Lehn aaa HIGHER LEVEL Physics for the IB Diploma Programme 3 Edition Pp Pearson ea EMMA MITCHELLPhysics for the IB Diploma Programme CSC aera‘lake Ramon in Sid Lane WERORL Deeg nite tea yan aay Satay caugetwtce Date Rapon aterm ‘rey ta Orgies Pes sao inte 2) porate ee eat ki rary Closing in enon Di ‘Nagel etc elie me a kay Copyright ice ‘Argel Nop pin my bern nsy bem ot Sram ahem many eben hse wrtenpersaontecepighomer ti ‘Sn ihe ron heap Ds Pans At SF ‘Siete see aby te ph icra ge he Suction Backes Alesina pend medina ea Pomiaompiae pe ee 9 oon ater es app oc i 1 i a ‘ge Ofueonc gn oa et, [Eke Pho carn Hy ge a Rs St Aa sas EN aed a {hong Sinn A i acy dy ‘tks pt 199221 acy Tam Tenn bcos “Ganpr sot Gey Image Stednoent oy eieplncars mse tania ee ay Al AP 28 eC Lind oar AP ch ‘tod Che DA nan mag Segoe olay imei as ems ses tt hint shpat sper re Sane arn anne ncaa See re oper sheevieesiermnn teeta nei niiensac trae Spake mentees, Seaton ie Stetearrcoees isvicieior aocateeriatetoase shite aan inches inmeBtennae Sn Sieruti sncnnatcase cea ninegashet emrtaeta Seimnme smetsaesecanar tm Setiireen ame ergata Soh esetetnatwannorse Seeiteematesneninaa Ss Scares Aber ac Qty Ave nin 5 At Sage ae iach ta hes Oppo Sh ‘impasse hah Mae ae aap oe tess ea ae Co ae tse yen claire pL Taga Cb gyn aia. 16 SIR, Sinan 404058530 we omer Qo bs ar $3) an i331 Raber Opener Oper SE ae uc ae Paper tom ails Sens ESC Fsc-c120612Contents Syllabus roadmap . ‘Authors inrodetion to the this eition ® ‘Skis in the study of physics x Vigeo resources xiv EEN 1 egy ae poner 6 Fold boo) mecrsics 8 Ccaiwan and seca AM ION Thora energy tarsi: Greenhouse et asia Toc Curent and create ca c2 a (C4 Sanding waves ad resonance C8 Doopiertect DG (D1 Gravion fie D2 Bactic and magnet fo Da Moton hectomagret fas D4 raves 1 Stuctueof te atom 2 Garemphysics Kl Ea. Fs ES Fusion and sts ‘Tneory of Knowledge physics Internal Assessment External Assessment 570 Extended Essay sr Inox 576‘The aim ofthe ylabus isto integrate concept, topic content and the NOS through Jnguiy. Students and teachers are encouraged to personalize their approach tothe syllabus acconding to theircircumstanees and interests, Skil the stay of physics should be integrated int the abu content. eee Be eS Bes = Physics ‘Al Kinematics* | B.1 Thermalenergy | C.1 Simple ‘Dl Gravitational | E.1 Structure of en fe ce (aa, [oe racy. | Mpa | ering Cw Tome [assem |soene a a cope * Topics with content that shouldbe taught toall students ‘Topics with ditional HL content + Topics with content for HL students onlyTORR Tce R Coie Welcome to your study of IB Diploma Programme (DP) Higher Level (HL) physics! This textbook has been written to match the specifications of the new physis curriculum for first assessments in 2025 and gives comprehensive coverage ofthe course, Content “Thebook covers the content that is common tall DP physics students and the additional material for HL students EIN The ational HL materials labeled as such, and the sequence ofthe chapters matches the sequence of the subject guide themes, with textbook chapter numbering matching the guide topic nambering, Each chapter starts with a caption forthe opening image, the Guiding Questions, an introduction (which gives the context of the topic and how itelates to your previous knowledge) and the Understandings forthe topic. These will giv a sense of whats to come, withthe Understandings providing theultimate checklist for when youare preparing for assessments How can the motion of body be described quanstatvely and qualitative? How can the poston of abodyin space andtimebe predicted? “Thetext covers the course content using plain language. with allcintifc tems explained, We have been careful to apply the same terminology you will sein IB examination in worked examples and questions Linking Questions that relat topics to one another canbe found throughout with hint sto where the answer might be located. The purpose of Linking Questions is ST to connect diferent areas ofthe subject to one another ~ between topics and tothe cfamass(al)ina Natur of Science (NOS) more generally. These questions will encourage an oper mind ston 1) out the scope ofthe course during your frst read though and willbe superb srl mate hereon about the scope ofthe course during your fist read through and wil be super stil Panera forrevision inlets 02) Each chaper concludes with Guiding Questions revised and a summary of the chapter, inwhich we desribehow we sought to present the material and what you should now know, understand and be ableto do. The Guiding Question revised bulleted lists are available as downloadable PDFS from the eBook to help you wth revision. How can we use ourknouledge and understanding ofthe torques acting on a sytem to pri changes in rotational motion? Hfno extemal torque acts ona system, wht physical quanti remains constant for rotating body?Aims Using + develop conceptual understanding that allows connections tobe made between diferent areas of the subject, and to other DP sciences subjects + acquire and apply a body of knowledge, methods, ools and techniques that characterize seience + develop the abilyto analyze, evaluate and synthesize scientific information istexthook as prt of your course will help you meet these IB DP physics ims and claims + develop the ability to approach unfamiliar situations with creativity and resilience + design and model solutions toloal and global problems in a scientific context + develop an appreciation of the possbilites and imitations of science + develop technology skills ina scientific context + develop the abilyto communicate and collaborate effectively + develop awareness of the ethical, environmental, economic, ultra and social Impact of science. Nature of physics Physics attempt to understand the natore ofthe Unive They sek expand now though esting hypotheses and explaining observations and bya commitment to checking and re- volume rato of wo lengths, + angle ithas no units. ‘These toolsare prescribed in your subject guide ‘There are others silo come throughout the textbook. These include measurements of * force (A) + temperature (81) + lecriccurrent 8.5) + electric potential ference @.5) + sound intensity (C2) + and light intensity (C2). ‘You should also be aware ofhow to recognize and adéress safety ethcaland environmental issues, Te'to spot these throughout the textbook, such asthe risks of high-temperature id (8.3) or ionizing radiation (E.3), othe environmental impact ‘fusing electricity (8.5) o water (C2) for experimentation. xixInthe stm of umber diferent, would our trode of te nies othe e? npc experimen, ve sas Shop ako have to ‘en hin gen could be proses weit scnaig. ‘ar approraton acy ea | someting or example a ounded suerte) An esinae isasimpfeation ot ‘squatey (urn ae sing that an apple sts 1008 x A aN] Technology and physics are closely linked. Technology enables the advancement ‘of physics, andthe pursuit of seintifc understanding stimulates improvement i technology. The feds impacted areas wide-ranging s communication, medicine and cavironmental sustainably Every measurement requires an instrument, which itself inherently technological Technology facilitates collaboration, which tothe benefit of international teams ‘of scientists and IB physicists alike. Technology makes the processes carried out by physicists much faster, for example, when collecting data or performing caleslations, Humans can sense light intensity, temperature, sounds, sme tastes and applied pressure. How might technology replicate ar improve upon these senses? What else does technology enable ws to measire? A model isa representation of reality Itcan be as conse asa single won! (eg the brain s ke a computer) or an equation (eg speeds the ratio of distance traveled ‘time taken). Technology supports physics in forming new modes during exploratory experimental work eg by making iteasy to compare the fit ofa range of ‘mathematical lationship) and in creating simulations that enable experimentation without need fora la, Summary - Tool 2: Technology Technology canbe used to good et in physics. The Tool: Mathematics section of this chapter wil veal that technology canbe used o display graphs for representing data. Inthe remainder ofthe textbook, you can expect to learn about sing sensors (A2,B1, 83, C1, Ca) ‘odes and simulations for generation of aa (B.2.C4) ‘Spreadsheets for manipulation of data 2.5) computer modeling for processing data (C1) image analysts of motion (C3,E.1) databases for dita extraction (3,65) ‘ico analysis of motion (3) |Whea counting apples, we can say there are exactly si apples, butfwe measure thelength of piece of paper, we cannot say that tis exactly 21 cm wide. All _measurements have an associated uncertainty and itisimportant that his is also {quoted withthe vate, Uncertainties cannot be avoided, bu by caeflly using acurate instruments, they can be minimize. Physics isl about relationships between diferent quantities, Ifthe uncertaintesin measurement are to bg, then relationships are dificult co identify. Throughout the practical part of this course, you willbe ‘eying tind out what cases the uncertainties in your measurements, Sometimes you will beable to reduce them and at othe times no. It is quite alright tohave big ‘uncertainties bu completely unacceptable to manipulate data so thatthe numbers appear oft predicted relationship,Summary of SI units “TheS! system of uns isthe se of nis thatareinternatonly agree o be sed in scence rs ill OK to use othe ster in everyday fe ils, pounds, Fhreni tutin science, we mus always se SL There are sven fundamental rate] quanti er Cn es pai length 7 meter | m mass log tine second [s ‘ectrc cument ampee [A ‘ermadynamic temperature kelvin K “mount of evbstance " ‘mole mo pecans luminous intensity 1 candela | ed dint couse AllotherSlunits are derived units. These are based on the fundamental units snd will ‘be introduced and defined where relevant, Sofar weave come eros just thre. Derived quantity Symbol Base units volume am mamam ensty ‘er 6 By breaking down the units of derived quanties into base quantity uns, tis possible to check whether an equation could be correct. This techniques an informal version ‘of dimensional analysis in which the powers a? quantities are compared om ether side ofan equation. Note, however, that dimensional analysis provides no insights ito the constant of proportionality Processing uncertainties The SI system of units i defined so that we all se the same sized unis when building our models of the Physical world. However, before we can understand the relationship between different quantities, we must measure how big they ae. To make measurements, we use variety ofnstraments, To measure length we ean use a ruler and to measure ime, a clock. Hous findings are tobe teusted, then our measurements must be accurate, and the accuracy of our measurement depends on the instrument used and how we use it. Consider the following examples. 2aWien nga sale ‘chasse the een the readings he ‘malt conn threat bear ‘dsenism3 thenceray ‘asimm When ving deta deveesucn ss abalace we ake thence athe ale dig Sot the mmesaurentis 2056 the unceniny 30.16 Inia rd2 swear rig ha heer end ofthe ‘ule becuse tig bepombltline pap th eg ruler marking Inca eure forBampe maybe cmb cembratoncl es ‘efthe gh emery quote to cpesinteare ave “Teurenany hen setter ante of secina pas tower Ihe messremert Measuring length using a ruler Example t A good straight ruler markedin mms (& ‘sed to measure the length of Pk ka sg 7 rectangular piee of paper asin Figure 4 ‘The ruler measures to within 5mm (oe call ths the uncertainty inthe _mcasurement) so the length in emis {quoted 10 2p. This measurements precise and accurate. Thiscan be writen 356.40 005 em, which ells usthat the sctual value is somewhere between 6.35. and 6.45em. Example 2 Figure angi 640s 00560 Figure 5 shows howa ruler with broken nd is used to measure the length of the samepice ofpaper Whenusng there, =| ry you might ult notice the ends broken snd think thae the 0.5 em marks the zero ‘mark, ‘This measurements precise since the uncertainty is small but snot accurate since the value 90cm is wrong. Example 3 Aruletmarktnly inns a ceedtomemrctilegiohepaperas [Br in Figures. a ‘These measurements are precise and - sccurate, bu the scales not very sensitive aces teigies 007 Example 4 In Figure 7, ruler fused to measure the maximum height ofa bouncing ball. The sulerhas more markings, butit is very dificult to measure the height ofthe bouncing bull. Even thowgh you cam se the sale wo within 0.5mm, the results are no precise {the base ofthe ball maybe at about 4.2m). However. if you do enough runs ofthe same experiment, your fina answer could be accurate.Precision and accuracy “To help understand the diference between precision and accuracy consider the four atempts whit the enter of target with thre arows shown in Figure 8 Pree and recat Novpreie Notpieceond (dameter vith nr brs Awovisheet ith fl de cfhow to caty Toscan the bf oii sph of vs das shown in Figure 17. However, since the values of mand dhave ‘uncertainties, we donot plot them as points but as ines, The length ofthe lines equals ‘the uncertainty in the measurement, These ar called uncertainty bars ge Thecuveis quite nice i but very dificult to analyz. would be more comenient sf ould maniolt the data to get straight ine This ical Hearing, To do this we mus to deduce the lationship sing physical theory and then she reationship by drawing graph nth cae, welnow that density, p= 2 and the volume fa sphere =, where r= radius - pe oe Rearranging this equation gives: ut Since sa const his means hati rporinsltom.So,araphof vs mshould bea sight line with gradient =-" To plotthis graph, wencedto find and ts uncertain. The ocean canbe nd by kl iene mas nd minimum vals fared dividing by 2:4 a= va | 126 | tao | 1370 | tan | 138 | 24 | 0a 20 | 1s | 1500 | 1aa0 | vsso | 1s | a7 | 0a se | ai | ai | 218 | aia | a | 98 | as ‘94 | 2s | asm | 2820 | 260 | 287 | 7 1 vs | 2690 | 280 | 2a | 200 | 277 | 2 2 157_| 3030 | 2980 | 3080 | 2890 | 300 | 27 3 191_| 3280 | 3290 | 3190 | 320 | az | = 7 ais | aa | 242 | aa | aa | aa | 0 2 zas_| 3580 | asoo | 500 | asz0 | ase | 7Looking atthe linen Figure 18, wecan see that due to random errors in the data the Points are noe exactly on the line but clase enough. What we expect to seis theline toachingall of the error bars, whichis the case ere. The error bars should reflet the random scatter of data In this case, they ae slightly bigger which is probably due to ‘the approximate way that they have been calculated, Notice how the poins furthest From the ine have the biggest error bars According the formula? shouldbe diretly proportional tom: the ne should ‘therefore pass chrough the origin. Here we can see tha they-intercept is ~0.3cn, ‘which s quite close tothe origin and is probably just due to the random errorsin df the intercept had been more significant, then might have been due toa systematic error in mass For example ifthe balance had not been zeroed properly and instead ‘of displaying zero with no mass on the pan, tread 05g, then each mass measurement ‘would be 0.5gtoo big. The resulting graph would beas in Figur 19 A systematic ero inthe diameter would not beso easy to see Since diameters cubed, adding a constant value each diameter would cause the line to become curved Outliers ‘Sometimes. a mistake is made in one ofthe measurements, Thisis quite dificul to spotina abl but will often lead toan outlier ona graph, For example, one ofthe measurements in Table 12 isincorrec. 4 Figure 18 oc oh fence ofamodsing hay Te be ito power now acraght Tne Over ne you wales hwo ge whee dais brat epee ty Alnearornon ne "i peaps based on thetbeory behind | amevgerirantor te pooner. Figure 19 Gaph of ootabter2 14 | 1296 | tao | tara | 1200 20 | 1s | iso | 1480 | 1550 sé | 2000 | 210 | aie | ana 4 | 250 | 287 | 250 | 2610 vas | 2600 | 200 | 2m@4 | 2720 157 | 3030 | 290 | 3080 | 2890 wr | 3280 | 320 | aas0 | 3200 zs_| aa | aaz | sare | 3300 za aso | as | ssn | 350 ‘isis revealed in the graph in Figure 20. Figure20 Geach of rte? ofa modeig ey |When you ind an ute, you nec toda some detective work o try to ind out why the alee : youn nett ine Tung cn kath dts sts ea ha meus! Inc athemenremets was coset. scan enbeemoeand he ie ted Sheen Stun However oucannotsil eth pat eae doce et A sen ‘twill cross the axes, decrease in the level of ozone over the Antarctic was originally left out of the data since: a ‘wasan outer, Later investigation ofthis ‘outlier led toasgnificant discovery. Uncertainty in the gradient ‘The genera equation fora traghtne grap pasing through the origin sy =m Ina oqtnetbelac a whe yam ea ty Yueanse atten ftir em Tis conae th renin Frm ihe raph eset grade = 1797emg «ope 1.063 gem” but what isthe uncertainty inthis value? “There ae several ways to estimate the uncertainty ina gradient. One ofthem isto draw the steepest and leas step ins through the errr bars a shown in Figore 2, oii2 ameter? fob oc ae % 2 nasip “This gives maximum gradient = 1.856 cm and minimum gradient =1.746cm*g" 355-799 aggcmg! So: uncertainty in the gradient Note that the program used to draw the graph (Logges?r0! gives an uncertainty in the gradient of 20.03 em'g”. This isa more correct value but the steepest and least steep lines method is accepted in IB assessments. ‘Thesteepest and least steep gradients give maximum and minimum values forthe density of Sotheuncertaintyis; M462 - 903 gcmm-* ‘Thedensity can now be writen 1.062 003gem" Fractional uncertainties So a, we have dest with uncertainty as 4%. This isclled the absolute uncertainty inthe value Uncertainties can also be expressed as fractions. This has some advantages when processing data Inthe previous example, we measured the diameter of modeling clay balls then cubed ‘this valu in order to linearize the data. To make the sums simpler let us consider slightly bigerball witha diameter of 1 Lem. Sothe measured vale d= 10cm and the absolute uncertainty Ad = Lem, ‘The fractional uncertainty 0.1 fon expressed asa percentage, 10%) During the processing ofthe dat, we found = 1000 ‘Theuancertainy in this values not the same asin dT find the uncertainty ind 6 need to know the biggest and smallest possible values of. These we can calculate by ding and subtracting the absolute uncertainty: ‘maximum d= (10+1)°= 1331em? ere con ed eas ep lines Irby nas omer enpeance, tencontteing steps. and et soe ines woud so Blow mcm a rina nce (ahertobe rad ‘avai obtaned fom smepetenentan beconpared witha ‘wow alueby 0g 'yetronm alors ‘tin the nce me ‘itera yu cexlause pocenage ‘rence fins the ‘ence beeen the eperimentaland oes inden hide sence by thelnow vale nawowl Sotherange ofvaluesis: (1331-729) = 602m" ‘The uncertaimy is therefore #301 em’, which rounded down to one significant figure gives 2300em Thisis not the same as (A), which would be Lem ‘he fractional uncertain in d= 2 =03-Thiss the same as 3 the fractions nce in This leads to an dative way of nding uncertain when raising da tothe power 3 sr 8th fnctonal uncersiny in thenthe factional uncer in Mere generally isthe ction nero thenthefconl cen SoutJousqur valu thera uncer ge Another wy of wrth wold beth sith acon cern then ‘the fractional uncertainty in x?- a. +8 This can be extended to any multiplication, Soit isthe fractional snag hs fraction uncertain iny then the fiactional nce inay = 22 scr strange bt whe diving the son ceri ao ose fraconal uncer ip and the raconal nce ny thn the acon ra ae sncertinty in youd aquanity by constant with no uncertainty hen he rational mcr eins the sae ‘Thisisall summarized in the data booklet as © yo inn andi yethen = ‘Challenge yourself 1. Whena walls downslope of eight sis sed atbotoavisgienby thet a7 BPN scan inmpoty pe ee Sa ee omens eee Fee i wate, eeeExample Ihe length ofthe side ofa cube is quoted as 5.00 0.01 m,whatareits volume and the uncertainty inthe volume? fractional uncertainy in length ="2 = 0.002 volume = 5.00! = 125m? ‘Wher a quantity is cubed, is factional uncertainty is 3» bigger so the factional ‘uncertainty in volume = 0.002 «3 = 0006. “Theabsolute uncertainty is therefore 0006» 125 = 0.75 (approximately )sothe volumeis 125 +1 (Q12. The length ofthe sides ofa cube and its mass are quoted as Jength = 0.050 + 0.001 1322 0002kg Calculate the density ofthe material and its uncertainty. (Q13. The distance around a running tracks 400 + Im. fa person runs around the track four times, calculate the distance traveled andits uncertainty. QU4. Thetime for 10 swings ofa pendulum is 11.24 0.15. Calculate the time for ‘ne swing ofthe pendulum and ts uncertainty. @) =n \Wehave sen how we can use numbers to represent physical quantities. By representing those quantities by letters, we can derive mathematical equations to define relationships between them, then use raphs to verify those ‘elationships. Some quantities cannot be represented by a number aloneso.a ‘whole new are of mathematics necds tobe developed to enable us to derive eae eter angi ‘ oes pe) Vector and scalar quantities Vector Sofarwehave del with edie quant gh ine mass. ole dest gay ith dapcment aay Allof these quantities avea size, but displacement also has direction. Quantities ‘that have size and direction are wectors and those with only size are scalars. ll {quantities are either vectors or scalars. willbe apparent why is importa to make this distinction when we add displacements together, Example Consider two displacements one after another as shown in Figute 22. ‘Starting fom A, wall ham west to B, then Skm north to. a Figure22Diplacerent voor‘The total displacement from the start isnot 5+ but ean be found by drawing a line from Ato C ona scale diagram, \Wewill find that here are many other vector uanties that can be added inthe same way Addition of vectors Vectors can be represented by drawing arrows, The let of the arrow is proportional tothe magnitude ofthe quantity and the diction ofthe arow i the direction ofthe ‘quantity. The arrow commencesat the point of application, the significance of which will become clearer in 42, ‘Toadd vectors, the arowsare simply arranged so thatthe point of one touches the tail of the other. The resltan vectors found by drawing line joining the fee tal othe ieepo san] Nota Example gue 21s ap trie erent isplacemens. We cen represent ie placements the vec igure Tie a Cale tesa thew ecto at right angst ech there he estan wl bethe typotems of angled ingle Ths eanthat we can ue sip gooey torte re ds enue | Some simple trigonometry = ‘You will find cos, sin and tan buttons on your calculator. These are used teal urinownalef hanged anges n= oe ppt hyptee ind = cone pen yt oe Td Fowe2t aetens oppose eet aout ey ve Worked exampl peal nd these Kft ia sa Findtheside Xf he langle eneninoad it Serco ‘= Sea ; Sotelo cues notation soften eft ‘ut This iebecae ‘veleow that the symbol represents Solution “splacerent then welnowitleavacor Side Xis the opposite so: ‘anddonot need the "vectornotatont sin40"= 06428 s0.X= 3.2m remind sind" wowExe Q15.LUse your calculator to find in each rangle, RA Pythagoras “The most useful mathemati relationship for finding he resultant of wo perpendicular vectors is Pythagoras theorem Inypotenuse?= adjacent + opposite Co) mo Find the side X onthe triangle om Solution Applying Pythagoras: renee So: Xe (FF =JB= 45m voorix‘eu can dicide for youre whichyou ‘antiobe poste but genera we oll he ‘omention belo af “em cy 4 xl Exercise ie eager eran SEES a (by <4 . a = © (d@ a i. = Using trigonometry to solve vector problems ‘Once the vectors have been arranged point til itisa simple mate of applying the trigonometricl relationships othe triangles that you gt. Ea Daw the vectors and salve he following problems using Pythagoras theorem, £Q17. Aboat travels 4hm wes followed by 8km north, What isthe resultant isplacement? {Q18. A planefles 100km north then changes course to fly SOkm east. What isthe resultant displacement? Vectors in one dimension Inthis cours, we wil ofen consider the simplest examples where the motion is restricted to one dimension, for example, a rain traveling alonga straight tack. In «examples like this, there ae only two possible directions — forward and backward To distinguish between the two directions, we give them diferent signs orward + and backward). Adding vectorsis now simply a matter of adding the magnitudes, with mo need for complicated triangles. _ ae Figure 25. Th ain can coy move fond orbacoard