Oa @ INSIDE HISTORY COLLECTION BTCC) ares aS ? , ‘i i er etd iis Ace or ar eres oe Cert ncy or Poe cd Per Pes td INSIDE: NEW FINDS REVEAL THE TRUTH ABOUT OLD LEGENDSHistory's greatest mysteries ‘The bible is packed with the names of long-forgotten people and tales of bloody battles, horrific disasters and individual heroics, but are they based on real people and events or are they simple parables? And what about King Arthur? Was he the first king of England, or just a legend designed to unite the people of Britain? Modern historians are inclined to believe the latter ~ yet the myth has endured. And why did the ancient Egyptians build pyramids and embaim their dead, preserving their corpses for millennia In this special bookazine we've collated of the most intriguing historical riddles that still arouse wonder and debat and track the progress archaeologists and scholars have made in unravelling history's greatest mysteries. Happy reading!Hj wo were tHe TeEMPLars? wuere are THE TempLar Treasures? WHY DID THE TempPLars pisappear? po THe Temprars STILL EXIST? were THe Templars Herervics? @ weowas tHe manin ‘THE 1rON Mask? ff wiwas ne imprisonep? Ey wey pw newear amask? wuere was He ~ rmprisonep? DQ) wrowas 0 waen pw ne t1ver NosTrapamus? \ DID HIS ProPHecte! come true? \ was Davinci a SCIENTIST? | WHO Was THE MODEL | For THe Mona Lisa? coUuLD pavincr’s He Licoprer Have FLown? / Wowovavma/ Write THE VoynICcH manuscript? i pw «me AITHUY €XIST? BB waere was cameror? g) Dip Brrrarn’s KiNG Have arOUND TaBLe? emasons TULe THE WOrLD? f] are mempers or secreT SeCTS assassins? Pp] wien DID CHina’s ‘TrTaDs BEGIN? LIGHTHOUSE? HOW Was IT consrrucrép? = WHat HappeneD TO THe Tower?WHO.Does THE Great r SPHINX represent? yj wien was THE SPHINX BUILT? Is THe srarue a Burial cHamper? wo were THe Assyrians? WHY DID THE ancient empire vanisH? ‘WHO were THE HITIITes? wry were THeyaT war WITH THE Jews? wuere was THE HITTITes’ Land? WHO Decopep THe HICTOGLYPHS? Are THE HICTOGLYPHS Lerrers or Imaces? wuar Lancuace pip ancient EGYPTIAns speak? WHO BUILT THE CITY OF Perr: was petraa cITyora rom? WHY was perra apanponep? wuo was rHe race OF De€LPHI? f] were THe oracie’s PrOPHECICS FULFILLED? | (DB waarwas tHe propHectes’ source? Are PyramrDs OnLy FOUND In EGYP’ HOW OLD are THE OLbesT EGyPTian mummies? Way DID THE EGyPTIans emBaLM THeIr DeaD? pIp THe Japanese reacH america BeFore COLUMBUS? was KING soLomon reat? IssoLomon * mentioned ourstDe oF THE BIBLE? p) wHere are KING soLomon’s Mines? & wnaris THe orpest Law In HISTOry?1 WHO were THe TeMPLa At the beginning of the 12th century, = nine military knights formed a = monastic order, which went on to win = admiration throughout the Christian = world. The order quickly built a g powerful, wealthy empire that stretched from the Middle East to the far corners of Western Europe, but its power didn’t last. Today, 800 years after the order's heyday, you can still find traces of the legendary warrior monks. 2 TARY ORDER The Templars operated an effective war machine in the Middle East. They ‘weapons and money from Europe, whieh lay over 3,000 km away. The Templars took vows of poverty and ollbacy, and made oaths to fight to tho ‘death for God,e Templars HQ was located within Jerusalem’s holiest site The Templar order was created to protect the Holy Land and took its ;name from ts original headquarters on Temple Mount in Jerusalem, JERUSALEM: In the year 1099, an army of Christian men and knights succeeded in conquering the holy city of Jerusalem. But while the city was secure, bandits ravaged the rest of the Holy Land. In 1149, nine French knights, with the nobleman Hugues de Payens at their head, formed an order of military monks to protect pilgrims in the Middle East. During the 1420s, these monks moved into their fist headquarters at abAgsa Mosque on the southern side of Temple Mount in Jerusalem, ‘The order called itself the oor Knights of the Temple of Solomon’, a ‘name son shortened to the “Knights of the Temple” or simply the “Templars”. The headquarters could not hhavebeen better sit for knights, Sree earned Cee un DID YOU KNOW... that Templar rules prohibited knights from boasting about their deeds and that, out of respect for God, they rarely showered? The mosque on Temple Mount was ‘once used by the Templars. believed that the buildings were located ‘onthe site ofthe temple of the Bible's King Solomon, According to scripture, the temple had ‘once housed the Ark of the Covenant, in which Moses’ stone tablets were stored In the early years, the order didn't grow beyond its original nine members, which led to later speculation thatthe order was founded to secretly search forthe Ark. Certainly, a number of earlier unknown tunnels were found below Temple Mount during excavations of the site in the 19th century. The order's numbers increased after 1129, with hundreds of knights being trained in martial arts. ‘Suddenly, Temple Mount was teeming with people as ‘@ monastery and church were added to the site. Next stop: Montgisard battler, 39 km 1 J Yeusaior's 23%" A ace | | tho tomplare Tee a — headquarters wrebatton the ste or ing Solomon's temple, whieh was but n ound 1000 BC ‘and destroyed by the Babylonians In 86 Be.WHY DID TH The Templars’ great victory MONTGISARD: In 1177, Saladin’s Muslim army advanced towards Jerusalem. Everything indicated that the Christian capital would fall, but instead of storming Jerusalem, the Muslim army stopped to plunder outlying vilages. The delay proved to be a grave mistake. The Templars sent 80 knights to support Jerusalem's King Baldwin IV, a leper, and their combined forces caught Saladin’s any unprepared on the plain ail ‘Mons Gisard (in present-day israe). As usual, the combattrained knights attacked in the vanguard end prevented Saladin’s surprised soldiers from gathering to form an effective defence. Only one in ten Musiims survived the battle. The Templar knights ~ as was their Wont —were the last to leave the field Next stop: The Homes of Hattin, 144 km Saladin beheaded hig 3) most powerful enemies Saladin, the sultan of Egypt and Syria, united the foes of the Holy Land's new Christian rulers and became the Templars’ most feared enemy. beheaded He regarded the warior Imonks a8 ie Svengest cpponents, : By ccccisne ne Ayn oy & DID YOU KNC the Christian army had a piece of the “True Cross of Christ’ atthe Battle of Hatin? The holy relic was captured and destroyed. The battlefield at Hattin’s Horn Was soaked with Templar blood. danger inherent in their combination of strong faith and skilled military training, The number of knights Killed that day totalled 230, Two months previously, another 60. | Templar knights had been killed during the Battie of Cresson, Historians estimate that the order k approximately half ofthe knights in the Holy Land during the two battles:‘esa Gy PRUS! Lesanoy aut 4e) 3 earns of Harn Stronghold protected a cache of sacred treasures ATLIT: By the start ofthe 43th century, the Templars had amassed immense wealth. European rulers who couldn't travel to the Holy Land themselves donated large sums tothe order. The Templars used these riches to procure holy relics, such as a splinter from the True Cross of Crist’, a fragment of his crown of thorns and drops of his blood. These treasures were zealously guarded at the castle of Ait (in present-day Israel). As a result, it started to attract Christian pilgrims on their way to Jerusalem. ‘he castle, which the Templars called Chateau Pélerin, was considered one oftheir strongest. It was originally built by pilgrims who offered their labour free of charge. Noxt stop: Safita, 268 km 5 The Templars ran a travel agency 'SAFITA: By protecting pilerims ‘on their way to Jerusalem in return for an appropriate fee, the Templars effectively became cone of history's earliest travel agents. A string of fortresses, ‘rom the mountains of present day Syria to Jerusalem, helped secure the route. In Saita, the 28:metre-high keep of the Templar fortification known as CChastel Blane rises high above the ety. The fortress helped the knights safeguard travellers coming from their coastal forts and on the trade routes inland Next stop: Acre, 236 km eS eae era rea) Templar knights and ees ee le erred fortified castles to protect rae ey erm4 DO THE TEMPLar: z Last bastion in the Holy Land ‘ACRE: Legend has it that afew Templar knights boarded a ship Just before the city of Acre fell in May 41294. in addition to the knights, the ship also carried the order's most valuable treasures. The earlier storming of the city had been relentiess. Acre was the capital ofthe remaining Christian teritories in the Holy Land, and housed the headquarters of several different orders of religious knights. But the rivalry between them was so extensive that no one listened when the Templars’ grand master had tried to warn them of the impending attack on the city. The result was carnage. The Templars fought valiantly - theirs was the last headquarters tofall but the Holy Land was lost. Next stop: ‘Arwad, 230 km The defeat In Acre caused a ‘huge loss of prestige for the Tomplars. y Templars protected the young king MONZON: The Templars helped support Christian kings in their efforts torecapture the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors - and were richly rewarded for their efforts. In 1143, the order received the castle of Monzén from King Alfonso | In 1213, Guile de Montredo, the head of the Templars in Spain, was entrusted with guarding the fiveyear 40 TURKEY ARWADE In September 1302, 16 Egyptian ships encircled the tiny island of Arwad, effectively cutting ofall supplies. ‘The Templars had bult up the istand's defences since being forced from the mainland, and 120 knights and 500 archers manned the garrison. But it wasn't enough. The stronghold was too Isolated and help came too late when the island was besieged. The Templars. negotiated a promise of safe passage ‘off the island, but it wasn't honoured: all the archers were killed and most of the knights were taken prisoner when they left their fortifications. Today, the order's wellpreserved fortress is tightly surrounded by newer houses on Syria's only inhabited island, Next stop: Kolossi, Cyprus, 267 km In 1302, Arwad was surrounded byenemy ships. The Templars'fortress onthe island of ‘Arwad was too Isolated for It to be: defended, but ts bulldings stl stand. ld King James | of Aragon until he was old enough to rule for himself He was protected in the castle of -Monz6n until he took control of his kingdom and put an end to the powets struggles his great uncle's regency had invited, Later known as James the Conqueror, he had Templars in his retinue for the rest of his reign Next stop: Tomar, Portugal, 773 ki5 were THe TemPLar. ‘The Templars held several key sites n ‘Cyprus, Including the castle at Kolosi hheadqua CYPRUS: In 1192, the Templars bought break out and put down the rebellion. _retain some of thelr possessions the island of Cyprus fom England's King Following the revolt the orderrefused however, including the caste of Koloss, Richard. Their idea was to designate __tostation more than 20 knights onthe whichis still standing. The Templars the island a Templar state, and take island, and the idea of established a new HQ on ‘advantage ofits location on the sea lanes Templar nation was quietly the island a century later, leadingto the Holy Land's por cities. This dropped. inthe end,the ID YOU KNOW... aterthe ta of Acre, the big idea was quickly undermined by the Templars returned the the Templar archive _lastoftheir possessions on greed and incompetence ofthe Templars island to King Rchard, was left in Cyprus the Middle East mainland ‘ciministring the island, who imposed a who sold ita second ‘when the order was Cyprus remained their Crippling tax that wiggered arevoltamong time ~without offering suppressed? The _headquerters until the order the inhabitants, The order's castle atthe Templars penry. archive was burned wos cissoled in 1312. Nicosia was besieged, and the bate The new rulerof Cyprus in 1571 by invading Next stop: Monz6n, Spain, hardened knights onlyjust managed to did allow the Templars to Ottoman Turks. 2,928km 10) Templars’ heirs took control of their headquarters in Portugal TOMAR: When the pope forcibly dissolved the order in 1312, the ‘Templars in Portugal were allowed to transfer to King Dinis' newiy formed Order of Christ. The new order was less warlike, but soon «gained enough wealth to fund Prince Henry the Navigator's voyages of discovery in the 45th century. The Templars! headquarters in Portugal were also taken over by the Order of Christ. The large and wellpreserved fortress and monastic complex is stil standing today n Tomar. It originally guarded the frontier between Portugal's Christian and Moorish-held territories. Noxt stop: La Couvertoirade, France, 1,084 kma The Templars created a financial centre in London Its own horses LA COUVERTOIRADE: A Templar knight never slaughtered his horse even when starving. Welltrained war horses were a necessity for knights in the Holy Land, and the order did ‘everything to ensure a continuous supply from its horse breeders in Europe, particulary given the difficuty of acquiring suitable mounts in the Middle East. La Couvertoirade in France was a breeding centre for war horses from the late 12th century. The village was located near routes leading to France's Mediterranean ports, which shipped the horses on to the Holy Land Next stop: Te London, 1,094 km Chureh, The Templars’ northernmost church is ‘now a ruln Ina village celled Temple. TEMPLE CHURCH: In the 13th century, the Templars’ English strongholds were considered so secure that the English crown jewels were stored there. In time, the order also came to administer the French treasury and offered, fora fee, to look after valuables and documents at local headquarters throughout its empire. At the same time, the knights became major players in the financial market, lending vast sums to the church and monarchs of Europe, who often ran up huge debts as a result. The order's intemational network made it possible to deposit money in a Templar house in one country and receive a receipt, written in code, that could be redeemed in another, either in Europe or the Middle East, in the local currency. The system, a precursor to ‘modern travellers’ cheques, made it safer for pilgims to travel abroad, which was. the original purpose of the order. The order's headquarters in London. was erected on the remains of a Roman temple. During World War I, Temple Church was severely damaged, but has since been rebuilt, On the floor of the church itself, visitors can see effigies of ‘some of the order's great benefactors. Next stop: Temple, 517 km eer Poneman ero) Pre eer northernmost bastion TEMPLE: In 1427, the Templars’ first grand master, Hugues de Payens, travelled widely in Europe to gather support before the ‘Council of Troyes, where the new order was sanctioned by the ope. Scotland was included on his itinerary. During his stay, King David | granted the Templars lands around Balantradoch, which became the site of the Scottish Templats’ HQ. Visitors can stil ‘see the ruins ofthe order's church and cemetery in the village that became known as Temple. Rossiyn Chapel, which is often, mistakenly, associated with the Templars, is nearby. Construction there started 134 years after the order was forcibly dissolved Noxt stop: Ile de Ia Cité, Paris, 857 km 3 Scotland was the Templars’Scones nv’ a EN@\AND 4 sue CHURCH 014 ieoevone ees \aa Le Couvertoieane i) Bey Ts How Kighhoot, Cate Csi 2007 4) was Grand Master de Molay’s execution on an land in Paris si pesapare, last grand master urned at the stake led the tend of the order's story. The island is today part ofthe ile de la Cité. TLE DE LA CITE: On 18th March 1314, ‘smoke rose rom Jews Island inthe Imidle ofthe River Seine in Pri. marked the place where the Templars last and master, Jacques de Molay, and his deputy were consigned tothe flames forheresy. With their deaths, the Templars’ story came oan end. tthe startofthe 14th century, the secretive order found its tod with the pope and the French king, Philip Matters came to head in Oetober 1307, when Philip rested France's Templars including the grand master Torture followed and de Moly fnally confessed to heresy, hamosenialty and baspheny. An ecclesiastical commission sentenced him to life imprisonment. buton hearing the judgement de May DID YOU KNOW. withdrew his confession: “| that de Molay declare, and! must declare, declared that Philip that the orderis innocent. and the pope would Its purty and saintiness be before God haveneverbeen defied.” _within a year? Both. ‘men were dead 12 months later. Philip, who owed huge debts to the order, denounced de ‘Aplaque on the northern tip of A lie de la Cité marks the execution ste. Molay as a relapsed heretic and, without Waiting for the pope's input, had the grand ‘master executed. An Italian researcher recently published a document ofthe pope's earlier interrogations, which ‘suggests that de Molay may have been absolved of all charges. But in the end, the Pope gave in to pressure {rom Philip and dissolved the order in 1312, twoyears before de Molay's death, Jacques de Motay utimatety denied that the Templars were ult ofthe6 WHO Was THE Man In THE Iron Mask?7 WHY Was HE rian ates he man in the mask > At a time when French criminals usually _ ‘ended up on the gallows, French King Louis XIV ordered one man to be put ° behind bars for the rest of his life. No one was allowed to know the identity of the man, who spent the next 34 years in a complete isolation, his face hidden * behind a mask. Soon rumours about the e king's prisoner began to spread and t a eventually coalesced into the myth of the man in the iron mask, whose true identity has never been resolved.8 WHY DID HE WEar a MASK? 1669-1703 ae ea ad or aa a 1 Thursday, [8th September 1698, an unusual prisoner arrived atthe Bastille, France's most notorious prison, in the heart of Paris. “The man's face was hidden under a mask of black velvet, and those staf at the prison who knew his name were banned from speaking it. As soon as he arrived, the inmate was taken to a room to wait for nightfall, twas a precaution to ensure that no one would see the new prisoner as he was moved to his cell. At 21.00, the prison’s deputy governor and a sergeant arrived and Ted the inmate to the third room in the old fortress’ Bertaudiéret tower. By this time, the masked man had already spent 29 years behind bars. Persistent rumours in France had transformed the mask that concealed the prisoner's identity from soft velvet to hard iron. It was said that the man in the iron mask exuded such a powerful presence that even as a nameless prisoner hidden behind a crude and eruel mask, he was oflered every respect by his guards, The whispers spoke of him being a man of noble blood, perhaps even the true king of France. THE KING IMPRISONED HIM Although the stories were exaggerated, there is no doubt that the man in the iron mask suffered an unusual fate. The very fact that he was imprisoned in various prisons for more than 30 years was unheard of in contemporary France. Prisons were ‘usually reserved for short-term sentences of petty eriminals or nobles; major crimes were punished by “death of, worse, life a galley save in the French navy. For whatever 34 ql Srount of ime themasked pron around reason, Louis XIV treated the nameless prisoner differently from other criminals. ‘We know that the king was personally involved in the case from his arrest warrant, ‘which was issued in 1669 and discovered by historians in the 1860s, The arrest warrant gives the name Eustache Dauger, but that ‘may have been an alias ~ pseudonyms were used quite frequently in France at that time for prisoners who were secretly detained. Eustache Dauger was arrested in the French port city of Calais and transported to the prison at Pignerol (now Pinerolo), which lay in southern France. Once there, hhe was handed over to one ofthe king's ‘musketeers, a prison guard and the prison’s governor, Bénigne d'Auvergne de Saint- ‘Mars. For the next 34 years, Saint-Mars remained in sole ge ofthe top-secret prisoner ‘The king’s secretary of state for war, Marquis de Louvois, sent Saint-Mars meticulous instructions from King Louis regarding security measures for the prisoner: ‘no one was to speak to the inmate atany time, and only the governor himself could take the prisoner food and water, Dauger was aso to be told that if he tried to speak to Saint-Mars about anything other than absolute necessities, hhe would be killed. His cell was to be constructed with double doors so no one could hear what was being said inside. IF fadoctor was required, SaintMars must ‘be present also, while a priest would be permitted to hear his confession only once every three months. PRISONERS ADDED TO THE MYTH. ‘The mysterious prisoner spent the following decades in primitive cellsn prisons around the outskirts of France, and always accompanied by Saint-Mars. In 1681, he was moved from Pignerol to the then By the time the man inthe iron mask arrived atthe Basil, the old fortress had Tong since transitioned rom being an passable mlitary fortification toa ‘well guarded state prison, French Exiles Fortin Piedmont (now northern Italy) and later to the island of Sainte- Marguerite, a few kilometres south (of the French Riviera town of Cannes. Whether Saint-Mars knew his prisoner's true identity is unclear, but there is nothing to indicate that he doubted the only two pieces of information he had received from Louvois: that the man’s name was Eustache Dauger and that he was “just 4 simple servant”. In the following years fof correspondence between the minister and the governor, the two made a virtue ‘of never mentioning the prisoner's ‘name. They simply referred to him as the lower tower” or et pe rer eas hepreaer Lovee eee se betpt ides a arte ale sane Maas ey ee, pane a sti homed sth Scie aia weer trent, toa ee pert nas be say ae Set atioe e singel a tas Misoras tates te FRENCH SPENDTHRIFT Louis XIV came to the throne asa five-year-old {and remained France's monarch unt his death 172 ears later: He bull castles and academies, ‘and cultural le flourished during his eign. He pieces. He often took partin the performances himself, ‘frequently playing the rele ofthe sun, gvng rise tos nickname the Sun King. Louis's aggressive foreign poly, Including his numerous wars against Span, burned yet {zathered the nobility at his palace in Versa ‘more money He emptied the treasury and then handed where he heldlavsh parties and staged theatrical the bil tothe poor in the form of eippling taxes The longestruling monarch in European histor. He bult Versailles and ruined France. 16 aee — CUA\A Kolko ftom som B00 MELO) Olea DS , @6@ No one was to speak to the inmate at any time 9966 The prisoner had to be the Sun King’s secret twin brother, who was kept incarcerated to avoid a power struggle 99 or whether he wa he twin king quickly spr onary France, Ordinary French sat the to the Bastille, French that the man in the iron mask ne Italian diplomat Count count and so, after Turin{nthe iron mask was sentenced to a Hf of solitude. He wus forbidden to speak of bout absolute necessities, and the man who guerded him for 24 years recelved careful ‘The deputy atthe Bastille 7 Instructions that noone could se the mysterious prisoner: noted the arrival ofthe inaste prisoner in 1698. messenger may have gained =% Knowledge of Charles's X agreement to convert to Catholicism in return fora strengthened alliance with the French. The alliance was intended to give Charles the power to overcome Protestant enemies at Home, But in the end, his death in 1685. According to Pettis, this theory is reinforced by the fact that Eustache Dauger das arrested nC Channel from En Mats used Mattiol’s which he always woided doing when writing about the man in the iron mask. THE KING's GAMBIT ‘Today, some historians believe that contemporary documer from the royal archives su Louvois's description ofthe prisoner as “a simple servant” is close to the truth, Eustache Dauger, they believe, ‘may have been one of King Louis's Personal servants, who, under unknown circumstances, became ‘aware of one or more explosive state secrets, The man couldn't be convicted in court, as atrial might expose the secrets, Instead, the kin unilaterally sentenced the unfortunate servant to spend the rest of his lifein solitary confinement. ais, just across the land HISTORIANS ARE STILL GUESSING After five yearsin the Bastille and a total of 34 years in prison, the man in the iron mask died at 10.00 on Monday, 19th November 1703. He was buried the next day at 16.00. Dujonca, the king’ lieutenant at the prison, noted that "On the register of ‘Seaths was also given a name unknown to ‘monsicur de rosarges major and Mr. Reil son who have signed the register” Bénigne d'Auvergne de Saint-Mars died bhe knew who had been hiding behind the ‘mask, he took the coveted knowledge with him to his grave, The identity of the man in the iron mask has never been definitively resolved, and new theories are constantly emerging. One of the latest candidates to have supposedly bbeen behind the mask is Charles de Batz de Castelmore d’Artagnan inspiration for the character d’Artagnan in Alexandre Dumas's tales, including The Three Musketeers. Some historians believe that the real d’Artagnan did not die as is widely assumed — during an attack on Maastricht in 1673, but survived despite severe wounds, only to be taken prisoner on Louvois's orders. According to this theory. the minister wanted to make the musketeer disappear to avoid him revealing Louvois’s fttempt to enchant King Louis. The theory is highly unlikely, but me proof that the identity of the Sun King’s mysterious prisoner is unlikely ever to be resolved and that the myth’s irresistible power will undoubtedly continue to give Supporters ofthis theory highlight five years after his most famous prisoner. If rise to new theories in the future " Dauger’s basic accommodation in prison and how Saint-Mars repeatedly tried to use the mysterious inmate as valet for other noble prisoners. One of TECHNIQUE (cuurune, ECONOMY, EVERYDAY them was the notorious sybarite and former nance minister Nicolas Fouguet, Vl who retained servants even in captivity When one of them died, Sant Mars asked Louis if Dauger could act as a replacement. The request was granted in 1675, and the man inthe iron mask served as Fouguets personal servant until the former minister's death ive yeurs later. ‘Academics still don know what state secret the Dauger may have uncovered, but French historian Jean-Christian Petits has made a good ens for Dauger being Sun King’s messenger to England's King Chaules I. According 1 Peis, the he French novelist Alovanere ‘Dumas (1802-1870) carried the story ofthe man inthe Iron mask beyond France's border when he features him in is colourful alee of, the three musteteers ‘Dumas built on Voltaire’: account of the prisoner being the king's secret twin Bestseller immortalised prisoner brother: nthe final part of The dArcagnen Romances, the theee musketeers fight to free the good twin and puthim on the throne in Place of his unjust brother. ‘The story has proved popular ever since and is regulary revisited by Hollywood flim makers. 19a alias a 10 WHO Was NOSTraDamus? Prophet or fraud?ll WHEN DID He Live? EC DT ma SUE ae ESOT ee UCR eect) PM Me Et eu Searle PU eee Ce ae UR cD) ren Per LEE DS ihe Idea that a mystical man in I reer ic Rename Centon future has fascinated millions of people over the last 450 years. CL CC OCs ROC EER Tg Eee Cee es nye the myth of his supernatural abilities himself, In the first verse of his famous book, The Prophecies, he wrote Pete eee ees aC ECT TOME TIN ere ee eee ee eer nt alleged association with the occult cn cet Prophecys.or: Mapoleon’s victory au, Nay, Lorn wil be more (ffir thn blood / T swim in raise, the great one to flee to He will be ha the confluence / He will refuse entry to the magpies / Pampon ‘and the Durance will keep them confined. adamus interpreters read “Pau, Nay, Lo an anagram of N Roy (Napoleon King). The Po pope the lion, a sign of fire, and people, and the magpies in 1796, he defeated the army, and the next year, French forces too but it actually has nothing o do with him. Pau, Nay and Loron are the nam of southem French cities. a blood. 9 the get on with ~ during n against Italy with better fit the have been 1 France” t y with Napoleon, "Napoleon believed in Gees ‘The plague doctor Michel de Nostredame moved to Salon-de Provence and began a career as an astrologer and prophet He took the name Nostradamus ‘and wrote The Prophecies about future disasters. once Ce cs ema ein eree coer erat popularity during his lifetime and Poe Ree Cre) astrologer, he apparently lived a very pert oes cd RECESS tsa Ey Nore OREN Sea eee Remy-de-Provence, the son of a grain eee era cece enone ny Peerage ccs ee Presa ncnt rs cet Tt ‘Michel was a bright boy. By the age CeCe enor id at the University of Avignon, but had Cee enee nese CeCe cen Prtee ccna arti first ine means the new ign of Napoleon himself ruler is born in the believed in this prophecy Nostradamus and always caried ‘an edition of The Prophecies with him.DID HIS PrOPHECIES Come TTUE? to close. Instead, Michel chose to become an apothecary, until he applied to the University of Montpellier in 1529 to train as a doctor. He was soon excluded, however, because of his profession; according to most university regulations at the time, it vas illegal to enter the halls of learning if you had worked in a manual trade, Michel de Nostredame continued as an apothecary and soon became Tamous for developing the so-called rose pill, which reportedly protected against plague. News of the pill reached Jules-César Scaliger, one of the leading philosophers, doctors and scientists of the Renaissance. Scaliger Invited Michel de Nostredame to the southern French city of Agen, so that together they could try to find a cure for the plague. In Agen, Michel de Nostredame also met his first wife, with whom he had two children. But in 1534, just three years after their wedding, Michel realised that neither the rose pill nor his plague research worked; his wife and children contracted the dreadful disease and died. Nostradamus discovered magic Devastated by the death of his wife and children, he began to travel around France and Italy, where he worked ‘as an apothecary and plague doctor for over ten years. Its likely that on these journeys, he began to take more Cac eet ees re Pore ett rented Nostradamus became counsellor and court ‘astrologer and physician to Queen Catherine de Medic ater predicting Hend I's death of an interest in the supernatural and astrology. ‘Among a superstitious population, no one was more superstitious than doctors, plague doctors in particular — all manner of prayers and rituals were used in the fight against the disease, for which they knew of no effective cure. They hoped that patients could be cured using magic and necromancy, so a plague doctor would draw circles around the patient's hospital bed and invoke spirits. In 1547, Michel de Nostredame settled in Salon-de-Provence, remarried, and began a new career as a prophet. In 1550, he published an Do eee Lt cry cause tobe dragged into an iron OT eer Sees ete Pe) pee ee Pee era Cae co ree es eerie eras tanks - will ross the rivers Petro) Pr almanac and changed his name to the ‘mystical-sounding Nostradamus. ‘As well as special dates, his almanac featured horoscopes and predictions for the year. It was a success, and until his death in 1566, he published a least, one almanac a year. Their popularity led folk to visit Nostradamus for advice and horoscopes. Nostradamus also worked on something he called The Prophecies = the book that made him famous. However, it was not a great success when the first part was published in 1555. Only a few members of France's upper class believed it to be a collection of special, spiritually inspired prophecies. Prophecy of the king's death One of his prophecies referred to a threat to the French royal family, which resulted in a summons to court. Nostradamus feared being beheaded for insulting the monarchy, but instead the queen, Catherine de Medici, asked him to make horoscopes for her children, which was how Nostradamus foretold the death of King Henri Il: The prediction was astoundingly accurate. The king died after a 5 a Teh ee eae ey) oes CAT ao Ser ns ee ee) Se ert Perea ad Eee preg eae eer een eer Rotel Ce Seen ey ono fee ents ett the Battle of Teutoburg ee Dera eee ts ee tas Cs ciesknight's tournament in 1559, when his opponent’s lance shattered and a splinter passed through the king’s gold visor, plercing his eye and throat. Hentl died after ten days of torment. Both the king and his younger opponent had a lion on their coat of arms. Everything about the prophecy seemed true, and it Prophecy 2.91: For the most part, this prophecy is intrpreted as a prediction of the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasak in 1945. The great fire is the mushroom Cloud whose light extends far to the north. Those residents who did ‘ot perish in the explosion would dle from fire and hunger. But, like so many of Nostradamus’s prophecies, it could cover many other batties and disasters, NNostradamus's prediction of fire and ight could relate to any numberof tragedies other than the ‘atomic bomb. has been used as evidence of his special abilities to predict the future. The problem is that the prediction didn’t appear in the first edition of The Prophecies, published four years before the king's death, and the link between the prophecy and the event wasn’t made in print until $5 years later. But Nostradamus must have convinced the queen, because she appointed him as court astrologer and physician. One thousand prophecies The Prophecies was published in four parts between 1555 and 1558. It contained 1,000 predictions, but only 942 survive. Unlike the predictions in his almanacs, The Prophecies extended beyond the coming year. But common to almost all the predictions was the fact that no specific year was mentioned. Most dealt with disasters = plagues, earthquakes, wars, floods, fires, invasions, murders, droughts and battles. Some predicted disasters in very general terms, others mentioned a single person or small group. Some were about a city, others concerned entire countries, When The Prophecies was published, the Inquisition was at Its peak. Because of the Reformation that had divided Christian Europe 25 years previously, the Catholic Church was suspicious of all deviations in faith. Fearing the church’s reaction, Nostradamus obscured the book's Prophecy 2.62: Many interpreters take this prophecy to be a prediction of Saddam Hussein end the raq war. They say *Mabus" is ‘an anagram of Saddam in his magical trance state, Nostradamus heard “Subam" instead (of Saddam. A smal, Understandable mistake, ' say his supporters. They believe he wrote Mabus (Subam backwards) instead of Maddas (Saddam backwards). But eri point out that if Nostradamus used anagrams and incorrect names at the same time, there are endless possiblities for interpretation. Other interpreters see the prophecy as a Prediction of doom wi meaning by using wordplay and a mix of Greek, Italian and Latin alongside French. However, he never had any problems with church leaders who, like everyone at the time, believed in astrology and prophecy. Instead, the language he used meant many people considered Nostradamus to be mad. Nostradamus met criticism According to Nostradamus, he was not a prophet in the true sense. “As for myself, I would never claim such a title, never, please God,” he wrote ina letter to Henri Il in 1558. Nostradamus considered himself an astrologer, and his prophecies were not based on magic or occult powers, but on predictive astrology. Astrology during the Middle Ages and Renaissance was divided into medical, meteorological and predictive branches. Medical and meteorological astrology were considered sciences and used for healing and weather forecasts Everyone believed that the position of the planets had an impact on life on Earth. On the other hand, predictive astrology - which is broadly similar to what we think of as astrology today = was considered frivolous. Among professional astrologers, Nostradamus was considered a trickster. Nostradamus compared major events in the past with the position of the planets. When the planets were in the same position in the future, a Hussein requires an ‘anagram of a misspolllng. Halley's comet shows, up. But the world didn't end in 1986, when itlast ‘appeared, 0 interpreters have maved doomsday to 2064, when i's due next.Prophecies 2.01, 1.34 and 2.46: E ery tg prey, which today we tink must ee ee aes probably thinking about the Turks. 24 Scag eee ey prediction of World War Peet ens Cees et eee ee Per re Pept oeeaetetn) hharaly look favourably upon ees ees ts ees ey Ce eric peeks <= The prophet in his study, where eer a oeame rai Se ced Saud the prophecy. Pd Peo! et) pe eer eg a Se ey eT ce Ce Soa ad Ces Pore er) Peed Deco) Se ed This prophecy used to be viewed as the prediction of World War I, which was to omer ea ety Coe aa ‘anew age began. However, eee eee ested the prophecy is now often eee oy Peano) Peo!similar event would occur. Therefore, many of Nostradamus’s predictions dealt with important men, whose divinations were based on the lives of Roman emperors. He copied those men’s horoscopes and the records of the position of the planets from other astrologers, but he made many mistakes. In fact, The Prophecies was filled with spelling and typographical errors, which over time have led to ‘more errors and misunderstandings. Nostradamus also borrowed from older sources. Many passages come from classic writers such as Livius, Suetonius and Plutarch. In Nostradamus's time, this wasn't considered cheating, but a learned and respectful gesture towards the masters. He also borrowed many events from the medieval chronicle writers, especially from Froissart’s chronicle of the Hundred Years’ War. All his astrological references were taken from 1550's Livre de l'Estat et ‘Mutations des Temps, white the main source of the prophecies is Mirabilis Liber, a collection of older prophecies. Mistakes and vagueness Despite Nostradamus's popularity, historians have two fundamental problems with The Prophecies: his language and his vague wording. Nostradamus wrote in medieval French, which is different from modern French. Words that had one Prophecy 10.72: word deft butin ‘The year is clear, but what is going to happen is unknown, Some interpreters say it predicts the end of the world: others believe that aliens will attack Earth But inguists have proved that both interpretations are based on an incorect, translation. The French eur has been translated as “teror”, ieval French the word meant “host”. The resurrection of the King of the Mongols is also based on errors: Nostradamus wrote “the king of Angolmois”, but after erors of transtation, itbecame “the great king of the Mongols Nostradamus's prophecy is probably inspired by accounts of the King of Angoumois, Francois I in 1525, he was captured by the GernanSpanish King meaning in the 16th century have a different meaning today. Also, the majority of translations are based on other translations, not Nostradamus's original, leading to many translation errors in later editions. But the big problem —and the reason for the success of The Prophecies ~ is the vague wording. Each prophecy can cover several events: This prophecy has been interpreted as predicting the first terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre in 1993, the Hale-Bopp comet in 1995, and a plane crash outside New York in 1996. After 11th September, 2001, It Is became associated with the 9/11 terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre. According to historians, this prophecy is a textbook example of a prediction that could cover almost anything. No matter how fascinating it Is to think that someone predicted modern-day events 450 years ago, a prophecy Is only a prophecy If it can predict something about the future — Not if tis just slotted into the past. ‘Etter Dialog, Te Johns Mops Unrerany Press CChatles V, who was also the Holy Roman Emperor {and thus King of Heaven. Francois was released in March (1526), and *Mars” probably means the month of March. With that interpretation, the prophecy is less dramatic and based upon Nostradamus's ‘own petod: This is believed to predic the ‘murder of John F Kennedy, who was shot in the daytime and died fas though etruck by lightning, Previously, a psychic had wamed him against going to Dallas. His brother, Robert, presidential candidate in 1968, was shot late at night. The “conflict” in Reims ‘and London can be interpreted a student riots the same year. But “pestilence in Tuscany’ can't bbe explained by Nostradamnus’s followers. And the psychic warned of other incidents that didn't ‘occur, so wasn't taken seriously13 WaS Da VINCI a SCIENTIST?10 WaS THE MODEL FOr THE MONa LISa? da Vinci | The Mona Lisa's enigmatic smile has mystified people for five centuries. The pe ae priceless portrait is Leonardo da Vinci's most es famous work, but it’s far from being the only WY a } At thing about the Renaissance man that continues to confound and amaze . q? g sot ay academics. Engineers are still trying to sol a rying to solve ~ \ the puzzle of the Italian inventor's pioneering ) A\\ ml 7 sketches of tanks and helicopters, while i others continue to search for enlightenment vy “At in his 6,000-plus pages of notes - all of raat ‘ which were penned in mirrored writing. vat ie fs Ayia 2 to be ‘ % gnarey 1 gee. SO a Cay NA 2B: SN d ite nd nh f o #4¢ x = ae a715 COULD Da VINCI'S HELICOPTEr Have FLOWN? 1452-1519 1462 Leonardo 1481 Takes ‘sapere work ith tothe artisan Mans ruler, Andres dal idovico Verroccio, eStore, he modest sepia-coloured drawing depicts a mountain landscape with a river cutting through a steep valley: Perched fon a ridge to the left a castle overlooks the lowlands. Above the castle's tower, the artist has dated the picture: “Di Maria della Neve, adi 2 d’aghosto 1473” [The day of St Mary of the Snow, 2 August 1473}. But it takes more than acy to decipher the erabbed ecause the letters are backwards and run from right to left. Today, the cryptic style of writing has become synonymous with the signature in the bottom-right corner of the drawing, which simply says ‘Leonardo”, The drassing is the earliest of Leonardo da Vinci's recognised works. For 500 years, the works of the early Renaissance artist have caused historians to ask more questions than they have been able to answer. Da Vine is the man behind the world’s most famous painting, Mona Lisa ‘which continues to fascinate those who gather before its muchvisited space at the Louvre in Paris, His sketches of pioneering war machines still make engineers marvel at how the Italian polymath could build prototype designs of tanks and helicopters, Centuries before they became a reality. And his love of fable writing and eyphers has nourished the imagination of admirers who hhave since tried to emulate him. Much of da Vinei’s work has disappeared. Although historians have been trying to catalogue his works for half ‘millennium, there are still missing pieces. Some even doubt whether # number ffatue da Vine designed for dere Stor ANDREA DEL VERROCCHIO 143 LEONARDO’S MENTOR Im The italian artisan Andrea del Verrochio wae ‘originaly trained asa jewels, but most of his work was asa sculptor, draughtsman and painter. His ‘workshop was one ofthe best in ath century Florence. Verrocchio created impresive and innovative works ‘that many artists went on to emulate. Among other works, he created a bronze statue of David standing ‘over Goliath's head, which can be seen today at the Leonardo da Vinc's multitalented teacher was part of Florence's artistic elt. 1489 davies ff 1s03starts 1519 Dies at he aera tepaintthe the French ecven wich ff Monat” royal carla Tooke ikea Inambote. helicopter. of the paintings attributed to him are actually his, although the artist's distinctive painting style suggests that they are. atest source of informal have about the definitive Renaissance man comes from his own words and sketches — 6,000 pages of notes ~ most of which he kept seeret during his lifetime, A BUDDING NATURAL TALENT Inthe late Middle Ages, the heavy clouds of war drifted across Italy. The Ottomans ‘threatened from the east, the French from the north, and the Italian city-states were ‘at war with one another. Into this seen Leonardo was born on 1Sth April 1852. He was te illegitimate child of a peasant girl and a notary, and was therefore named after his birthplace, Vinci, in Florence Shortly after his bith, his mother married another man, who became father to Leonardo and his hale-siblings. From childhood, Leonardo was busy exploring nature, and researchers assume that he received a good education on account of his biological father's position as a notary. "Not far from his native city, the cultural avant garde flocked to Florence, which was then the artistic capital of Europe. His father pulled strings and in 1467, Leonardo 'was apprenticed to the Florentine artisan Andrea del Verroechio, AUIS, Leonardo started his apprenticeship late boys usually started as eight-year-olds ~ but he uickly proved to have an extraordinary talent. Verrocehio, who was knowin as @ master of perspective, worked as a painter, sculptor, jeweller, engraver and musician, which exposed his young apprentices to Kinds or artistic influences and ideas. Itis likely that Leonardo began by sweeping up in the workshop and mixing paints, before n This drawing from 1473 isthe earliest preserved work of Leonardo da Vint, Some suggest that it ‘marks the birth of landscape patting. Verroechio began his training in drawing and colouring. Eventually, he would have been given a brush to assist his master with saintings. Leonardo's ambitions were lofty, as revealed in his later notes, EXPERIMENTS WITH LIGHT His earliest preserved work - the small sepia drawing of the Talian countryside already stood out from contemporary productions, antedating the landscape art movement of the mid-1500s by almost ‘century. But he realy started to demonstrate his skills when, in the 1470s, he vas given the responsibility of adding an angel to Verrocchio’s painting The Baptism of Christ. His master and the other ‘apprentices were deeply impressed by Leonardo's almost etherial brushwork, which perfectly captured the angel's softly shaped face and fine, downy hair. ‘Arthistorians today agree that da Vinci's use of light and shadow was well ahead ofits time, The artist's notes reveal hhow he experimented withthe i paintings from the beginning, by draping loth over different objects, then painting them as the light struck them from different tangles. Leonardo also extensively studied hhow the human eye captures ight and applied that knowledge to his works. ‘Many will think they may reasonably blame me by alleging that my proofs are Pa Verrocchio recognised his apprentice’ talent when Leonardo aststed him on The Baptism ‘of Christ in the 1470s. Da Vine painted the angel on the far let / argello Museum in Florence. After the preeminent jorentne sculptor Donato Donatello died in 1466, Verroechio's work was ptronsed bythe Medicis. In addition to painting and creating sculptures he aso Aesigned costumes for thelr lavish pais 1467, the artisan apprenticed the 15-year-old Leonardo da Vin, ‘eventually teaching him a wide ange of artist kil, Including painting and bronze casting.SDIDD PARANA MM Kem Nsom KO) MONG smeNr HOU Mia be‘opposed to the authority of certain men hheld in the highest reverence [but] my works are the issue of pure and simple experien: Who isthe one true mistress. These rules fre sufficient to enable you to know the true from the false,” he wrote later The studies of light and shadow would become the basis for later masterpieces, such as Lady with an Ermine and the ‘world-famous Mona Lisa. Leonardo hhimself explained that the task of an artist when painting was to give the Spectator a sense of depth. That Philosophy was already widely ‘espoused atthe time, but da Vinci 1ookit to a new level AccuseD or sopomy (Despite his obvious talent, da Vineis career was almost over Before it bezan. In one of the Wwalls of Florence's town hall, Rete was a letter box where Gitizens could make anonymous uisations of heresy. In 1476, gnardo, a colourfuly dressed gr, became the subject of denunciation. He was fan Ermine, rom 1488-90, Gefla aileron, the mistress of then employer Ludovico Sforza FADED SUPPER In 1494, da Vinci was ‘commissioned to paint an image of the Last Supper on the walls of the Convent of Santa ‘Maria delle Grazie. The painting depicts the ‘moment Christ reveals that one of his disciples will betray him. It was completed in 1498. BEFORE RESTORATION 30 ¢@ My works are the issue of simple experience, who is the one true mistress. 99 1a Vinci chose to paint on a dry wall witha minture of eggs and colour pigment. few yeas later, The Last Supper began to fade, ‘and within 20 years, the painting was showing clear signs of decay charged with having homosexual relations with a I7 year-old prostitute ~a crime punishable by death, Fortunately, the case sas dropped, but academics believe that the event left is mark on the artist for the rest of his life, making him increasingly secretive and reluctant to exhibit his Work Tn 1478, a wave of violence hit Florence. The Pazzi family tried to eliminate the Medicis, the city’s ruling family, in a bloody attack at Florence cathedral. However the attack failed and the Medicis’ reprisals were merciless: conspirators were hanged or beheaded and many innocent civilians were hacked to death, Some corpses were suspended from the windows of government buildings. Although Leonardo abhorred violence, it did not stop him from ‘making sketches of the Medicis victims as they hung from the gallows. One features Bernardo Baroncell, one ofthe instigators of the attack, alongside da Vinci's description of the hanged man's attire. WORKS WERE UNFINISHED Despite sparse sources, historians are certain that da Vinci's reputation was growing in Florence during the late 470s, fand in [481 he received his first major commission, Monks at the Church of San Donato, which lay in Scopeto, outside Florence, asked him to decorate an altarpiece. Records show that Leonardo ‘worked on the painting for six months until the payments stopped. Da Vinci never AFTER RESTORATION hestoration of the painting began inthe 16th century and has been ongoing ever since. For centuries, the panting was poorly patched with layer upon layer of el paint and ‘lve. During the most recent restoration, which was catied out between 1979 and 1999, conservators peeled away ‘llprevious repairs restore the egg-based tempera pigment orignal used on the masterpiece,finished the painting, something that became one of the most pervasive characteristics of his work. Today, academies beliove that the altarpiece can be seen in the unfinished Painting The Adoration ofthe Magi. The Faw sketch for the picture shows that the artist composed the painting based on a tight geometry. Although the painting is unfinished, the spectators’ body language and facial expressions are shown in the mallest detail. These two aspects Separate the work from previous nativity pisces and set the framework for paintings that followed. ‘There has been a great deal of speculation as to why so many of da Vinci's ‘masterpieces are unfinished, ‘but the simplest explanation ‘can be found in the artists own notebook is noble; executing its servile, hewrote Historians believe that the artist was simply uninterested in Putting the finishing touches on, his works, What was important ‘was not the result, but the knowledge he gained through his work. His many handwritten pages reveal innumerable ‘thoughts, ideas and an almost obsestive need to explore how nature, man and the universe are constructed and function. ‘Conversely, customers perceived the unfinished works as a waste, which is probably why Leonardo was not selected for prestigious projects. For example, the commission to decorate the Sistine Ch in 1481 went instead to Michelangelo, To conceive an idea WORKED AS AN EVENT ORGANISER The now 30-year-old Leonatdo left Florence in 1481 for the city of Milan, which was constantly on a war foot because ofits close geographical proximity to the militarily powerful France. The city was the centre of Italy's arms industry an Bill Gates bought da Vine's Coder Lecestor | manuscript in Toes for eles milion tthe Book ever so Leonardo's eyes were quickly eaught by the impressive war machines manufactured there. However, he was certain he could offer more advanced weaponry, and shortly after his arrival inthe ety, he ‘wrote to Milan's regent, Ludovico Sforza, | recommending himself as a military | engineer and detailing some of his more visionary ideas. These included siege towers, techniques for undermining moats and various types of artillery. Ludovico Sforza was unconvinced and instead hired da Vinei for artistic tasks, such as decorating altarpieces and painting portraits. One of the regents more Spectacular commissions saw da Vinci take the role of an event organiser, co-ordinating the Paradise Party’ at the wedding of Duke Galeazzo and Teabella of Aragon in 1490. | Eien EGGS & FEATHERS. CREATED WORKS ‘an apprentice to Verracehio, da Vine | earned to paint using techniques that he employed throughout his career £9 os ond pigment were eae eeeoeaten inctadisone ofthese ways | ‘ming po Lote conde Smet of he wa tere often made with ala ol The cows come rm ‘riracted from copper while ‘edad yallow core frm the Se many artiste ured brushes ‘made fom hog bites Fine ‘deol brathes were made fom Soft squire fur These were ‘ettached to goose feather shafts EE Leonardo painted on ‘xomple the world famous Mona irae painted on a panel made ‘fpopor plank. When ‘decorating churches, he ‘fen patted drecty Suter ple ‘Sreote durabity ‘though tis flledto Drotect his pacingarchitecture and to perspective and to the divine art of painting. Although Leonardo swore by the empirical evidence of his own eyes, he also enjoyed waxing lyrical at times. In 1490, he ‘wrote this fable about the origin of rain ‘One day, some water was seized by the wish to leave its usual place inthe beautiful sea, and fly up into the sky. So the wate turned to the fire being for help. The fire agreed, and with its heat turned the water {nto a thin vapour, making it lighter than dir. The vapour soared up into the sky, higher and higher, until fnallyit reached the coldest and most rarefied level of the ‘atmosphere, Then the water partiles, numb with cold, were forced together and became, ‘once more, heavier than the air. And they fell— in the form of rai, ‘Such stories break the notion of Leonardo as a strictly scientific thinker: His use of mirror writing has also let people confounded, and while some speculate that it was to help keop his ideas secret, others ‘suggest it was simply easier for the left- handed Leonardo to write from right to left Tue Arr or Genius Ithough Leonardo describes war as the “most bestial madness” in his notes, during his service with Ludovico Sforza he became something of an expert in designing ‘weapons and fortifications ~ again, all wll ahead of ther time. His hand outlined terrifying constructions, such as @ gargantuan crossbow, a chariot with Fotating blades capable of slashing the legs fof ten enemies at once, and an armoured Fighting vehicle 1's possible that da Vinei drew inspiration from contemporary books such ‘as Roberto Valturio’s military treatise De Re Militari from 1472, which depicted the Romans’ war strategy and techniques. His sketches of ‘weapons, such as bows, clubs and slings, could also have their roots in antiquity But no matter where his inspiration came from, he refined the ideas 1o come up with pioneering innovations. In recent times, several of his inventions have been recreated and tested. Many of them —such as his parachute work impeccably. Others are less practical. Da Vines warship would probably have sunk under the weight of its cannons, and his machine gun would have been difficult to load, Whether his inventions were tried at the time is unknown, but today there is no evidence that Leonardo's sketches ever ‘made it off the drawing board Tn the summer of 1499, France invaded Milan and Leonardo lost hi job when Ludovico Sforza was overthrown. Aged 47, he left the war-torn city and travelled to the Republic of Venice, where he secured employment as a military architect and engineer. During his tenure there, da Vinei proposed a flying machine that mimicked the wing movements of a bat, and « special diving suit that would enable a man to breathe underwater, but hisemployers ~ 32 Leonardo da Vinci's notes are packed with sketches for machines that only came into being hundreds of years later. The pioneering polymath seemed to have a particular penchant for war and fiying machines. ‘THE WING, 1489: Da Vincl was obsessed with aerodynamics and this construction lustrates bis understanding of «wing's power. His notes ‘also include sketches fr fying machines that ‘mimic the movement ofa bats wing, a¢ well, sa parachute that has since been recreated land proven to work Shed oh -coad Le MELICOPTER, 1489: fussian engineer Igor Sikorsky was the frst man t take of in helicopter in 1940, but more than 400 years before that, da Vincihad sketched a fing machine thet warked on the some princole. ‘lead come to the conclusion hat ar has ‘mass, and that a screw with sll should be ‘ete lu hough tev rotates ae :MULTIBARREL GUN, 1482 Precision was oneo the key Puineiples behind da Vines srtlley, The height and angle ofthe gun platform ould be adjusted so that the barrels pointed precisely at the target. The operator a Vint invented ‘ould re a single shot o all machine for fn) the Barels at once, designed to re in multie directions, The ten guns could be primed vie hatch Solders could ‘wate from FIGHTING VEHICLE, 1485: a Vine’ armoured fighting vehicle. Wardesienedto rollacross the P battlefield on four ‘wheal without leosng its crew. Shfe inside the cone: shaped chasis, upto tight men could operate the {uns while propelling the ehicls forward, Forty guns could hittorgets ino _360-segree rls,couldn't see the value of his vertheless, da Vinei continued to pursue military contracts, includin accepting a commission from Pope Alexander VI's notorious illegitimate son Cesare Borgia. Ione is to believe the famous philosopher Niccolo Machiavelli, Leonardo was now supplying military engineering to the original Machiavellian villain Cesare Bo rant who had plans to seize power throughout tay. aand Leonardo, as his chief ‘and “architect, was sent from city to city to dovelop canals and fortifications. But, once jn, nothing eame of his sketches, This is perhaps why Leonardo left Venice a year Tater to return to Florence, where he immersed himself in painting once more. THE ENIGMATIC SMILE AA few years later, he ereated a masterpi ‘that would inspire wonder, conjecture and ‘one of the most spectacular art thes ofa time. In 1503, he put the first strokes on @ panel of popiar wood that in time took on the shape ofa darkchaired woman with an enigmatic smile: Mona Lisa, Who the ‘model was has been the subject of much speculation. Some claim that da Vinci hid a sellsporteait within the mysterious female figure. Others say that he immortalised the wie of the Florentine grocer Francesco del Giocondo, Today, art historians explain that the unique thing about Mona Lisa is the 1 brushstrokes. This shows Leonardo's mastery of the sfumato technique, a term that derives from the Italian word for smoke, which involves the imperceptible blendin, colours. This is employed to great effect in the comers of the eyes and mouth - the worldfamous \, desis have \, featured on ons places on the face where the facial expressions are most clearly identified, It efta smile that has been called sinister, haunting and seductive. The artist’ advanced portrayal of light and shadow gives the composition a sense of depth and perspective, while the wor position, with the body angled a fan impression of movement. Its not cleat whether Leonardo considered it as Unfinished, but he kept it by his side until his death in 1519. ANATOMICAL STUDIES Da Vinei continued his studies of the ‘world in parallel with his painting. he artist who dreamed of fying wrote « codex sanalysi bird flight. But human biomechanics also attracted his attention. Artand science swirled around one another ashe sliced open cadavers te map the intricacies of muscles, bones and ligaments, He believed that "to understand atigure one must paint from the bones outward”, and he made detailed sketches ‘during his exploration of human anatomy. skulls, cartilage, tendons ‘even an unborn foetus in a ‘deceased woman's womb, Tn 1305, Like so much else, } however, his compilation of anatomical discoveries vas let unfinished, While artists such as Rafael and Michelang. In 1912, the bookseller Wilfrid M Voynich bought a book ey Tae) with drawings and a code w ee] itten from right to left. Cee Laan) eee ee that da Vinci was behind the mys 34 ee ue eee Tera a The Voynich teas De rene pp eesbiny een cect eee ern Seyeesebocn a carey near wore widely hailed, the 60-year-old Leonardo had become a background figure con the Italian art seene. The Catholic church banned his anatomical studies on bbunans, insisting that he confine his studies to animal organs. Fortunately, employers outside Italy wore queueing up for Leonardo's attention especially the French regents, King Louis XI had long sought to acquire The Last Supper, which he greatly admired. And ‘when his successor, King Francis extended an invitation to Leonardo to come to France, the ageing artist accepted. Inthe summer of 516, da Vinei arrived at the Chateau du Clos Lucé in the Loire Which was just $00 metres from the royal castle in Amboise. There he w: dubbed the royal “first painter, architect, fand engineer” Sketches he m: generous new castle and a eanel through the Loire Valley were unearthed later, but ct ised. A year later, atthe of 65 the artist began to be plagued by laches and pains, and one hand hun; from his atm, It seems likely that he stopped painting around this time, Noes DISAPPEARED FoR 362 YEARS Leonardo da Vinci died on 2nd May 1519, leaving behind him no public works other than The Last Supper in Milan's Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie, where the paint was already cracking, Most of his other ‘works had been left to his apprentice Francesco Melzi, who in 1580 wrote a treatise that brought together the notes his ‘master had catalogued under the heading “On painting”. However, it wasn't officially published until 1817, Melzis ores poe cr aes ee prunrcr tien) Peete rererty prea te Eerie66 One must paint from the bones outwards. 99 inheritance ultimately passed from han to hand, until the sculptor Pompeo Leoni attempted to gather da Vinci's notes into ‘wo large volumes, which are now refer to as the Codex Atlanticus and the W Collection, towards the end of the 16th century. However, many of the artist's sketches, notes and paintings were seattered to the winds, and it would lake close to 300 productions of da Vinci's paintings by his students and others have Confused art historians over the years. In fact, it was only during the last century that experts agreed on the 12 paintings that ‘are now attributed to da Vinet ~and no one ‘can be certain that more new pieces won't surface in time Meanwhile, new findings about his accepted works are still b sled. AS recently as 2010, a group of researchers Jaimed to have found tiny letters in the pupils ~ LV in the right eye and CE in the le signify is unknown, Like so many pu urrounding the Renaissance secret that is yet to be unlocke Historians believe tha the image onthe right isa self portratof da Vinci, although ther eno way be the secretive artist, Aisclosed the model PO aL Peer ere erry rerer ier ee er en eee eee Oe ere EonsET ‘WZ DID KING A'THUI €XIST? The mytht united Br During the Middle Ages, King Arthur and his knights Pe Ec ae eg Bel eee eB ek A A a Le Ue De geeCary cg19 DID BriITaln’s KING Have a rOUND TaBLe? {mn earty historical depictions, an Arthurian charactor repulsed a Saxon invasion of England. From warlord to Tg eee eee holding back an Invasion of bloodthirsty Vikings in sixth- century Britain, Later, he was cast as England's most powerful . EM EUs eR ini cee ae new mighty warrior over the following centuries into a year AD 410, Rome abandoned its rainy In the sixth legendary king. But who was the real province on the Western frontier and a British Arthur? Did he even exist? withdrew its legions to Rome, where battlefield, the very sight ‘The Arthurian legend dates back tothe they were required to defend the em f whom terrified fend of the Roman occupation. In the against marauding Visigoths. In Britain, the Romans had introduced ans had also brought with them a mouths of serpents, and so dre ict military discipline quite unk he that none could look upon him. to the ever-warring Ci The warrior was the legendary Artht When the Romans returned home, deadly warlord who he ects without ‘early Dark Age Britain. His reputation ction against enem! ‘was quite unlike the fabled King, Arthur, from all sides. To the who ruled over a court of chi el land, there were wild knights and forbidden love affairs. The Irish attacked from the west; But the second Arthur evo the sea , ships the first to give us the world-famous myth we know today. Arthur's tale arrived to conquer new lands. began 1,500 go with the Hadrian's Wall kept the Pets out ofthe The enemies’ attacks were so battlefield hero, 5 transformed Roman province of rita, Jerwhelming that the British twicebegged Rome for help, but the Romans ‘were busy saving themselves. Britain had fo lear to fight for Itself if it wanted to fend of the invading hordes. “Lord of Battles” held off the enemy Even the Romans feared the aggressive Saxons, who easily defeated the scattered British resistance during their early Incursions. However, archaeological finds suggest that the Anglo-Saxon advance was checked in the early sixth century at a time when several Celtic fortifications were being expanded. According to the contemporary Welsh monk Gildas, the Saxons were beaten by a united Celtic army on Badon Hill. No Arthur’ is mentioned in Gildas' account, bt in the early ninth century, the monk Nennius wrote Historia Britonum, Which alluded to Artorius Dux Bellorum (Arthur the Lord of Battles) as the commander of the Celtic defence. “The Saxons grew strong by virtue of, thelr number... Then Arthur, with the kings of Britain, fought against them. ‘The twelfth battle was on Mount Badon In which there fell In one day 960 men from one charge by Arthur; and no one struck them down except Arthur himself, and in all the wars he emerged as victor.” The fact that Nennius' Arthur fought alongside Britain’s kings infers that he wasa warlord rather than a ruler. Nennius states that there were 12 battles in all, at the end of which the ‘Anglo-Saxons sued for peace. Arthur may have been Roman Although Nennius wrote his account 300 years after the battles, historians assume that the monk must have drawn, ‘on sources that have since been lost. The few historical narratives of the period found to date do not mention any warlord Artorius, and historians’ knowledge of this mighty commander is thus severely limited. The name Artorius Dux Bellorum has led to speculation that Nennius' “Lord of Battles” may have been Roman - although this is obviously contrary to anything in the later Arthur legend. Dux was the highest-ranking commander in the Roman provinces, and there was a famous centurion named Lucius Artorius Castus in late second century Roman Britain ‘This Artorius is known from Roman Inscriptions which date to around 200 AD. They claim that while in Britain, he defeated an attack from the Picts. Lucius Artorius Castus’ struggles may have formed a basis for the 12 battles that the monk Nennlus later attributed to the Celtic commander Artorius. feveral modern historians belleve that the Roman commander's victory could be explained by the empire's use of cavalry, known as the cataphractil, to patrol Roman defences like Hadrian's Wall. Disciplined mounted forces would have given the Roman Arthur a great advantage over the Picts, who fought almost exclusively on foot But the theory of Arthurian legend being inspired by the deeds of a Roman, officer does not fit with the period in Which Arthur is believed to have lived: Lucius Artorius Castus is believed to have arrived in Britain in the year AD 181 and died in Gaul (now France) 16 years later — long before the Saxons invaded Britain. Yet it cannot be ruled ‘out that the Roman's successes sowed the seed for Nennius’ ninth-century account of Artorlus Dux Bellorum. “King of the Brittones” was betrayed A third possible candidate for Arthur is the Roman-Breton leader Riothamus. With him, the timeline fits, for he lived In the late ith century and is referred to by the Roman historian Jordanes as “king of the Brittones”. I's not known exactly ‘which area he ruled, though it seems likely to be Amorica, an area that encompassed modern France's Normandy and Brittany regions. In ancient-Breton the word Riothamus means “great king” ~ and he was powerful enough that the Roman ‘emperor asked for his help against the rampaging Visigoths. Riothamus and his army of C to the Berry region in central France. However, his 12,000 men were attacked and beaten by the Visigoths before he ‘could link up with Roman forces. Rothamus and his beaten army sought shelter in present-day Burgundy, which was also allied with the Romans. But unknown to him, the Praetorian prefect ‘of Gaul, Arvandus, had written to Eursc, king of the Visigoths, urging him to attack the Britons north of the Loire and suggesting that the Visigoths and Burgundians could afterwards divide Gaul between themselves ~ presumably with Arvandus himself as kin. AAs a result, Rlothamus was probably killed while ‘under the protection of the Burgundians. His last-known ‘whereabouts was the town of Avalion, which some historians believe was Inspiration for Arthur's magical resting place, Avalon, to which the mythical ets sailed eed Artur wistoled Brine penn The wizard te nbs {Eitoniy he right king wuld be eel ae ae king travelled after being betrayed and mortally wounded by his son, Mordred. Arthur became a literary hero Accounts of the Celtic hero Artorius Dux Bellorum along with stories of Poets embellished PNciter mone Cope monks and French poots peer tee CAD 500 wetsh sources reterto Coes ee) fete Obra acd eit rts back the invading Saxon army, single ei eee ety one toy peu iny s lee ena Wace adds the round Star) Coates Troyes adds Camelot and deseribes ho ry eter poor ot aor et Cae Peers Coen gard ee eet poe) aM ea cee pease a]40 successful commanders, such as Lucius Artorlus Castus and King Riothamus, no doubt mingled with other Celtic and British heroes’ deeds in the tales of travelling bards recounted for paying audiences far and wide. As the centuries passed, countless diferent versions were spun about the exploits of the by-now almostdivine Arthur, In 1136, Geoffrey of Monmouth set down his version in the Historia Regum Britanniae, offering the British their frst coherent version ofthe collated legends. In his writings, the imaginative Geoffrey proclaimed Arthur as the mightest king who had ever ruled Britain and proceeded to recount the story of the kking’s life in great detail, starting with his extraordinary conception. According to Geoffrey, Arthur was the son of Uther, whose brother, the rightful king, was killed by his advisor Vortiger, who then assumed the throne in his place. Uther fled to Brittany, but returned i dary King Arthur did not just unite Britain; Pete ke ee ee ec red peed was betrayed by his disciple Ee ec Reng as an adult, ultimately assuming the throne after another of his brothers was ‘murdered. He took the name Pendragon and added a dragon to his coat of arms. Uther Pendragon was a fair king, but he fell in love with the Duke of Cornwall's golden-Jocked wife, Igraine, with “sea green eyes”, Uther was so smitten that he stopped eating and in the end his worried men. summoned Merlin. According to Geoffrey, the wizard materialised out of thin air before the king, “I know your heart and that it will soon burst ifyou do not have What you desire,” Merlin said “You will lie naked this night in the pale arms of green-eyed Igraine and on this night she will conceive a child. But there {sa price to be paid.” “So be it,” Uther replied. “Tell me yous price. “The child is my price,” replied ‘Merlin, “When the child is born, he will be given to me to raise safely away from the dangers of a royal house. For 1 foresee a great destiny that only I may gulde on its path.” Merlin evoked magical powers and tumed Uther into the image of the Duke of Comwall. In this disgulse, ithe king seduced Igraine at Tintagel (Castle. As Merlin had foretold, Igraine became pregnant, and ‘when the child was bom, Merlin took the baby away. ‘Only once Uther was dead did the zard take Arthur, by then an funsuspecting 15-year-old, to pull the ‘sword of Calibur from a rock, thereby proving himself the true heir to the throne. Geoffrey made Arthur the epitome of justice, wisdom, courage and resolve - and under his rule, the country’s fortunes rose. Crowd-pleasing lies Geoffrey's account of Arthur became a Midale-Age bestseller. People loved the colourful stories, which were full of ‘magic, passion, intrigue and betrayal. ‘The work became the inspiration for all subsequent Arthurian tales, but although, Geottrey was a respected cleric who taught at St. George's college, he came under heavy fire from his colleagues. William of Newburgh, another rather more fastidious chronicler of the time, accused him of having invented everything “either from an inordinate love of lying or for the sake of pleasing, the British”. To be fair, Geoffrey did Dulld his tale on older works, such as the accounts of the monk Nennlus, and he