restrictions due to the emergency caused by the 1857 revolt.
Added to the existing registration procedure from the Metcalfe Act.
Government reserved the right to halt the publication and circulation of any book,
newspaper, or printed matter.
Registration Act, 1867:

Replaced Metcalfe’s Act of 1835.

Regulatory in nature, not restrictive.
Required every book/newspaper to print the name of the printer and the publisher,
along with the place of publication.
A copy had to be submitted to the local government within one month of publication.
The evolution of regulations reflects the complex relationship between the press and
the colonial authorities, moving from strict censorship to more regulatory measures

Early Advocacy for Press Freedom (Early 19th Century):

Since the early 19th century, the defense of civil liberties, including press freedom,
was a key focus for nationalists.
Raja Rammohan Roy protested in 1824 against a resolution restricting press freedom.
Nationalist Movement (1870–1918):

Early nationalist movement (1870–1918) emphasized political propaganda, education,

and the propagation of nationalist ideology.
Press played a crucial role in this phase for disseminating resolutions, proceedings,
and promoting nationalist views.
Indian National Congress heavily relied on the press to spread its message.
Prominent Nationalist Newspapers and Journalists:

Distinguished and fearless journalists played a vital role.

Newspapers like The Hindu, Swadesamitran, The Bengalee, Voice of India, Amrita
Bazar Patrika, Indian Mirror, Kesari, Mahratta, Sudharak, Hindustan, and Advocate
emerged.
These newspapers were not profit-oriented but considered a national and public
service.
Impact on Political Education and Participation:

Newspapers stimulated a library movement and had a wide reach, extending to remote
villages.
Local libraries formed around a single newspaper, serving purposes of political
education and participation.
Critical Scrutiny of Government:

Newspapers critically scrutinized government acts and policies, functioning as

institutions of opposition.
Legal Challenges and Clever Strategems:

The government enacted strict laws, like Section 124 A of the Indian Penal Code, to
suppress dissent against the British Government.
Nationalist journalists used clever strategies, such as prefacing critical writings with
loyalty sentiments or quoting foreign writings critical of their own governments.
Government Response - Vernacular Press Act, 1878:

In response to critical coverage, especially regarding Lord Lytton’s administration

during the famine of 1876–77, the government introduced the Vernacular Press Act in
1878.
This period marked a significant struggle for press freedom by nationalists, using
newspapers as powerful tools for political education and opposition to the
government.

Background - Post 1857 Racial Bitterness:

The 1857 revolt left a legacy of racial bitterness between the European rulers and the
Indian population.
European press consistently supported the government, while the vernacular press
criticized it.
Motivation for the Vernacular Press Act (VPA):

Public opinion against imperialistic policies of Lytton, coupled with the devastating
famine of 1876–77 and lavish spending on the imperial Delhi Durbar.
VPA aimed to "better control" the vernacular press and suppress "seditious writing" in
publications in oriental languages.
Provisions of the Act:

District magistrates could require printers and publishers to enter into a bond
undertaking not to publish material causing disaffection against the government or
promoting antipathy between different religious, caste, or racial groups.
Security deposits could be required, with the risk of forfeiture if regulations were
violated. Press equipment could be seized for repeated offenses.
The magistrate's decision was final, with no right of appeal in a court of law.
Vernacular newspapers could obtain exemption by submitting proofs to a government
censor.
Nickname and Criticisms:

The act was dubbed "the gagging Act."

Criticisms included discrimination between English and vernacular press and the
absence of the right to appeal.
Enforcement and Impact:

Proceedings were initiated against newspapers like Som Prakash, Bharat Mihir, Dacca
Prakash, and Samachar.
Amrita Bazar Patrika transformed into an English newspaper overnight to evade the
VPA.
Pre-censorship clause was later repealed, and a press commissioner was appointed to
provide authentic news.
Opposition and Repeal:

Strong opposition to the act led to its repeal in 1882 by Lord Ripon.
The Vernacular Press Act, despite its initial enforcement, faced significant opposition
and was eventually repealed due to widespread criticism

Imprisonment of Surendranath Banerjea (1883):

Surendranath Banerjea, an Indian journalist, became the first to be imprisoned in

1883.
Criticized a judge of Calcutta High Court in The Bengalee for insensitivity to Bengali
religious sentiments.
Role of Bal Gangadhar Tilak:

Tilak played a significant role in the fight for the freedom of the press.
Built anti-imperialist sentiments through Ganapati festivals (1893), Shivaji festivals
(1896), and newspapers Kesari and Maharatta.
Advocated bringing lower middle classes, peasants, artisans, and workers into the
Congress fold.
Organized campaigns, including a boycott of foreign cloth (1896) and a no-tax
campaign in Maharashtra (1896–97).
Arrest and Trial of Tilak (1897):

Government sought to suppress Tilak's militant trend and press hostility.

Tilak arrested after the murder of Rand based on the publication of a poem in Kesari
and a speech justifying Afzal Khan’s murder by Shivaji.
Held guilty and sentenced to 18 months of rigorous imprisonment.
Other editors in Bombay presidency faced similar harsh sentences.
Legal Amendments (1898):

In 1898, government amended Section 124A and added Section 153A to the Penal
Code.
Made it a criminal offense to bring into contempt the Government of India or create
hatred among different classes.
Repressive Laws (During Swadeshi and Boycott Movement):

Several repressive laws enacted.

Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908 empowered magistrates to confiscate
press property publishing objectionable material likely to cause incitement to murder
or acts of violence.
Tilak, as a leader of militant nationalists, tried for sedition and transported to
Mandalay, leading to countrywide protests.
Indian Press Act, 1910:

Revived features of the Vernacular Press Act.

Local government empowered to demand security at registration from the
printer/publisher.
Printer required to submit two copies of each issue to the local government free of
charge.
Impact and Opposition:

Press Association of India reported nearly 1,000 papers prosecuted under the 1910
Act.
Total securities and forfeitures amounted to nearly Rs 5 lakh in the first five years of
the act.
Over 500 publications were proscribed under the Act.
This period witnessed severe repression against nationalist journalists and the
enactment of stringent laws to curb dissent and nationalist activities.
During and After the First World War:

Defence of India Rules (During First World War):

Imposed for the repression of political agitation and free public criticism during the
First World War.
Repeal of Press Acts (1921):

In 1921, based on the recommendations of a Press Committee chaired by Tej Bahadur

Sapru, the Press Acts of 1908 and 1910 were repealed.
Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931:

Enacted in 1931, this act granted sweeping powers to provincial governments to

suppress propaganda for the Civil Disobedience Movement.
In 1932, the act was further expanded to include all activities calculated to undermine
government authority.
During the Second World War:

Defence of India Rules (Second World War):

Under the Defence of India Rules, pre-censorship was imposed during the Second
World War.
Amendments were made in the Press Emergency Act and Official Secrets Act.
Restrictions on Congress Activity Reporting:

At one point during the Second World War, the publication of all news related to
Congress activity was declared illegal.
These measures during both wars reflect a pattern of increased government control
and censorship, particularly regarding political agitation and criticism. The repeal of
Press Acts in 1921 was followed by the introduction of the Indian Press (Emergency
Powers) Act in 1931, indicating a shifting landscape of press regulations during this
period

East India Company's Initial Lack of Interest:

 For the first 60 years of its dominion in India, the East India Company, primarily a
trading and profit-making entity, showed little interest in promoting education.
Individual Efforts:

Some minor exceptions were made through individual efforts:

Calcutta Madrasah (1781): Established by Warren Hastings for the study of Muslim
law and related subjects.
Sanskrit College (1791): Established by Jonathan Duncan in Benaras for the study of
Hindu law and philosophy.
Fort William College (1800): Set up by Wellesley for the training of civil servants of
the Company in languages and customs of Indians (closed in 1802).
Purpose of Calcutta Madrasah and Sanskrit College:

These institutions aimed to provide a regular supply of qualified Indians to assist in

the administration of law in the Company’s court.
Knowledge of classical languages and vernaculars was considered useful in
correspondence with Indian states.
Pressure for Modern Western Education:

Enlightened Indians and missionaries began pressuring the government to promote

modern, secular, Western education.
They believed that Western education was the remedy for the social, economic, and
political issues in the country.
Missionaries' Perspective:

Missionaries thought that modern education would undermine Indians' faith in their
own religions, potentially leading them to adopt Christianity.
Serampore missionaries, in particular, were enthusiastic about the spread of
education.
In summary, during the early years of Company Rule, the East India Company did not
actively engage in promoting education. The few educational efforts were primarily
driven by individual initiatives and had specific purposes related to the administration
of law. However, external influences, including enlightened Indians and missionaries,
began advocating for the introduction of modern Western education, believing it
could address various societal challenges.

A Humble beginning by
Charter Act of 1813

The Charter Act of 1813 mandated the promotion of modern sciences and education among Indians,
allocating an annual fund of one lakh rupees for this purpose.



 However, the funds were not released until 1823 due to disagreements over its usage.




Influential Indians like Raja Rammohan Roy played a significant role in the establishment of Calcutta
College in 1817, which focused on English education in Western humanities and sciences.




Additionally, the government established three Sanskrit colleges in Calcutta, Delhi, and Agra.

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Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy

The General Committee on Public Instruction was divided on education policy.




The Anglicists advocated for government funding to be solely used for modern studies, while the
Orientalists believed that Western sciences and literature should be taught alongside traditional Indian
learning.




A further division among the Anglicists arose over the preferred medium of instruction, with factions
supporting either English or vernacular Indian languages.




However, confusion persisted regarding the use of English and vernacular languages both as mediums
of instruction and subjects of study.

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Lord Macaulay's Minute (1835)


 Lord Macaulay's Minute led to the prioritisation of Western sciences and literature, taught in English, in
Indian education, due to the belief that European learning was superior.




This decision resulted in English becoming the medium of instruction and the establishment of a few
English schools and colleges, while mass education was overlooked.




The British aimed to educate a small segment of the upper and middle classes, creating a class that was
Indian in appearance but English in thought and behaviour.




This class was meant to serve as a bridge between the government and the masses, facilitating the
dissemination of Western knowledge.




This strategy, known as the 'downward filtration theory', did lead to the spread of modern ideas, albeit
not as intended by the rulers.




Instead, these ideas were disseminated through political parties, press, and public platforms.




Modern education, despite being structured to serve colonial interests, provided nationalists with access
to literature on physical and social sciences, thereby enhancing their ability to conduct social analysis.

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Efforts of Thomson

James Thomson, as lieutenant-governor of NW Provinces from 1843-53, initiated a village education

program in local languages.



 The curriculum included practical subjects like mensuration and agriculture sciences, aiming to train staff
for the newly established Revenue and Public Works Department.

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Wood's Despatch (1854)

In 1854, Charles Wood developed a comprehensive plan for education in India, known as the "Magna
Carta of English Education in India".




The plan called for the Indian government to take responsibility for mass education, rejecting the
'downward filtration theory'.




It proposed a structured educational hierarchy including vernacular primary schools, Anglo-Vernacular

High Schools, district colleges, and universities in major cities.




English was recommended for higher education, with vernacular languages for school level.




The plan emphasized female and vocational education, teachers' training, secular education in
government institutions, and grants-in-aid to promote private involvement.

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Developments

In the mid-19th century, universities were established in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, and education
departments were formed in all provinces.



Notably, the Bethune School, founded by J.E.D. Bethune in Calcutta in 1849, marked the start of a
significant movement for women's education.




Bethune's efforts led to the establishment of girls' schools with government support and oversight.




Additionally, institutes for agriculture and engineering were initiated in Pusa and Roorkee respectively.




The period was characterized by a rapid westernization of the Indian education system, influenced by
Wood's Despatch's ideals and methods, and led by European educators.




Missionary enterprises and private Indian initiatives also contributed to this educational evolution.

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After the Crown Takeover Hunter Education Commission (1882-83)

In the late 19th century, primary and secondary education in India suffered due to decentralisation and
limited resources.




The Hunter Commission, established in 1882, sought to address these issues by recommending
increased state involvement, the transfer of primary education control to local boards, and a bifurcation
of secondary education into literary and vocational streams.




The commission also highlighted the lack of facilities for female education, particularly outside major
cities.



 These recommendations led to a significant expansion of secondary and collegiate education in the
following decades, with new universities established in Punjab and Allahabad.

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Indian Universities Act, 1904

In the early 20th century, amidst political unrest, the quality of education in India, under private
management, was criticized for fostering political revolutionaries.




The Raleigh Commission was established in 1902 to inspect university conditions and propose
improvements.




This led to the Indian Universities Act in 1904, which called for increased focus on study and research,
reduced the number and tenure of university fellows, increased government control over university
regulations, tightened affiliation conditions for private colleges, and allocated funds for improving
higher education.




However, these changes were seen by nationalists as an attempt to limit education and promote loyalty
to the government, thereby strengthening imperialism and undermining nationalist sentiment.

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Policy-1913

In 1906, the state of Baroda pioneered compulsory primary education, prompting national leaders to
advocate for its implementation across British India.



 Gokhale, a member of the Imperial Legislative Council, proposed a resolution in 1910 demanding
compulsory primary education in areas with at least 35% of boys aged 6-7 receiving instruction.




He also called for the establishment of a separate education department under the central government.




While the government created the education department and appointed a secretary, it neglected the
main demand for free and compulsory education.




Gokhale readdressed this issue in a 1911 bill, which was ultimately rejected.




The government's 1913 Education Policy Resolution refused to assume responsibility for compulsory
education but endorsed the elimination of illiteracy and the provision of free education to
disadvantaged sections.




It also encouraged private initiatives and improvements in secondary school quality.




The policy suggested practical curriculum for girls and an increase in female teachers and inspectors.

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Sadler University Commission (1917-19)

In 1917, the Indian Government appointed the Sadler Commission to investigate issues at Calcutta
University, with findings relevant to other institutions.




The Commission recommended a 12-year school course preceding a three-year university degree,
aiming to prepare students for higher education, reduce the number of underprepared university
students, and offer collegiate education for those not pursuing university.



It suggested less rigidity in university regulations and proposed universities function as centralized,
autonomous bodies.




It also advocated for the expansion of female education, scientific and technical education, and teacher
training.




The Sadler Commission's recommendations significantly influenced educational development in the

following decades.




Between 1916 and 1921, seven new universities were established, and teaching universities and
residential universities increased in number.




Honours courses were introduced and studies of different Indian languages began.




The post of professor was created in universities, and the Academic Council was established to handle
curriculum construction, examinations, and research.




In 1925, an Inter University Board was established for coordination among different universities.




Despite these advancements, the commission's recommendations were criticized for being too
progressive for the time and unsuitable given the existing conditions.

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Hartog Committee (1929)

The Hartog Committee, established by the Simon Commission, was tasked with reviewing educational
standards due to a perceived deterioration caused by rapid expansion of schools and colleges.



The committee identified significant issues in primary education, including poor quality, high student
attrition rates due to factors such as poverty and lack of qualified teachers, and stagnation, where
students remained in the same grade for multiple years.




The committee recommended government oversight and control of primary schools, a four-year
curriculum tailored to local conditions, teacher training, and the transformation of schools into
community centres.




The committee also critiqued secondary education for being overly focused on exams and having high
failure rates.




It suggested diversifying the curriculum and introducing industrial and commercial subjects.




In higher education, the committee noted low standards, overcrowding, and poorly equipped libraries.




It proposed the establishment of affiliated universities, improvement of libraries, and admission based
on abilities and aptitudes.




Regarding women's education, the committee advocated for equal importance to be given to boys' and
girls' education, establishment of more primary schools for girls, and inclusion of hygiene, home science,
and music in the curriculum.




It also suggested training women for teaching positions.




Overall, the committee's report had some success in improving the quality of primary education and
expanding secondary school education and affiliated colleges, but the quantitative expansion of primary
education suffered.

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 Sargent Plan of Education

In 1944, Sir John Sargent, the Educational Advisor to the Government of India, submitted a
memorandum for the post-WWII development of Indian education.

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The plan aimed to achieve universal literacy in India within 40 years, proposing free pre-primary
education for children aged 3-6, universal and compulsory education for ages 6-14, and a six-year high
school education for selected students.

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The curriculum was to include arts, music, and domestic science, with local languages as the medium of
instruction and English as a compulsory second language.

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University education was to be reformed, including the introduction of a three-year degree course,
improved admission procedures, and increased support for capable but financially disadvantaged
students.

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The report also recommended adult education initiatives, medical check-ups for students, special
education for disabled children, and employment bureaus.

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However, many Indian educationists found the plan unrealistic and unsuitable for Indian conditions due
to its long timeline and high cost.

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Despite these criticisms, the plan had several positive aspects and was considered ahead of its time.

Evaluation of British Policy

on Education
Motivations for Expansion of Modern Education:
The government's measures for modern education were not driven by philanthropy
but influenced by various factors:
Agitation by enlightened Indians, Christian missionaries, and humanitarian officials.
The need for a cheap supply of educated Indians for subordinate posts in
administration and British business concerns.
Emphasis on English as the language of administration and education.
Hope that educated Indians would expand the market for British manufactures.
Expectation that Western education would reconcile Indians to British rule by
glorifying British conquerors and their administration.
Decline of Traditional Indian Learning:

The traditional system of Indian learning declined, especially after 1844 when
knowledge of English became a requirement for government employment.
Neglect of Mass Education:

Mass education was neglected, leading to widespread illiteracy (1911—84% and in

1921—92%).
This created a significant linguistic and cultural gap between the educated few and the
masses.
Monopoly of Education for Upper Classes:

Since education required payment, it became a monopoly of the upper and richer
classes and city dwellers.
Neglect of Women's Education:

Women's education was almost entirely neglected due to:

Government reluctance to provoke orthodox sections.
Lack of immediate utility for colonial rule.
Neglect of Scientific and Technical Education:

Scientific and technical education were largely neglected.

By 1857, there were only three medical colleges and one engineering college at
Roorkee, open only to Europeans and Eurasians.
In summary, British policies on education in India were driven by pragmatic and
strategic considerations rather than altruism. The neglect of mass education, the
monopoly of education for the upper classes, and the disregard for women's education
contributed to a widening gap in society. Additionally, the lack of focus on scientific
and technical education hindered broader intellectual and industrial development
Introduction of Modern Industry:

The second half of the 19th century marked the onset of modern industry in India.
The construction of railways played a significant role in this industrialization,
employing thousands of workers who would later form the modern Indian working
class.
Development of Ancillary Industries:

Further industrialization brought the development of ancillary industries alongside the

railways.
The coal industry experienced rapid growth, employing a substantial workforce.
Cotton and jute industries also emerged as significant contributors to industrialization.
Exploitation of the Indian Working Class:

The Indian working class faced familiar forms of exploitation observed during the
industrialization of Europe and the West.
This included low wages, extended working hours, unhygienic and unsafe working
conditions, the use of child labor, and a lack of basic amenities.
Distinctive Touch of Colonialism:

The presence of colonialism in India added a distinctive aspect to the working class
movement.
The Indian working class had to contend with two fundamental conflicting forces:
imperialist political rule and economic exploitation by both foreign and native
capitalist classes.
Interconnection with Political Struggle:

Inevitably, the Indian working class movement became closely intertwined with the
broader political struggle for national emancipation.
The working class faced dual challenges: the imperialist political rule and economic
exploitation, aligning their movement with the larger fight for political and economic
freedom.

Moderates and their Approach:

The early nationalists, known as the Moderates, had an indifferent attitude towards the
labor cause.
They made distinctions between labor in Indian-owned factories and those in British-
owned factories.
The Moderates believed that labor legislations would negatively impact the
competitive advantage of Indian-owned industries.
They were cautious about avoiding class-based divisions within the broader
nationalist movement.
The Moderates did not support the Factory Acts of 1881 and 1891, primarily due to
concerns about their impact on Indian-owned industries.
Nature of Early Efforts:

Early attempts to address the economic conditions of workers were characterized by

philanthropic efforts.
These efforts were isolated, sporadic, and aimed at specific local grievances.
Key Initiatives:

In 1870, Sasipada Banerjea initiated a workingmen's club and started the newspaper
Bharat Shramjeevi.
In 1878, Sorabjee Shapoorji Bengalee attempted to pass a bill in the Bombay
Legislative Council to improve working conditions for labor.
In 1880, Narayan Meghajee Lokhande established the newspaper Deenbandhu and
formed the Bombay Mill and Millhands Association.
The first strike by the Great Indian Peninsular Railways occurred in 1899 and gained
widespread support. Tilak's Kesari and Maharatta had been advocating for the strike
for months.
Prominent Nationalist Leaders Supporting Labor:

Despite the general stance of the Moderates, several prominent nationalist leaders,
including Bipin Chandra Pal and G. Subramania Aiyar, advocated for better
conditions for workers and supported pro-labor reforms.

Swadeshi Upsurge:

Workers actively participated in broader political issues during the Swadeshi

movement.
Strikes were organized by individuals such as Ashwini Coomar Banerjee, Prabhat
Kumar Roy Chaudhuri, Premtosh Bose, and Apurba Kumar Ghosh in government
press, railways, and the jute industry.
Attempts were made to form trade unions, although these were not very successful.
Subramaniya Siva and Chidambaram Pillai led strikes in Tuticorin and Tirunelvelli
and faced arrest.
The largest strike of the period occurred after Tilak's arrest and trial.
First World War and After:

The aftermath of the First World War saw a rise in exports, soaring prices, and
significant profiteering opportunities for industrialists, but low wages for workers,
leading to discontent.
The emergence of Gandhi prompted a broad-based national movement with an
emphasis on mobilizing workers and peasants for the national cause.
A need arose for the organization of workers into trade unions.
International events, such as the establishment of a socialist republic in the Soviet
Union, the formation of the Comintern, and the setting up of the International Labour
Organisation (ILO), influenced the working class movement in India.
The AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress):

Founded on October 31, 1920, with Lala Lajpat Rai as the first president and Dewan
Chaman Lal as the first general secretary.
Lajpat Rai linked capitalism with imperialism, stating that "imperialism and
militarism are the twin children of capitalism."
C.R. Das, a prominent Congress and swarajist leader, presided over the third and
fourth sessions of the AITUC.
The Gaya session of the Congress in 1922 welcomed the formation of the AITUC,
emphasizing the need to incorporate workers' and peasants' causes into the struggle
for swaraj.
Influenced initially by social democratic ideas of the British Labour Party, the AITUC
later incorporated Gandhian philosophy, emphasizing non-violence, trusteeship, and
class collaboration.
Gandhi played a role in organizing the Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association in
1918, securing a 27.5% wage hike through protest, later increased to 35% by
arbitrator's award.

Trade Union Act, 1926:

The Trade Union Act, 1926, recognized trade unions as legal associations.
It established conditions for the registration and regulation of trade union activities.
Provided immunity, both civil and criminal, for trade unions from prosecution for
legitimate activities, but imposed some restrictions on their political activities.
Late 1920s:

The late 1920s saw a strong communist influence on the trade union movement,
adding a militant and revolutionary character.
In 1928, a six-month-long strike in Bombay Textile Mills led by the Girni Kamgar
Union marked unprecedented industrial unrest.
Communist leaders like S.A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, P.C. Joshi, and Sohan Singh
Joshi emerged.
Legislative Restrictions:

Alarmed at the rising strength of the trade union movement influenced by extremists,
the government imposed legislative restrictions.
Public Safety Ordinance (1929) and Trade Disputes Act (TDA), 1929, were enacted.
TDA, 1929, made Courts of Inquiry and Consultation Boards compulsory for settling
industrial disputes.
Prohibited strikes in public utility services without advance notice and forbade
coercive or purely political trade union activities.
Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929):

In March 1929, the government arrested 31 labour leaders, leading to the Meerut
Conspiracy Case.
The trial resulted in the conviction of prominent leaders like Muzaffar Ahmed, S.A.
Dange, and others.
Although it gained worldwide publicity, the trial weakened the working-class
movement.
1930s and Split:

Workers participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930.

A split in 1931 led by N.M. Joshi resulted in the formation of the All India Trade
Union Federation.
In 1935, the communists rejoined the AITUC, forming a left front with Congress
socialists and leftist nationalists.
Under Congress Ministries (1937):

AITUC supported Congress candidates during the 1937 elections.

Congress governments in provinces were generally sympathetic to workers' demands.
Many legislations favorable to workers were passed.
During and After Second World War:

Initially, workers opposed the war, but after 1941, communists supported it as a
"peoples’ war."
Communists advocated industrial peace and distanced themselves from the Quit India
Movement.
Workers actively participated in post-War national upsurges, engaging in strikes and
protests.
After Independence:

The working-class movement became associated with various political ideologies in

independent India.