Outline the three components of the information security

triangle and provide an example for each method.

When talking about network security, the CIA triad is one of the most important
models which is designed to guide policies for information security within an
organization.
CIA stands for :
1. Confidentiality
2. Integrity
3. Availability

Confidentiality – means information is not disclosed to unauthorized

individuals, entities and process. For example if we say I have a
password for my Gmail account but someone saw while I was doing a
login into Gmail account. In that case my password has been
compromised and Confidentiality has been breached.
 Integrity – means maintaining accuracy and completeness of data. This
means data cannot be edited in an unauthorized way. For example if an
employee leaves an organisation then in that case data for that
employee in all departments like accounts, should be updated to reflect
status to JOB LEFT so that data is complete and accurate and in addition
to this only authorized person should be allowed to edit employee data.

Availability – means information must be available when needed. For

example if one needs to access information of a particular employee to
check whether employee has outstanded the number of leaves, in that case
it requires collaboration from different organizational teams like network
operations, development operations, incident response and policy/change
management.
Denial of service attack is one of the factor that can hamper the availability
of information.
Elaborate on how system vulnerabilities impact business.
System vulnerabilities can have significant and far-reaching impacts on businesses,
affecting their operations, reputation, finances, and more. Here's an elaboration on how
system vulnerabilities can impact businesses:

1. Data Breaches and Loss of Confidentiality:

• Exploiting system vulnerabilities can lead to unauthorized access to
sensitive data, resulting in data breaches.
• Businesses may lose valuable customer information, proprietary data,
trade secrets, and financial data.
• The loss of confidentiality can damage customer trust and tarnish the
business's reputation.
2. Financial Losses:
• System vulnerabilities can be exploited to carry out financial fraud, theft, or
unauthorized transactions.
• Businesses might incur losses from fraudulent activities, legal fees,
compensation to affected customers, and regulatory fines.
3. Operational Disruption:
• Exploiting vulnerabilities can lead to system crashes, downtime, or
disruptions in critical operations.
• Businesses may experience reduced productivity, missed deadlines, and
disruptions in services, affecting customer satisfaction.
4. Reputation Damage:
• Publicized data breaches or security incidents can damage a company's
reputation and erode customer trust.
• Negative media coverage and word-of-mouth can lead to customer churn
and decreased brand loyalty.
5. Intellectual Property Theft:
• Exploiting vulnerabilities can enable cybercriminals to steal intellectual
property, product designs, research data, and patents.
• Competitors or cybercriminals can capitalize on stolen IP, affecting a
business's competitive advantage.
6. Supply Chain Risks:
• Businesses are interconnected with suppliers and partners. If a vulnerability
in a partner's system is exploited, it can indirectly impact the business.
• A compromise in a supplier's system can lead to disruptions in the supply
chain, affecting production and delivery.
7. Resource Drain:
 • Identifying and addressing vulnerabilities requires time, effort, and
resources.
• Businesses might need to divert resources from core activities to fix
vulnerabilities, impacting their overall efficiency.
8. Loss of Customer Trust:
• If customers perceive a lack of security measures, they may choose to do
business with competitors who prioritize security.
• Losing customer trust can lead to reduced customer acquisition and
retention rates.
9. Operational Costs:
• After discovering vulnerabilities, businesses need to invest in security
measures, updates, and training to mitigate risks.
• These costs can strain budgets and resources, impacting the overall
financial health of the organization.

Explain the types of authentication methods implemented by security

administrators.
Security administrators implement various authentication methods to ensure that only
authorized individuals can access systems, applications, and data. These authentication
methods vary in terms of security levels, complexity, and user experience. Here are some
common types of authentication methods:

1. Password-Based Authentication:
• Users provide a username and password combination to gain access.
• It's a widely used method but can be vulnerable to password guessing,
social engineering, and password reuse.
2. Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA):
• Requires users to provide multiple pieces of evidence to verify their
identity.
• Common factors include something the user knows (password), something
they have (one-time codes, smart cards), and something they are
(biometric data like fingerprints or facial recognition).
3. Biometric Authentication:
• Relies on unique biological traits like fingerprints, retina/iris scans, facial
recognition, or voice recognition.
 • Offers strong security, but implementation challenges can include accuracy
and privacy concerns.
4. Smart Cards and Tokens:
• Users possess physical devices like smart cards or hardware tokens that
generate one-time passwords (OTP).
• Increases security by requiring both something the user knows (PIN) and
something they have (physical token).
5. Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) Authentication:
• Utilizes digital certificates to authenticate users and devices.
• Involves asymmetric cryptography with a public key for encryption and a
private key for decryption and signing.
6. Certificate-Based Authentication:
• Similar to PKI, users present digital certificates as proof of identity.
• Commonly used for secure email, VPN access, and web authentication.
7. One-Time Passwords (OTP):
• Generates unique passwords for each login session.
• Enhances security by making stolen passwords less useful to attackers.
8. Knowledge-Based Authentication (KBA):
• Requires users to answer personal questions that only they should know.
• Can be susceptible to social engineering if attackers gather information
about the user.
9. Time-Based One-Time Password (TOTP):
• Similar to OTP, but the password changes after a predefined time interval.
• Often used in combination with mobile apps like Google Authenticator.

Write short notes on the best practices for email security(4marks)

Certainly, here are four key points for email security:

1. Strong Passwords: Use strong, unique passwords for your email account and
update them regularly to prevent unauthorized access.
2. Two-Factor Authentication (2FA): Enable 2FA to add an extra layer of security
by requiring a second form of verification in addition to your password.
3. Phishing Awareness: Be cautious of phishing emails, verify sender addresses,
and avoid clicking on suspicious links or sharing personal information.
4. Regular Updates: Keep your email client and operating system updated to patch
security vulnerabilities and minimize the risk of exploitation.
What is the difference between authentication and authorization? Provide an
example.

Authentication Authorization

In the authentication process, the While in authorization process, a the

identity of users are checked for person’s or user’s authorities are
providing the access to the system. checked for accessing the resources.

In the authentication process, users or While in this process, users or persons

persons are verified. are validated.

It is done before the authorization While this process is done after the
process. authentication process.

It needs usually the user’s login While it needs the user’s privilege or
details. security levels.

Authentication determines whether While it determines What permission

the person is user or not. does the user have?

Generally, transmit information Generally, transmit information

through an ID Token. through an Access Token.

The OpenID Connect (OIDC) protocol

The OAuth 2.0 protocol governs the
is an authentication protocol that is
overall system of user authorization
generally in charge of user
process.
authentication process.

The authorization permissions cannot

The authentication credentials can be be changed by user as these are
changed in part as and when required granted by the owner of the system
by the user. and only he/she has the access to
change it.
 Authentication Authorization

The user authentication is visible at The user authorization is not visible at

user end. the user end.

The user authentication is identified The user authorization is carried out

with username, password, face through the access rights to resources
recognition, retina scan, fingerprints, by using roles that have been pre-
etc. defined.

Example: Employees in a company Example: After an employee

are required to authenticate through successfully authenticates, the system
the network before accessing their determines what information the
company email. employees are allowed to access.

Illustrate the categories of database security risks.

Database security risks can be categorized as follows:

1. Unauthorized Access: This involves unauthorized users gaining entry to a

database, potentially leading to data breaches and unauthorized data exposure.
2. Data Manipulation: Unauthorized alteration of data integrity, either through
accidental or malicious means, can compromise the accuracy and reliability of
stored information.
3. Injection Attacks: These occur when malicious code is inserted into input fields,
exploiting vulnerabilities in the database and potentially granting unauthorized
access or control.
4. Privilege Escalation: Unauthorized users gaining higher privileges than intended
can access and manipulate sensitive data, posing a significant threat to data
confidentiality and system integrity.

Outline the key functions and capabilities of an operating system.

Certainly, here's an outline of the key functions and capabilities of an operating system:

1. Process Management:
• Creation, scheduling, and termination of processes.
• Process synchronization and communication.
• Management of process states and resources.
2. Memory Management:
• Allocation and deallocation of memory for processes.
• Virtual memory management and paging.
• Memory protection and access control.
3. File System Management:
• Creation, organization, and deletion of files and directories.
• File access and permissions.
• File storage, retrieval, and manipulation.
4. Device Management:
• Management of input and output devices.
• Device drivers for hardware communication.
• Handling device interrupts and interactions.

Define security access points. List out those that apply to most
databases.
Security Access Points refer to specific locations or mechanisms within a system or database
where access control measures are implemented to ensure that only authorized users can
interact with resources or data. These access points help protect sensitive information and
maintain the overall security of the system. In the context of databases, the following security
access points commonly apply:

1. Authentication and Authorization:

• Authentication: Verifying the identity of users before granting access.
• Authorization: Granting appropriate permissions to authenticated users
based on their roles and responsibilities.
2. Login Credentials:
• Usernames and Passwords: Securely managing user credentials to
prevent unauthorized access.
SQL Injection Prevention:
• Implementing measures to prevent malicious SQL code from being injected
through input fields.
Two-Factor Authentication (2FA):
• Adding an extra layer of security by requiring a second form of verification
beyond a password.

Q.State the functionalities of a Database management system.

here's a concise explanation of the main four points:

1. Data Storage and Retrieval: Efficiently store and organize data, making it
accessible for users' queries and needs.
2. Data Manipulation: Modify and maintain data accurately by inserting, updating,
and deleting records while enforcing integrity rules.
3. Data Definition and Schema Management: Define the database structure,
including tables, fields, and relationships, and adapt it to changing requirements.
4. Query Language and Reporting: Enable users to retrieve specific data using a
query language like SQL, and generate reports for analysis and decision-making.

Q.Highlight the purpose of an Information system?

The purpose of an Information System (IS) is to effectively gather, process, store, and distribute
information to support decision-making, streamline operations, enhance communication, and
enable strategic planning within an organization. IS serves to:

1. Enable Decision-Making: Information systems offer accurate and timely data for
informed choices by individuals and management.
2. Improve Efficiency: They automate processes, reducing manual effort and
enhancing operational speed.
3. Enhance Communication: Information systems enable seamless data sharing,
fostering collaboration among teams and departments.
4. Support Strategic Planning: By providing insights and trends, they aid in
aligning goals, resources, and actions for long-term success.
Q.Name two best practices for user administration and illustrate how each example
enhances operating system security. 4 marks answer

1. Principle of Least Privilege:

• Practice: Assign users the lowest level of permissions required to perform
their tasks.
• Enhancement: By limiting users to essential access, potential attackers are
restricted in the damage they can cause if they compromise an account.
Even if an attacker gains access, they won't have extensive privileges to
manipulate critical data or systems.
2. User Account Management and Regular Review:
• Practice: Create user accounts promptly, deactivate accounts of departed
employees, and regularly review active accounts.
• Enhancement: Proper user account management ensures that
unauthorized or inactive accounts don't linger. Attackers often target
dormant accounts as entry points. Regular reviews help maintain an
accurate list of active users, reducing the attack surface and potential
vulnerabilities.

Q.List out the best practices to adopt for secure file transferring
1. Encryption: Protect data while it's being transferred by encoding it, ensuring
only authorized recipients can decipher it.
2. Authentication: Verify the identity of users before allowing them to access or
transfer files, preventing unauthorized access.
3. Secure Protocols: Use protocols like SFTP (secure file transfer protocol) and
HTTPS (secure web protocol) to ensure data integrity and confidentiality.
4. Regular Updates: Keep file transfer tools and systems up-to-date with the latest
security patches to counteract potential vulnerabilities.
Q.Discuss about the different client/server tier designs
1. Two-Tier Design:
• Client directly communicates with the server, leading to potential coupling
between user interface and data handling.
• Suitable for simpler applications where separation of concerns is less
critical.
2. Three-Tier Design:
• Middleware layer acts as an intermediary, reducing direct communication
between client and server.
• Offers better maintenance and scalability, making it suitable for
applications requiring modularity.
3. Multi-Tier (N-Tier) Design:
• Each additional tier adds complexity and communication overhead,
requiring careful architecture planning.
• Enables fine-grained scalability and flexibility, advantageous for large-scale
applications.
virtual private architecture and its implementation in oracle?
Virtual Private Database(VPD) is the most popular secured database which
was introduced by Oracle Database Enterprise. It is used when the object
privileges and database roles are inadequate to achieve security requirements.
The policies or protocols are directly proportional to security requirements.
VPD is associated with the “application context” feature and these contexts are
used to manage the data during the execution of SQL statements. A complex
VPD example might read an application context during a login trigger and a
simple VPD example might restrict access to data during business hours.

Advantages of VPD:

• Higher Accessibility: Users can easily access the data from anywhere.
• Flexibility: It can be easily modified without breaking the control flow.
• Higher Recovery Rate: The data can be retrieved very easily.
• Dynamically Secured: No need to maintain complex roles.
• No back doors: The security policy is attached to the data so no by-
passing is allowed.

Dis-advantages of VPD:

• Difficult column-level security.

• Oracle account ID is required to use this service.
• Hard to examine.
•
There are the following examples of VPD:
Example 1: The user can see the data of the column of account_mgr_id “149”
from the 1st table. It will be specific to itself only unless more queries are
provided. VPD can execute the data which has been commanded.
Explain the steps to design and implement password policies are used in SQL server.

Designing and implementing password policies in SQL Server is essential for enhancing
security and ensuring that user accounts have strong and secure passwords. SQL Server
provides several features and options for configuring password policies. Here are the
steps to design and implement password policies in SQL Server:

1. Assess Security Requirements:

• Start by assessing your organization's security requirements and
compliance standards. Understand the level of password complexity and
security needed for your SQL Server environment.
2. Login Creation and Alteration:
• SQL Server uses logins to authenticate users. You can create new logins or
modify existing ones to enforce password policies.
3. Password Complexity Requirements:
• Determine the complexity requirements for passwords. Common elements
include:
• Minimum password length.
• Use of uppercase and lowercase letters.
• Inclusion of numbers and special characters.
• Avoidance of common words and patterns.
Password History:
• Configure the number of previous passwords that cannot be reused. This helps
prevent users from recycling old passwords.
•
• Determine how frequently users are required to change their passwords.
This can vary depending on your security policy.
• Enforce Password Policies:
 • To enforce password policies, you can use either SQL Server
Authentication or Windows Authentication. If using SQL Server
Authentication, you can set the CHECK_POLICY option to ON when creating or
modifying logins.

CREATE LOGIN YourLoginName WITH PASSWORD = 'YourPassword'

MUST_CHANGE, CHECK_POLICY = ON;

Backup and Recovery Plan:

• In case of password-related issues, ensure you have a backup and recovery plan
in place to help users regain access to their accounts.

What are column level privileges.

Column-level privileges are permissions within a database that grant or deny access to specific
columns (fields) in database tables. They enable fine-grained control over who can perform
actions (e.g., SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) on individual columns, providing enhanced data
security and privacy. Implementing them involves specifying the column name, the privilege,
and the user or role, with syntax varying by database system. They are crucial for safeguarding
sensitive data and ensuring regulatory compliance in scenarios where not all users should have
access to all data within a table.

1. Syntax: The syntax for defining column-level privileges varies depending on the
database management system. Generally, it involves specifying the column name,
the privilege (e.g., SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE), and the user or role to
which the privilege is granted or denied.
2. Examples:
• In SQL Server, you can use the GRANT and DENY statements to control
column-level permissions. For instance:
• GRANT SELECT (ColumnName) ON TableName TO UserName;
How to Create SQL Server Logins

1. Access SQL Server Management Studio (SSMS): Start by launching SQL Server
Management Studio, the primary tool for administering SQL Server.
2. Connect to the SQL Server Instance: In SSMS, connect to the specific SQL
Server instance where you want to create the login. You must have administrative
privileges or belong to a role with the necessary permissions.
3. Navigate to the "Logins" Folder:
• In the Object Explorer panel, locate and expand the "Security" node to
reveal the "Logins" folder. This is where you manage all SQL Server logins.
4. Create a New Login:
• Right-click on the "Logins" folder and select "New Login" from the context
menu.
• In the "Login - New" dialog box that appears, you can define the login by
specifying:
• Login Name: This can be a Windows user or group (Windows
Authentication) or a SQL Server login (SQL Server Authentication).
For SQL Server Authentication, you'll need to provide a unique login
name and password.
• Default Database: Choose the default database that the login will
connect to by default.
• Server Roles (Optional): Assign server roles like sysadmin,
serveradmin, or securityadmin if necessary.
• User Mapping: If you want this login to have access to specific
databases, go to the "User Mapping" tab. Select the databases and
assign roles and permissions within each database.
• Review the settings to ensure they are accurate.
• Finally, click the "OK" button to create the login.

What are the ORACLE default users and SQL Server default users?

Oracle and SQL Server have default users with specific roles and purposes. Here are the
default users for both Oracle and SQL Server in a concise four-mark answer:

Oracle Default Users:

1. SYSTEM: The SYSTEM user is the database administrator with full privileges. It is
used for database maintenance and management tasks.
 2. SYS: The SYS user is the superuser and has the highest level of database
privileges. It is used for database administration tasks and should be used
sparingly.
3. HR: The HR user is used for the Human Resources (HR) schema, which provides
sample data for tutorials and demonstrations.
4. SCOTT: The SCOTT user is used for the SCOTT schema, another sample schema
with tables and data for educational purposes.

SQL Server Default Users:

1. SA (System Administrator): The SA user is the built-in system administrator for

SQL Server. It has full control over the SQL Server instance and is typically used
for initial setup and administration.
2. NT AUTHORITY\SYSTEM: This user represents the Windows system and has
administrative privileges when SQL Server is configured for Windows
Authentication. It is not typically used directly by human users.
3. NT AUTHORITY\NETWORK SERVICE: Similar to NT AUTHORITY\SYSTEM, this
user represents the Network Service account and is used for service-related
operations.
4. dbo (Database Owner): In each user database, there is a default user named
"dbo," which stands for Database Owner. This user has full control over the
respective database.

List the system tables you would use to view all users in oracle database ?

to view more details about all users in an Oracle database, you can extend your query to include
additional columns from the DBA_USERS view. Here's an example query that provides more
information about the users:

SELECT username, user_id, created, account_status, default_tablespace

FROM dba_users;

In this query:

• username: The name of the user.

• user_id: A unique identifier for the user.
• created: The date when the user account was created.
• account_status: The status of the user account (e.g., OPEN, LOCKED).
• default_tablespace: The default tablespace assigned to the user.
List the characteristics of security data model based on application tables?

A security data model based on application tables within a database is designed to

protect data integrity, confidentiality, and availability. Here are key characteristics and
considerations for such a security model:

1. Data Classification:
• Define data classification levels to categorize data based on its sensitivity
(e.g., public, confidential, restricted).
• Determine appropriate security controls for each classification.
2. Access Control:
• Implement Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) to manage and restrict user
access based on roles.
• Enforce the principle of least privilege, ensuring users have only the
necessary access rights.
3. Fine-Grained Access Control:
• Apply access controls at the table and column levels to restrict data
exposure.
• Utilize views, stored procedures, and triggers for more granular control.
4. Authentication and Authorization:
• Enforce strong user authentication methods, such as username/password,
multi-factor authentication (MFA), or integration with identity providers.
• Specify authorization policies that determine which users or roles can
access specific tables and data.
5. Data Encryption:
• Encrypt data in transit and at rest to protect against eavesdropping and
unauthorized access.
• Utilize Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) or application-level encryption
as needed.

Explain data encryption process.

Data Encryption is a method of preserving data confidentiality by transforming

it into ciphertext, which can only be decoded using a unique decryption key
produced at the time of the encryption or prior to it.
Data encryption converts data into a different form (code) that can only be
accessed by people who have a secret key (formally known as a decryption key)
or password. Data that has not been encrypted is referred to as plaintext, and
data that has been encrypted is referred to as ciphertext. Encryption is one of
the most widely used and successful data protection technologies in today’s
corporate world.

Types of Data Encryption:

1. Symmetric Encryption
2. Asymmetric Encryption

Symmetric Key Encryption:

There are a few strategies used in cryptography algorithms. For encryption and
decryption processes, some algorithms employ a unique key. In such operations,
the unique key must be secured since the system or person who knows the key
has complete authentication to decode the message for reading. This approach
is known as “symmetric encryption” in the field of network encryption.
Asymmetric Key Encryption:
Some cryptography methods employ one key for data encryption and another
key for data decryption. As a result, anyone who has access to such a public
communication will be unable to decode or read it. This type of cryptography,
known as “public-key” encryption, is used in the majority of internet security
protocols. The term “asymmetric encryption” is used to describe this type of
encryption.

Implement Row and Column level Security with SQL Server

Implementing row and column-level security in SQL Server involves controlling access to
specific rows and columns of data based on user privileges. Here's a concise four-mark
answer:

1. Row-Level Security (RLS):

• Use RLS policies to restrict access to rows of data based on user attributes
or roles.
 • Define security predicates that filter data according to user-specific
conditions.
• Ensure users can only access rows that meet the defined criteria.
2. Column-Level Security:
• Utilize SQL Server's built-in encryption and masking capabilities to secure
sensitive data within columns.
• Encrypt or mask data based on user roles or permissions.
• Hide or protect data in specified columns to prevent unauthorized access.
3. Role-Based Access Control (RBAC):
• Implement RBAC to manage and assign roles to users.
• Define which roles have access to specific rows and columns.
• Assign users to roles that grant them appropriate access rights.
4. Auditing and Monitoring:
• Set up auditing and monitoring tools to track user access to sensitive data.
• Regularly review audit logs and access patterns to ensure security policies
are effective.
• Adjust security configurations as needed to maintain data integrity and
confidentiality.

These measures collectively enable row and column-level security in SQL Server,
safeguarding data by controlling access at the finest levels of granularity.
What is the need of auditing database? In what are the ways it can be audited ?

Auditing a database is a crucial process for ensuring the integrity, security, and accountability of
the data and operations within a database management system. There are several reasons for
auditing databases:

1. Security: Auditing ensures protection against unauthorized access and data

breaches by monitoring who accesses the database and what actions they
perform.
2. Compliance: Auditing is essential for meeting regulatory and industry-specific
compliance requirements, demonstrating adherence to data security standards
and privacy regulations.
3. Accountability: It establishes accountability by tracking data changes and
identifying responsible parties, aiding in error resolution and investigations.
4. Performance Monitoring: Database auditing can also be used to enhance
performance by identifying and addressing bottlenecks and optimizing database
operations.

This four-point summary highlights the key reasons for auditing databases.

What are triggers in oracle ?

In Oracle Database, a trigger is a database object that automatically executes a specified

set of SQL statements when certain events or conditions occur within the database.

Triggers are used to enforce data integrity, automate actions, and capture and respond
to database events. There are two main types of triggers in Oracle:

1. Trigger Types: Oracle triggers come in two main types - row-level triggers
(before and after) and statement-level triggers (before and after). Row-level
triggers operate on each affected row, while statement-level triggers work on a
group of rows.
2. Event Association: Triggers can be associated with various database events,
including DML events (e.g., INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE), DDL events (e.g., CREATE,
ALTER, DROP), and database events (e.g., logon/logoff events).
3. Purpose: Triggers are used for automating actions, enforcing data integrity
constraints, logging changes, and implementing business rules. They can respond
to specific events or conditions in the database.
 4. Example: For instance, a row-level trigger can be defined to execute custom
logic before an INSERT operation on an 'employees' table, validating data or
modifying it as needed. These triggers can help maintain data quality and
consistency.

What is Randomization? Explain in brief ?

Randomization is a process of introducing randomness or chance into a system or

experiment to eliminate bias, ensure fairness, and increase the validity of results. Here's
a brief explanation of randomization in four marks:

1. Purpose of Randomization (1 mark): Randomization is used in various fields,

including scientific research, statistics, and computer science, to reduce the
impact of systematic biases and ensure that each element or participant in a
study or experiment has an equal opportunity to be selected or assigned.
2. Methods of Randomization (1 mark): Randomization involves the use of
chance or random processes to allocate subjects, treatments, or samples.
Common methods include random number generators, drawing lots, or using
statistical techniques like stratified random sampling to create groups with
diverse characteristics.
3. Benefits (1 mark): Randomization helps achieve several important goals. It
ensures that the sample or experimental group is representative of the larger
population, making the results more generalizable. It also minimizes selection
bias, enhances the statistical validity of findings, and allows for causal inferences.
4. Applications (1 mark): Randomization is widely used in clinical trials, where
patients are randomly assigned to treatment or control groups to assess the
effectiveness of a new drug or medical intervention. It's also employed in surveys,
experimental studies, and random sampling for opinion polls to provide unbiased
and reliable results.

How the data mining techniques are used to preserve privacy in database.

Data mining techniques can be applied to help preserve privacy in a database by

implementing various privacy-enhancing methods. Here's a brief overview in four marks:

1. Data Anonymization (1 mark): Data mining techniques can be used to

anonymize sensitive information by transforming or replacing original data with
modified or synthetic data. This process makes it difficult to identify individuals
while retaining the utility of the data for analysis.
 2. Differential Privacy (1 mark): Differential privacy is a data mining technique
that adds controlled noise to query results, preventing the disclosure of
individual-specific information. It allows for statistical analysis while protecting
individual privacy.
3. Data Masking and Perturbation (1 mark): Data mining can be used to apply
techniques like data masking, where sensitive information is partially obscured,
and data perturbation, where values are altered within a predefined range. This
ensures privacy without compromising the overall usefulness of the data.
4. Privacy-Preserving Algorithms (1 mark): Privacy-preserving data mining
algorithms, such as secure multiparty computation and homomorphic encryption,
allow data analysis to be performed without revealing sensitive data to any party
involved. These techniques enable collaboration on data analysis while keeping
individual data private.

12 marks

privacy-preserving algorithms available in data mining ?

Privacy-preserving algorithms in data mining are techniques and methods designed to

extract valuable insights and patterns from data while protecting the privacy of sensitive
information. These algorithms are essential in scenarios where individual-level data must
remain confidential. Here are some of the key privacy-preserving algorithms in data
mining:

1. Differential Privacy: Differential privacy is a mathematical framework that adds

controlled noise to data queries or results, ensuring that individual data records
remain private. It provides strong privacy guarantees while allowing meaningful
statistical analysis.
2. Homomorphic Encryption: Homomorphic encryption enables data to be
encrypted in a way that allows computations to be performed on the encrypted
data without the need for decryption. This ensures data privacy during analysis.
3. Secure Multiparty Computation: Secure multiparty computation (MPC) allows
multiple parties to jointly compute a function over their inputs without revealing
their inputs to each other. It is crucial for collaborative data analysis while
maintaining privacy.
 4. Randomized Response: Randomized response is commonly used in surveys and
statistical analysis. It adds random noise to individual responses, making it
challenging to determine an individual's actual response while still enabling the
extraction of aggregated statistics.
5. Data Perturbation: Data perturbation techniques involve modifying data values
within predefined ranges to protect individual values while preserving statistical
characteristics. Methods like data swapping and data masking fall under this
category.
6. Federated Learning: In machine learning, federated learning allows multiple
parties to collaborate on model training without sharing their raw data. Models
are updated locally, and only model updates are shared, preserving data privacy.
7. Private Set Intersection: Private set intersection protocols enable two or more
parties to find the intersection of their datasets without revealing the individual
elements in the sets. This is useful in scenarios where data sharing is restricted.

basic terminologies of an audit with brief explanation

here are the 10 key audit terminologies with concise explanations:

1. Audit: An audit is a systematic and independent examination of an

organization's financial information, operations, or processes to
ensure accuracy, compliance, and reliability.
2. Auditor: An auditor is a qualified professional or firm responsible for
conducting audits to evaluate financial statements and operational
processes.
3. Audit Trail: An audit trail is a chronological record of all activities and
transactions, providing a reliable history for tracking and verification.
4. Internal Audit: Internal audit is an in-house function responsible for
evaluating an organization's internal controls, financial reporting, and
operational processes.
5. External Audit: An external audit is an independent assessment
conducted by external auditors or firms to verify the accuracy of
financial statements and operations.
6. Financial Audit: Financial audit examines an organization's financial
statements, records, and transactions to ensure accuracy and
compliance with accounting standards.
7. Operational Audit: Operational audits focus on assessing an
organization's operational efficiency and effectiveness, covering non-
financial aspects like management practices and resource allocation.
8. Compliance Audit: Compliance audits ensure an organization
adheres to specific laws, regulations, or internal policies, confirming
adherence to rules and standards.
9. Materiality: Materiality assesses the significance of errors or
misstatements in relation to the audit, helping determine what issues
should be reported.
Risk Assessment: Risk assessment evaluates potential risks related to
the audit, including likelihood and impact, helping auditors plan and
execute the audit effectively.