Diabetic Retinopathy Detection

Pritish M. Kokare Sarvesh S. Choudhary Govind Pole

Dept. of Computer Engineering
Modern Education Society’s College of
Engineering, Pune
Pune, India
pritishmkokare@gmail.com
Dept. of Computer Engineering
Modern Education Society’s College of
Engineering, Pune
Pune, India
sarveshchoudhary8402@gmail.com
Dept. of Computer Engineering
Modern Education Society’s College of
Engineering, Pune
Pune, India
govind.pole@mescoepune.org

Prathamesh S. Vagare Revati Kawade

Dept. of Computer Engineering Dept. of Computer Engineering
Modern Education Society’s College of Modern Education Society’s College of
Engineering, Pune) Engineering, Pune
Pune, India Pune, India
psvagare@gmail.com revatikawade30@gmail.com

Abstract—Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) is a prevalent eye
condition affecting individuals with diabetes, potentially leading to
vision loss and blindness if left untreated. Manual screening by
ophthalmologists for DR is a time-consuming process. This project
aims to address this challenge by leveraging Deep Learning (DL), a
subset of Artificial Intelligence (AI), to analyze and classify
different stages of DR. A model was trained on a large dataset of
more than 35,000 high-resolution fundus images to automatically
detect and categorize DR stages. The dataset used in this study,
titled "Diabetic Retinopathy (resized)," is available on Kaggle. The
DR stages are classified as 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. Patient fundus eye
images serve as input for this study. The trained model utilizes the
MobileNet v2 architecture, a state-of-the-art convolutional neural
network (CNN) design optimized for efficient deployment on mobile
and embedded devices, to extract features from the fundus images.
The final output is generated using an activation function. This
paper discusses the utilization of DL techniques, the CNN
architecture, and the analysis of fundus images to diagnose and
classify DR stages, aiming to enhance the accuracy and efficiency
of DR screening.
Keywords: Deep Learning, Diabetic Retinopathy (DR), CNN
Architecture, Fundus Images, MobileNet.
I. INTRODUCTION
DR is a serious complication arising from diabetes, causing
substantial harm to the retina and potentially leading to vision
impairment. This condition primarily impacts the blood vessels
situated in the retinal tissue, resulting in fluid leakage and the
distortion of visual perception. Within the spectrum of visual
impairments, including conditions like cataracts and glaucoma,
Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) stands out as a highly prevalent
disorder. The classification of this disease comprises five distinct
stages denoted as 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. each with its distinct symptoms
& characteristics. However, it is challenging for doctors to
determine the stage of DR from normal retinal images alone.
Existing diagnostic methods are inefficient & time-consuming,
which can delay treatment & potentially lead to incorrect
management.
To aid in the early detection of DR, fundus cameras are
commonly used by doctors to capture images of the veins &
nerves located behind the retina. Unfortunately, the initial stage of
DR often exhibits no noticeable signs, making it extremely
challenging to identify the disease at an early phase. In this
project, we leverage Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
architectures, specifically designed for deep learning, to improve
the accuracy & efficiency of DR stage detection. By utilizing
these AI models, patients can receive timely treatment &
intervention.
The dataset used for this project is sourced from EyePACS, a
free platform for retinopathy screening, & is available on Kaggle
under the name "Diabetic Retinopathy (resized)". The dataset
comprises retinal images that have been resized to a standard
dimension of 1024x1024 pixels, with larger images proportionally
scaled down. It is important to note that the dataset includes
images captured by various models & types of cameras, which
may impact the visual appearance, especially in distinguishing
between left & right eyes. Some images are displayed
anatomically, with the macula on the left & the optic nerve on the
right for the right eye.
Recent advancements & research in the field of artificial
intelligence, particularly in deep learning, have demonstrated its
effectiveness in uncovering hidden patterns & features within
medical image analysis tasks. Deep learning models have shown
promising results in disease classification & decision support,
thereby enhancing patient care.
[1]-[3] cite the efficacy of deep learning models in medical
image analysis tasks.
[4] emphasizes the potential of AI models, specifically deep
learning, to improve patient care through disease classification &
decision support.

By utilizing deep learning techniques & analyzing fundus
images, this paper aims to overcome the limitations of current DR
diagnostic methods, improve the accuracy of DR stage
classification, & ultimately enhance patient care in the
management of this debilitating disease.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Automated screening systems have revolutionized the
diagnosis process by significantly reducing the time required for
determining diagnoses, resulting in cost & effort savings for
ophthalmologists & timely treatment for patients. In the context
of diabetic retinopathy (DR), automated systems play a crucial
role in detecting the disease at an early stage. The classification of
DR stages is based on the specific type of lesions observed on the
retina. This article presents a comprehensive review of the latest
automated systems for detecting & classifying diabetic
retinopathy, focusing on the utilization of deep learning
techniques. Additionally, it describes the commonly used publicly
available fundus DR datasets & provides a brief explanation of
deep learning techniques. Convolutional Neural Networks
(CNNs) have emerged as the preferred choice for classifying &
detecting DR images due to their efficiency. The review also
explores various useful techniques that can be employed to detect
& classify DR using deep learning methods. [5]
Automated systems have transformed the field of
ophthalmology by streamlining the process of diagnosing diabetic
retinopathy (DR). These systems offer immense benefits by
reducing the time & effort required for diagnosis, while also
enabling early detection & timely treatment for patients. Diabetic
retinopathy stages are determined based on the specific types of
retinal lesions present. In recent years, deep learning techniques
have gained significant attention in the development of automated
systems for DR detection & classification. This review aims to
provide a comprehensive overview of these state-of-the-art
systems & their use of deep learning methodologies. It also sheds
light on the publicly available fundus DR datasets commonly
used in these studies. Moreover, the fundamental principles of
deep learning techniques are briefly explained, with a focus on
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) as the primary choice for
DR classification & detection. Additionally, this review discusses
various useful techniques that can enhance the accuracy &
effectiveness of DR detection & classification using deep learning
approaches. [5]
Automated systems utilizing deep learning techniques have
emerged as powerful tools for the detection & classification of
diabetic retinopathy. By significantly reducing the time required
for diagnosis, these systems contribute to cost savings & enable
timely treatment for patients. Convolutional Neural Networks
(CNNs) have proven to be efficient & effective in analyzing DR
images, making them the preferred choice for classification &
detection tasks. This comprehensive review has provided insights
into the recent advancements in automated DR detection &
classification using deep learning techniques. Additionally, it has
highlighted the publicly available fundus DR datasets &
discussed various useful techniques that can further enhance the
performance of deep learning-based DR detection & classification
systems. Overall, the continued development & refinement of
these automated systems hold great promise for improving the
diagnosis & management of diabetic retinopathy. [5]
The research focuses on developing an automated system for
grading diabetic retinopathy (DR) using deep learning techniques
applied to color fundus images. Skip-connected networks,
particularly the ResNet50-based network, demonstrated superior
performance in classifying DR stages, especially when dealing
with small features. The proposed system has the potential to
significantly reduce diagnosis time, benefiting diabetic patients'
quality of life. Further improvements can be made by expanding
the classification to a more detailed 5-class problem,
implementing ensemble approaches, utilizing Convolutional
Neural Networks (CNNs) for tasks like optic disc removal &
blood vessel extraction, & exploring CNN-based image semantic
segmentation for the detection of challenging cases such as cotton
wool natured exudates. These enhancements will contribute to
more accurate & precise DR grading, improving patient care &
treatment outcomes. The research showcases the effectiveness of
deep learning in automating DR classification & highlights the
potential for continued advancements in this field to further
enhance the performance & applicability of the automated
system. [6]
Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) poses a significant threat to
individuals with diabetes, with surveys suggesting a 30% chance
of developing the condition. DR encompasses various stages,
ranging from mild to severe & ultimately progressing to
Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy (PDR), which can result in
vision impairment & even blindness if not detected early. Manual
diagnosis of DR through fundus image analysis requires extensive
training & is a time-consuming & challenging task. In order to
tackle this problem, researchers have introduced computer vision
techniques for the automated detection and classification of
Diabetic Retinopathy (DR). This study specifically focuses on
classifying all stages of DR, with a particular emphasis on the
early stages that pose significant challenges for existing models.
The authors present a deep learning ensemble framework based
on Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) to identify and
categorize the various stages of DR using color fundus images.
The model is trained and evaluated using the largest publicly
available fundus image dataset from Kaggle. The results indicate
that the proposed ensemble model surpasses existing methods and
demonstrates accurate detection of all DR stages.. To further
improve the accuracy of early-stage detection, future work
involves training specific models for each stage & leveraging
ensemble techniques to enhance the performance in identifying
early stages of DR. By addressing the limitations of existing
models & achieving better performance, this research contributes
to the advancement of automated DR detection systems,
potentially leading to earlier interventions & improved patient
outcomes. The proposed ensemble-based deep learning approach
shows promise in overcoming the challenges associated with DR
detection, bringing us closer to more efficient & accurate
diagnosis in the early stages of the disease.[7]
The aim of this study is to propose a novel architecture called
ResNet-34/DR, which is based on a deep Convolutional Neural
Network (CNN) & transfer learning, for the classification of
Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) into four classes using publicly
available Kaggle datasets. Previous attempts using the Vgg-19 & images serve as valuable documentation for diagnosing &
Xception architectures to classify DR stages encountered detecting the presence of diabetic retinopathy.
challenges related to high loss values caused by overfitting.
However, by leveraging transfer learning & fine-tuning on the To enable the training and testing of the CNN architecture,
pre-trained ResNet-34 network, the proposed architecture the dataset is accompanied by two CSV files: "train.csv" and
demonstrates exceptional performance on the color fundus image "test.csv." The "train.csv" file includes details such as the
dataset. Additionally, data augmentation techniques were names of fundus eye images and their corresponding severity
employed to increase the training samples, particularly for the levels (classes), while the "test.csv" file includes only the eye
lower classes. The training methodology employed in this
image names, as the trained CNN architecture employs images
research has led to significant advancements in the classification
for conducting testing. [11]. This dataset provides a substantial
of DR, yielding improved results compared to previous
approaches. This study contributes to the field by presenting a amount of data for training the models & evaluating their
robust architecture that addresses the challenges of DR performance on detecting & classifying diabetic retinopathy
classification, paving the way for enhanced diagnosis & treatment stages.
of this condition. [8]
The author presents a straightforward network architecture that
enables the development of highly efficient models suitable for
mobile applications. The architecture's basic unit possesses key
properties that make it well-suited for memory-efficient inference
& leverages standard operations found in all neural frameworks.
In experiments conducted on the ImageNet dataset, the proposed
architecture surpasses and the network achieves superior
performance at different performance levels compared to
real-time detectors on the COCO dataset for object detection
tasks. It outperforms them in terms of accuracy and model
complexity. It is worth mentioning that when integrated with the
SSDLite detection module, the network exhibits remarkable
results.. The proposed architecture requires significantly less
computation (20 times less) & fewer parameters (10 times less)
compared to the YOLOv2 model. On a theoretical level, the
convolutional block introduced in this work exhibits a unique
property that separates the network's expressiveness, represented
by the expansion layers, from its capacity, encoded by bottleneck
inputs. This novel characteristic opens up promising avenues for
future research, enabling the exploration of the architecture's
expressiveness & capacity in a decoupled manner. Overall, this
work contributes to the field of efficient network design &
highlights potential directions for further investigation. [9]
Fig 1: Sample Test Images

In summary, the research utilizes an open dataset of resized

III. DATASET
The image data utilized in this study was sourced from an
openly available dataset. called "Diabetic Retinopathy
arranged." This dataset, available on Kaggle, consists of
resized 224x224 pixel images of gaussian filtered retina scans.
The original dataset, known as APTOS 2019 Blindness
Detection, contains high-resolution retina images captured
using a fundus camera, which provides color fundus images
for DR detection [11]. The dataset is organized into five
directories corresponding to different stages of diabetic
retinopathy: "No_DR" (class 0), "Mild" (class 1), "Moderate"
(class 2), "Severe" (class 3), & "Proliferate_DR" (class 4) [11].
fundus images obtained from a fundus camera. The images are
categorized into different severity levels of diabetic retinopathy,
& CSV files provide the necessary information for training &
testing the CNN architecture. This dataset serves as a valuable
resource for studying & developing automated approaches for
diabetic retinopathy detection & classification.
The provided image is an example captured by a fundus
camera, representing a sample from the dataset.

The device employed for capturing these images is a

specialized fundus camera, which integrates a low-power
microscope and an attached camera to capture precise images
of the inner surface of the eye [11]. The recorded fundus
 Fig.2: Single Train Image

Fig.4: Binary Class Image Distribution

The depicted illustration displays the collection of nerves IV. METHODOLOGY

located at the posterior region of the eye.

Figure 3 presents the tally of each class, illustrating the
distribution of images across different categories within the
dataset.
A. CNN Architecture:
The CNN model comprises of two primary stages: feature
extraction and classification [1]. During the feature extraction
stage, relevant information and distinguishing characteristics are
extracted from the images., while the classification phase utilizes
these extracted features to categorize the images based on the
target variable of the problem at hand.

A common CNN model resembles this:

The input layer +

Convolution layer +

Activating function+
Fig.3: Image Class Distribution
Pooling layer+
Consequently, the figure below displays the cumulative count
of images assigned exclusively to two distinct classes. Fully Linked Layer

Fig.5: CNN Architecture
1) Intake Layer
The input image, regardless of being in RGB or grayscale
format, contains pixels with values that span from 0 to 255.
Before feeding these images into the model, it is important to
normalize them by scaling the pixel values to a range of 0 to 1.
This normalization step ensures that the data is in a consistent &
standardized format, which facilitates the learning process of the
model. As an illustration, consider an example of an input image
with three channels (RGB), each containing pixel values, & a size
of 4x4.:-
Fig.6: Image input
2) Convolution Layer
The convolution layer applies a filter to the input image to
extract or identify its characteristics. Multiple filtering processes
are performed to create a feature map that aids in classifying the
input image. To better understand this, let's consider an example
using a 2D input image with standardized pixels.
In the given illustration, we have an input image of size 66 &
we place a 3x3 filter on it to identify specific features. It is
important to note that multiple similar filters are actually used in
practice to extract information from the image.
The filter is then shifted by a single column in the next stage,
as depicted in the figure. In this example, we choose a stride of 1,
which means we move the filter by one column at a time. The
stride determines the shift in columns or rows when applying the
filter.
By repeating this process, the filter covers the entire image,
resulting in the final feature map. Once we obtain the feature
map, we can apply an activation function to introduce
nonlinearity.
It is worth mentioning that the size of the feature map is
smaller compared to the original image in this case, as the stride
increases. The feature map's size decreases as the filter with a
stride of 1 moves across the entire image.
The input file of the first convolutional layer in our network
has a dimension of 224 x 224, & it is an RGB image. The image
goes through several convolutional layers with filters applied. In
these convolutional layers with 3 x 3 filters, the spacing between
input pixels is one pixel, maintaining the depth of the image after
convolution.
Moreover, several convolutional layers in the architecture are
followed by five max-pooling layers, which conduct spatial
pooling. Max-pooling encompasses utilizing a window size larger
than 2 x 2 pixels and a stride of 2.
Subsequent to the convolutional and max-pooling layers, fully
connected (FC) layers are employed. The number of channels in
these FC layers is 4096, & they come after a series of
convolutional layers with varying depths based on the network
architecture.
The FC layers serve as the final layers in the network
architecture.
3) Pooling Layer
Following the convolutional layer, the pooling layer is
employed to reduce the size of the feature map. This aids in
preserving the essential elements or attributes of the input image
while enhancing computational efficiency.
The principal or essential elements of the input image are still
present in the reduced resolution rendition of the data that is
created by pooling.
Two commonly used types of pooling, Max Pooling and
Average Pooling, are frequently employed. The operational
process of Max Pooling is visually illustrated in the figure below.
In this example, we perform pooling on the obtained feature map
using a 2x2 window and a stride of 2. The maximum value within
each highlighted region is extracted, resulting in a new version of
the input image with a reduced size of 2x2. Consequently, the
application of pooling reduces the overall size of the feature map.
4) Fully Connected Layer
We have completed the Feature Extraction operations up to that
stage; the subsequent step is Classification. The input image is
categorised in a label utilising the completely connected layer
(which is what we're dealing with in ANN). This layer establishes
a connection between the output layer and the data obtained from
the preceding steps, namely the convolutional and pooling layers.
Its primary function is to assign the appropriate label to the input
data.
The image below demonstrates the whole approach for
constructing a CNN model.
Fig.7: CNN Architecture with Probability Distribution
B. MobileNet
A highly developed convolutional neural network (CNN)
architecture called MobileNetV2 was created primarily for
effective deployment on mobile and embedded devices. Its main
goal is to address the difficulties of using computationally
demanding deep learning models on devices with limited
resources. This section gives a thorough description of
MobileNetV2, encompassing its architectural innovations,
training approaches, and several computer vision applications. It
highlights the benefits and drawbacks of MobileNetV2 and
provides possible directions for further study in the area of
effective deep learning models.
Need for real-time & on-device applications for computer
vision has increased recently. But using sophisticated deep
learning models on hardware with constrained resources has
proven to be extremely difficult. By offering a lightweight,
effective design that balances model size, accuracy, and
computing needs, MobileNetV2 overcomes this difficulty.
MobileNetV2 is extremely effective in terms of processing
demands and achieves outstanding performance through rigorous
design optimisation and the use of cutting-edge techniques.
MobileNetV2 is significant because it enables a variety of
computer vision applications, such as semantic segmentation,
object identification, and image classification, on mobile and
embedded devices. Its design ideas, including linear bottlenecks
& depthwise separable convolutions, increase its efficiency &
efficacy in a variety of jobs. MobileNetV2 also allows for flexible
model customisation, enabling customers to alter the trade-off
between accuracy & resource utilisation in accordance with their
unique needs.
Even though MobileNetV2 has excelled in the field of effective
deep learning, there is still room for advancement and more
research. The architecture can be improved, as well as new
training methods and expanding its applicability to various
domains and activities, in future research projects. We can open
up new opportunities for deploying potent computer vision
models on mobile and embedded devices by continuing to
innovate and improve MobileNetV2's capabilities. This will
ultimately advance the development of deep learning for
resource-constrained situations.
1) Architecture of MobileNet v1
MobileNet V1 introduces a fundamental concept of replacing
computationally intensive convolutional layers, crucial for
computer vision tasks, with a more efficient approach called
depthwise separable convolutions. In this approach, the
convolution layer's function is divided into two separate subtasks:
a depthwise convolution layer that filters the input and an 11 (or
pointwise) convolution layer that combines the filtered values to
create new features. By using this strategy, MobileNet V1 reduces
computing complexity considerably while still successfully
extracting key features from the input data. This advancement has
proven to be a significant contribution to the field of deep
learning and has made it possible to create effective and potent
models for a variety of computer vision applications.
By utilizing depthwise separable convolutions, MobileNet V1
achieves a notable reduction in computational complexity
typically associated with conventional convolutional layers, all
while preserving the ability to extract meaningful features from
the input data. The depthwise convolution layer applies distinct
filters to each input channel, effectively capturing spatial
information within individual channels. Subsequently, the 1×1
convolution layer aggregates information across channels to
produce the final feature representation. This approach offers a
significant advantage by substantially decreasing the number of
parameters & computations required compared to st&ard
convolutional layers. As a result, MobileNet V1 is highly suitable
for resource-constrained devices like mobile & embedded
systems, striking a balance between model size & accuracy. It
enables efficient deployment of deep learning models for
computer vision applications on devices with limited
computational resources.
The concept of depthwise separable convolutions introduced in
MobileNet V1 has been embraced & expanded upon in
subsequent versions of the MobileNet architecture, such as
MobileNet V2 & V3. These iterations have leveraged & extended
the idea to enhance performance & efficiency even further. This
groundbreaking technique has made a significant impact in the
realm of deep learning, enabling the creation of lightweight &
efficient models that are well-suited for real-world applications.
The adoption of depthwise separable convolutions has opened up
new possibilities for developing powerful yet resource-efficient
models that can be effectively deployed in various domains. Its
contributions have solidified its position as a valuable
advancement in the field of deep learning.

Fig.8: Building Block for MobileNet v1
Following 13 repetitions of depthwise separable convolutional
blocks, the MobileNet V1 architecture starts with a standard 3x3
convolutional layer. There are no aggregating or pooling layers
between these blocks. The data's spatial dimensions are decreased
by using a stride of 2 in some of the depthwise convolutional
layers. The related pointwise convolutional layer improves the
output channels in such circumstances. The network produces a
feature map with dimensions of 7x7x1024 for an input image
with dimensions of 224x224x3. With this architecture, computer
vision tasks may be performed with effective and efficient feature
extraction while still keeping a small model size.
Following the standard procedure in contemporary systems,
batch normalisation is conducted following the convolutional
layers. ReLU6, which is comparable to the popular ReLU
activation but prohibits activations from growing too large, is the
activation function utilised in MobileNet V1. The architectural
layout and activation mechanism help MobileNet V1 perform
diverse computer vision jobs effectively and efficiently.
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛( 𝑚𝑎𝑥(0, 𝑥), 6)
One important hyperparameter in MobileNet V1 is the depth
multiplier, which is sometimes referred to as the "width
multiplier" despite its effect on the number of channels. This
parameter determines the number of channels in each layer. For
example, using a depth multiplier of 0.5 reduces the number of
channels by half in each layer, resulting in a fourfold reduction in
computations & a threefold reduction in learnable parameters.
This configuration significantly improves the speed of the model
but may lead to a decrease in accuracy compared to the full
model. The depth multiplier allows for a trade-off between speed
& accuracy in MobileNet V1.
2) Architecture of MobileNet v2
MobileNet v2 continues the use of depthwise separable
convolutions, but the main building block looks like this:
Fig.9: Building Block for MobileNet v2
The building block in the MobileNet v2 architecture is made up
of three convolutional layers. As in v1, the first two layers consist
of a depthwise convolution and an 11 pointwise convolution. The
11 pointwise convolution layer's function has changed,
nevertheless. It either increased or maintained the number of
channels in V1. It serves the opposite purpose in V2 by lowering
the number of channels. Because it transforms input with a lot of
dimensions (channels) into a tensor with a lot fewer dimensions,
this layer is now known as the projection layer. The MobileNet
V2 architecture's efficiency is increased and the computational
complexity is further reduced thanks to this change to the
pointwise convolution layer.
The depthwise convolution layer in MobileNet V2 utilises a
tensor with a greater number of channels, such as 144. This tensor
is compressed to substantially fewer channels, such as 24, in the
following projection layer. The amount of data that passes
through the network is constrained by this projection layer, which
serves as a bottleneck. As a result, it is known as a bottleneck
layer. The phrase "bottleneck residual block" refers to a
compressed representation of the input tensor that is formed by
the output of each block, which produces a bottleneck. The
network is further optimised by this design decision, which
lowers computational complexity while retaining important
properties.
The expansion layer, referred to as the initial layer in the block,
is a new layer in MobileNet V2. Before the data enters the
depthwise convolution, the expansion layer conducts an 11
convolution to increase the number of channels in the data. The
expansion layer never has fewer output channels than input
channels, in contrast to the projection layer which increases the
number of channels. In essence, the expansion layer functions as
the projection layer's opposite, increasing the dimensionality of
the data and giving the following depthwise convolution layer
more freedom to extract useful features.
The expansion factor determines the extent to which the data is
expanded in the expansion layer. It is a hyperparameter that
allows for exploring different architectural trade-offs. In
MobileNet V2, the default expansion factor is set to 6, meaning
that the number of output channels in the expansion layer is six
times larger than the number of input channels. This value
provides a balance between increasing model capacity &
controlling computational complexity. By adjusting the expansion
factor, researchers & practitioners can customize the architecture
to meet specific requirements & optimize performance for their
target applications..
The residual connections & the expansion/projection layers are
the key modifications in the v2 architecture.
Fig.10: Block Operation
The expansion layer in MobileNet V2 acts as a decompressor,
similar to unzipping a file. It expands the data back to its original
size by increasing the number of channels. The depthwise
convolution layer then processes the restored data, performing the
appropriate filtering operations at this point in the network. The
data is then once again compressed by the projection layer, which
also shrinks the dimensions of the data. This sequence of
expansion, depthwise convolution, & projection forms a crucial
part of the MobileNet V2 architecture, enabling efficient feature
extraction & representation while minimizing computational
complexity & model size.
C. Proposed Architecture
Fig.11: Proposed Model Architecture
The proposed architecture, MobileNet V2, consists of two main
components: a feature extraction part & a classifier part. The
architecture utilizes depthwise separable convolutions, which are
a key element for efficient neural network designs.
Two layers are involved in depthwise separable convolutions:
depthwise convolution and pointwise convolution. Although the
pointwise convolution combines the filtered values to create new
features, the depthwise convolution applies a small filter to each
input channel. In comparison to conventional convolutions, this
method considerably decreases computation, yielding an 8–9
times less computational cost with only a slight reduction in
accuracy. These depthwise separable convolutions enable efficient
and effective feature extraction in MobileNet V2.
The input for the following block is the output of the preceding
block. The depthwise layer uses batch normalisation once more
once we do the necessary batch normalisations after expanding
the block's dimensions first. The expected reduction in
dimensions follows this. These layers' output is then flattened.
The generated 2-Dimensional arrays from pooled feature maps
are all flattened into a single, lengthy continuous linear vector.
The fully connected layer, which provides the probability
distribution using the softmax activation function, comes next.
The output shape for the dense layer with softmax activation
function is the number of classes in consideration during
classification.
D. Streamlit
Streamlit is a valuable tool that simplifies the creation of
frontend websites for machine learning models. Its intuitive
interface enables developers to build interactive & dynamic web
applications with ease. Streamlit seamlessly integrates with
popular machine learning libraries, allowing developers to
showcase their models & visualize results effortlessly. The
platform's automatic updates & real-time rendering capabilities
facilitate quick iteration & experimentation, making it perfect for
rapid prototyping. By eliminating the need for complex web
development frameworks, Streamlit empowers machine learning
practitioners to focus on the functionality of their models &
deliver engaging frontend experiences for their users.
 V. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

We conducted the experiments & acquired the study's results,

which enabled us to demonstrate the project's accuracy. Other
Image Classification CNN models such as seemed to work well
on the training dataset but didn’t perform quite well during the
prediction. For the identical dataset, we utilised MobileNet v2
architecture & analysed the accuracy & loss.

Fig.14: Confusion Matrix

VI.CONCLUSION
Given the significant impact of Diabetic Retinopathy on
individuals affected by diabetes, the manual identification of this
Fig.12: Accuracy Plot disease requires a substantial amount of time. To address this
issue, we opted to employ MobileNet v2, a cutting-edge
convolutional neural network renowned for its exceptional
performance. By utilizing this network architecture, we
developed a model for the automated detection of Diabetic
Retinopathy. Our proposed approach achieved a comparative
accuracy of 0.9311, demonstrating its effectiveness in accurately
identifying this condition.

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