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INSTRUCTOR NOTES
1. Students might voice concerns about having to use mathematical reasoning in this
lab. The skills needed in this lab include the ability to measure accurately with a ruler,
arithmetic, solving the Pythagorean Equation to find the length of a hypotenuse
(c = ��# + �� # ), and solving proportion problems. Proportions are
covered in Laboratory 1 and the Pythagorean Equation is described in this lab.
Vectors are introduced, but only at the level at which they are considered to be
described by
drawn arrows of a specified length that are directed toward a specified azimuth. All of
these skills should be accessible to college students, with some kind assistance from
their instructor as needed.
2. Activity 2.1. After completion of the work in sections A–C when all of the vectors are
plotted on Figure A2.1.2, the length of each vector arrow is our best estimate for the
distance each plate moves each year relative to the various reference frames (NNR,
fixed Pacific Plate, fixed Juan de Fuca Plate, the plate boundary along the ridge axis)
as determined at the location of the reference point. Hence, questions like “What is
the speed of the Pacific Plate relative to the Juan de Fuca Plate at the reference
3. Activity 2.3A4. The estimated rate of Pacific Plate motion relative to the Hawaiian
hot spot between 65 and 42 Myr is about 10 cm/yr, and the rate between 42 and 0.8
Myr is slightly less at 8.7 cm/yr. The estimated rate since 0.8 Myr is a whopping 27
cm/yr, which is about triple the previous estimated rates. What might explain this
difference?
(a) The Pacific Plate velocity relative to the hot spot might have increased during the
last 800,000 years.
A significant acceleration of the Pacific Plate would be recorded along its
boundaries with other plates, and in particular the divergent boundaries along the
East Pacific and Antarctic Ridges with the Nazca, Cocos, and Antarctic Plates. A
dramatic acceleration of the Pacific Plate during the last 800,000 years is not
supported by those boundary data.
(b) The input data (listed ages, locations of the relevant points on the Pacific Plate)
might be incorrect or inconsistent.
We were given ages without information about what those ages actually mean.
Are they the ages of the oldest volcanic rock at the surface of the volcano, or are
they estimates of when volcanism began to occur on the ocean floor beneath the
current volcano? What are the uncertainties in those ages?
We were given point locations on a map, but what do those locations signify?
Modern mapping techniques allow us to find the location of points on Earth’s
surface with sufficient accuracy for this analysis, but we used the locations given
on the map as if they marked the location of the hot spot under the Pacific Plate at
the specified time. In fact, they marked the summit of various volcanoes. It might
also be an issue that we used a map whose map projection (the method used to
represent part of the near-spherical surface of Earth on a 2-dimensional map)
might introduce measurement errors.
(c) The resolution of the analysis might be poor over small time intervals.
The overall trend in ages of the islands in the Emperor and Hawaiian Islands
seems quite clear. This analysis seems to assume that the dimensions of the
hotspot are small, and that discreet volcanoes are developed periodically and very
quickly. If true, these two characteristics should allow us to measure the motion
of the plate relative to the hotspot with reasonable precision. But what if the width
of the hotspot is on the order of a hundred km, and the magma it generates feeds
several volcanoes at the same time? (The Hawaiian hotspot has apparently
resulted in eruptions at Haleakala, Hualalai, Mauna Loa, Kilauea, and Loihi
Volcanoes in the past 500 years—a chain of volcanoes arrayed over ~225 km
along the chain.) If the effects of the hotspot are manifest over more than 200 km
(d) The fact that we did not include uncertainties in our calculations might have led us
astray.
Scientists are excited by unexpected results, which generate new questions.
Sometimes they find that there is a flaw in their data or analysis techniques—
perhaps an error in a computer code. But other times they find that there is a more
important flaw in their understanding of the underlying process, and this can lead
to new scientific advances.
4. Activity 2.3B3(b). The area along the Snake River Plain is part of the northern Basin
and Range Province and has been subjected to east-west extensional deformation
during the past ~20–40 Myr. The increase in distance between the oldest caldera and
Yellowstone due to Basin and Range extension during the past 13.8 Myr might
account for some of the difference between the two velocity results.
5. Activity 2.3B4. Hotspots are still the focus of research, and it is fair to say that there
is much that we do not yet understand about them. We will assume for the sake of
argument that the locations of hotspots remain relatively constant in the upper mantle
below the lithosphere, in a reference frame that is in some way fixed to the
constellation of all major hotspots.
Because that reference frame is external to the lithospheric plates, and hotspots
leave geologic evidence of their general locations relative to the moving plates, they
have been used to help us understand the motion of individual plates relative to
Earth’s interior. This has been helpful in trying to investigate the mechanisms that
might contribute to the motion of plates, such as slab pull, ridge push, and trench pull
(asthenospheric counterflow).
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PART II.
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