UNIT 2

Firms and Organizations:

Management Theories

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Management
Fifteenth Edition, Global Edition

Chapter M H-1
Management History Module

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Learning Objectives
MH1.1 Describe some early management examples.
MH1.2 Explain the various theories in the classical
approach.
MH1.3 Discuss the development and uses of the behavioral
approach.
MH1.4 Describe the quantitative approach.
MH1.5 Explain various theories in the contemporary
approach.

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Exhibit M H.1 Major Approaches to Management

Exhibit M H.1 shows the four major approaches to management theory: classical,
behavioral, quantitative, and contemporary.

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Early Management
• The Egyptian pyramids and the Great Wall of China are
proof that projects of tremendous scope, employing tens of
thousands of people, were completed in ancient times.

• Who told each worker what to do? Who ensured there

would be enough stones at the site to keep workers busy?
The answer is managers.

Organizations and managers have existed for thousands

of years.

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Job Specialization
• In 1776 Adam Smith published “The Wealth of Nations”
– division of labor (job specialization): the breakdown
of jobs into narrow and repetitive tasks

– Smith concluded that division of labor increased

productivity by increasing each worker’s skill and
dexterity, saving time lost in changing tasks and
creating labor-saving inventions and machinery.

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Industrial Revolution
• Industrial revolution: a period during the late eighteenth
century when machine power was substituted for human
power, making it more economical to manufacture goods in
factories than at home.

• Is possibly the most important pre-twentieth-century

influence on management.
– The introduction of machine powers combined with the
division of labor made large, efficient factories possible.
– Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling became
necessary activities.

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Exhibit M H.1 Major Approaches to Management

Exhibit M H.1 shows the four major approaches to management theory: classical,
behavioral, quantitative, and contemporary.

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Classical Approach
• Classical approach (1911-1947): first studies of
management, which emphasized rationality and making
organizations and workers as efficient as possible

–Scientific Management
 Frederick W. Taylor
 the husband–wife team of Frank and Lillian
Gilbreth
–General Administrative
 Henri Fayol
 Max Weber

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Scientific Management
• Scientific management: an approach that involves using
the scientific method to find the “one best way” for a job to
be done

Frederick W. Taylor is known as the “father” of scientific

management.
– Taylor’s work at the Midvale and Bethlehem Steel
companies stimulated his interest in improving
efficiency
– Taylor’s book “Principles of Scientific Management: the
use of scientific methods to define the “one best way”
for a job to be done.

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Scientific Management
• Scientific management: Taylor
 Taylor sought to create a mental revolution among both workers and
managers by guidelines for improving production efficiency.
 He defined four principles of management
1. Develop a science for each element of an individual’s work to replace
the old rule-of-thumb method.
2. Scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop the worker.
3. Heartily cooperate with the workers to ensure that all work is done in
accordance with the principles of the science that has been
developed.
4. Divide work and responsibility almost equally between management
and workers. Management does all work for which it is better suited
than the workers

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Scientific Management
• Scientific management: Taylor

• His pig iron experiment is probably the most widely cited example of
his scientific management efforts.
• Using his principles of scientific management, Taylor was able to
define the “one best way” for doing each job.
• Frederick W. Taylor achieved consistent improvements in productivity
in the range of 200 percent.
• He affirmed the role of managers to plan and control and the role of
workers to perform as they were instructed.

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Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
• Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were inspired by Taylor’s work
and proceeded to study and develop their own methods of
scientific management.
• The Gilbreths were among the first to use motion picture
films to study hand-and-body motions in order to eliminate
wasteful motions.

– They also designed tools and equipment for optimizing

work performance

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Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
• Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
• They invented a device called a microchronometer that
recorded a worker’s hand and body motions and the
amount of time spent doing each motion
• They also devised a classification scheme to label 17 basic
hand motions called therbligs
– Therbligs: a classification scheme for labeling basic
hand motions to analyze
– This scheme gave the Gilbreths a more precise way to
analyzing workers exact hand movements

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 How Today’s Managers Use Scientific
Management
• Production efficiency Guidelines
• Using time and motion studies
• Hiring best qualified workers
• Designing incentive systems based on output

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General Administrative Theory
• General administrative theory: an approach to
management that focuses on describing what managers
do and what constitutes good management practice

– While Taylor was concerned with first-line managers

and the scientific method, Fayol’s attention was
directed at the activities of all managers.

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Henri Fayol

• Henri Fayol described the practice of management as

something distinct from accounting, finance, production,
distribution, and other typical business functions.

– Principles of management: fundamental rules of

management that could be applied in all
organizational situations and taught in schools

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Exhibit MH.3 Fayol’s 14 Principles of
Management (1 of 2)
Principles

1. Division of work. Specialization increases output by making employees

more efficient.
2. Authority. Managers must be able to give orders, and authority gives them
this right.
3. Discipline. Employees must obey and respect the rules that govern the
organization.
4. Unity of command. Every employee should receive orders from only one
superior.
5. Unity of direction. The organization should have a single plan of action to
guide managers and workers.
6. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest. The interests
of any one employee or group of employees should not take precedence over
the interests of the organization as a whole.
7. Remuneration. Workers must be paid a fair wage for their services.

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Exhibit MH.3 Fayol’s 14 Principles of
Management (2 of 2)
Principles

8. Centralization. This term refers to the degree to which subordinates are

involved in decision making.
9. Scalar chain. The line of authority from top management to the lowest ranks
is the scalar chain.
10. Order. People and materials should be in the right place at the right time.
11. Equity. Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates.
12. Stability of tenure of personnel. Management should provide orderly
personnel planning and ensure that replacements are available to fill
vacancies.
13. Initiative. Employees allowed to originate and carry out plans will exert high
levels of effort.
14. Esprit de corps. Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the
organization.

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Max Weber
• He developed a theory of authority structures and relations
based on an ideal type of organization he called a
bureaucracy

• Bureaucracy a form of organization characterized by

division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy, detailed rules
and regulations, and impersonal relationships
• Weber recognized that this “ideal bureaucracy” didn’t exist
in reality. Instead, he intended it as a basis for theorizing
about how work could be done in large groups.

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Exhibit MH.4 Characteristics of Weber’s
Bureaucracy

Exhibit M H.4 shows Weber’s ideal bureaucracy

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How Today’s Managers Use General
Administrative Theories

• The functional view of a manager’s job relates to Henri

Fayol’s concept of management.

• Weber’s bureaucratic characteristics are evident in many

of today’s large organizations—even in highly flexible
organizations that employ talented professionals.

• Some bureaucratic mechanisms are necessary in highly

innovative organizations to ensure that resources are
used efficiently and effectively.

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Behavioral Approach (late 1700s-1950s)
• Organizational behavior (OB): the study of the actions of
people at work
• The people the most important asset of the organization
and should be managed accordingly.
• The early advocates of the OB approach.
– Robert Owen
– Hugo Munsterberg
– Mary Parker Follett
– Chester Barnard
• Their ideas provided the foundation for such management
practices as employee selection procedures, motivation
programs, and work teams.
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Exhibit MH.5 Early OB Advocates

Exhibit M H.5 summarizes each individual’s most important ideas.

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Hawthorne Studies
• Hawthorne studies: a series of studies during the 1920s
and 1930s that provided new insights into individual and
group behavior

• Elton Mayo conducted the Hawthorne Studies, a series of studies

during the 1920s and 1930s that provided new insights into individual
and group behavior.
• The studies concluded that people’s behavior and attitudes are
closely related, that group factors significantly affect individual
behavior, that group standards establish individual worker output, and
that money is less a factor in determining output than group
standards, group attitudes, and security.

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How Today’s Managers Use the Behavioral
Approach
 1. The behavioral approach assists managers in
designing jobs that motivate workers, in working with
employee teams, and in facilitating the flow of
communication within organizations.
 2. The behavioral approach provides the foundation for
current theories of motivation, leadership, and group
behavior and development.

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Quantitative Approach

• Quantitative approach (1940s-1950s): the use of

quantitative techniques to improve decision making. This
approach is also known as management science
• This approach evolved from mathematical and statistcis
solutions developed for military purposes during World
War II
• What exactly does the quantitative approach do?
– It involves applying statistics, optimization models,
information models, and computer simulations to
management activities
– Example: Linear programming for resource allocation decisions

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Total Quality Management
• An area where quantitative techniques are used frequently
is total in quality management

• Total quality management (T Q M): a philosophy of

management that is driven by continuous improvement
and responsiveness to customer needs and expectations
• The term customer includes anyone who interacts with the
organization’s product or services, internally or externally.
It encompasses employees and suppliers as well as the
people who purchase the organization’s goods or services.

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Total Quality Management

TQM represents a counterpoint to earlier management

theorists who believed that low costs were the only road to
increased productivity.

The objective of quality management is to create an

organization committed to continuous improvement in work
processes. HOW? Statistical techniques

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Exhibit MH.6 What is Quality Management?
Characteristic

1. Intense focus on the customer. The customer includes outsiders who buy the
organization’s products or services and internal customers who interact with and serve
others in the organization.
2. Concern for continual improvement. Quality management is a commitment to never
being satisfied. “Very good” is not good enough. Quality can always be improved.
3. Process focused. Quality management focuses on work processes as the quality of
goods and services is continually improved.
4. Improvement in the quality of everything the organization does. This relates to the
final product, how the organization handles deliveries, how rapidly it responds to
complaints, how politely the phones are answered, and the like.
5. Accurate measurement. Quality management uses statistical techniques to measure
every critical variable in the organization’s operations. These are compared against
standards to identify problems, trace them to their roots, and eliminate their causes.
6. Empowerment of employees. Quality management involves the people on the line in
the improvement process. Teams are widely used in quality management programs as
empowerment vehicles for finding and solving problems.

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Contemporary Approaches

Contemporary Approaches (1960s at present).

This approach look at managers’ concerns outside the
organization

• System Approach
• Contingency Approach

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Contemporary Approaches
System Approach.
• System: a set of interrelated and interdependent parts
arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole
• Two types of systems
– Closed systems: systems that are not influenced by
and do not interact with their environment
– Open systems: systems that interact with their
environment

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Contemporary Approaches

System Approach.
• Before in 1938 Chester Barnard: The organization
functions as a cooperative system but until 1960
management researchers begun to look more at System
Theory.

• AN ORGANIZATION IS A CLOSE OR OPEN SYSTEM??

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Exhibit MH.8 Organization as an Open System

Exhibit M H.8 shows a diagram of an organization from an open systems perspective

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Contemporary Approaches

• Using the systems approach, managers envision an

organization as a body with many interdependent parts,
each of which is important to the well being of the
organization as a whole.
• Managers coordinate the work activities of the various
parts of the organization, realizing that decisions and
actions taken in one organizational area will affect other
areas.
• The systems approach recognizes that organizations are
not self-contained; they rely on and are affected by factors
in their external environment.
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Contemporary Approaches
• Contingency approach (sometimes called the situational
approach
• Recognizes organizations as different, which means they
face different situations (contingencies) and require
different ways of managing
• There are not simplistic or universal rules for managers to
follow

• “THE WAY TO MANAGE DEPENDS ON THE SITUATION”

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Exhibit MH.9 Popular Contingency Variables
Variable

Organization Size. As size increases, so do the problems of coordination. For

in- stance, the type of organization structure appropriate for an organization of
50,000 employees is likely to be inefficient for an organization of 50 employees.
Routineness of Task Technology. To achieve its purpose, an organization uses
technology. Routine technologies require organizational structures, leadership
styles, and control systems that differ from those required by customized or
nonroutine technologies.
Environmental Uncertainty. The degree of uncertainty caused by environmental
changes influences the management process. What works best in a stable and
predictable environment may be totally inappropriate in a rapidly changing and
unpredictable environment.
Individual Differences. Individuals differ in terms of their desire for growth,
autonomy, tolerance of ambiguity, and expectations. These and other individual
differences are particularly important when managers select motivation
techniques, leadership styles, and job designs.

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