LECTURE ONE (1)

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Lecture 1 Outline

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Marine Areas and Resources
1.3.1 Marine
1.3.2 Oceans
1.3.3 Seas and inland lakes
1.4 Concept of Coast
1.4.1 Coast
1.4.2 Coastline
1.5 Coastal Area/Zone
1.4.1 Defining Coastal Area/ Zone
1.4.2 Sections of the Coastal Zone
1.6 Marine Resources
1.7 Concepts of Coastal Resource Management
1.5.1 Coastal Zone Management
1.5.2 Integrated Coastal Management
1.5.3 Sustainable Development
1.8 Summary
1.9 Terminal Questions
1.10 References

1.1 Introduction

Coastal and marine ecosystems are economically and culturally important resources for many countries. This is
especially so for people who live near coast lines. Yet in many parts of the world, these kinds of resources are
usually vulnerable in that they are prone to challenges, such as over-exploitation, pollution, coastal development and
destructive fishing. This sad situation is compounded by the degradation of associated habitats and the introduction
of invasive alien species – all which pose serious threats to many inherent species. This affects the millions of
people, especially those living in Third World countries, who are wholly depended on these species for their
livelihoods. In order to mitigate this sad situation, during the mid-20th century there emerged a need to enact
management strategies that provide for the establishment of effective conservation measures that can safeguard
coastal and marine ecosystems and the species herein. Informed and responsible conservation of natural coastal
and marine resources is critical to the survival of the numerous threatened and endangered species living in these
ecosystems. This is how Coastal Resource Management (CRM) comes in. CRM is a consultative, multi-sectoral and
multi-disciplinary process that encourages the participation and cooperation among individuals and communities to
achieve the conservation and sustainable use of the coastal zone and its resources.

Given this background, the aim of this pioneer lesson is to describe the key terminologies and concepts used in the
study of marine resources and coastal resource management. To this end, the lecture introduces the main terms

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relevant to the understanding of marine environments, the concept of coastal area/zone as applied in coastal
resource management, the various major natural and cultural resources located in the marine environment, and to
the major concepts connected to coastal resource management. In the next lecture we shall address the history of
Coastal Resource Management over time.

1.2 Objectives By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1 Distinguish between the terms ‘marine’, ‘oceans’, ‘seas’ and ‘inland lakes’.
2 Differentiate between ‘coast’ and ‘coastline’.
3 Explain how the concept of coastal area/zone is applied in Coastal Resource
Management.
4 Identify the various natural and cultural resources found in marine environments.
5 Examine the concepts of coastal zone management, integrated coastal
management and sustainable development.

1.3 Main Terms and Concepts

The essential terms in understanding marine environments are ‘marine’, ‘oceans’, ‘seas’ and ‘inland lakes’, ‘coast’,
and ‘coastline’ described in following sub-sections.

1.3.1 Marine

The term ‘marine’ is one of the key terms in this course and you should understand it well before you proceed to the
other sections. A simple dictionary definition of the term ‘marine’ is that of, “found near the sea/ocean” or “relating to
the sea/ocean.” For instance, marine animals are those animals native to, inhabiting, or formed by the sea.

“Marine” also relates to a system of open-ocean and unprotected coastal habitats, characterized by exposure to
wave action, tidal fluctuation, and ocean currents and by the absence of trees, shrubs, or emergent vegetation. In the
marine system water is at or near the full salinity of seawater.

It is clear from these definitions that the term ‘marine’ relates to phenomena like the ocean/sea, waves, tides,
currents, the coast and its habitats, etc. Marine habitats would, hence, include habitats of the ocean (ocean and sea)
and habitats of the land adjoining the ocean (the coast).

Intext Question

What are ocean basins?

‘Ocean basins’ refers to the oceans and seas, which contain the large amounts of water on Planet Earth. In
discussing ocean basins many people apply the terms “ocean” and “sea” interchangeably. But the two terms do not
always mean the same thing. It is, therefore, important for you to be able to distinguish between the two.

1.3.2 Oceans

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Oceans are very large stretches or expanses of salty water; they cover approximately 70% of the earth’s surface.
The oceans form a single, large, continuous body of water encircling all the land-mass of the earth. They account for
four-fifth of the Southern Hemisphere and three-fifth of the Northern Hemisphere. They contain 97.2 percent of the
world's total water.

An important question that arises is that of how many oceans there are. In practical terms, there is really only one big
ocean on Planet earth! Hence, one can be able to sail in a boat in every known "ocean" and "sea", the implication
being that they are all connected. In this “one big ocean” many authorities agree that there are four main oceans and
a controversial fifth. These oceans are separated largely on the basis of their geographical locations in the world. All
the other seas, or “the arms of the oceans”, are counted within these main oceans.

The main oceans mentioned above are the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean and the Arctic
Ocean. Some regard the Southern Ocean (Antarctica) as the fifth ocean. This is where Antarctica and the South Pole
are found. Those who dispute the classification of the Southern Ocean as an ocean argue that it constitutes the
southern part of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans.

1.3.3 Seas and Inland Lakes

Seas are salt water bodies, which are smaller than oceans in that they are branches of the oceans, which are
partially enclosed by land. A good example of this phenomenon is the Indian Ocean that is divided in two by the sub-
continent of India – resulting in the formation of the Arabian Sea on the western side and a sea known as the Bay of
Bengal on the eastern part. The world’s largest seas include: the South China Sea, Caribbean Sea, Mediterranean
Sea, Baltic Sea, Bering Sea, Black Sea, Coral Sea, North Sea, Red Sea, and Yellow Sea.

Take Note

It is important for you to understand the difference between seas and inland lakes
because unless you are careful, the two terms can confuse you.

A main characteristic of seas that distinguishes seas from inland lakes is that since they are branches of oceans,
they have a constant exchange of water with oceans, a phenomenon not associated with inland lakes, whose waters
are either salty or fresh.

Inland lakes are naturally occurring bodies of standing water with a huge diversity in size, configuration, water
chemistry, and biota. The waters of inland lakes, as pointed out earlier, are either salty or fresh. Several inland salt
lakes, especially the large ones such as the Aral, Caspian, and “Dead” are erroneously named "seas". In Africa, the
major inland lakes are Victoria and Chad. Lake Victoria is the largest lake in Africa and the second largest in the
world.

In spite of the differences inherent in these definitions, in this course, we shall use the concepts ‘ocean’ and ‘sea’
interchangeably to refer to large expanses of salt water. This is why you may come across reference to ocean water
as ‘sea water’.

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 Activity

Study the world map and note the location of the various oceans, seas major lakes
mentioned above and their relationship to the continents.

1.4 Concept of Coast

In this section we shall first examine the concept of “coast” before we go on to describe the ‘coastline’.

1.4.1 Coast

The concept of “coast" is a specific term applied to a strip of land of indefinite width landward of the shore, which is
part of an island or continent that borders an ocean or its saltwater tributaries. According to Kay and Alder (2005, p.
2) the important point to emphasize is that the coast is where land and ocean meet. The associated adjective
“coastal” describes something as being on, near to, or associated with a coast.

The concern of this course is with the marine coast and not, for example, the coast of any “large water body’ such as
an inland lake. For instance, in East Africa, whereas the term ‘coast’ can be used to describe the land neighboring
the landscape of the Indian Ocean, it cannot be used to describe the land bordering Lake Victoria, which is an inland
lake. In this context, Kenya and Tanzania have coasts (along the Indian Ocean), but Uganda lacks one despite
owning vast quantities of Lake Victoria, the second largest lake in the world.

1.4.2 Coastline

A coastline is the boundary of a coast. If this line was static, defining coasts would be easy. However, it is difficult if
not impossible to determine a coastline since natural factors which shape the coast, such as, waves, tides and
currents are very dynamic, varying in both space and time.

According to the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (1994-2008), due to substantial changes in the relative levels of
land and sea, coastlines have shifted in position and changed in shape over geologic time. This is the main reason
why using the terms ‘coast’ and ‘coastline’ is inadequate. It therefore calls for the application of an alternative term,
which according to many scholars, is a ‘coastal area’ invariably referred to as ‘coastal zone’.

1.5 Coastal Area/Zone

Understanding the extent of coasts is a very important task especially to coastal planners and managers. This
responsibility is usually carried out by authorities, both central governments and local authorities. They create
systems or policies to guide decision making within a defined coastal policy area. Hence, it is essential to know how
coastal areas are conceptualized.

Here, we shall address the concept of coastal zone/area in two ways: via definition, and via illustration of sections of
the coastal area/zone.

1.5.1 Defining Coastal Area/Zone

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The terms coastal area and coastal zone have the same meaning, and hence, the two terms are used
interchangeably in this course. According to Kay and Alder (2005:2), the definitions of the concept coastal area come
in in two forms, the biophysical definition and the policy oriented definitions.

The Biophysical Definition

Ketchum’s (1972) biophysical definition is advocated for in this course. In this definition The Coast is seen as: “…the
area showing a connection between land and ocean.”

Whilst

The Coastal Area is: “…the band of dry land and adjacent ocean space (water and submerged land) in which
terrestrial processes and land uses directly affect ocean processes and uses and vice versa”.

According to this definition, the important factor is the interaction between oceanic and terrestrial processes and
uses. In this conceptualization, coastal areas:

 contain both land and sea components;

 have land and ocean boundaries that are determined by the degree of influence of the land on the ocean
and the ocean on the land; and
 are constantly changing in width, depth and height.

Policy Oriented Definitions

In practical terms, the coastal area or zone may include either a very small area just covering the interface of the land
and sea and covering a few hundred meters or may extent from the inland reaches of the coastal water to the limits
of the natural jurisdiction in the offshore.

1.5.2 Sections of the Coastal Area/Zone

The different parts of the coast can be determined by how a coastal area has been defined. From the foregoing
definitions we have seen that oceanic and terrestrial processes that interact determine the ‘degree of costliness’ of an
area. This can be defined loosely or rigorously.

The loose definition sees the coastal area as being divided into two parts, which are firstly, the area of land subject
to marine influences, for example, which can be determined by the degree of salt water penetration into the fresh
surface and ground water systems, and secondly, the area of the sea subject to land influences, for instance, the
seaward distance to which sediments of land origin are moved.

It is, however, the rigorous definition that we are concerned with here since it provides a clearer delineation of the
different sections of the coastal area, which are more useful to coastal planners and managers than the two
subdivisions of the loose definition. According to this definition a coastal area is divided into three main sections
which are the sea, the beach zone and the land behind the beach (See Fig. 1.1 for the different sections of the
coastal area; you can also look at Fig. 1.2 n the next page for a clearer picture.

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 1 2 3 4 5 6 6
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Figure 1.1 Extent of the Coastal Zone (modified from Gattuso and Smith 2007)

KEY
1. Coastal Zone
2. Sea
3. Offshore area
4. Inshore area
5. Foreshore area
6. Backshore area

I. The sea

This section of the coastal area extends from the low water mark seawards. The sea can be visualized as having two
main parts; the inshore and the offshore. The word ‘IINSHORE’ denotes “coming from the sea” as in winds or the
breeze. It is the area of the sea that is in or on the water, but close to the shore as opposed to the offshore that lays
further seawards from the shore. In this definition, the inshore can be said to include the foreshore. The foreshore is
that part of the seashore between the high water mark and the low water mark. The foreshore is exposed to the air at
high tide, e.g., the area between the tide marks. The foreshore can include a wide range of habitats, for instance,
steep rocky cliffs, sandy beaches or vast. After the inshore, towards the sea, one then gets to the offshore area. This
is defined as the part of the shore lying at some considerable distance from the shore. In general, the offshore area
covers the shallow marine habitats of the coast, such as sea grasses, the coral reefs, etc.

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Fig. 1.2: Definition of coastal sub-zones, adapted from the Shore Protection Manual, 1984

II. Beach zone

The beach zone extends from the low water mark to the seaward edge of the costal vegetation. This definition
includes the FORESHORE (BEACH FACE) which can be defined as the part of the shore that lies between the high
tide and low tides. In some cases, the base of a cliff or a dune may mark the end of this highly changeable
environment.

III. The Land behind the Beach (adjoining Coastal Land)

The land behind the beach or adjoining coastal land is the land extending landward for some distance from the end
of the beach. This coastal area includes the BACKSHORE which can be defined as the portion of a beach extending
from the high-tide line inland to the sea cliff or vegetation line. Swash reaches the backshore only during major
storms. The length of distance of this section of the coastal area varies depending on the country concerned. Thus,
there are no clearly defined and universally accepted boundaries of the coastal zone.

1.6 Marine Resources

A simple dictionary definition of a resource is that of a source of economic wealth or a business enterprise.
Considering this definition of resource, together with the earlier definition of marine, it can be drawn that the term
‘marine resource’ pertains to those sources of income relating to the ocean habitats and coastal habitats. Therefore,

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the term marine resources mean those resources found in coastal areas, these being the seas, the oceans and the
coasts. Marine resources emanate from biotic (living organisms, e.g. marine life species) and abiotic (non-living,
physical environment, e.g. sand, rock, bedrock) components of the marine environment (relating to or found in the
sea).

Marine areas have some of the richest ecosystems which are endowed with a great diversity of natural resources.
These resources owe their wealth to the diverse physical features and natural habitats of the marine areas. In
addition to their natural endowment, marine coasts have some of the habitats most highly populated by human
beings.

Since prehistoric times, humans have exploited marine resources in various ways. Thus, apart from natural
resources (from the biotic and abiotic environment), marine coasts are also endowed with a myriad of cultural
resources that are a result of humans exploiting the natural environment. Marine resources can in this way be
classified into two main groups - natural and cultural.

On the one hand, natural resources are of a very wide range and include those obtained from the sea itself and its
waters, marine beaches and dunes, mangroves and other forms of timber, sea grass meadows and seaweeds,
marine finfish and shellfish, coral, marine turtles, marine mammals, migratory and other coastal birds, minerals i.e.,
coral limestone and cement, salt, hydrocarbons, petroleum and natural gas.

On the other hand, cultural resources revolve around cultures of the peoples who inhabit marine/coastal areas and
how they exploit their natural resources. Examples here include cultural tourism that thrives on resources such as
archaeological and historical heritage, indigenous people’s culture, sports, etc., coastal (beach) tourism associated
with the exploitation of natural resources referred to in tourism circles as the 3 SSS (the Sea, Sun and Sand), coastal
cultural tourism involving recreation, i.e., tourism accommodation, snorkeling and scuba diving, aquaculture, maritime
transport, manufacturing industry and waste management, agriculture and horticulture, and conservation and
ecotourism.

Take Note

Over-exploitation of natural resources by humans has led to the danger of their

depletion, and hence, the origin and growth of the field of coastal resource
management is meant toto protect and manage their exploitation in a responsible way.

1.7 Concepts of Coastal Resource Management

There is a growing awareness of the need to maintain and restore the above outlined marine resources. Meanwhile,
it is important to optimize the allocation of uses within the coastal zone. This has led to the concept of coastal zone
management. Two other major concepts pertaining to coastal and marine resource management are integrated
costal management and sustainable development. These concepts are discussed briefly below:

1.7.1 Coastal Zone Management

Coastal zone management is the continuous management of the use of coastal lands and waters and their
associated resources within some designated area, the coastal area/zone, which as we saw in the previous section is
delimited by boundaries that are usually politically determined by legislation or by executive order.

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1.7.2 Integrated Coastal Management

Integrated coastal management is a concept which emphasizes the requirement to integrate or balance a wide range
of ecological, social, cultural, governance and economic considerations in coastal resource management. An
important component of integrated coastal management is co-management. In co-management local stakeholders
share aspects of governance with the government. Community participation is also a key ingredient of the
management process. Active research and monitoring programs also play key roles in providing sets of
management options and potential consequences.

1.7.3 Sustainable Development

The needs of the human population can be met without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs. Sustainable development must not endanger the atmosphere, water, soil and the ecosystems that
support life on earth. Any development process requires change. In the case of sustainable development, the use of
resources, economic policies, technological development, population growth, and institutional structures are in
harmony and enhance current and future potential for human progress.

1.8 Summary
To recapitulate this lecture, here again are the main points that we have addressed:

First, the term ‘marine’ refers to phenomena relating to seas and oceans, especially as it
relates to origin, habitation or influence. Therefore, we have leant in this lesson that
marine habitats constitute habitats of the ocean and habitats of the coast. This lesson
also defined oceans, very large expanses of salt water covering about 70% of the earth’s
surface. There are four main oceans on earth; the Pacific, Indian, Atlantic, and the Arctic,
plus a controversial fifth, the Southern Ocean. Although some authors use the terms
‘ocean’ and ‘sea’ interchangeably, they mean different things. Also, seas are different
from inland lakes.

Second, ‘coast’ is a specific term applied to that part of an island or continent that
borders an ocean or its saltwater tributaries and bounded by a ‘coastline’. However,
coastlines are never used to define coasts because the bounding lines are ever
changing due to the dynamic geomorphic processes along coastal shores; hence, the
concept ‘coastal area’ or ‘coastal zone’ is used instead.

Third, although useful to an extent, term ‘coastal area’ or ‘coastal zone’ is rather
subjective in that it lacks a single acceptable definition. There is no agreement
particularly in terms of how far inland coastal areas reach. Nevertheless, coastal
areas/zones can be subdivided into three main areas i.e., the sea, the beach zone and
the land behind the beach. Determination of coastal areas/zones is based on the contour
of the land and the ease of management. Coastal areas play a central role in
biogeochemical cycles; they also exchange large amounts of matter and energy with the
open sea.

Fourth, marine resources are sources of income obtained from or related to marine
habitats, both oceanic and coastal. They can be classified into natural marine resources
(physical and biological) and cultural marine resources. Natural marine resources range
from those related to the physical landscape mainly of abiotic nature to the animals and
vegetation (biotic) while cultural resources include the cultures of the peoples of coastal

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 zones and how they exploit natural marine resources.

And last, coastal zone management involves the continuous management of resources
– it deals with the manner in which resources from coastal zones are used. On its part,
integrated coastal management is the bringing together of a variety of considerations in
resource management by use of approaches like co-management and community
participation. Meanwhile, sustainable development is the use of resources in a manner
that ensures their availability to the future generations.

Question 1
1.9 Terminal
Questions (a) What is the meaning of the term ‘marine’?
(a) Define and differentiate between oceans, seas and inland lakes. Cite clear
examples to support your answer.

Question 2

(a) Define and differentiate between the terms ‘coast’, ‘marine coast’ and
‘coastline’.
(b) Why do practitioners of Coastal Resource Management prefer to apply the co
concept of ‘coastal area/zone’ than of ‘coast’?
(c) Explain the role of coastal areas/zones in Coastal Resource Management?

Question 3

(a) What are the various natural and cultural resources found in marine
environments?
(b) Define and differentiate between the three (3) concepts of coastal zone
management, integrated coastal management and sustainable development.

1.10 References
 Alongi, D.M. (2020) Coastal Ecosystem Processes. 2nd edn. Boca Raton: CRC
Press.
 Beatley, T., Brower, D. & Schwab, A.K. (2002) An Introduction to Coastal Zone
Management. 2nd. edn. Washington, D.C., USA: Island Press.
 Clark, J.R. (ed.) (2018) Coastal Zone Management Handbook. London, UK: CRC
Press.
 Davidson-Arnott, R., Bauer, B. & Houser, C. (2019) Introduction to Coastal
Processes and Geomorphology. 2nd edn. Cambridge, UK & New York, NY, USA:
Cambridge University Press.
 Davis, R.A. Jr & FitzGerald, D.M. (2020) Beaches and coasts. 2nd edn. Hoboken,
NJ: John Wiley and Sons.
 Gattuso, J. Smith, S.V. (2007) "Coastal zone", in Encyclopedia of Earth. Cleveland,
C.J. (ed.). Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council
for Science and the Environment). Eoearth [Online]. Available at:
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Coastalzone. Accessed from on 24th March 2009.
 Geology Dictionary (2009) “Backshore”. Dictionary of Geology [Online]. Available at:
http://www.alcwin.org/Dictionary_Of_Geology_Description-66-B.htm (Accessed 24
March 2008).

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  Gree, D.R. & Payne, J.L. (2017) Marine and Coastal Resource Management:
Principles and Practice (Earthscan Oceans). 1st edn, Kindle edn. London, UK:
Routledge.
 Mann, K.H. & Lazier, J.R.N. (2013) Dynamics of Marine Ecosystems. 3rd edn.
Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
 Marshak, S. (2012) Portrait of a Planet. 4th edn. London, UK: W.W. Norton and
Company.
 Pike, S.T. and Pilhaus, A. (1962) “Marine resources”, in Report to the Committee on
Natural Resources. National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council,
NAS/NRC Publ. 1000-E, pp. 1-18.
 Pinet, P.R. (2019) Invitation to Oceanography. 8th edn. Boston, MA, USA: Jones
and Bartlett Publishers.
 Sharma, P. (2009) Coastal Zone Management. New Delhi, India: Global India
Publications.
 Zhang, H. & Chen, S. (2022), "Overview of Research on Marine Resources &
Economic Development", Marine Economics & Management, 5 (1), pp. 69-83.
https://doi.org/10.1108/MAEM-11-2021-0012

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