Module 4: Memory System Memory system: basic concepts, semiconductor ram, rom, cache memories, improving cache performance, virtual memory, memory management requirements, associative memories, secondary storage devices Memory System Basic Concepts Primary Memory « Primary memory, also known as main memory, is the memory that is directly accessible to the CPU. It is the fastest type of memory, but it is also the most expensive. Primary memory is typically made up of semiconductor RAM (random access memory) or ROM (read-only memory). * RAM is volatile memory, which means that it loses its data when the power is turned off. This is because the transistors in RAM need to be constantly refreshed in order to retain their data. RAM is used to store the operating system, applications, and data that is currently being used by the CPU. » ROMis non-volatile memory, which means that it retains its data even when the power is tumed off. ROM is typically used to store the computer's BIOS (basic input/output system) and other firmware. Secondary Memory « Secondary memory, also known as auxiliary memory, is slower than primary memory, but it is much cheaper and can store much more data. Secondary memory devices are used to store data that is not currently being used by the CPU, such as files, applications, and databases Common secondary memory devices include:+ Hard disk drives (HDDs): HDDs are the most common type of secondary storage device. They use magnetic platters to store data. HDDs are relatively slow, but they are also very durable and can store large amounts of data. + Optical discs (CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs): Optical discs use lasers to read and write data. They are slower than HDDs, but they are more portable and can be removed from the computer. + Solid state drives (SSDs): SSDs use flash memory to store data. They are much faster than HDDs, but they are also more expensive. SSDs are typically used as the primary storage device in modern laptops and smartphones. Memory Hierarchy The memory hierarchy is a system of organizing memory that takes advantage of the different speeds and costs of different types of memory. The memory hierarchy is typically divided into three levels: + Level 1 (L1) cache: L1 cache is the smallest and fastest type of memory. It is located on the CPU chip and stores frequently accessed data and instructions. + Level 2 (L2) cache: L2 cache is larger and slower than L1 cache. It is typically located on the motherboard. + Main memory: Main memory is the largest and slowest type of memory. It is typically made up of semiconductor RAM. When the CPU needs to access data, it first checks the L1 cache. If the data is not in the L1 cache, the CPU checks the L2 cache. If the data is not in the L2 cache, the CPU accesses main memory. The memory hierarchy allows the computer to achieve good performance without having to use expensive, fast memory for all of its data.Memory Management | Memory management is the process of allocating and managing memory resources. The operating system is responsible for memory management. * When a program starts, the operating system allocates it a block of memory. The operating system also tracks which programs are using which blocks of memory. * If aprogram needs more memory than is available, the operating system can swap some of the program's memory to secondary storage. When the program needs to access the swapped-out memory, the operating system swaps it back into main memory. | Memory management is a complex task, but it is essential for the efficient operation of a computer system. Electronic Disk Magnetic Disk Optical Disk Magnetic TapesSemiconductor Memories Semiconductor RAM: Dynamic RAM ¢ Semiconductor RAM, also known as dynamic RAM (DRAM), is the most common type of primary memory. It is made up of semiconductor chips that contain millions of tiny transistors. Each transistor can store a single bit of data: * DRAM is volatile memory, which means that it loses its data when the power is turned off. This is because the transistors in DRAM need to be constantly refreshed in order to retain their data. How DRAM works * DRAM works by storing data in the form of an electrical charge on a capacitor. Each transistor in a DRAM chip has a capacitor associated with it. The capacitor can be charged or discharged to represent a binary 1 or 0, respectively. « In order to read data from DRAM, the capacitor must be charged to a certain voltage. If the voltage is above a certain threshold, thebit is interpreted as a 1. If the voltage is below a certain threshold, the bit is interpreted as a 0. * To write data to DRAM, the capacitor must be charged to a higher or lower voltage, depending on the value of the bit to be written DRAM refreshing « As mentioned above, DRAM is volatile memory, which means that it loses its data when the power is turned off. This is because the capacitors in DRAM gradually lose their charge over time. * To prevent data loss, DRAM chips need to be refreshed periodically. Refreshing involves recharging the capacitors in DRAM to their original voltage levels. * DRAM chips are refreshed by the memory controller, which is a chip on the motherboard that is responsible for managing the memory system. The memory controller refreshes all of the DRAM chips on the motherboard at regular intervals. DRAM types * There are two main types of DRAM: synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) and double data rate (DDR) DRAM. * SDRAN is the older type of DRAM. It is slower than DDR DRAM, but it is also cheaper. * DDR DRAM is a newer type of DRAM that transfers data twice as fast as SDRAM. DDR DRAM is also more expensive than SDRAM. « DDR DRAM is the most common type of DRAM used in modern computers.Static RAM Static RAM (SRAM) is a type of semiconductor RAM that uses a flip-flop circuit to store each bit of data. The flip-flop circuit delivers two stable states, which are read as 1 or 0. To support these states, the circuit requires six transistors, four to store the bit and two to control access to the cell. SRAM Cell SRAM is non-volatile memory, which means that it retains its data even when the power is tured off. This is because the flip-flop circuit in each SRAM cell stores the data in a stable state. SRAM is faster than DRAM, but itis also more expensive and consumes more power. SRAM is typically used for cache memory and other applications where high performance is required. Here is a more detailed explanation of how SRAM works: + Reading data from SRAM: When the CPU needs to read data from SRAM, it sends a read signal to the SRAM controller. The SRAM controller then selects the desired SRAM cell and reads the data from the flip-flop circuit. + Writing data to SRAM: When the CPU needs to write data to SRAM, it sends a write signal to the SRAM controller along withthe data to be written. The SRAM controller then writes the data to the flip-flop circuit in the desired SRAM cell. SRAM is a versatile type of memory that can be used in a variety of applications. It is typically used for cache memory, but it can also be used for main memory, frame buffers, and other applications where high performance is required. Here are some of the advantages of SRAM: + Fast access times + Non-volatile memory + Low power consumption + High reliability Here are some of the disadvantages of SRAM: + Expensive + Requires more space than DRAM Overall, SRAM is a high-performance memory that is well-suited for applications where speed and reliability are critical. Semiconductor ROM (Read-Only Memory) Semiconductor ROM (read-only memory) is a type of non-volatile memory that is used to store data that needs to be permanent, such as the BIOS (basic input/output system) and firmware. ROM is made up of semiconductor chips that contain millions of tiny transistors. Each transistor can store a single bit of data. There are two main types of ROM:+ Masked ROM: Masked ROM is programmed during the manufacturing process. Once the ROM is programmed, the data cannot be changed. Example: Boot code, BIOS info, Security credentials-SIM Card + Programmable ROM (PROM): PROM is programmed using a special device called a PROM programmer. Once the PROM is programmed, the data cannot be changed. Example: Storage of Game Data: In video game cartridges, PROMs were used to store the game's code, graphics, and other data necessary for the game to run, This data is programmed into the PROM during the manufacturing process. Non-Volatile Storage: PROMs are non-volatile, meaning that the data programmed into them remains intact even when the power is turned off. This property is essential for video game cartridges because players expect their saved progress to be preserved, and the game code to remain intact between sessions. Read-Only Data: PROMs are read-only memory, which means that players couldn't alter the game code or data on the cartridge. This ensured the integrity of the game and prevented tampering, + Erasable programmable ROM (EPROM): EPROM can be erased using ultraviolet (UV) light and then reprogrammed using a PROM programmer. + Electrically erasable programmable ROM (EEPROM): EEPROM can be erased and reprogrammed electrically. EEPROM is the most common type of ROM used in modern computers.ROM is used in a variety of applications, including + Computers: ROM is used to store the BIOS and firmware. + Microcontrollers: ROM is used to store the program code that controls the microcontroller. + Consumer electronics: ROM is used to store the firmware that controls devices such as TVs, DVD players, and microwave ovens. ROM is a reliable and durable type of memory. It is also relatively inexpensive to manufacture. However, ROM is slower than RAM and it is not possible to change the data stored in ROM without using a special device or erasing the ROM. Cache Memory Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory that is located between the CPU and primary memory. It stores frequently accessed data and instructions so that the CPU can access them quickly. [[2] cache Memory oPu Primary Memory |Secondary Memory] Cache memory Cache memory is typically made up of SRAM, which is faster than DRAM but also more expensive. The cache stores copies of the most frequently accessed data and instructions from primary memory. When the CPU needs to access data or instructions, it first checks the cache. If the data or instructions are in the cache, the CPU can access them veryquickly. If the data or instructions are not in the cache, the CPU must access them from primary memory, which is much slower. Improving Cache Performance There are a number of ways to improve cache performance, including: + Increasing the size of the cache: A larger cache can store more frequently accessed data and instructions, which can improve performance. + Using multiple levels of cache: Multiple levels of cache can reduce the number of times that the CPU needs to access primary memory. For example, a computer might have two levels of cache: L1 cache and L2 cache. L1 cache is smaller and faster than L2 cache. The CPU first checks the L1 cache for data and instructions. If the data or instructions are not in the L1 cache, the CPU checks the L2 cache. + Using sophisticated cache algorithms: Sophisticated cache algorithms are advanced techniques used in computer systems to manage and optimize the performance of cache memory. Cache memory is a small, high-speed storage component that stores frequently accessed data to reduce the latency of accessing that data from slower main memory or other storage devices. Sophisticated cache algorithms are designed to make efficient and intelligent decisions about what data to store in the cache and when to evict or update that data. Some of these advanced cache algorithms include: LRU (Least Recently Used): LRU is a classic cache replacement policy that removes the least recently accessed item when the cache is full. While LRU is simple and intuitive, it may not always be the most efficient choice for all workloads. ¢ LFU (Least Frequently Used): LFU removes the item from the cache that has been accessed the least number of times.LFU aims to keep items that are accessed frequently in the cache. LRU-K: LRU-K is an extension of the LRU algorithm that considers the last K accesses to determine which item to evict. By taking into account a longer history of accesses, it can be more effective than basic LRU in some cases. MRU (Most Recently Used): MRU removes the most recently accessed item when the cache is full. MRU has its use cases, especially when you want to prioritize keeping the most recent data in the cache. ARC (Adaptive Replacement Cache): ARC combines elements of LRU and LFU to provide a more adaptive cache management algorithm. It dynamically adjusts the size of the LRU and LFU segments based on the access patterns of the data. CLOCK (or Second Chance): CLOCK is a simplified algorithm that maintains a circular buffer of cache items. It considers both recency and a reference bit to make eviction decisions. Items with a reference bit set are given a “second chance" before eviction. MQ (Multi-Queue): MQ is a multi-level caching algorithm that divides the cache into multiple queues or tiers, each with a different eviction policy. This approach allows for more fine- grained control over cache management Random Replacement: This simple cache replacement strategy selects items to evict at random. While not as sophisticated as some other algorithms, it can be surprisingly effective in certain scenarios and can be computationally efficient. Two-Queue: This algorithm divides the cache into two queues, a frequently used queue and a not-so-frequently used queue. Data is promoted from the latter to the former based on access patterns 2Q (Two Queues): 2Q is an improved version of the Two- Queue algorithm that uses a probationary cache and a protected cache to differentiate between new and long-term residents of the cache.* The choice of a cache algorithm depends on the specific use case, workload, and system requirements. Sophisticated cache algorithms aim to maximize cache hit rates and minimize cache miss penalties to improve overall system performance. Cache Hit Rate The cache hit rate is the percentage of times that the CPU can access data or instructions from the cache. A high cache hit rate can improve performance significantly. Cache Miss Rate The cache miss rate is the percentage of times that the CPU cannot access data or instructions from the cache. A high cache miss rate can reduce performance significantly. Cache Replacement Algorithms When the cache is full and the CPU needs to store new data or instructions, the cache must replace some of the existing data or instructions. The cache replacement algorithm determines which data or instructions to replace. Common cache replacement algorithms include: + Least recently used (LRU): The LRU algorithm replaces the data or instructions that have been accessed least recently. + Most frequently used (MFU): The MFU algorithm replaces the data or instructions that have been accessed least frequently + Random replacement algorithm: The random replacement algorithm randomly replaces data or instructions from the cache. The best cache replacement algorithm depends on the specific applicationConclusion Cache memory is an important component of modern computer systems. It can improve performance significantly by storing frequently accessed data and instructions in high-speed memory. There are a number of ways to improve cache performance, including increasing the size of the cache, using multiple levels of cache, and using sophisticated cache algorithms. Virtual Memory: « Virtual memory is a technique that allows a computer to use more memory than is physically available. This is done by storing part of the memory on a secondary storage device, such as a hard disk drive or solid-state drive. When the CPU needs to access data that is not in primary memory, the operating system transfers it from secondary storage to primary memory. * Virtual memory is implemented using a technique called paging. Paging divides the virtual memory space into pages, which are typically 4 kilobytes (KB) in size. The operating system maintains a page table, which maps each virtual page to a physical page in primary memory. * When the CPU needs to access a virtual page, it first checks the page table to see if the page is in primary memory. If the page is in primary memory, the CPU can access it directly. If the page is not in primary memory, the operating system generates a page fault. « When a page fault occurs, the operating system transfers the page from secondary storage to primary memory. The operating system then updates the page table to map the virtual page to the physical page in primary memory.« Virtual memory allows computers to run programs that are larger than the amount of physical memory available. It also allows multiple programs to run at the same time, even if the total memory requirements of the programs exceed the amount of physical memory available. Viral memory Physical Advantages of virtual memory: + Virtual memory allows computers to run programs that are larger than the amount of physical memory available. + Virtual memory allows multiple programs to run at the same time, even if the total memory requirements of the programs exceed the amount of physical memory available. + Virtual memory can improve performance by reducing the number of times that the CPU has to access secondary storage. Disadvantages of virtual memory: + Virtual memory can reduce performance if the page fault rate is high.+ Virtual memory requires additional hardware support, such as a memory management unit (MMU) Overall, virtual memory is a valuable technique that allows computers to run more powerful and flexible programs. Memory Allocation The operating system is responsible for allocating memory to processes. When a process is started, the operating system allocates it a block of memory. The size of the memory block depends on the needs of the process. The operating system uses a variety of algorithms to allocate memory to processes. Some common memory allocation algorithms include: + First-fit: The first-fit algorithm allocates the first memory block that is large enough to hold the process + Best-fit: The best-fit algorithm allocates the smallest memory block that is large enough to hold the process + Worst-fit: The worst-ft algorithm allocates the largest memory block that is available. Memory Swapping If a process needs more memory than is available in primary memory, the operating system can swap the process to secondary storage. Swapping involves moving a process from primary memory to secondary storage and then moving it back to primary memory when it is needed Swapping can reduce performance, but it is necessary to allow multiple processes to run at the same time.Memory Protection The operating system is responsible for preventing processes from accessing each other's memory. This is important to ensure that processes cannot interfere with each other or corrupt each other's data. The operating system uses a variety of techniques to protect memory, including: + Memory segmentation: Memory segmentation divides the memory space of a process into segments. Each segment has its own permissions, which control which processes can access the segment and how they can access it. + Memory paging: Memory paging divides the memory space of a process into pages. Each page has its own permissions, which control which processes can access the page and how they can access it. + Memory management unit (MMU): The MMU is a hardware device that helps the operating system to manage memory. The MMU translates virtual addresses (addresses used by processes) into physical addresses (addresses used by the hardware). The MMU can also be used to enforce memory protection permissions. Conclusion Memory management is an important task that the operating system performs. By carefully managing memory, the operating system can ensure that processes have the memory they need to run and that processes cannot interfere with each other. Associative memories are a type of memory that can store data based on its content, rather than its address. This means that associative memories can be used to search for data without knowing its physicallocation in memory. This makes associative memories very fast for search operations. Associative memories are typically implemented using a neural network architecture. The neural network is trained on a set of data, and the weights of the neural network are adjusted so that the network can accurately retrieve data based on its content. Associative memories are used in a variety of applications, including: + Content-addressable memory (CAM): CAM is a type of memory that is used to search for data based on its content. CAM is typically used in networking applications, such as routing tables and packet filtering. + Translation lookaside buffers (TLBs): TLBs are used to translate virtual addresses to physical addresses. TLBs are typically used in computer processors to improve performance. + Pattern matching: Associative memories can be used to match patterns in data. This is useful for applications such as image recognition and speech recognition + Natural language processing: Associative memories can be used to store and process natural language data. This is useful for applications such as machine translation and text summarization Here are some of the advantages of associative memories: + Very fast search operations + Can be used to search for data without knowing its physical location in memory + Can be used to match patterns in data + Can be used to store and process natural language dataHere are some of the disadvantages of associative memories: + Can be complex to implement «Can be expensive to implement + Can be slow to train + Can be susceptible to noise Overall, associative memories are a powerful type of memory that can be used for a variety of applications. Here is an example of how an associative memory could be used in a real-world application: A company that sells books could use an associative memory to store information about its books, such as the title, author, genre, and publication date. The company could then use the associative memory to search for books based on different criteria, such as the title, author, or genre. This would allow the company to quickly find the books that its customers are looking for. Secondary Storage Devices Secondary storage devices are used to store large amounts of data that are not frequently accessed. Common secondary storage devices include: + Hard disk drives (HDDs) + Optical disks (CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs) + Magnetic tape Hard disk drives (HDDs):‘Computer hard drive tive configuration port (92019 Freya sania he « HDDs are the most common type of secondary storage device. They use magnetic platters to store data. The platters are coated with a magnetic material, and data is stored by magnetizing and demagnetizing the material. « HDDs are relatively slow, but they are also very durable and can store large amounts of data. HDDs are typically used to store data such as operating systems, applications, and files. Optical disks (CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs) Optical Disks Optical disks, such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs, store data using lasers. The laser burns pits into the surface of the disk, and data is stored in the pattern of the pits. Optical disks are relatively slow, but they are also portable and can be easily removed from the computer. Optical disks are typically used to store data such as music, movies, and softwareMagnetic tape Magnetic tape is a long strip of plastic that is coated with a magnetic material. Data is stored on the tape by magnetizing and demagnetizing the material Magnetic tape is the slowest type of secondary storage device, but it is also the most durable and can store the largest amounts of data. Magnetic tape is typically used to back up data or to store data that is not frequently accessed Other Secondary Storage Devices Other secondary storage devices include:Solid state drives (SSDs): SSDs use flash memory to store data. SSDs are much faster than HDDs, but they are also more expensive. SSDs are typically used as the primary storage device in modern laptops and smartphones. Cloud storage: Cloud storage is a type of secondary storage device that is located on remote servers. Cloud storage is accessed over the internet, and it can be used to store data from anywhere in the world. Cloud storage is typically used to store data such as files, photos, and videos.Conclusion Secondary storage devices are an important part of any computer system. They allow users to store large amounts of data that are not frequently accessed. The best type of secondary storage device for a particular application depends on the specific requirements of the application.