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    Classical Mechanics Notes Unit I-V

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    madhumithap008

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 56
    mass is constant say K, ie, ET This means that the ratio of the inertial mass to the BF i her. By Sr'chat i wv av dr edr =m edr= evde [ec de = edt = va Fedr mt dr mst It [ ans v ‘| ' als RIF 4 rai S ve d[tmv'] ‘Therefore, equation (21) is obtained to be 2 2 A Wa?) =! mv? — 2 mv? Fig.1.4 : Work done by a Wa j Fedr j d [ on ] 4 mv} —4 mv} ee The scalar quantity % mv? is defined as the kinetic energy and denoted by T. Thus the work done by the force acting on the particle appears equal to the change in the kinetic energy i.c., 2 We = [Pear=7-7; (22) This is known as work-energy theorem. 1.6.3(c). Conservative Force and Potential Energy : If the work done (W,,). by the force in moving 2 particle from point 1 to point 2 is the same for any possible path between the points, then the force (and the system) is said to be conservative. The region in which the particle is experiencing a conservative force is called as conservative force field. Thus for conservative force { Fig. 1.4 ] pf edr= fF ear. on Pf Fears ofFedr=0 ie, GFedr=0 (23) ic id a cle on the particle aroun losed ‘k don ‘amount of work done a: aa the, din” ative, the wore © a ree like friction, the ie ty fore Thus, if the force I conse! rvative fo" is zero. In case of a nonconse paths are different and not 7270 gira According to Stoke's theorem I" vector a ; fred = fen Feds Josed path in he integration ¢ can transform the equation (23) as the conservative force field i. - and ro around any over the perimeter of the ae ra * This Since the work done is 2¢1 out tl oon the length of the path, we may Camry fredr= cul Fd =0 But, ds #0 and hence in general culF =0orVxF=0 Therefore the force can be expressed 85 ( av av) :(av_ av), 2( ev av _ oY ),j{/ 22-2 | +k | - |= Qyde d2y) '\dzex Ox dz tedy dyax)° This scalar function V is called the ie i a potential ot potential energy and depends iti add any constant quantity to V, equation (25) does not change and hence the Dro ees i asta rence level co function V is arbitrary and can be chosen at convenience. ‘we take scalar product of dr with (25) and i : and integrate from position 1 siti to position 2, we ob: , tain because Vx VV [rea -—['or-de= far " Now, if we assume the positi 7 position 1 as . energy a point ¥ (position) is given by ns” Potential energy to be zero there, then the ; » V(r)=- f Fedr From eq. (26) 4. (26) we see that the work done by the conse: rvative force is Wig = [Fear = Fn ing to equati ion 'l' to "is gi quatio ion 'I'to 2 is given by the ie (22), the amount of work done by w= (Fe change in kinetic )Pede= 7, ~7, energy £e., The erefore, from (28) and (29), we obj 7" obtain Y-%, 1-K=h- BT or hs on anne, 2 = Constant Introductory Ideas 9 Thus the sum of kinetic and potential energies (i.e., total mechanical energy) of a particle remains constant in a conservative force field. This is known as the law of conservation of energy. Remember ‘that the law of conservation of energy gives us no new information, not contained in ‘Newton's ‘second law of motion. If we multiply by v = dr/dt to both sides of F = m - dv/dt and integrate with respect fo f, we obtain dv dt fn vdt ~ free e+ Constant (say £) ot jz tpmv +var= J Fearte or Jatim?}— [rears e or tm? [Fede ie, T+VHE 31) where the constant £ is the total energy of the particle. Equation (31) represents the conservation energy theorem. Conservation laws, obtained above, are the constants of motion and referred as the first integrals of the motion. They are very useful because we get some important information physically about the system just at a glance from these integrals. In fact once integration of the equation of motion under certain condition cn the system yields the first integral. Since Newton’s equation is a second order differential equation, these first integrals of motion are in fact first order differential equations. We shall discuss further regarding. these integrals later on. 1.7. MECHANICS OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES } 1.7.1. External and Internal Forces In the last section, we arrived at some results, specially conservation theorems, for the mechanics of a particle. These results can be easily generalized to the case of a system of particles by taking care of mutual interactions. Now, if a mechanical system consists of two or more particles, then the force on the i particle is given by F, =F; SF, =FP+ZF, jt 2) where Fis the external force, acting on the i* particle due to sources outside the system. F, is the internal force on the particle due to the j” particle and the total internal force due to all other particles (j =1 to N) on the i* particle is represented by the sum in equation (32), where WV is the number of particles in the system and F,, the force of i particle on itself, is naturally zero. According to Newton's second law dv; dr, aa Now, when the sum is taken over all the particles of the system, equation (32) takes the form a SEM PEER wey =p wo(33), 1 Mechanics Classical { eae Fe. According ‘On the right hand side of equation (33) first sum represents the total ite for Newton's third law, any two particles of the system exert equal and opposi F,+F,=0 0 7 ris @ or r-a F ony * ot @) In this expression the terms 9, (k =1,2,...) represent the generalised velocity. 5. Generalised Acceleration : Differentiating (3) with respect to time f, we get Lagrangian Formulation 253 Substituting value of ¢ from (3), and changing index from k to, we get O(,o;. | or, a, or, or, eet ia Ole Og 4 re (rea Bao Slee uy or ar, 25 ar, ar, srt Li— 44, +2 —LG Hy 4 FO ET agdq HT aqgat ™ * Ear oq, "ae or; ar os ar, EEE gy “ i (4) "ET aqgaq, Ht? Fagg a0 * Gye ‘The term 4, is the generalised acceleration. Equation (4) shows that carterian components of acceleration are not the linear functions of generalised acceleration jy alone, but depend quadratically and linearly on generalised velocity components , as well. However, according to Lagrange’s approach the computation of second derivatives of generalised coordinates is not essential. 4. Generalised Momentum: The kinetic energy of a system of partic.es in cartesian coordinates is given by : Edm (2 +92 +82) (5) where §;, y; and 2; are components of velocity of ith particle along x, yandz-directions respectively. The momentum of ith particle along x-direction is : Pi = 4%; (6) Differentiating equation (5) wath respect to x,, we get mx 6; In view of equation (6), we have Pix In analogy with this equation, the generalised momentum associated with generalised coordinate 4, is expressed as : or Pp ne miy 7) 5, Generalised Force : If F, is force acting on ith particle and Sr, is an arbitrary small displacement; then work done by force F, during this displacement is given by : aW, =F, .55; Total work done by the forces : W=EK,.81; (8) As F (94 amet) ir, a, Wet F tae (9) Pag 254 where, a work done in cartesian coordinates W =F... : 3 analogous. It may be noted that it is not necessary that the dimensions of Q; are that certain that the product of generalised force and generalised displacement has the dimens: work. ie two possible configurations of a system of particles at any instant of time which are consistent with the forces and constraints. If the system of particles goes from ene configuration to the other, each particle of the system is imagined to be displaced by an infinitesimal vector &r; fro: the old tonew position. The displacement dr, is called the virtual displacement to distinguish from actual displacement dr, which occurs ina time interval dt during which the forces and constraints may be changing. In order a system to be equilibrium, the resultant force acting on each particle of the system must be zero, ie, F; =0, where F; is the force acting on ith particle of the system. Then clearh dot product of force F; and the virtual displacement dr; due to force F,, which is the virtual must vanish, ie, F; 6r; =virtual work =0 Summing over all the particles of the system we have EE,.6r; =0, ~@) since the sum of the vanishing products over all the particles of the system is also zero. If the constraints are present, then the force F, acting on the ith particle is written as the sum of constraint force and actual force, ie, ER =F +f, FF being the actual force and f, being the force of constraint acting on 2h particle. Putting value of F; from equation (2) in equation (1), we have S (FF +£,).6r, =0. or EF .6r; + Ef. dr; =I ‘Now restricting ourselves to the'systems where the virtual work done by the forces of constraints ie, zero Ef. 5 this statement holds for a large number of systems consisting of constraints. For example, consider a Particle constrained to move on a surface. in this case the force of constraint is perpendicular to the surface while the virtual displacements along the tangent to the surface. Therefore the virtual work done by the force of constraint is zero, ie, f, 5r; =0. The statement does not hold for the svete consisting of frictional forces. Therefore we should not consider the system consisting of frictional forces. Now equation (3) reduces to : EFF br; This is the condition for equilibrium of a system according to which “ equilibrium only if the total virtual work of the actual (or applied) forces principle of virtual work. =) stem of particles This is known the Lagrangian Formulation EDAD R ARE] —) The principle of vi a Sea eee te aoe stated aoe is applicable to the statics of a system of particles: it : a ilar principle of dynamics. According to Newton’ on era i ‘wton’s second law of motion, the force is defined as rate of change of 4p; a Pe 255 F, where p; is the momentum of ith particle due to force F; acting on ith particle F,-p; =0 a a . a) ies el the above equation a moving system of particles can be considered to be in which is known ay Ne force (F; ~Pj) ie, the actual applied force F, plus an additional force ~P; Now etOWn a8 reversed efective force on ith particle, ‘ow replacing F; of equation (1) of last section by(F; - pj) we have 2(~p,).51; =0 ~@) If the forces of constraints f; dre present, then we have Re=Fi +f, (3) where F? is the actual force. Putting value of F; from equation (3) in equation (2), we get ZF +£)-pj) or ZF —p;). 81; + Ef; 84; =0 (4) Again restricting ourselves to the cases where the virtual work done by the force of constraints vanishes, ie, Ef, .6r; =0 Equation (4) reduces to: Z(Ff —p;)-dr; =0 (5) which is called D* Alembert's principle, It is to be noted here that we have restricted ourselves to the systems, where the virtual work done by the forces of constraints disappears. With this in mind we can drop the superscript a in equation (5), ie., D’ Alembert’s principle may written as : (F;—;)- 84; =0 (6) ues SOLVED EXAMPLES Ex. 1, An inextensible string of negligible mass hanging over asmooth peg at A connects the mass: ‘m, ona {frictionless inclined plane ofangle 0 to another mass my. Use D’ Alembert's principle to prove that the masses ‘will be in equilibrium if m, =m, sin a. Solution. Let r, and r, be the position vectors of masses my and my relative to the point A respectively. ‘According to D’ Alembert’s principle m Ef — pj). 54; =0 (1) i In this case there are two masses, therefore equation (1) takes the form: B 3 c (Ft ~1)-5r, + (Fy ~Pa)- Big 2) Fig. 62 orgy of the system 2.7 is the kinetle © Dayeyeeeme where x T ms a 23 trom 25) aed! from (19) and EP
    mr? = constant Thus angular momentum mr0of the problem is constant. Ex. 6, Set up the Lagrangian of a simple pendulum and obtain its equation fo motion. Hence find time period of motion. (Rohilkhand 2004; Meerut 2002; Awadh 2003, Agra 2010, 09, 06) Solution. A simple pendulum is simply a bob suspended by a weightless inextensible string from a rigid support. The length of pendulum lis constant. If displacement is small, then angular displacement is generalised coordinate." Kinetic energy of both T -4 mi? =} (102 1 ml2@2 Sag 2 Taking refererice level for zero."P.E.’as a horizontal line passing through centre of equilibrium position of both, the potential energy V = mg (AN) =mgh ig (I 1 cos 8) = mgl (1 ~ cos 8) Lagrangian, L=T-V ie, La} ml6? —mgl (1 -c0s0) AQ) This is required Lagrangian , Lagrange’s equatic.a in coordinate wr al (2) From (1), orn Classical Mechanics and ZL. mgtsind a Substituting these values in (2), we get 4 ia ~ (m6) + mgl sin 0=0 y(t?) + mal ml? 6+ mgl sin =0 anes ind =0 1 For small displacement sin 8 = 0, so equation of motion is 6 +8 0=0 ‘This is equation of SHM with angular frequency o = [gi so time period Bx. 7. One end of string is attached toa particle of mass m which is placed on a smooth horizontal table And is fastened toa light spring whose other end is rigidly attached in such a way that when the mass m is at the hole, the spring is unstretched. Find the equation of motion ofthe particle) in polar co-ordinates, and (i) in cartesian co-ordinates. Spring B Fig. 67 1. In polar co-ordinates : Let (r, 6)be the polar co-ordinates of the particle of mass 1 then the kinetic energy of the system is given by which gives, and, sa(1) The Lagrnage’s equations in terms of rand O are given by 274 Classical Mechanics Equations (10) and (11) represent the equations of simple harmonic poe Gas may say that the motion of the particle placed on a smooth horizontal table under the action of springis compounded of two simple harmonic motions of same period and perpendicula er, Thus the path of the particle is an ellipse having the origin at its centre. Examples of Conservative System 4 geil lie Ex. 8. The Atwood’s machine ; This is an example of conservative system involving holonomic and sclerononié constraints. ‘ eras The adjoining figure represents the principle of the Atwood’s machine, PQis a string passing round the frictionless pulley A. Both the ends Pand Qof the string are attached to the masses m and my respectively. Let the length of the string between m, and my be! ic, PQ=l. @ Then If PA=x,QA=I-x, In this case x is the only independent coordinate. The kinetic energy of mass m =} mx, P as 1 The kinetic energy of mass m, => mi? By tM, = 5 My B |, Total kinetic energy of the system T=. mi? + 3 In? ma Fig. 68 (rm, + my )x?. Considering the reference level as a horizontal plane passing through A, the potential energy of mass m, =~ mgx. The potential energy of mass my =-myg(I-x). The total potential energy of the system V=— mygx — mg (I—x). The Lagrangian Lis given by Lat -V a2 (in, +m)? + mse + mg{l—x) o(1) which gives and (2) The Lagrange’s equation or equation of motion in terms of independent co-ordinate xis given wt (aL) aL _ ala) orl 4 {(nm, +m) 3) -(m, ~ mg =0 from equation (2) (my + my) X=(my — 1) g mh ~My which yields mom, 8 which is well known result. Classical Mechan, gle a with the horizontal, y, air may be neglected, (Rohitkhand 2093) mis projected with initial veocity wat an angle ation of the projectile. The resistance of the y Let us suppose that the motion takes place in the XY-plane- Also suppose that the horizontal line is represented by axis of X- If P(x, y)represents the position of the particle at any instant , the kinetic energy i . P (xy) T 3 (i? +9) ‘The potential energy of the particle, taking X-axisas the reference level, is given by : 1 Vemgy. Thus the Lagrangian Lis L-T-v =m? + i?)—mgy Fig. 6.18 [from (1) and (2)] (3) ‘The Lagrange’s equations are : and, (4) From equation (3), we have With these substitutions the Lagrange’s equations (or equations of motion) are given by (mi) 0 ir=0. and, Zemin mg 0 i + mg=0. or #0 wala) ae } 6) and, y+g=0 sa(b) Integrating equation (5a), we get 7 4 _ 4(

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