Q1 DISCUSS DIFFERENT METHODSB & TECHNIQUES USED IN TESTING

HYPOTHESIS

Research hypothesis is a statement that introduces a research question

and proposes an expected result. It is an integral part of the scientific
method that forms the basis of scientific experiments. Therefore, you
need to be careful and thorough when building your research hypothesis.
A minor flaw in the construction of your hypothesis could have an adverse
effect on your experiment.

Methods of Hypothesis Testing

As we have already looked into different aspects of hypothesis testing, we shall now
look into the different methods of hypothesis testing. All in all, there are 2 most
common types of hypothesis testing methods. They are as follows

1. Frequentist Hypothesis Testing

The NHST approach (involving the null and alternative hypothesis) has been
one of the most sought-after methods of hypothesis testing in the field of
statistics ever since its inception in the mid-1950s.

2. Bayesian Hypothesis Testing

A much unconventional and modern method of hypothesis testing, the Bayesian

Hypothesis Testing claims to test a particular hypothesis in accordance with the
past data samples, known as prior probability, and current data that lead to the
plausibility of a hypothesis.
The result obtained indicates the posterior probability of the hypothesis. In this
method, the researcher relies on ‘prior probability and posterior probability’ to
conduct hypothesis testing on hand.

Techniques Used in Hypothesis Testing in Research Methodology

1. Introduction

Today less attention is paid to the Research Methodology and its tools in decision

making by the students. Even though it is not possible to get 100% precision in

decision making using these tools, but accuracy can be brought using the research

methodology scientifically and systematically.[1]Research is an art of scientific

investigation

1.1 Sampling

In this process, the researcher needs to know some sampling fundamentals. The

theory of sampling is a study of relationship existing between a population and

sample drawn from the population.

For example: - When political polltakers need to predict the outcome of an

upcoming election, they may use random sampling to figure out which politician a

population favors most. Asking every member of a population would be very time

consuming, so polltakers will use random sampling to randomly select subjects

within that population to create a sample group and use the responses those

subjects give them to predict who that population of people as a whole will select

on voting day.

1.2 Tests of significance

Every test of significance begins with a null hypothesis H0.

1.3 Null Hypothesis

 A null hypothesis is a specific baseline statement to be tested and it usually takes

such forms as “no effect” or “no difference.” An alternative (research) hypothesis

is denial of the null hypothesis.

Alternative Hypothesis

An Alternative Hypothesis is denoted by H1 or Ha, is the hypothesis that sample

observations are influenced by some non-random cause.

e.g. Null hypothesis: “x = y.” Alternative hypothesis: “x≠y” → (Two tailed) “x< y”

(Left tailed) → (Single tailed) “x> y” (Right tailed) → (Single tailed)

1.5 Numerical Steps in Testing of Hypothesis

1)Establish the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.

2)set up a suitable significance level e.g.at 1%, 5%, 10% level of significance etc.

3)Determine a suitable test tool like t, Z, F, Chi Square, ANOVA etc.

4)Calculate the value of test statistic using any of test tools

5)Compare this calculated value with table value.

Q2 MAKE RETERATURE REVIEW ON FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASES.

2.1 origin of foot and mouth diseases

The first written description of FMD probably occurred in 1514, when Fracastorius described a similar
disease of cattle in Italy (159).

2.1.1 definition of foot and mouth disease

Foot & Mouth Disease (FMD) is a highly transmissible, viral disease of primarily cloven-hoofed animals
including cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and deer. Ulcers in the oral cavity cause affected animals to make a
smacking sound with their mouth, which is characteristic of the disease

2.2 foot and mouth in Europe

an eminent transboundary animal disease (TAD), recognized as priority disease by the GF-TADs Steering
Committee for Europe. It severely affects the production of livestock, disrupting regional and
international trade in animals and animal products.

2.2.1 foot and mouth disease in france

We report a large-scale outbreak of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) in France. As at 28
September 2021, 3,403 cases have been reported (47% higher than in 2018–19). We prospectively
analysed 210 clinical samples; 190 (90.5%) were enterovirus-positive. Most children presented with
atypical HFMD

2.2.2 foot and mouth disease on united kingdom

The outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in the United Kingdom in 2001 caused a crisis in British
agriculture and tourism. This epizootic saw 2,000 cases of the disease in farms across most of the British
countryside. Over 6 million cows and sheep were killed in an eventually successful attempt to halt the
disease.

2.3 foot and mouth disease in Asia

FMD is an endemic infection in India affecting livestock and the serotype circulating in the region is O, A,
and Asia 1. Geographically, the prevalence of FMD was reported to be 31.5%, 43%, 11.6%, 5%, 4.4%, and
4% in the Southern, Eastern, North-eastern, Central, Western, and Northern regions, respectively (32).

2.3.1 foot and mouth disease in India

Foot-and-mouth disease status in India during the second ...by S Subramaniam · Cited by 9 Foot-and-
mouth disease (FMD) is a major disease of livestock in India and causes huge economic losses. The
formal FMD control program ...

2.4 foot and mouth disease in Africa

FMD is endemic in the Horn of Africa, with variable prevalence in different countries. In Ethiopia,
seroprevalence studies using NSP ELISA range from 5.6% to 72.1% in cattle, from 4% to 11% in small
ruminants, and 30% in ungulate wildlife [38,39,40,41] in a different corner of the country.

2.4.1 foot and mouth disease in south Africa

Outbreaks of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Burundi, East Africa, in 2016, Caused by Different Serotypes ·
Authors

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the Kruger National Park
(KNP) and surrounding game parks in South Africa

2.4.2 foot and mouth disease in East Africa

2.5 foot and mouth disease in Rwanda…………………………………………………………………………………….

2.6 foot and mouth disease in Gicumbi………………………………………………………………………………….

2.6.1 causes and causative agent of foot and mouth diseases……………………………………………..

2.6.2 factor influence foot and mouth disease…………………………………………………………………….

2.6.3 signs and symptoms of foot and mouth disease……………………………………………………….

2.6.4 control and preventions of foot and mouth disease………………………………………………..

2.7 Research gap

References
1.
1. Jamal S.M., Belsham G.J. Foot-and-mouth disease: Past, present and future. Vet.
Res. 2013;44:116. doi: 10.1186/1297-9716-44-116. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
2.
1. World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) Manual of Diagnostic Tests and
Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals, Chapter 3.1.8: Foot and Mouth Disease (Infection
with Foot and Mouth Disease Virus) [(accessed on 17 March 2022)]. Available
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districts in Uganda. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2010;57:365–374. doi:
10.1111/j.1865-1682.2010.01157.x. - DOI - PubMed
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Hamblin P., Li Y., Parida S., Sumption K.J. Serological profile of foot-and-mouth
disease in wildlife populations of West and Central Africa with special reference
to Syncerus caffer subspecies. Vet. Res. 2015;46:77. doi: 10.1186/s13567-015-
0213-0