Recent Advances in

Multifunctional Materials

Prof. Janardan Pandey Dr. Alok Shukla

Principal Assistant Professor
MLK PG College, Balrampur UP Department of Physics
MLK PG College, Balrampur UP

Address: No -1-B, Sector 10B, Vasundhara Sector 10,

Delhi - 201012, Behind Vanasthali Public School
E-mail: swaranjalipublication@gmail.com
Website: swaranjalipublication.com
Contact No. +91-9810749840/8700124880

i
All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright holder.

Author © : Prof. Janardan Pandey

Dr. Alok Shukla
Publisher : Swaranjali Publication
Sector 10-B, Vasundhara,
Ghaziabad, (U.P.) 201012
Phone : 9810749840, 8700124880
E-mail : swaranjalipublication@gmail.com
Website : www.swaranjalipublication.com
Book : Recent Advances in Multifunctional Materials

Edition : First Edition 2022

ISBN : 978-93-5470-813-8
Price : 499/-
Printed By : Swaranjali Printers

ii
 Content
Chapter-1……………………………………………………1
A Cmoscurrent Controled Oscillator and Its Applications
Jyoti Mishra,Arunendra Nath Tripathi & Rajkumar Tiwari

Chapter-2………………………………………..……...….11
Nano-materials as the strengthening agents in polymer nano-
composites
Shabana Sajid and Abul Hasnat

Chapter-3……………………………………………......…17
Magnetohydrodynamicc Pc4 Magnetic Micropulsation with KP
values
Mohd Tariq Khan & Riyaz Ahemad

Chapter-4………………….……………………………….33
One Dimensional Defective Photonic Crystal Sensor with
Cerebrospinal Fluid as Sensing Medium
Sudesh Kumar Singh & Samar Bahadur Chauhan

Chapter-5…………….…………………………………….44
Fundamental Concept of Surface Plasmon Resonance Techniquefor
Biosensing Application
Vipin Sharma, Lalit Kr. Dwivedi, Susheel Kr. Singh &
Akash Srivastava

Chapter-6………………………………………………….62
Use of optical fibres for sensing purpose: A theoretical note
Susheel Kumar Singh, Akash Srivastava, L.K. Dwivedi, &
Vipin Sharma

Chapter-7……………………………………………….....70
Thermoluminescence Study and Evaluation of Trapping Parameters
in ZnSe: Gd and ZnSe:(Cu, Gd) Phosphors

iii
Pragati Mishra, A.K. Mishra and Janardan Prasad Pandey

Chapter-8………………………………………………….78
Measurements of natural radioactivity levels in the indoor
environment
Mohammad Suhel and M. S. A. Khan

Chapter-9………………………….……………………….90
Synthesis, characterization and properties of Carbon Quantum dots
(CQDs)
Rutam Biswal

Chapter-10………………………….…………………….112
A comparative study of moderate, intense and severe geomagnetic
storms in relation to solar wind speed for Solar Cyclcle 20
Chandni Mathpal & Lalan Prasad

Chapter-11………………………….…………………….122
Nanotechnology and Environment
Dr. Sadguru Prakash

Chapter-12……………………….……………………….131
A new approach to design Class C amplifier at Nano scale with low
power consumptions for mobile application
Tripathi Arunendra Nath Tiwari Rajkumar Tiwari Monika

Chapter-13……………………….…………………………….137
Comparative DFT Study of Parallel and Antiparallel Conformation
of C18MIM.PF6 Ionic Liquid Crystal Dimers
Varsha Gautam, Devendra Singh, 2Devesh Kumar and
Dr. Alok Shukla

iv
 Chapter-1
A Cmoscurrent Controled Oscillator and Its Applications
Jyoti Mishra, Arunendra Nath Tripathi,
Research Scholar Dr RMLU Avadh University Faizabad
Rajkumar Tiwari
Prof. Department of Physics and electronics Dr RMLU Avadh University
Faizabad

Abstract: -In this research paper, we will present the design of a new current
controlled oscillator (ICO). The current controlled of this IC0 is in order of
nano or micro-Ampere range and the sensitivity of the frequency of its output
voltage to the current control is about 100 kHz per uA. The circuit can run
with a low supply voltage, e.g. VDD< 1 V when it is implemented with a 45-
nm CMOS technology. It does not require bias current, soit has very low
power dissipation. The circuit can be easily applied using a standard digital
CMOS technology. Some applications of the suggested ICO, particularly those
for A/D conversion, are also explained in above research paper.The work
presented in this paper is about the design of current-controlled oscillators
(ICO). Two ICOs are proposed. Aiming at reducing the duration of the short-
circuit currents caused by slowly-changing voltages in the circuits; signal
conversion blocks are introduced to generate sharp pulses. In this way, the
power efficiency of the circuits is improved, which leads to an extensive
performance improvement of the circuits. Both ICOs can operate over a
frequency range from 100 KHz to 100 MHz. The quality of the output
waveforms before buffers is good and over the entire frequency range the
rise/fall time is consistently short. The power dissipation of the ICOs is very
low, the same as that of a 5-stage current-starving ring oscillator. Moreover,
the scheme of the ICOs allows an easy adjustment of the duty cycle of the
output pulse signals. A simple digital control structure of the duty cycle has
also been proposed

Introduction: -Controlled oscillators, are useful circuits with particular use in

telecommunications. Controlled oscillators are an integral part of phase-locked
1|Page
loop circuits. Clock or timing recovery circuits are necessary for data
communications and storage systems. PLL circuits can also be applicable for
FM modulation and demodulation. controlled oscillators have been used
barely in sensor telemetry. Depending on the implementation, two
performance parameters are overcritically important: low oscillator jitter is
most important in clock recovery, whereas control linearity is of larger interest
in FM modulation. The highest possible maximum oscillator frequency is
often needed. In a relaxation oscillator both the maximum speed and the
control linearity are linked to the total switching and comparison speed.
Control linearity may be refined using negative feedback techniques [ 11] or
compensation [2]. However, such type of schemes not only add complexity
but also may affect the dynamic capacities of the oscillator. moreover, because
the maximum oscillation frequency is ultimately examined by the comparison
and switching delay, it is dominant that this delay be minimized. Jitter, or
variable in oscillator period, has its origins in circuit noise. It has been shown
that jitter is decreased by maximizing the capacitor voltage waveform
amplitude [3], [4]. The amplitude can be increased by increasing the rail
voltage, but this is usually neither requirable nor practical. In fact, to be
compatible with currentprocesses, circuits use lower, not higher, voltages.
Efforts to minimize jitter thus must concentrate on minimizing circuit noise,
and maximizing the capacitor voltage amplitude for a given power supply
voltage Bipolar controlled relaxation oscillators are generally based on the
emitter-coupled multivibrator. These circuits provide high speed and excellent
temperature stability [5]. However, the high-power consumption of these
circuits renders them inappropriate for some applications. moreover, MOS or
CMOS compatibility is needed in many mixed-signal integrated systems.

Current-controlled oscillators are the main important building blocks in the

design of electronic signal generation, processing or data-conversion circuits.
Many of the existing ICO’s are based on multi-vibrators or ring oscillators, in
which multiple stages of delay elements are added. Logic gates and
operational amplifiers are often applicable as such delay elements. In the
former, the current available to charge or discharge a capacitance of each of
the gates is adjusted in order to change the frequency of oscillation [11]. In the
2|Page
latter, the control current is used to adjust the circuit bias so that the gain of
the OpAmps can he modified in order to adjust the frequency [Z] - [5]. In
either case, a current variation of several nano-Amperes may not be large
enough to result in a significant change of the frequency.

In this paper, we suggest the design of a current-controlled oscillator that is

able to operate with a control current in order of nA or uA range. Some of the
applications of the proposed circuit are also considered.

Various MOS- or CMOS-controlled oscillator architectures have been

proposed. For example, a monolithic controlled sinusoidal oscillator has been
reported [6], and a number of high-speed CMOS-controlled ring oscillators
(10-100 KHz) have been described [7], [8]. However, such circuits usually
exhibit poor control linearity and are sensitive to device parameter variations.

The advantages of using grounded capacitors in relaxation oscillators have

been stated in [9]. A very high-speed controlled NMOS relaxation oscillator,
implemented in a 120um NMOS process, was described by Banu [l0]. This
sub micrometer circuit implemented grounded timing capacitors using only
parasitic and used simple digital latches, not precise analog comparators and a
latch, to control charging. In this way, speeds of several hundred megahertz
were achieved, but at the expense of capacitor switching voltage inaccuracy,
and inconsistency. A general-purpose current-controlled relaxation oscillator
is described in this paper [ 11]. The circuit allows relatively large capacitor
voltage waveforms and so minimizes jitter. However, it is also compatible
with present and future low-voltage fine-geometry CMOS
processes.Additionally, because the circuit has no special requirements for
linear capacitors, it can be implemented on a standard digital CMOS process.

Circuit Analysis: -In the below circuit shown in Fig.1 , the change of the state
of the latch is done by means of the pull-down NMOS transistor N3 or N4.
The voltage for the pull-down operation, Va or Vb, is built up gradually by the
charge accumulation with the input current Iin. The transistor N3 or N4 is
turned on during most time of the built-up process until Vd is pulled down and
Vc is set up. Thus, the short-circuit current from the latch for this pull-down
3|Page
operation contributes significantly to the power dissipation of the circuit. As
shown in Figure I, the proposed current-controlled oscillator consists of a
CMOS latch (Inv1 and Inv2), a PMOS switch pair (PI and P2), and two
NMOS switch pairs (N1 and N2, N3 and N4). Voltages Vc and Vd are,
respectively, theorem and set signals of the latch, and Va and Vb, are the
complementary output voltages of the circuit.

As P1 and P2 are controlled by Vc and Vd only one of them is turned on. The
control current i, is thus switched to charge the gate capacitor of the transistor
N1 or N2, raising the respective voltage Va or Vb. Then, the rising voltage
becomes high enough to set (or reset) the state of the latch. After that the
current Ic will be switched to charge the other gate capacitor. Therefore, Ic is
switched alternatively to the two gate nodes of N1 and N2, Va, and Vb are
raised to the high level alternatively, i.e. the latch is set, or reset, alternatively,
and Vc and Vd, change their levels periodically. Meanwhile, Vc and Vd, are
applied at the gates of the two transistors, N3and N4, respectively, so that Va
and Vb are pulled down to 0 V alternatively. Aiming at a high performance of
ICO circuits, the prime objective of this work is to develop an ICO scheme of
very low power dissipation, high gain, wide range and simple structure. The
ICO in [10] is able to provide almost all of them but its power dissipation may
not be optimal. In this research paper, a new scheme based on [10] is
presented and two ICOs are proposed. Besides, a structure of ICO with easy
duty cycle adjustment is also presented.

The following points in the circuit design should be noted: -

1. A differential PMOS switch pair, controlled by the output voltages of

the circuit, is used to steer the control current Ic, alternatively to the
two nodes Va, and Vb.
2. The cycle time, K of the pulse signals depends on the time required
for Va or Vb to be changed from zero to the level high enough to
toggle the state of the latch. If the circuit structure are fixed and the
device parameters are given, the frequency of the IC0 will depend on
the voltage rate dVa/dt = ic/Ca and dVb/dt = ic/Cb, where Ca and cb
are the capacitances at node Va and Vb respectively. As all the
4|Page
 switches can be minimum-sized transistors, Ca and Cb are usually
small. A small current variation of the control current can make a
significant change in the voltage variation rate. Thus, the frequency
can be highly sensitive to the current variation. This feature also
implies that the decrease of transistor feature size leads to a decrease
in Ca and Cb i.e., an increase in the sensitivity of the ICO to the
control current.
3. A very weak control current may result in a relatively long rise time of
Va and Vb However, the rise or fall time of the output signals, Vc,
and Vd, depends mainly on the current driving capacity of the
inverters and the regenerative process of the latch. Thus, the quality of
the output pulses of the ICO is not affected by the weak control
current.
4. Six MOS switches are used to switch the control current and
discharging currents. All these switches are controlled by the voltage
signals generated in the circuit. The circuit is, in fact, a switched-
current circuit operating without any external control voltages.

Simulation Results: -The IC0 (Figure I) has been simulated using the
transistor models of a 45nm technology. All the transistors of this IC0 are
minimum-sized. The waveforms of the signals, when the control current Ic =
1u A and the supply voltage VDC = 10 V, are shown in Figure 3.

5|Page
 Fig- 1 RkTG pair based current controlled oscillator

Figure 4 illustrates the frequency-versus-current characteristics of the circuit.

Due to the limitation of appropriate use of the transistor models, the minimal
value of Ic is chosen as 1u A in the simulation. However, we can be sure that.
in practice, the control current can be much lower. The sensitivity of the IC0 is
about 10 MHz/nA. The power dissipation of the circuit depends on the
frequency of the output voltage and it is 10 uW when the output frequency is
about 100 KHz.

Proposed RKTG pair oscillator circuit provides good transient response with
stop time 100 ms. Simulated result is shown in fig.3. So the proposed
oscillator circuit is used with proper choice of component to provide the wide
range frequencies. This circuit works at 10 microwatt power dissipation.

Output of RKTG Oscillator with time in nano second range.

Applications:-ICO circuits, in general, can he used in signal processing and

communication systems for example, in frequency modulation or signal
generation. It can also be an important part in a PLL circuit. However, the
proposed IC0 is particularly useful for optical signal sensing and processing.
6|Page
An incident light can he converted linearly into a current signal and then this
current can be processed by the circuits involving the IC0 and other
processing units. In this process, two features of the proposed IC0 need to he
highlighted. First, the high sensitivity of the frequency of the proposed ICO to
the input current makes the circuits capable of effectively responding to very
weak currents converted from optical signals. Thus, the application of the IC0
can improve the circuit’s capability of operating with weak optical signals.
Second, the ICO converts a current signal into a voltage one that carries the
information through the duration of its cycle, instead of its magnitude. The
dynamic range of the circuit is, therefore, not limited by the supply voltage,
thus making the circuit to have a large dynamic range as well as a high
sensitivity. Since the ICO converts an analog current signal to a voltage pulse
signal, it is obviously to be used for an A/D conversion. Figure 2 shows such
an example. The photocurrent ia converted from the incident signal is fed to
the ICO. The number of the pulses of the output of the IC0 is then counted
during a period of T that is related to the weakest input signal. At the end of
the period, the counter will output a n-bit digital signal converted from the
input current of the ICO

Fig-2 Diagram of a circuit performing optical-to electrical conversion and

AID conversion.

As the IC0 outputs a voltage pulse signal, the information carried by its analog
input can be processed digitally. The circuit shown in Figure 3 is such an
example. This circuit has two optical incident signals, and its operation is
controlled by a clock signal clk. The IC0 can also be used for data conversions
7|Page
along with other types of computations. An example is shown in Figure 4. In
this circuit the pulse width of the output.

Fig.3 Diagram of a circuit performing optical-to-electrical conversion.

subtraction and AID conversion.

Fig.4 Diagram of a circuit of which the digital output is inversely proportional

to the incident intensity

Conclusion:-A current-controlled oscillator suitable for fine-geometry CMOS

has been described. The oscillator was implemented in an analog process;
however, because the circuit has no special capacitor requirements, it is
equally suited to a digital process. To minimize jitter, the oscillator structure
permits large capacitor voltage waveform amplitudes. The use of a high-speed
double-differential latching comparator allows fast operation with high control
linearity.The proposed IC0 is a CMOS latch-based switched-current circuit.
8|Page
Compared to most of the existing IC0 circuits, the new circuit has a simpler
structure, higher sensitivity, better ability to operate in nano-Ampere range or
below with a very low supply voltage, and lower power dissipation. Moreover,
the circuit does not need external control/bias signals and can be easily
implemented using a standard digital CMOS technology. From above
discussion it is concluded that the RKTG pair circuit played an important role
with proper choice of the circuit element. The circuit work as an oscillator
circuit for higher frequency with five microwatt power dissipation which can
be useful for 5th generation mobile communication system in coming future
and various communication system. Thus solving real challenges in the future
we have designed and simulated RKTG pair circuit with the addition of few
other circuit elements to yield high frequency high speed with low power loss
oscillator with wide band of frequencies upto 100KHz which may be extended
upto 100 MHz or more for which further work is going on. It is seen that such
circuit are useful for functional integration rather scale integration.

References: -

 K. M. Ware, H. S. Lee, and C. G. Sodini, “A 200-MHz CMOS phase-

locked loop with dual phase detectors,” IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol.
24, pp. 1560-1568, Dec. 1989.
 S. K. Enam and A. A. Abidi, “A 300-MHz CMOS voltage-controlled ring
oscillator,” IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 25, pp. 312-315. Feb. 1990.
 M. P. Flynn and S. Lidholm, “A high-performance 1 fim CMOS current-
controlled oscillator,” in Proc. 17th European Solid State Circuits Conf,.
1991. pp. 105-108.
 B. Linares-Barranco et al., “CMOS OTA-C high-frequency sinusoidal
oscillators,” IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 26, pp. 160- 165, Feb. 1991.
 D. Mijuskovic, “Current-controlled oscillator with linear output
frequency:’ US. Patent, No. 5,206,609, Apr. 27, 1993.
 L. Tsai and H. Wallance, “Dual adjust current-controlled phase locked
loop,” U.S. Patent, No. 5,691,669, Nov. 25, 1997.
 Y. Chang and E. W. Greeneich. “A current-controlled oscillator coarse-
steering acquisition-aid for high frequency SO1 CMOS PLL circuits,” in

9|Page
 Proc. IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, May-June,
1999, pp. I1 561-564.
 H. Djahanshahi and A. Salama, “Differential 0.35 pm CMOS circuits for
622 MHd933 MHz monolithic clock and data recovery applications,” in
Pmc. IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, May-June,
1999, pp. I1 93-96.
 C. Wang, M.O. Ahmad, M.N.S. Swamy, “A CMOS currentcontrolled
oscillator and its applications”, ISCAS ’03, pp.793-796, vol.1, May 2003.
 R. B. Staszewski, H. Chih-Ming, N. Barton, L. Meng-Chang, and D.
Leipold, “A digitally controlled oscillator in a 90 nm digital CMOS
process for mobile phones,” IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 40, no. 11,
pp. 2203–2211, Nov. 2005.
 S. Dal Tosoet al., “A 0.06 mm 11 mW local oscillators for GSM standard
in 65 nm CMOS,” IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 45, no. 7, pp. 1295–
1304, Jul. 2010.

10 | P a g e
 Chapter-2
Nano-materials as the strengthening agents in polymer
nano-composites
Shabana Sajid and Abul Hasnat
Department of Chemistry, Gandhi Faiz-e-Aam College (Affiliated to MJP
Rohilkhand University, Bareilly), Shahjahanpur, U.P.

Abstract
Now-a-days much attention has been paid on the development of practicable
materials using least amount of feed stock. These are fulfilling the requirement
of market by means of reduction of cost, friendly to environment and make
available plenty of materials for future generation as well that is a move
towards sustainable development.

Nanoscience and nanotechnologies are usually seen as having enormous

potential to bring benefits to many areas of research and applications,
consequently attracting attention of scientific community world-wide. At the
same time, it is recognised that their application may raise new challenges in
the safety, regulatory or ethical domains that will require societal debate. In
the information technology area, researchers are investigating the application
of nanotechnology to the development of, high efficiency memories, computer
devices, advanced structural materials using nano-materials such as carbon
nanotubes, graphene, metal oxide, nanoclays as the reinforced materials.
Numerous advanced materials of enormous applications of polymeric
materials with using small amount of reinforced materials in nano-scale have
been developed. Nanotechnology is creating new industries across a wide
range of fields and attracting interest as the infrastructural technology for
human beings.

Key words: Nano materials, strengthening agent, polymer nano-composites,

sustainable development.

11 | P a g e
Introduction
In the past few decades scientific workers have been made tremendous efforts
to search the new state of art strategies to arrest the escalating prices of the
practicable materials with multiple objectives such as ever growing consumer
expectations with respect to quality and cost, friendly to the environment as
well [1-3]. Among them taking the advantages of the nanoscience and
nanotechnology has received more privileges. These materials have high
surface area, fine particle size, high reactivity, high strength and ductility,
which are the reasons that nano-materials are frequently applied in the diverse
range of industrial fields [2-4]. As the scientific researches of multi-
disciplinary areas move along, nano-materials are advancing with wide
applications to electronics, optical and magnetic devices, biology, medicine,
energy, defence and many others [4,5]. Polymeric materials presently received
tremendous attention in the scientific workers as they have characteristics of
low weight high strength ratios, high resistance to abrasion, low risk of
erosion and bacterial decompositions and no effect of corrosion. Numerous
polymeric materials are now-a-days used in manufacturing of practicable
materials from small house hold articles to aerospace materials. Due to
increase in populations and high rate of infrastructural requirement and
demand of more useful materials to fulfil the need of desires of human beings
advancement in these pristine polymeric materials continuously has been
carried out [2,3,6]. Nano-composites are the class of advanced multifunctional
materials which provide a unique combination of physical, thermal,
mechanical, electrical and many other properties. A combination of two or
more phases having different compositions in which one phase is in nano-
scale is kwon as nano-composites. Such types of developed materials have
several advantages over pure polymeric materials and therefore have potential
to meet the current demand for advanced polymeric materials [5,6].
Bacteriostatic silver nanoparticles based bio-nano-composites are generally
used in food packaging. Inorganic agents like oxidized nano-particles have
been attracting the interest of researchers in the recent past. These are due to
their resistance to the rough processing conditions and enhancement of
inhibition against foodborne pathogens. As for the other materials like various

12 | P a g e
clays, they could offer resistance to gases and water vapor, and improve the
mechanical strength of biopolymers [5-7]. In the present section efforts have
been made to overview the reinforcement materials in nano-scale for the
development of polymer nano-composites.

Role of nano materials in polymer composites

A large number of the nano-materials from metal to polymer and including
ceramics are used polymer nano-composites. Nano-materials have different
shape and size. They may be spherical shape platelets, rods, ribbons cylinders,
tubes and many others.
Three different types of nano-materials based on their dimensional
characteristics are generally used for the polymer nano-composites. These
include nano-materials with only one dimension in the nano-meter range such
as nano-clay, those with two dimensions in nanometer for example carbon
nanotubes, those have all three dimensions in the nano-meter for example
spherical silver nano-materials [5-8].

Nano-clay

Nano-clay is the most widely used nanomaterial for the polymer nano-
composite. Nano-sized thin layered alumina-silicate and organically modified
nano-clay minerals and synthetic nanoclays are materials are used this
purpose. The nano-clay materials are having high aspect ratio which
furthermore they are naturally occurring and also have the very low cost of
purification. Montmorillonite, hectorite saponites are the most commonly used
nano-clays.
The existence of ionic bonds and ability to form hydrogen bonding with water
molecule make them highly hydrophilic and thus incompatible to organic
polymers, however they are compatible to hydrophilic water soluble polymers
[7-9]. Ion exchange reactions with converts the hydrophilic surface to an
organophilic state and hence making it compatible with hydrophobic organic
polymers. The modifying agent lowers the surface energy of the inorganic
host and enhances the wetting characteristics of the polymer along with
expanding of gallery layer and weakening the van der Waals forces [7-10].
13 | P a g e
Metal nanoparticles
A large number of metals, their oxide and sulphides nanoparticles are also
used as nano-materials in polymer matrixes special purposes. Common
examples of these categories Copper, silver cadmium, zinc, zirconium, iron
and many others and these are developed through condensed phase, gas phase
and vacuum methods. In the condensed phase or wet chemical synthesis metal
nano-composite are synthesized by chemical reactions. In the gas phase
synthesis metal is vaporized to gas and then condensed. In the vacuum method
metal is vaporized and the vapours are collected using the supports. In the wet
technic metals are generally reduced using suitable reagents like hydrides,
citrates, hydrazine and hydrogen or by irradiation with high energy radiation
to obtained metal nanoparticles in the presence or absence of an external
stabilizer [7-12].

Carbon nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes are the carbon allotropes, in which carbon is sp2 hybridized
and have cylindrical nanostructure with an exceptionally high aspect ratio,
resembling to graphite in the structure. They have high electrical conductivity,
thermal stability and strength and also imparting these characteristics to
polymer matrix while development of polymer nano-composites. Single
walled carbon nanotube with a diameter of nm with a single layer many
thousands times of longer are fund to use in formulation of polymer nano-
composites. Multi walled carbon nanotubes are multilayers of graphite rolled
in on themselves to form a tube shape. It has been reported that dimensions of
multi walled carbon nanotubes are 05-20 nm outer diameter, whereas 1-3 nm
inner diameter and about up-to 100 µm in length [8-13].

Conclusion
The advantages of the polymer nano-composites are their ability to maintain
the light weight characteristics of pristine polymers with significant
improvement in many desirable properties. The unique combination of
properties such as improvement in stiffness without compromising toughness,
transparency, achievement of flame retardant characteristic and other
properties. Numerous modifications through nano-sized materials as

14 | P a g e
reinforcing agents found pronounced suitable for the development of the
advanced materials polymer nano-composites.

Acknowledgement
Authors would like to thanks authorities of GF College for their
encouragement and providing the required facilities.

References
1. Siracusa V, Rocculi P, Romani S, Dalla Rosa M. Biodegradable
polymers for food packaging: A review. Trends Food Sci Tech 2008,
19, 634-43.
2. Meier MAR, Metzger JO, Schubert US. Plant oil renewable resources
as green alternatives in polymer science. Chem Soc Rev 2007, 36,
1788-802.
3. Faruk O, Bledzki AK, Fink HP, Sain M. Progress report on natural
fiber reinforced composites. Macromol Mater Eng 2014, 299, 9-26.
4. Lligadas G, Ronda JC, Galia M, Cadiz V. Renewable polymeric
materials from vegetable oils: A perspective. Mater Today 2013, 16,
337-43
5. Karak N, Polymer (epoxy) clay nanocomposite, J polym Mater 2006,
23, 1-20.
6. Lu. J. Hong CK, Wool RP, Biobased nanocomposites from
functionalized plant oils and layered silicates, J Polym Sci Part B:
Polym Phys 2004, 42, 1441-50.
7. Sharmin E, Zafar F, Akram D, Alam M, Ahmad S, Recent advances in
vegetable oil based environment friendly coatings: A review,
Industrial Crops and Products 2015, 26, 215-229.
8. Anita Grozdanov, Gennaro Gentile, Maurizio Avella, Tatyana
Dobreva, Rumiana Kotsilkova, Nanocomposite coatings based on
alkyd resin with TiO2 and SiO2 nanoparticles, Material Sci Eng. 2019,
3, 210-215.
9. Adekunle KF, A review of Vegetable oil-based polymers: Synthesis
and Applications, Open Journal of Polymer Chemistry 2015, 5, 34-40.

15 | P a g e
10. Hoidy WH Ahmad MB, Jaffar EA, Mulla A, Ibrahim NAB, Synthesis
and characterization of organoclay from sodium montmorillonite and
fatty hydroxamic acids, Am J Appl Sci 2009, 6, 1567-72.
11. Liu Z, Erhan SZ, Xu J. Preparation, characterization and mechanical
properties of epoxidized soybean oil/clay nanocomposites. Polymer
2005, 46, 10119–10127.
12. Wim T, Ian MM, Valerie B, Werner JB, Richard PW. Impure carbon
nanotubes as reinforcements for acrylated epoxidized soy oil
composites. J Appl Polym Sci 2005, 98, 1325–1338.
13. Raghavachar R, Letasi RJ, Kola PV, Chen Z, Massingill JL.
RubberToughening Epoxy Thermosets with Epoxidized Cramble Oil.
J Am Oil Chem Soc 1999, 76, 511–515.

16 | P a g e
 Chapter-3
Magnetohydrodynamicc Pc4 Magnetic Micropulsation
with KP values
Mohd Tariq Khan & Riyaz Ahemad
Department of Physics, Gandhi Faiz- E- Aam College, Shahjahanpur

Abstract
Magnetic Pulsations recorded on the ground are the signatures of the
integrated signals from the earth’s magnetosphere. Pc4 geomagnet-ic
pulsations are quasi-sinusoidal variations in the earth’s magnetic field in the
period range 45-150 seconds. The magnitude of these pulsations ranges from
fraction of a nano Tesla (nT) to several nT. Although these pulsations can be
observed in a number of ways, yet the application of ground-based
magnetometer arrays has proven to be the most successful methods of
studying the spatial structure of hydromagnetic waves in the earth’s magnetos-
phere. The solar wind provides the energy for the earth’s magnetospheric
processes. The source of Pc4 magnetic pulsations can either be internal to the
magnetosphere (endogenic) or external to it, transmitted through the
magnetopause (exogenic). Most of the Pc4 studies undertaken in the past have
been confined to middle and high latitudes.

The spatial and temporal variations observed in the Pc4 occurrence are of vital
importance because these provide evidence that can be directly related to both
endogenic and exogenic wave generation mechanisms. At low latitudes (L<
2), the wave energy predominates in the Pc4 band. However the spatial
characteristics of these pulsations have received little attention in the past. The
present study is undertaken for describing the dependence of low latitude Pc4
occurrence on the Kp values and the Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) over
the period range 01 January to 31 December, 2005 employing an array of
three low latitude recording stations at Hanley, Nagpur and Pondicherry.
Analysis of the data for the whole year 2005 provided similar patterns of Pc4
occurrence for Kp at all the three stations. Although Pc4 occurrence was
reported for Kp values, yet the major Pc4 events occurred for rage 5+ Kp 8+.
17 | P a g e
The IMF dependence of Pc4 occurrence for the year 2005 has shown that even
though at all the three stations, it spread for IMF magnitude of up to 22 nT, yet
the majority of Pc4 events occurred for a narrower range of 2-10 nT. However
it is important to note that at all the three stations, the peak in the occurrence
of Pc4 events was observed for IMF range of 3 to 5 nT. The results suggest
that the solar wind controls Pc4 occurrence through a mechanism in which
Pc4 wave energy is convected through the magnetosheath and coupled to the
standing oscillations of the magnetospheric field lines.

Key Word— Magnetic pulsations, MHD waves and instabilities, Solar wind-
IMF control of Pc4 pulsations.

Introduction
Examples of exogenic sources of Pc4 are surface waves produced at the
magnetopause by Kelvin Helmholtz in-stability, and waves produced at the
bow shock or in the magnetosheath, all of which eventually propagate into the
magnetosphere. The internal generation occurs by means of plasma
instabilities within the magnetosphere. Free energy internal sources include
pressure gradients, velocity shears and rapid changes in the magnetospheric
geometry associated with sub-storms. Greenstadt et al have presented the first
direct evidence for the propagation of external Pc3-4 wave energy into the
magnetosphere. Using a few individual events from ISEE 1-2 spacecrafts, they
have verified that the same frequencies in the 10 – 100 mHz band were
observed in the magneto-sheath and also in the magnetosphere but lower
power was seen there. Tomomura et al. have also observed similar results
from six months of ISEE data in the 3-30 mHz band. These researchers further
demonstrated that the compressional oscillations dominated in the magneto-
sheath around local noon while transverse Alfven waves were observed within
the magnetosphere.

The diurnal variation of occurrence and frequency of Pc3-4 waves recorded at

ground station and their dependence on latitude and geomagnetic indices Kp
and also vital identification their source and propagation modes. The present
study describes diurnal and seasonal dependence on Pc4 wave occurrence on
Kp at very low latitude in india.
18 | P a g e
Data Analysis
The investigation of this thesis is based on digitized one-second sampling
geomagnetic data on the latitudinal array of three Indian stations.
Geomagnetic data of X (north-south), Y (east-west) and Z (vertical)
components of earth’s magnetic field for the duration of the study (01 Jan.
2005 to 31 Dec. 2005) were recorded using three axis flux gate magnetometer
array (Pathan et al. 1999) at the stations Hanle, Nagpur and Pondicherry with
one second sampling interval. The stations were situated at very low latitudes
in India. The magnetometer array was established and operated by Indian
Institute of Geomagnetism, Navi Mumbai.
The data of all the stations were sampled at 1 second time interval. The
dynamic spectra of the time series for 24 hours were constructed for the whole
year 2005 for all the three stations [Ansari et al., 2009]. These dynamic
spectra enabled us to identify the pulsation events. We found the
micropulsation events at all the stations on different dates. Mostly the
pulsation events were lying in the 10 to 30 mHz frequencies ranges.

Results
The statistical characteristics of very low latitude geomagnetic pulsations in
Pc4 pulsations were investigated for both the north-south (X) and the east-
west (Y) components of these waves in the current study. While considering
the statistical characteristics of diurnal and seasonal variations of these
pulsations, it is the total duration of events that is more important than the total
number of events in a particular hourly bin. Therefore the total duration of
events in minutes has been taken into consideration. The variation of the total
hourly occurrence of Pc4 events for all the three stations for the whole year
2005 is plotted in Fig.1. It is evident that the occurrence was prevalent during
all the hours of the day with the major events being observed between 15 hr to
22 hr UT at all the three stations. The occurrence pattern was nearly same for
all the stations and the maximum occurrence was observed at 17-18 hr UT
with a succeeding secondary peak at 18-19 hr UT. The total duration of the
maxima in the Pc4 occurrence were found to decrease in the station order
Pondicherry, Nagpur and Hanle. Variations in the Y component occurrence
were observed to be nearly similar but had relatively less power. At Hanle, the
19 | P a g e
duration in Pc4 occurrence was detected to be less dominant in comparison to
the other stations. The main reason was the unavailability of data during many
days in August, September and October 2005 for this station. The major
occurrence of Pc4 events observed in the current study between 14 hr UT to
20 hr UT have also been reported in several previous studies both at low and
high latitudes [Takahashi et al (2005), Obana et al (2005), Ziesolleck et al
(1997), Zanandrea et al (2004)].
Diurnal variation in frequency of Pc4 for total year 2005 at all three stations is
plotted in Fig. 2. Nearly similar pattern of frequency variation was found at all
the three stations. The range of the higher and the average frequency of
occurrence found at Nagpur were slightly less in comparison to other stations
in between 03-12 hr UT interval. There were coincident peaks found in the
frequencies occurring simultaneously at all the stations between 04-05 hr UT
and 18-19 hr UT interval. The lower latitude stations Pondicherry and Nagpur
also showed a peak in frequency, occurring between 21-22 hr UT but it was
absent at the comparatively higher latitude station Hanle. The range of higher
frequency at Nagpur was observed from 17.81 mHz to 20.27 mHz and the
average frequency range was 12.72 to 14.17 mHz giving a mean of about
13.45 mHz. At Hanle the range of higher frequency was found from 17.78
mHz to 20.58 mHz while the average frequency range was 12.89 to 14.58
mHz giving a mean of about 13.74 mHz. At Pondicherry, the average
frequency range was 12 to 15 mHz giving a mean of about 13.5 mHz. It can
be seen from Fig. 5 that the frequency variation at all the stations showed ‘U-
type’ pattern between 00-10 hr UT and ‘inverted U-type’ pattern in between
12-24 hr UT. Ansari and Fraser (1985) have also reported this type of
behavior in frequency variation in south-east Australia corresponding to
Australian Eastern Standard Time (AEST).

The variation of Pc4 occurrence on Kp values for January, 2005 is depicted in

Fig. 3. Similar variation of Pc4 occurrence with Kp are observed at all the
three stations. However prominent peaks in Pc4 occurrence are situated at Kp
= 3-,4 and 6+. The plots for the individual months of February to December,
2005 are not depicted. However, these show variable pattern for each month
with prominent Pc4 maxima occurring at Kp = 0+, 2-, 3+, 4- and 4+ )for
20 | P a g e
February,2005); Kp = 2-, 3-, 3, 3+ and 4- (for March, 2005); Kp = 0+, 1-, 1+,
3-, 3+ and 4+ (for April, 2005); Kp = 2, 3, 5, 6- and 8+ (for May, 2005); Kp =
1-, 1+, 2-, 2, 4-, 4+, 6- and 7 (for June, 2005); Kp = 1-, 1+, 22-, 2+, 3+, 4- and
4+ (for July, 2005); Kp = 3, 3- (for August, 2005); Kp = 1, 6-, 7 and 8- 9for
September, 2005); Kp = 0+, 1-, 1+, 2 and 3+ (for October, 2005); kP = 1-, 1,
1+, 2-, 3, 3+ and 4+ (for November,2005); and Kp = 2-, 2, 3-, 3, 3+ and 4- (for
December, 2005).

Fig. 4 depicts the Kp dependence of the occurrence of Pc4 waves for the
Spring season of 2005. Prominent peaks in Pc4 occurrence are located at Kp =
1, 1+, 2, 3-, 3, 3+, 4- with an additional peak at Kp = 8+ at all the three
stations. The Kp dependence of occurrence of Pc4 waves for the summer
season of 2005 is shown in Fig. 5. Prominent peaks in the Pc4 occurrence are
observed at Kp = 1+, 2-, 2, 2+, 3, 3+, 4-, 4 and 4+ at all the three stations.
However additional peaks are observed at Kp = 6+ and 9- at Nagpur and
Pondicherry. The variation in Pc4 occurrence with Kp for the Autumn season
of 2005 is demonstrated in Fig. 6. There are prominent peaks in the Pc4
occurrence located at Kp = 1-, 1, 1+, 2-, 2, 3 and 4+ at all the three stations.
However additional peaks are observed at Kp = 6-, 7 and 8- at Nagpur and
Pondicherry. The Pc4 occurrence dependence on Kp for the Winter season of
2005 (depicted in Fig. 7) show prominent peaks located at Kp = 0+, 1-, 2-, 2,
2+, 3-, 3, 3+, 4, 6-, 6, 7+ and 8- at all the three stations.

The Kp dependence of Pc4 occurrence for the whole year 2005 is shown in
Fig. 8. Although major prominent peaks are situated at Kp = 3, 3- and 3+,
there are minor prominent peaks present at Kp = 0+, 1-, 1, 1+, 2, 4, 4+, 6-, 6+,
7 and 8-.

Discussion
The energy source for Pc3-4 waves observed on the ground may either be
external or internal to the magnetosphere. Internal sources of energy include
instabilities associated with the cyclotron, bounce and drift motion of particles
whose distribution functions are anisotropic. Free energy internal sources
include pressure gradients, velocity shears and rapid changes in the

21 | P a g e
magnetospheric geometry associated with substorms. It should also be noted
that the bounce resonance mechanism [ Southwood et al (1969)] is not a likely
source of Pc3-4 waves. This mechanism was found to be most plausible for
shorter wavelengths and great localization in longitude. Such localized waves
have been observed in space at geostationary orbit [Cummings et al (1969,
1978) ] but are screened from the ground by the magnetosphere. To date there
is no comprehensive theory of internal excitation of Pc3-4 waves that could
explain the external control which is compatible with observations [Ansari
(2008)] and generally models for the external excitation of these waves are
favored. There are two possible locations for the external origin of pulsations,
at the magnetopause, and upstream from the magnetopause. Surface waves
generated by Kelvin-Helmholtz instability are important at the magnetopause
[South wood (1968), Yumoto (1984), Kivelson and Pu (1984) and Wu
(1986)]. Upstream from the magnetopause, large amplitude waves in the
quasi-parallel bow shock are swept back into the magnetosheath and then
penetrate the magnetosphere [Greenstadt (1972)].

The first direct evidence for the propagation of external Pc3-4 wave power
into the magnetosphere has been presented by Greenstadt et al (1983). Using a
few individual events from the ISEE 1-2 spacecrafts, they have verified that
the same frequencies in the 10 – 100 mHz band were observed in the
magnetosheath and also in the magnetosphere but lower power was observed
there. Similar results were reported by Tomomura et al (1983) from six
months of ISEE data in the 3 – 30 mHz band. These authors further
demonstrated that the compressional oscillations dominated in the
magnetosheath around local noon while transverse Alfven waves were
observed within the magnetosphere.

Yumoto et al (1985) have identified compressional waves in GOES-2

magnetometer data in association with Pc3-4 ground pulsations at low
latitudes. However this wave energy does not necessarily have to be
monochromatic. A broadband source could couple to a field line resonance at
middle or low latitudes to provide the monochromatic waves seen at ground
stations.

22 | P a g e
The transmission of upstream wave energy into the magnetosphere probably
occurs predominantly near the subsolar region. This is a requirement for these
waves to gain access to low latitudes. The index of refraction of the
magnetospheric plasma decreases with decreasing radial distance except at the
plasmapause [Burton et al (1970)]. This decrease should refract waves away
from radial propagation reducing the wave energy that can penetrate to low
latitudes, allowing access only to those waves that are nearly radially
propagating. This is supported by the results of Tomomura et al (1983) who
have shown that the wave spectral power is generated in the magnetosheath
around noon.
If it is assumed that significant Pc3-4 wave energy can penetrate to low
latitudes, then there are a number of possible excitation mechanisms available
for wave generation. These are collective transverse surface wave eigen
oscillations at the plasmapause (Lpp) ; fundamental toroidal mode standing
oscillations at L = 1.1 and L = 1.76 – 2.6 and higher order harmonics at L =
2.0 – Lpp ; and trapped oscillations in the equatorial plane between the two
peaks of the Alfven velocity at L = 1.7 – Lpp [Yumoto et al (1985)].
The toroidal field line resonance theory of Southwood (1974) and Chen and
Hasegawa (1974) provide the mechanism by which waves are seen on the
ground. In this mechanism the wave polarization characteristics depend on the
azimuthal wave propagation direction and the latitude of the recording station
with respect to that of the field line resonance.
Zanandrea et al (2004) have analyzed simultaneous Pc3-4 geomagnetic data at
very low and equatorial latitudes (L = 1.0 to 1.2). The characteristics of the
observed Pc4 events have been attributed to the increase of the ionospheric
conductivity and the intensification of the equatorial electrojet during daytime
that regulated the propagation of compressional waves generated in the
foreshock region and transmitted to the magnetosphere and the ionosphere at
low latitudes. They have suggested that the source mechanism of the observed
Pc3-4 modes may be the compressional global mode or the trapped fast mode
in the plasmasphere during the field line oscillations at very low and
equatorial latitudes.

23 | P a g e
In their attempt for locating source of Pc4 pulsations observed on the
nightside, Takahashi et al (2005) have pointed to a common upstream wave
energy source. They have observed strong low latitude Pc4 pulsations on the
dayside by IMP-8 during the period of the nightside Pc4 pulsations. However,
the spectrum of the upstream magnetic field oscillations at IMP-8 was
characterized by broadband power below 20 mHz instead of a strong peak at
the frequency of the observed ground Pc4 pulsations.
In the light of the above discussed excitation mechanisms and the observed
results of the diurnal and seasonal variation of low latitude Pc4 pulsations, it is
suggested that the upstream waves are a major source of Pc4 pulsations
detected on the nightside which were originated on the dayside and most
likely by an extended region of ULF waves. It is further suggested that the
plasmaspheric cavity mode resonance may have played a role in filtering the
broadband input to the magnetosphere. The results of the present study are
also in agreement with the observed characteristics of ULF upstream waves by
Heilig et al (2007).

Conclusion
The monthly variation of Pc4 occurrence has a Kp dependence range of 0 to 9.
However the yearly Pc4 occurrence was found to be evenly distributed with
magnetic activity over the Kp = 2- to 4 range at all the three stations with the
peak occurrence recorded at Kp = 3-. The magnitudes of durations of Pc4
occurrence decreased in the station order PON, HAN and NAG respectively.
The prominent peaks in the seasonal Pc4 occurrence were observed at Kp = 3-
, 3 for all the seasons. However additional peaks were observed at Kp = 1-, 1
and 1+ for the autumn season. It is also worth noting that Pc4 in winter was
observed during intense magnetic activity when 5+ < Kp < 8+.
Determining the hourly occurrence of ULF waves and their seasonal variation
is important for quantifying their propagation and generation mechanism
properties. With this aim the results of the analysis of diurnal variation in the
occurrence of Pc4 geomagnetic pulsations for the whole year 2005 recorded at
three stations situated at low latitudes in India have been reported in the
present study. The seasonal variation in the hourly occurrence of these

24 | P a g e
pulsations were also studied and reported. The majority of occurrence of Pc4
events observed in our study between 14hr UT to 20 hr UT (local nighttime)
has also been reported in many previous studies. Several other Pc4 events in
local daytime were also found in the course of the present study. The results
are in agreement with suggestions of Takahashi et al (2005) who reported that
the pulsations detected on the nightside originated on the dayside and most
likely by an extended region of ULF waves in front of the bow shock and not
from processes occurring in the nightside magnetosphere as there was absence
of substorm onsets or intensification. Similar results were also reported by
Villante et al (1999). The main peaks in Pc4 occurrence at local winter and
local autumn found at the same time at all the three stations agree with the
previous studies of Ansari and Fraser (1985) and Kuwashima et al (1979)
where the main occurrence peaks in winter and equinox did not change with
time. As the stations array was spread over a latitudinal range of 21 only, it
was not sufficient for identification of latitude dependence of Pc4 pulsation
occurrence since the data from large-scale latitudinal separation was required
for this purpose.

Acknowledgements
1. The authors are thankful to the Director, Indian Institute of Geomagnetism
(IIG) Navi Mumbai, India for kindly providing Pc4 pulsations data.

2. The preparation of the paper was carried out employing the infrastructure
facilities of the Department of Physics, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
(U.P.) – 202002, India.

References
1. Ansari I A (2008), Multipoint observations of low latitude ULF Pc3
waves in south-east Australia, J Astrophys Astr (India), 29, p 303.
2. Ansari, I. A. and Fraser, B. J. (1985): A statistical study of low
latitude Pc3 geomagnetic pulsations, Indian J. Radio Space Phys., p.
42-49.

25 | P a g e
3. Ansari, I. A. and Fraser, B. J. (1986): A multistation study of low
latitude Pc3 geomagnetic pulsations, Planet. Space Sci., vol. 34, p.
519-536.
4. Ansari, I. A., Nafees, K.A., Khan, M.T., Sinha, A.K. and Pathan.,
B.M. [2009(a)], Diurnal and seasonal variation in Pc4 occurrence at
low latitudes in India, Indian J. Radio & Space Phys., Vol 38, p. 197 –
207.
5. Ansari, I. A., Nafees, K.A. and Khan, M.T. [2009(b)], Statistical
Characteristics of Pc4 frequencies at low latitudes in India, Paper No.
SA-S-21, Paper presented to the 24th National Symposium on Plasma
Science & Technology (PLASMA-2009), 8-11 December, 2009, NIT
Hamirpur (HP).
6. Barker, M. D. (1977): The characteristics of Pc3 and Pc4 geomagnetic
micropulsations recorded at Sanae, Antarctica, and Planet. Space Sci.,
Vol. 25, p. 689-701.
7. Burton R K, Russel C T and Chappel C R (1970), The Alfven velocity
in the magnetosphere and its relationship to ELF emissions, J
Geophys Res (USA), 75 , p5582.
8. Chen L and Hasegawa A (1974) , A theory of long period magnetic
pulsations, 1. Steady state excitation of field line resonance, J
Geophys Res (USA),79, p 1024.
9. Cummings W D, De Forest S E and Coleman P J Jr (1969), Standing
Alfven waves in the magnetospher, J Geophys Res (USA), 74, p 778.
10. Cummings W D, De Forest S E and McPherron R L (1978),
Measurements of the Poynting vector of standing hydromagnetic
waves at geosynchronous orbit, J Geophys Res (USA) , 83 , p 697.
11. Greenstadt E W (1972), Statistics of bow shock non-uniformity, J
geophys Res (USA), 78 , p 2331.
12. Greenstadt, E. W. and Olson, J. V. (1976): Pc3-4 activity and
interplanetary field orientation, J. Geophys. Res., 81, p. 5911.
13. Greenstadt, E. W. and Olson, J. V. (1979): Geomagnetic pulsation
signals and hourly distribution of IMF orientation, J. Geophys. Res.,
84, p. 1493.

26 | P a g e
14. Greenstadt E W, Mellot M M, McPherron R L, Russell C T, Singer H
J and Krecht D J (1983), Transfer of pulsation related wave activity
across the magnetopause: Observations of corresponding spectra by
ISEE-1 and ISEE-2, Geophys Res Lett (USA), 10 , p 659.
15. Greenstadt, E. W. and Russell, C. T. (1994): Simulation of exogenic,
daytime geomagnetic pulsations: A global perspective, in solar wind
sources of magnetospheric Ultra-Low-Frequency Waves, Geophys.
Monogr. Ser., vol. 81, edited by M. J. Engebretson, K. Takahashi, and
M. Scholer, p.13, AGU, Washington, D. C.
16. Heillig B, Luhr and Rother M (2007), Comprehensive study of ULF
waves observed in the topside ionosphere by CHAMP and the ground,
An Geophys (France), 27, p 737.
17. Jacobs, J. A. (1970): Geomagnetic micropulsations, in Physics and
Chemistry in Space, Vol. 1. Springer, Berlin.
18. Kivelson M G and Pu Z Y (1984), The Kelvin-Helmholtz instability
on the Magnetopause, Planet Space Sci (UK), 32 , p 1335.
19. Kuwashima, M., Sano, Y. and Kawamura, M. (1979): On the
Geomagnetic Pulsations Pc3 (Part III)-Spectraland Polarization
Characteristics of Middle- and Low- Latitude Pc3, Memoirs of
Kakioka Magnetic Observatory, vol.18, No. 1, p. 1.
20. Le, G., and Russell, C. T. (1996): Solar wind control of upstream
wave frequency, J. Geophys. Res., 101, p. 2571.
21. Obana Y, Yoshikawa A, Olsan J V, Morris R J, Fraser B J and
Yumoto K (2005), North-south asymmetry of the amplitude of high-
latitude Pc3-5 pulsations: Observations at conjugate stations, J
Geophys Res (USA) 110 , p 10214.
22. Orr, D.(1973):Magnetic pulsations within the magnetosphere. J.
atmos. terr. Phys.35, p.1.
23. Otnes, R. K. and Enochson, L. (1978): Applied Time Series Analysis,
V.1 Basic Techniques, p. 449, Wiley-Interscience, New York.
24. Pathan, B. M., Kleimenova, N. G., Kozyreva, O. V., Rao, D. R. K.
and Asinkar, R. L. (1999): Equatorial enhancement of Pc5-6 magnetic
storm time geomagnetic pulsations, Earth Planet Space, 51, p. 959.

27 | P a g e
25. Russell, C. T., Luhmann, J. G., Odera, T. J. and Stuart, W. F. (1983):
The rate of occurrence of dayside Pc3, 4 pulsations: L-value
dependence of the IMF cone angle effect, Geophys. Res. Lett., 10, p.
663.
26. Southwood D J (1968), The hydromagnetic stability of the
mgnetospheric boundary, Planet Space Sci (UK), 16, p 587.
27. Southwood D J (1974), Some features of field line resonance in the
magnetosphere, Planet Space Sci (UK), 22, p 483.
28. Southwood D J, Dungey J W and Etherington R G (1969), Bounce
resonance interaction between pulsations and trapped particles, Planet
Space Sci (UK), 17, p 349.
29. Takahashi, K. and McPherron, R. (1982): Harmonic Structure of Pc3-
4 Pulsations, J. Geophys. Res., 87 (A3), p. 1504.
30. Takahashi K, Liou K, Yumoto K, kitamura K, Nose M and Honary F
(2005), Source of Pc4 pulsation observed on nightside, J. Geophys.
Res. (USA), 110 , p 12207.
31. Tomomura K, Sakurai T and Kato Y (1983), Satellite observations of
magnetic fluctuations in the magnetosheath and the magnetosphere,
Proc of the Faculty of Engineering, Tokai University (Japan), 9 p, 1.
32. Troitskaya, V. A., and Bolshakova, O. V. (1988): Diagnostics of the
magnetosphere using multipoint measurements of ULF-waves, Adv.
Space Res., 8, p. 413.
33. Vero, J. and Hollo, L. (1983): A Comparison of Pc Magnetic
Pulsations on the Ground and at Synchronous orbit, Acta Geodaet.
Geophys. Mont. Hung. Vol. 18(4), p. 403.
34. Vero, J., Hollo, L. and Singh, B. P. (1991): Geomagnetic Pulsations at
Low- and Mid- Latitudes, Acta Geodaet. Geophys. Mont. Hung. Vol.
26(1-4), p. 253.
35. Vero, J., Triet, L. M. and Szendroi, J. (1992): Pulsations at the
Geomagnetic Equator, Acta Geodaet. Geophys. Mont. Hung. Vol.
27(2-4), p. 171.
36. Vero, J., Luhr, H., Vellante, M., Best, I., Strestik, J., Miletits, J. Cz.,
Hollo, L., Szendroi, J. and Zieger, B. (1998): Upstream Waves and

28 | P a g e
 Field Line Resonances: Simultaneous Presence and Alternation in Pc3
Pulsation Events, Ann. Geophysicae, 16, p. 34.
37. Villante, U., Lepidi, S., Francia, P., Vellante, M., Meloni, A.,
Lepping, R. P. and Mariani F. (1999): Pc3 pulsations during variable
IMF conditions, Ann. Geophysicae, 17, p. 490.
38. Webb, D. C. and Orr, D. (1976): Geomagnetic pulsations (5-50 mHz)
and the IMF, J. Geophys. Res., 81, p. 5941.
39. Wu C C (1986), Kelvin-Helmholtz instability at the Magnetopause
boundary, J Geophys Res (USA), 91, p 3042.
40. Yumoto K (1984), Long-period magnetic pulsations generated in the
magnetospheric boundary layers, Planet Space Sci (UK) 32 , p1205.
41. Yumoto, K.and Saito, T. (1983): Relation of compressional HM
waves at GOES-2 to low-latitude Pc3 magnetic pulsations, J.
Geophys. Res., 88, p. 10041-10052.
42. Yumoto, K. (1985): Low frequency upstream waves as a probable
source of low-latitude Pc3-4 magnetic pulsations, Planet. Space Sci.,
33, p. 239.
43. Yumoto K, Saito T, Akasofu S-I, Tsuratani B T and Smith E J (1985),
Propagation mechanism of daytime Pc3-4 pulsations observed at
synchronous orbit and multiple ground-based stations, J Geophys Res
(USA), 90 , p 6439.
44. Zanandrea A, Da Costa J M, Dutra S L G, Trivedi N B, Kitamura T,
Yumoto K, Tachihara H , Shinohara M and Saotome O (2004), Pc3-4
geomagnetic pulsations at very low latitude in Brazil, Planet Space Sci
(UK), 52 , p 1209.
45. Ziesolleck C W S, McDiarmid D R and Feng Q, (1997) ,A
comparison between Pc3-4 pulsations observed by GOES 7 and the
CANOPUS magnetometer array, J Geophys Res (USA),102 , p 4893.

List of Figures

29 | P a g e
Fig.1 Diurnal variation in Pc4 occurrence at all three stations for the total year
2005.

Fig. 2: Diurnal variation in frequency of Pc4 for total year 2005 at all the three
stations Nagpur, Hanle and Pondicherry.

350 JAN05HAN
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9
Duration (min)

350 JAN05NAG
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9

350 JAN05PON
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9
Kp

Fig. 3: Variation of Pc4 Occurrence (in minutes) with Kp for January, 2005.

30 | P a g e
 1000 HAN05
800
600
400
200
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9

Duration (min)
1000
800 NAG05
600
400
200
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9

1000
800 PON05
600
400
200
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9
Kp

Fig. 4: Variation of Pc4 Occurrence (in minutes) with Kp for the spring season
of 2005.

600
500 HAN05
400
300
200
100
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9
Duration (min)

600
500 NAG05
400
300
200
100
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9

600 PON05
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9
Kp

Fig.5: Variation of Pc4 Occurrence (in minutes) with Kp for the summer
season of 2005.

800
600 HAN05
400
200
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9
Duration (min)

800 NAG05
600
400
200
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9

800 PON05
600
400
200
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9
Kp

Fig.6: Variation of Pc4 Occurrence (in minutes) with Kp for the autumn
season of 2005.

31 | P a g e
 800 HAN05
600
400
200
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9
Duration (min)

800 NAG05
600
400
200
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9

800 PON05
600
400
200
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9
Kp

Fig.7: Variation of Pc4 Occurrence (in minutes) with Kp for the winter season
of 2005.

2500
2000 HAN05
1500
1000
500
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9
Duration (min)

2500
2000 NAG05
1500
1000
500
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9

2500 PON05
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 0+ 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 5- 5 5+ 6- 6 6+ 7- 7 7+ 8- 8 8+ 9- 9
Kp

Fig.8: Variation of Pc4 Occurrence (in minutes) with Kp for the whole year
2005.

32 | P a g e
 Chapter-4
One Dimensional Defective Photonic Crystal Sensor with
Cerebrospinal Fluid as Sensing Medium
Sudesh Kumar Singh & Samar Bahadur Chauhan
Department of Physics. T. D. P. G. College, Jaunpur (U.P.)

Abstract
One dimensional photonic crystal biosensors have been proven to have high
sensitivity, cheap and real time detectors. These are very efficient techniques
for measuring the properties of dielectrics working as sensing media. In this
paper we propose to analyse theoretically, a five layer CaF2/Te photonic
crystal sensor using cerebrospinal fluid as sensing medium. Brain and spinal
cord diseases are detected by analysis of transmission resonance peaks in
photonic band gap of optical spectrum of crystals depending on refractive
index of sample.

Keywords: Photonic crystal, biosensor, cerebrospinal fluid, spinal cord,

resonance peaks, photonic band gap, refractive index.

Introduction
The periodically arranged alternate layers of material with altered dielectric
permittivity or metallo -dielectric nanostructures which control and modulate
the motion of photons passing through them are known as ‘photonic crystals'
(PCs). A range of wavelengths of incident light which is completely forbidden
for propagation through photonic crystal is termed as photonic band gap
(PBG) [ 1, 2, 3] and it is very interesting and important property of PCs. All
PCs are highly sensitive to a slight change in thickness and refractive index
(RI) of their constituents. Yablonovitch [2] introduced PCs for the first time in
1987. The PBG is just a narrow spectral window to get nearly perfect
reflection and it is easily tuneable for desired spectral range by tailoring
constituents [5].

One dimensional defective photonic crystal (DPC) is an example of special

class of periodic layered transparent medium of different dielectric constants
33 | P a g e
[6], if a defect layer is introduced to disrupt the periodic arrangement of
dielectric layers [7,8]. This results in the induction of very narrow
transmission bands with sharp peaks within a band of high reflectivity. These
defect modes are called ‘transmission resonant bands’ much similar to the
defect states generated in the forbidden band in a doped semiconductor.

Recently, the defect modes inside the photonic band gap have been widely
studied and used for various applications like enhanced Faraday rotator [9],
omnidirectional band gap filters [10], narrow band filters and various sensors
[11]. The defect layer works as PC cavity in which liquid or gas is stored and
it works as a 'sensor'. Based on the influence on propagation of light and
nature of cavity material, there are various types of sensor: gas sensor,
biosensor [12, 13] and RI sensor.

In our proposed photonic crystal biosensor, we have taken periodic layer of

dielectric materials calcium fluoride (CaF2) and tellurium (Te) with substrate
silicon dioxide (SiO2). Here cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is the defect material
working as sensing liquid- found in our spinal cord and around brain. We
analyse CSF to help diagnose brain and spinal cord diseases with the help of
narrow resonance bands of the samples depending on their RI values. Theory,
design scheme, results and discussion and finally conclusion will be given in
next coming sections.

Theory
Using transfer matrix method (TMM), the interaction of light (visible to
infrared) with defective PC is expressed in the form of matrix given by

[ ] (1)

where, Mr,s are the transfer matrix elements and m1, m2 and md represent
characteristic elements for A, B and D respectively. In general

[ ] (2)

and is phase difference at each layer given by

34 | P a g e
where, nr and dr are the refractive index and thickness of rth layer respectively.
θr is angle of incidence at the rth interface and λ is the wavelength of light
used. ηr is characteristic admittance of rth layer for oblique incidence
expressed as

and

where η0 is the admittance of vacuum.

The transmission coefficient is given by

Thus the transmittance is given by

Finally, the reflectance is given by

It is assumed that there is no absorption of energy.

For proposed photonic biosensor, the performance and efficiency can be

assessed by sensitivity .

Sensor Design
Our proposed 1DPC with defect is composed of low RI = 1.433 of CaF2 taken
as A and that of of high RI = 4.6 of Te taken as B with substrate SiO2 of RI =
1.5 .The medium air of RI= 1.00 works as superstate. In fig1(a), the layered
35 | P a g e
arrangement of air/(AB)N/D/(BA)N /substrate is a symmetrical configuration
and in fig 1 (b) the arrangement air/(AB)N/D/(AB)N/substrate is an
asymmetric structure with N=5. Layer D works as defect layer working as
sensing medium of CSF to be detected. We have taken thickness of D (dD )
just the sum of that of dielectrics A and B. The thickness of layer A, d A = 250
nm, that of B, dB = 350 nm. We study transmission and reflection spectra of
infrared (IR) radiation with wavelength range 1600 nm to 2600 nm and design
wavelength λ0 = 2000 nm.

A B A B A B A B A B D A B A B A B A B A B

Fig.1 Asymmetric structure structure with N=5

Results and discussion.

To enhance sensitivity of proposed biosensor, various curves for transmission
spectra are drawn and in optimum condition. It is found that the highest value
of S is obtained at defective layer thickness to dD where dD = 2(dA + dB).

Fig.2(a) Transmission resonance peaks for CSF with RI=1.3333 and 1.4602

Table-1 Variation of S with dD at θ = 0⁰

Defect layer width ΔλResonance (nm) Sensitivity (nm/RIU)

36 | P a g e
 1 dD 2174~2245 = 71 559.495

1.5 dD 1793~1843 = 50 395.256

2 dD 1996~2099 = 103 811.662

2.5 dD 2240~2339 = 99 780.141

Fig. 2(b) Variation of Sensitivity with defective layer thickness at θ = 0⁰

T vs λ curves in fig 2 (a) show the case of highest sensitivity. The calculated
values are depicted in table-1. Fig 2(b) shows variation of S with dD at θ = 0⁰
(at normal incidence). It is clear from fig 2(b) that S reaches maximum value
of 811.662 and then decreases.

37 | P a g e
Fig.2(c) Transmission resonance peaks for CSF with RI=1.3333 and 1.4602 in
oblique incidence in TE mode

After careful analysis of Table-1 and Table-2 and also the transmission spectra
of all figures 2(a), 2(b), 2(C), the variation of S with dD and also variation with
S with θ are shown in fig 2(d) and 2(e) respectively. For the optimum
condition to get the highest sensitivity 802.584, we have to set dD = 2 (dA + dB)
and angle of incidence θ = 45° for TE mode only.

Fig.2(d) Transmission resonance peaks for CSF with RI=1.3333 and 1.4602 in
oblique incidence in TM mode

38 | P a g e
 Table-2 Variation of S with θ

Angles For Defective width=2D

ΔλResonance Sensitivity
0⁰ 1996~2099 = 103 811.662
15⁰ TE 1971~2076 = 105 827.423
30⁰TE 1901~2011 = 110 866.824
45⁰TE 1803~1915 = 112 882.584
60⁰TE 1715~1813 = 98 772.261
75⁰TE 1664~1740 = 76 598.89
15⁰ TM 1972~2075 = 103 811.662
30⁰TM 1908~2010 = 102 803.782
45⁰TM 1825~1921 = 96 756.501
60⁰TM 1756~1835 = 79 622.537
75⁰TM 1715~1779 = 64 504.3341

Fig.2(e) Variation of S with θ in TE and TM mode

Table-2 shows calculated values of S at different values of θ using curves for

transmission spectra in both polarisation TE and TM as shown in fig 2 (c) and
2(d). From table-2 and fig 2(c), it is clear that maximum value of S is 882.584
at angle θ = 45⁰ in TE-mode. In TM mode, the value of S decreases

39 | P a g e
continuously from θ = 0° to θ = 75°, as shown in fig 2(d) and also from table-
2. Fig 2(e), also shows variation of S with θ.

Table-3 Details of CSF without and with infections

Sample Density R.I. Position of peak
g/cm3 % Mean at λresonance (nm)
Water
Uninfectious CSF 1.000 100 1.3333 1803
Wall of solid brain abscess 1.028 97 1.3412 1810
Multiple sclerosis 1.031 96 1.3425 1811
Oligodendroglioma 1.056 94 1.3531 1819
Gray matters 1.186 80 1.3951 1855
White matters 1.237 70 1.4121 1870
Low grade gloma 1.286 58 1.4320 1888
Medulloblastoma 1.318 53 1.4412 1897
Glioblastoma 1.343 49 1.4470 1902
Lymphoma 1.378 42 1.4591 1914
Metastasis 1.381 40 1.4602 1915

Fig.3(a) Position λresonance for different sensing brain tissue with transmittance

40 | P a g e
 Fig.3 (b) Highly resolved region from 1800 to 1920 nm to find position of
λresonance .
For the detection of infectious diseases of brain and spinal cord [14], we have
to analyse CSF. The sensor design is set for maximum sensitivity as already
discussed. The samples are filled in the cavity provided to work as defect layer
of photonic crystal. Transmission spectra waves are drawn as shown in fig3
(a), and fig 3(b) for higher resolution. Table-3 is prepared by calculations. We
observe that various resonance transmission peaks are present with nearly
98% transmittivity at corresponding λresonance for the fluids.Fig3(a) and 3(b) are
Table-3 show that as RI value of fluid increases, λresonance shifts towards longer
wavelength side ie there is red-shift. Thus the infectious fluids are detected.

Conclusion
We, theoretically explored the possibility of defective one dimensional
photonic crystal as a biosensor to detect the CSF based on refractive index.
The defect layer thickness plays an important role. The position of
transmission resonance peaks discriminates the sample components. This
technique is one of the most promising tools because it is continuously
progressing. We hope that this highly sensitive biosensor will lead new trends
and future prospects for other health diagnostic sensors.

41 | P a g e
References

1. V.V. Rumyantsev, A. Schwartzman, Peculiarities of propagation

of electromagnetic excitations through nonideal 1d photonic
crystal, J Electr Electron Syst 1 (1) (2013) 1000109.
2. M.N. Armenise, C.E. Campanella, C. Ciminelli, F.D. Olio,
V.M.N. Vmn Passaro, Phononic and photonic band gap
structures: modelling and applications, Phys. Procedia 3 (2010)
357–364.
3. Shuo Li, et al., On-demand design of tunable complete photonic
band gaps based on bloch mode analysis, Sci. Rep. 8 (2018)
14283.
4. Yablonovitch, E. Inhibited spontaneous emission in solid-state
physics and electronics. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1987, 58, 2059.
[CrossRef]
5. Hadjira A, Badaoui, Abri M. One-dimensional photonic crystal
selective fiters design using simulated annealing optimization
technique. Progressin electromagnetic research B. 2013;53:107–
125.
6. Gondek E, Karasiński P. One-dimensional photonic crystals as
selective back reflctors. Optics & Laser Technology.
2013;48:438–446.
7. L. Huang, J. Zhou, F. Sun, Z. Fu, H. Tian, Optimization of one
dimensional photonic crystal elliptical-hole low-index mode
nanobeam cavities for on-chip sensing, J. Lightwave Technol. 34
(2016) 3496–3502.
8. F. Segovia-Chaves, H. Vinck-Posada, Tunable transmittance
spectrum in onedimensional photonic crystals composed of
HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8+δ/GaAs with a defective GaAs layer, Optik
181 (2019) 493–498.
9. Tahmineh Jalali, Abdolrasoul Gharaati, Mohammad Rastegar,
Enhancement of Faraday rotation in defect modes of
one-dimensional magnetophotonic crystals, Materials Science-
Poland, 37(3), 2019, pp. 446-453
42 | P a g e
10. Y. Kim, S. Lin, H. Wu, R. Pan, A tunable terahertz filter and its
switching properties in terahertz region based on a defect mode of
a metallic photonic crystal, J. Appl. Phys. 109 (2011) 123111.
11. Poonam Sharma, Sandip Kumar Roy, Preeta Sharan, Design and
simulation of photonic crystal based biosensor for detection of
different blood components, Proc. IEEE Region 10 Symposium,
Kuala Lumpur, Malyasia, Apr. 2014, pp. 171 –176.
12. Y.N. Zhang, Y. Zhao, D. Wu, Q. Wang, Fiber loop ring-down
refractive index sensor based on high-Q photonic crystal cavity,
IEEE Sens. J. 14 (6) (Jun. 2014) 1878 –1885.
13. K.Z. Li, J.T. Li, Y.J. Song, G.S. Fang, C. Li, Z.Y. Feng, R.B. Su,
B.H. Zeng, X.H. Wang, C.J. Jin, L-n slot photonic crystal
microcavity for refractive index gas sensing, IEEE Photonics J 6
(1 –9) (Oct. 2014) 6802509.
14. T Biswas, T Luu, In vivo MR Measurement of Refractive Index,
Relative Water Content and T2 Relaxation time of Various Brain
lesions With Clinical Application to Discriminate Brain Lesions.
The Internet Journal of Radiology Volume 13 Number 1.

43 | P a g e
 Chapter-5
Fundamental Concept of Surface Plasmon Resonance
Technique for Biosensing Application
Vipin Sharma, Lalit Kr. Dwivedi , Susheel Kr. Singh, Akash Srivastava
Department of Physics and Electronics
Kamla Nehru Institute of Physical and Social Sciences, Sultanpur (U.P)

Abstract
Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) sensors and their applications have
benefited greatly from research in recent years. SPR sensors have key
characteristics such as label-free detection, real-time monitoring, tiny sample
sizes, accurate results at low costs, and simple handling. SPR biosensors are
effective detection and analysis tools with several uses in biotechnology,
medical diagnostics, drug screening, food safety, and security. This article
reviews recent advancements in SPR biosensor technologies for identifying
interactions between a target analyte in solution and biomolecular recognition.
We also provided a detailed summary of contemporary design and production
methods, including their drawbacks. The researcher and industry professionals
working on the subject of SPR-based Sensors will greatly benefit from the
knowledge presented in this study.

Keywords: Biosensor, Surface Plasmon Resonance, Kretschmann

Configuration, Otto Configuration, Detection accuracy.

Introduction
A biosensor is a device that detects chemical molecules, typically by
electrical, thermal, or optical signal [1], through specialized biochemical
processes mediated by isolated enzymes, immune systems, tissues organelles,
or whole cells. Leland C. Clark first described the biosensor in1962, using
amperometric enzyme electrodes to measure the levels of glucose [2]. Updike
and Hicks updated Clark's device by immobilizing glucose oxidase on a gel to
measure glucose concentration [3]. To detect urea by immobilizing urease,
Guilbault and Montalvo employed a potentiometric enzyme electrode [4] in

44 | P a g e
1969. To assess glucose content, the first commercial biosensor developed by
Yellow Springs Instruments in 1975 used an amperometric detection of
hydrogen peroxide [5]. Researchers and scientists have so far developed a
variety of types of biosensors, including electrochemical, optical, thermal,
resonant, ion-sensitive, etc.

Biosensors can be divided into electrochemical, resonant, thermal, and optical

types based on the transduction process. Because optical biosensors can
perform remote sensing, allow multiplexed detection inside a single device,
and are immune to electromagnetic interference, this field has experienced
rapid progress over the past two decades. Many optical sensing techniques,
including chemiluminescence [6,7], fluorescence [8], light absorption and
scattering [9,10], reflectance [11], and SPR [12], have been used in
biosensors. These techniques can be divided into two groups: label-based and
label-free. While label-based detection is very sensitive, with a detection limit
of just one molecule [13], it also has arduous labelling procedures that could
affect how well a biomolecule works. Due to the fluorescence signal bias and
the inaccuracy of the number of fluorophores on each molecule, quantitative
analysis is difficult [14]. Label-free detection, on the other hand, functions as
it would in the wild and depends on the measurement of binding-induced
changes in refractive index. As a result, this kind of detection is generally
simple, and inexpensive, and enables quantitative and kinetic analysis of
molecular interactions. We will concentrate on optical SPR biosensors in this
review because they have emerged as a key tool for understanding molecular
interactions and offer a quick, precise, and sensitive alternative to
conventional laboratory analytical methods. The review will consider every
biosensor related to SPR [15-19]. While presenting this review, we made note
of several important reviews in the related fields. The current review's goal is
to provide a clear understanding of SPR-based biosensor approaches.

To do this, we aim to discuss the concept of surface plasmon resonance and

then the sensing principle. We'll briefly yet thoroughly review the
technological developments in SPR biosensors. Finally, we will outline the
future direction of optical SPR biosensor research and development.

45 | P a g e
Surface Plasmon Resonance:
When a thin metallic sheet is exposed to p-polarized light under the conditions
of total internal reflection, a wave is produced known as a Surface plasmon
wave and the phenomenon called surface plasmon resonance occurs. Consider
an interface between two materials with differing refractive indices; in this
case, light from the media with higher refractive indices experiences partial
transmission and partial reflection. Above a specific critical angle of
incidence, the total internal reflection will occur and no light will be refracted
over the interface. TIR causes an exponentially decreasing evanescent wave
because the electromagnetic field component only travels a short distance
through the medium with the lower refractive index. The polarised component
of the evanescent field wave can pass through the metal layer if the media
interface is covered with a thin layer of metal (gold, silver), and the incident
light is p-polarized. This causes a rapid drop in the intensity of reflected light
at a specific incident angle and stimulation of a surface plasmon wave that is
propagating on the metal surface. The resonance energy transfer between
surface plasmons and evanescent waves causes this dip to happen. This
phenomenon is known as Surface Plasmon Resonance.
In 1902, Wood recorded the first observation of a surface plasmon. He noticed
that polarised light produced an odd pattern of dark and bright bands when it
was reflected off of a mirror that had a diffraction grating on its surface [20].
When one medium is a lossy dielectric or metal and the other is a loss-free
medium, radio frequency surface electromagnetic waves will occur at the
border of the two media, according to Zenneck's theoretical research published
in 1907[21]. The electromagnetic waves are held to the contact, he concluded,
by the lossy component of the dielectric constant. In 1909, Somerfield noted
that the field amplitudes of surface waves present on the metal-dielectric
interface fluctuate inversely with the square root of the source dipole's
distance [22]. Theoretically speaking, Fano concluded in 1941 that the
abnormalities recorded by Wood (in 1902) were caused by the excitation of
surface waves on the surface of the diffraction grating [23]. Ritchie
theoretically deduced in 1957 that the surface plasmons of metal were excited
[24]. When Thurbadar lit thin metal sheets on a substrate in 1959, he saw a

46 | P a g e
significant decrease in reflectivity, but he did not associate this behaviour with
surface plasmons [25]. At the metal-dielectric contact, Powell and Swan
discovered in 1960 that electrons may excite surface plasmons [26]. Stern and
Ferrell discovered that electromagnetic radiation related to surface plasmons
was the source of the electromagnetic waves at the metallic surface [27]. In a
later explanation of Thurbadar's findings in 1968, Otto claimed that the
activation of surface plasmons is what causes the reduction in the intensity of
reflected light in attenuated total internal reflection [28]. The Otto
arrangement is better suited for studying single crystal surfaces since there is a
finite gap between the metal layer and the prism base, which makes it less
viable from a practical standpoint. In 1971 By directly putting a thin metallic
layer on the base of a coupling prism, Kretschmann improved the Otto
configuration [29]. This method keeps the dielectric medium (sample) whose
refractive index is being measured in touch with the metallic layer. When
transverse magnetic (TM) polarised, or p-polarized, light is incident on a
metal-prism contact, a dramatic dip in reflectance is observed at a certain
angle known as the resonance angle. The sample's dielectric constant can be
measured by measuring this resonance angle. this technique is known as the
"angular interrogation approach." In India various groups like Y. K. Prajapati
and A. Srivastava et.al. [30], A. Sharma and A. Pandey et.al. [31], J.B.
Maurya et.al [32], S. Pal et.al [33]. S.K. Raghuvanshi et.al [34] and many
more are working on the plasmonics field and using the property of
nanomaterials to enhance the performance of the plasmonic sensors.
Methods for Surface Plasmon Excitation
When fast electrons move through a thin metal sheet, they lose energy. Either
electrons or photons can stimulate the surface plasmon. A transfer of electron
energy and momentum from incoming light enables activated the free electron
at the surface of metals when an electron beam penetrates the metal. However,
excitation by photons is a better idea for sensing applications. Prism coupling,
grating coupling, and waveguide coupling are the most popular techniques for
optical excitation.

Prism coupling:

47 | P a g e
A common method for surface plasmon stimulation is prism coupling. The P-
polarized light is incident on a high-index prism at an angle greater than the
critical angle in the prism coupling method. In this case, the light experiences
total internal reflection, and an evanescent wave is created that permeates the
thin metal layer. The resonance condition is met when the light's wave vector
coincides with a surface plasmon at a specific angle known as the critical
angle. A decrease in the intensity of the reflected light indicates this particular
angle. The resonance condition is given as

np sin (ѳ) = Re {β} (1)

Where np indicates the refractive index of the prism, ѳ indicates the angle of
incidence and β is the propagation constant of surface plasmon.

Kretschmann configuration and Otto configuration are the two different

configurations utilized for prism coupling. In the Kretschmann setup, a thin
metal coating is evaporated onto the surface of the glass prism. Conversely,
the Otto design requires a narrow air gap between the metal thin film and the
prism's surface. It is quite challenging to keep the air gap in the Otto
configuration. Surface plasmon excitation may be ineffectively affected by a
wider air gap. Due to this, the Kretschmann geometry is more common for
most applications.

Fig.1.2 Prism Coupling based on (a) OttoConfiguration (b) Kretschmann

Configuration

Grating Coupling:
48 | P a g e
Another approach used for the excitation of surface plasmons is based on the
diffraction of light on a diffraction grating. In the grating coupling, a light
wave is made to an incident on a metallic grating which will be split into a
series of diffraction beams. The diffracted light will couple with the surface
plasmon once the propagation constant of the surface plasmon matches the
momentum of diffracted light parallel to the grating surface. The resonance
condition is given as

ϴ+m = Re{β} (2)

Where n is the refractive index of the dielectric,m is the diffraction order and
stands for grating period.

Waveguide based coupling:

Optical fibers and planar or channel-integrated optical waveguides are
examples of dielectric waveguides whose modes can excite surface plasmons.
Surface plasmons are excited at the outer layer of the metal boundary by the
evanescent wave in waveguide coupling when light reaches the region of the
waveguide having a thin metal layer. When the surface plasmon's real part of
propagation constant β at the outer metal-dielectric boundary coincides with
the guided mode's propagation constant βmobe, the evanescent wave of the
dielectric waveguide mode couples with the plasmon. The resonance
condition is given as

βmobe = Re{β} (3)

Analysing the essential components of an SPR-based biosensor

Prism Selection:
To match the wave vector of the surface plasmon, prisms are utilized to
increase the wave vector of incident light. The BK7 prism, commonly known
as a right-angle prism, is preferred among various types of prisms (like SF10,
SF11, SF5, BAK1, BK7, 2S2G, and BAF10) due to its low refractive index (n
14 1.51). It shows to be a good substrate for high sensitivity as a result [30].
The BK7 property has a strong thermal expansion, low cost, and hard glass

49 | P a g e
that is durable to handle with good chemical resistance. It also has great
transmission from 350 to 2000 nm wavelength.

(a)

(b)

Fig.1 Performance parameter analysis of a different kind of prism [35]

(a) Comparative analysis of different types of prism to find maximum SPR

angle and minimum reflectance value for sensor given in the paper (35) (b)
Performance parameter analysis

50 | P a g e
MetalLayer Selection and Thickness Optimization:

It is crucial to choose a good metal layer and to maximize its thickness

because the strongest evanescent field is seen at the metal/dielectric interface.
Usually on the scale of a nanometer, light cannot penetrate metals very deeply
(skin depth). Metal should therefore be kept at a nanometer or less thickness.
In contrast to gold, the silver-based arrangement displays a thinner reflection
intensity vs SPR angle curve; as a result, the value of FWHM is lower, the S/N
ratio is higher, and the FOM is higher (FOM 1/FWHM), correspondingly [36].
(refer to Fig. 5). Despite these advantageous circumstances, gold is chemically
more inert and has significant dispersive properties, but silver is not [38]
chemically stable and is not. Additionally, the substantially increased
sensitivity of the gold-based sensing arrangement [39] is a result of the larger
shift in SPR angle. Metal layer thickness needs to be optimized since a metal
film with a thickness that is inadequate will cause the SPR curve to broaden
and have a higher minimum reflectance at the resonance angle. Similar to the
previous example, an SPR curve with a smaller resonance angle and minimal
higher reflectance results from metal layer thickness that is more than the ideal
value. According to an experiment that examined data, at a 633 nm incident
light wavelength, the penetration depth of a 50 nm thick gold film is
approximately 164 nm, compared to 219 nm for silver. Silver has a greater
penetration depth but is not chosen due to its stability; the ageing effect, which
results from the formation of the oxide layer on Ag as AgO2, causes the Ag
layer to degrade. Concerning other nano-thick metal layers, such as Ag (0.3
nm), Cu (1-1.6 nm), and Al (1.3-3.3 nm), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
has shown that the oxide layer thickness in Au is (0-0.1 nm) [40]. The metal
layer has a complex refractive index (n + ik), where n denotes the real
component and k is the extinction coefficient, which indicates how much of an
EM wave is attenuated as it travels through the layer. Large values of the
imaginary part of a material's complicated refractive index indicate higher
damping, which lowers the detection's accuracy [41]. Ag and Au have 20
times lower imaginary dielectric values than other supporting metals, which is
another crucial factor in favouring them over other metal layers.

51 | P a g e
 Fig.2 Au vs. Ag SPR angle shift analysis [35]

BRE layer selection:

By enhancing the biomoleculesability to bind to the metal surface, the
functionalization of the metal film with BRE affects the sensitivity [41].
Materials that are monolayers or mixed heterostructures of the following are
appropriate for BRE layers:
• Applying 2D materials like graphene, black phosphorus, or
phosphorene.
• Transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) like MoS2, MoSe2, WS2,
and WSe2.
• Heterostructure of 2D/TMD.
• Applying perovskite elements like BaTiO3.
• 2D transition metal carbide/nitride materials like MXene.

SPR Biosensor Applications:

More than 400 diseases have now been identified using DNA molecular
diagnostics, and this number is still growing, thanks to the advancements in
biosensor technology. The reduced pre-processing and real-time measurement
capabilities of SPR sensors open up a variety of sensing applications for
biological compounds. To detect DNA hybridization at visible range
wavelengths, a few authors developed the SPR sensor. High S and FOM are

52 | P a g e
just two of the desirable characteristics needed for a sufficient SPR sensor
performance. The subsequent expression shown in Eq. 4 has been used to
establish a connection between the concentration of RI before and after
hybridization and the change in the concentration of phosphate-buffered saline
(PBS) solution.

nH = n s + c a (4)

Where, nHis the sensing medium RI after hybridization, ns is the sensing

medium RI medium before hybridization, ca is the concentration of an
adsorbed molecule, and is the increment in RI due to the adsorbed molecule.
After its realization through current manufacturing technology, the suggested
sensor can effectively diagnose complicated diseases, such as cancer and
hepatitis B on DNA Hybridization.

The summary of the state of the art in Performance Enhancement of the SPR
sensor at 633 nm wavelength has been presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Performance Parameters
References Configuration S (o D.A. Q.F. Conclusion
/RIU) (RIU-1)
Y.K. Prism + Ag + - - - The SPR sensor has the
Prajapati Metamaterial advantage of improving
et. al. 2013 + Ag + Au+ reflectance dip and S by
[42] Water employing the
metamaterial layer.
J.B. Maurya Prism + Au + 48.82 0.615 5.12 The SPR sensor
et. al.2015 MoS2 proposed the effect of
[43] + Affinity + Si between metal and
Water MoS2.
Prism + Au + Si 48.65 10243 85365
+ MoS2
+ Affinity + 53 | P a g e
Water
J.B. Maurya Prism +Si + 49.86 14.54 207.75 The sensor Ag +
et. al.2016 Graphene Graphene/MoS2)
[44] + Affinity + presents the acceptable
 Sensing Layer S, but the D.A. and Q.F.
are substantially higher
Prism + Si + 49.29 17.25 246.45
than the existing work.
MoS2 + Affinity
+ Sensing Layer
J.B. Maurya Prism + Metal + - - - The purely real part RI
et. al.2017 Dielectric of the dielectric layer
[45] + Water offers the contradicted
results between
and HWHM. To
mitigate this problem,
increase the imaginary
part of the complex RI
of dielectric medium.
J.B. Maurya Prism - - - Ag furnishes the lower
et al.2016 BK7/SF11/2S2G) FWHM, which leads to
[46] + Metal high D.A. and Q.F.; Cu
Au/Ag/Cu/Al) renders high res,
+ MoS2 which leads to higher S.
+Graphene +
Water
J.B. Maurya Prism + AuNPs + 107.29 0.50 7.16 The monolayer and
et. al.2018 MoS2 bilayer MoS2 furnish
[46] + Affinity + the highest S than the
Water grapheme-based sensor.
M. S. Prism + Au + 89.29 0.919 13.13 The hybrid structure of
Rahman MoS2 + PBS MoS2-Graphene is
et. al.2017 solution appropriated to enhance
[47] the S of the SPR sensor.
S. Pal et. al. Prism + Au + BP 180 0.29 - The BP and BP-Si
2017 [48] + Affinity based structures render
+ Sensing Layer the highest S and D.A.,
Prism + Au + Si 115 1.19 - Respectively. These are
+ BP almost constant with a
+ Affinity + variation of sensing RI.
Sensing Layer

54 | P a g e
The review of the state of the art on SPR sensors for DNA hybridization has
been presented in Table2.

Table.2.0
Performance Parameters
S (o D.A. Q.F. FOM
References Configuration Conclusion
/RIU) (RIU-
1
)
M. S. Prism + Au + 95.71 1.763 25.19 - The sensor is capable
Rahman et WS2 + of differentiating
al. 2018 Graphene + between the
[49] Sensing Layer. complementary and
single-base
mismatched DNA.
S. Pal et Prism + Au + 125 0.95 13.62 - The sensor can work
al.2018 BP + Graphene efficiently to detect
[50] + Sensing the hybridization of
Layer DNA.
B. Meshgi- Prism + 187.22 0.10 - 18.72 Ten layers of SPR
nqalamet Chromium + Structure
al.2018 Au + BP + BP/monolayer WS2
[51] TDMC provides aim-proved
Material + S and FOM
Sensing Layer
Y. Prism + Ag + 91.45 3.61 54.81 54.78 The sensor can
Vasimalla BP + Graphene efficiently detect the
et al. 2020 +Sensing DNA hybridization
[50] Layer with high-
Prism + Ag + 53.08 69 1061.6 554.58 performance
Si + BP + parameters such as S,
Graphene + D.A., Q.F., and
Affinity + FOM.
Sensing Layer

Future Scope:

Human diseases have been continuously on the rise for many years. We must
create sensing technology that is both simple to use and simple to sense. From
the user's perspective, the user can purchase this information from independent

55 | P a g e
equipment, positive or negative examination syndrome, or the contaminant's
presence in a sample of interest. For researchers and developers, this
knowledge is embedded in a dual problem. On the one hand, each use of
biosensors depends on the vitality of the biomarkers or analytes identified to
produce certain symptoms. The extensive list of biomarkers associated with
many cancers and severe conditions can present the potential benefit of
reliable biosensor technology, but also demonstrates considerable hurdles. The
target analytes are frequently displayed in complicated media at low
concentrations.

The second difficulty is with the instrumentation, and the focus is on obtaining
strong, reasonably priced platforms for multiple analyte detection biosensors.
The previous work used a MATLAB program to operate on visible range
wavelength for only one S enhancement of the prism-based SPR sensor with a
limited number of applications.

The third difficulty arises from the necessity for the new authors to create
innovative structures while enhancing all performance parameters, such as S,
D.A., Q.F., and FOM for various applications. Furthermore, using numerical
methods, researchers need to construct the prism-based SPR for additional
important sensing parameters at the near-infrared and non-visible ranges.

The fourth challenge is that researchers must create additional SPR sensor
applications for the benefit of society because sickness rates have been rising
dramatically in recent years.

The fifth issue can be categorized as improving the high-frequency

performance of waveguide-based and fiber-based SPR for various
applications. The absence of experimental work development presents yet
another important obstacle for young researchers in the field of biosensors.
Additionally, the SPR-based sensors inspire a lot of open research in a variety
of fields. The main sensors expected to see additional advancements are
biosensors, nanosensors, and photonic crystal-assisted sensors. The creation of
non-specific interactions with undesirable molecules, while the sensor's
surface and the RI background mutations are present, is the other problem.
Temperature, moisture, and composition differences may be the causes of
56 | P a g e
those variations. The consumer desires that the SPR-based biosensors' future
applications be driven by the aforementioned factors. As a result, the sensor
must be within reach of more customers. The difficulties aided new
researchers in creating biosensors in this field.

Reference:

1. IUPAC. Compendium of Chemical Terminology, A.D. McNaught

and A. Wilkinson, in Gold Book, Blackwell Scientific
Poblications,1997.
2. Electrode systems for continuous monitoring in cardiovascular
surgery, L.C. Clark and C. Lyons, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 102(1),29-
45(1962).
3. The enzyme electrode, S. Updike and G. Hicks, Nature,214 986-988
(1967).
4. Urea-Specific enzyme electrode, G. G. Guildault and J.G. Mantalvo
Jr, J.Opt. Soc. Am. 91(8),2164-2165(1969).
5. Glucose Biosensors: an overview of use in clinical practice, E-H.
Yoo and S.Y. Lee., Sensors,10(5), 4558-4576(2010).
6. W.C.W. Chan and S.M. Nie. Science 281.2016-2018 (1998).
7. W.C.W. Chan, D.J. Maxell. X.H. Gao, R.E. Baily, M.H. Han and
S.M. Nie, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 13, 40-46 (2002).
8. R. C. Mucic, J.J. Storhoff, C.A. Mirkin and R.L. Letsinger,J.Amer.
Chem. Soc. 120, 12674-12675 (1998).
9. M. D. Malinsky, K.L. Kelly, G.C. Schartz, and R.P. Van Duyne,
J.Amer. Chem. Soc. 123, 1471-1482 (2001).
10. R.C. Mucic, J. J Storhoff, C.A. Mirkin and R.L. Letsinger.
J.AmChem.Soc.120,12674-12675 (1998).
11. M. Mrksich, J.R. Grunwell, and G. M. Whitesides,
J.Amer.Chem.Soc. 117.12009-12010 (1995).
12. J. Homola, S. Yee, and G. Gauglitz Sens. Actuators B 54,3-15
(1999).
13. H.T. Li, L.M. Ying. J.J. Green, S.Balasubramanian, and D.
Klenerman, Anal. Chem. 75, 1664-1670 (2003)
14. W.G. Cow and V.L. Singer, Biotechniques 36,114-122 (2004).
57 | P a g e
15. J. Homola, S. Yee, and D. Myszka, Anal. Bioana. Chem.377, 528-
539 (2003)
16. J. Homola Chem.Rev.108, 462-493 (2008).
17. Robert Karlsson, J. Molecular Recognition 17, 151-161 (2004).
18. X. D. Hoa, A.G. Krik. and M. Tabrizian, Biosensors.Bioelectron.23
151-160 (2007).
19. J.A. Haes, P. Richard, and Van duyne, Analyt. Bioanalyt.379, 920-
930 (2004).
20. Wood R.W., “On a remarkable case of uneven distribution of light in
a diffraction grating spectrum”, Philosophical Magazine, vol. 4, 396-
402, (1902).
21. Zenneck J., “Uber die Fortpflanztmg Ebner elektro-magnetischer
Wellen langs einer ebenen Leiterflache and ihre Beziehung zur
drahtlosen Telegraphie”, Annalen der Physik, vol. 328,846-866,
(1907).
22. Sommerfeld A., “Propagation of waves in wireless telegraphy”,
Anals der Physik, vol. 28, 665-736, (1909).
23. Fano R.M., “The theory of anomalous diffraction grating of quasi
stationary wave on metallic surfaces”, Journal of Optical Society of
America, vol. 31, 213-222, (1941).
24. Ritchie R.H., “Plasma losses by fast electrons in thin films”, Physical
Review, vol. 106, 874-881, (1957).
25. Thurbadar T., “Complete absorption of light by thin metal films”,
Proceedings of the Physical Society, vol. 73,40-44, (1959).
26. Powell C.J., Swan J.B., “Effect of oxidation on characteristic loss
spectra of aluminium and magnesium”, Physical Review, vol.
118,640-643, (1960).
27. Stern E.A., Ferrell R.A., “Surface plasma oscillation of degenerate
electron gas”, Physical Review, vol.120, 130-136, (1960).
28. Otto A., “Excitations of nonradiative surface plasma waves in silver
by the method of frustrated total reflection”, Zeitschrift fur Physik,
vol. 216, pp. 398-410, (1968).

58 | P a g e
29. Kretschmann E., “Die Bestimmung optischer Konstanten von
Metallen durch Anregung von Oberflachenplasmashwingungen”,
Zeitschrift fur Physik, vol. 241, pp. 313-324, (1971).
30. Y. K. Prajapati and A. Srivastava.: „Effect of
blueP/MoS2Heterostructure and graphene layer on the performance
parameter of SPR sensor: theoretical insight‟, Superlattice
Microstruct. 129, 152–162, (2019).
31. J.B. Maurya, S. Raukawa, Y.K. Prajapati, J.P. Saini, A silicon-black
phosphorous based surface plasmon resonance sensor for the
detection of NO2 gas, Optik 160 (2018) 428–433,)
32. A. Sharma and A. Pandey.:” Blue phosphorene/MoS2 heterostructure
based SPR sensor with enhanced sensitivity”. IEEE Photonics
Technology Letters, 30(7), 595-598, (2018).
33. S. Pal, A. Verma, J. P., Saini, & Y. K. Prajapati.: “Sensitivity
enhancement using silicon-black phosphorus-TDMC coated surface
plasmon resonance biosensor”. IET Optoelectronics, 13(4), 196-
201(2019).
34. S. K Raghuvanshi, M. Kumar, & B. S. Athokpam,:” Analysis of
novel class of surface plasmon phenomena having a metamaterial
layer between two different metals for sensor application”. IEEE
Sensors Journal, 16(17), 6617-6624,2016.
35. Alka Verma, and Y.K. Prajapati.: “Effect of 2D, TMD, perovskite,
and 2D metal carbide/nitride materials on performance parameters of
SPR biosensor” Handbook of Nanomaterials for Sensing
Applications, edition-1, chapter 04, 57-90, Publisher Elsevier, ISBN
9780128207833,
36. Y. Xu, C.Y. Hsieh, L. Wu, L.K. Ang, Two-dimensional transition
metal dichalcogenides mediated long range surface plasmon
resonance biosensors, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 52 (6) 1-8, (2019).
37. F.S. Ligler, C.R. Taitt, L.C. Shiver-Lake, K.E. Sapsford, Y. Shubin,
J.P. Golden, Array bio-sensors for detection of toxins, Anal.,
Bioanal., Chem. 377, 469–477, (2003).
38. J. Zhu, B. Ruan, Q. You, J. Guo, X. Dai, Y. Xiang, Terahertz
imaging sensor based on the strong coupling of surface plasmon
59 | P a g e
 polaritons between PVDF and graphene, Sens. Actuators B 264, 398–
403, (2018).
39. E Palik, Handbook of Optical Constants of Solids, vol. 1, Academic
press, (1985).
40. A. Srivastava, A. Verma, R. Das, Y.K. Prajapati, A theoretical
approach to improve the performance of SPR biosensor using MXene
and black phosphorus, Optik 203,1--9 (2020).
41. J.B. Maurya, Y.K. Prajapati, V. Singh, J.P. Saini, Sensitivity
enhancement of surface plasmon resonance sensor based on
graphene-MoS2 hybrid structure with TiO2-SiO2 composite layer,
Appl. Phys. A 121 (2), 525–533, (2015).
42. S. Pal, Y.K. Prajapati, J.P. Saini, V. Singh, Resolution enhancement
of optical surface plasmon resonance sensor using metamaterial,
Photonic Sens 5 (4) 330–338 (2015).
43. J.B. Maurya, Y.K. Prajapati, V. Singh, J.P. Saini, R. Tripathi,
Performance of graphene–MoS2 based surface plasmon resonance
sensor using silicon layer, Opt. Quant. Electron. 47 (11) 3599–3611
(2015).
44. J.B. Maurya, Y.K. Prajapati, Influence of dielectric coating on
performance of surface plasmon resonance sensor, Plasmonics 12 (4)
1121–1130 (2017).
45. J.B. Maurya, Y.K. Prajapati, A comparative study of different metal
and prism in the surface plasmon resonance biosensor having MoS2-
graphene, Opt. Quant. Electron. 48 (5)280 (2016).
46. J.B. Maurya, Y.K. Prajapati, R. Tripathi, Effect of molybdenum di
sulphide layer on surface plasmon resonance biosensor for the
detection of bacteria, Silicon India 10 (2) 245-256 (2018).
47. M.S. Rahman, M.S. Anower, M.R. Hasan, M.B. Hossain, M.I.
Haque, Design and numerical analysis of highly sensitive Au-MoS2-
graphene based hybrid surface plasmon resonance biosensor, Optic
Commun. 396,36-43 (2017).
48. S. Pal, A. Varma, Y.K. Prajapati, J.P. Saini, Influence of black
phosphorous on performance of surface plasmon resonance
biosensor, Opt. Quant. Electron. 49 (12) 403 (2017).
60 | P a g e
49. M.S. Rahman, M.R. Hasan, K.A. Rikta, M.S. Anower, A novel
graphene coated surface plasmon resonance biosensor with tungsten
disulphide (WS2) for sensing DNA hybridization, Opt. Mater. 75,
567–573 (2018).
50. S. Pal, A. Verma, S. Raikwar, Y.K. Prajapati, J.P. Saini, Detection of
DNA hybridization using graphene-coated black phosphorus surface
plasmon resonance sensor, Appl. Phys. A 124 (5) 394 (2018).
51. B. Meshginqalam, J. Barvestani, Performance enhancement of SPR
biosensor based on phosphorene and transition metal dichalcogenides
for sensing DNA hybridization, IEEE Sens 18 (18) 7537–7543
(2018).
52. Y. Vasimalla, H. Pradhan, R. Pandya, SPR performance enhancement
for DNA hybridization employing Black Phosphorous, Silver and
Silicon, Appl. Optic. 59 (24) 7299–7307 (2020).

61 | P a g e
 Chapter-6
Use of optical fibres for sensing purpose:
A theoretical note
Susheel Kumar Singh, Akash Srivastava, L.K. Dwivedi,Vipin Sharma
Department of Physics and Electronics, KNIPSS Sultanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Abstract: Fiber optic sensors are modern demand of present research and
need of society due to their small size, high sensitivity, cost effectivenessand
accuracy. They are taking in use for strain, stress, temperature, displacement,
biosamples measurement in several structures. As no electrical power is
needed to operate an optical fiber so at the remote location fiber optic sensor
gives advantages to conventional electrical sensor in certain applications, like
in too high temperature a semiconductor sensor is not useful.Similarly, in
biosamples analysis where change in refractive index is very low ( ) an
optical fiber can sense using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) based
technique. Likewise, by monitoring the change in intensity and phase of light
with respect to reference signal an optical fiber sensor is applicable in various
sensing purpose. Basically, Optical fibers areone kind of medium for
illumination purpose that’s whymost commonly used as light guiding medium
in medical and otherapplications where bright light needs to be brought to bear
on a target without a clear line-of-sight path, most common example is
medical and industrial endoscope. Some other examples of fiber optic sensor
is in bridge monitoring and crack monitoring, like in a bridge or decks or roofs
where crack openings beyond 0.15 to 0.2 mm is measure it cause of leakage of
water result heavy chance of corrosion of steel or iron, a fiber optic senor is a
good alternative of visual inspection. A fiber Bragg grating based sensor is
also useful to make an optical fiber based humidity sensor which is a key tool
to observe the variation in the moisture level of concrete. In this paper author
have shown that optical fibers is not only useful for communication purpose
but also an extraordinary tool for sensing application and give a review for use
of optical fiber for different kind of sensing purposes.

62 | P a g e
Keywords:Optical fibers, Optical sensors,small size, high sensitivity, cost
effective

Introduction An optical sensor converts light rays into electronic signals. It

measures the physical quantity of light and then translates it into a form that is
readable by an instrument. An optical sensor is generally part of a larger
system that integrates a source of light, a measuring device and the optical
sensor. Fiber optic sensors are excellent candidates for monitoring
environmental changes and they offer many advantages over conventional
electronic sensors like their integration into a wide variety of structures is
easy, including composite materials, with little interference due to their small
size and cylindrical geometry[1]. They are highly enabling to conduct electric
current moreover Immune to electromagnetic interference and radiofrequency
interference.as they use optical fibers so they are Lightweight, Robust, more
resistant to harsh and ambient environment, Highly sensitive towards very
minimum change in physical condition of external environment like change in
refractive index. Multiplexing capability to form sensing networks and as
optical fibers are reachable in remote areas for a long distance so they are
useful in Remote sensing.Multifunctional sensing capabilities such as
strain,pressure, corrosion, temperature and acoustic signals.To date, fiber optic
sensors have been widely used tomonitor a wide range of environmental
parameters such asposition, vibration, strain, temperature, humidity,
viscosity,chemicals, pressure, current, electric field and severalother
environmental factors. An optical fiber sensor system consists of an optical
source (laser, LED, laser diode, etc.), optical fiber, sensing or modulator
element transducing the measurand to an optical signal, optical detector and
processing electronics (oscilloscope, optical spectrum analyzer, etc.). a bock
diagram of optical fiber sensor is given in fig. 1.

63 | P a g e
 Fig.1. Basic components of a fiber-optical sensor system[2]

A fiber-optical sensor system consists of an optical source (laser, LED, laser

diode, etc.), optical fiber, sensing or modulator element transducing the
measurand to an optical signal, optical detector and processing electronics
(oscilloscope, optical spectrum analyzer, etc.) An optical fiber is one kind of
light pipe composed of core, cladding, and buffer. The basic structure is
shown in Fig.2. The core is a cylindrical rod of dielectric material and is
generally made of glass. Light propagates mainly along the core of the fiber
[3]. The cladding layer is made of a dielectric material with an index of
refraction. The index of refraction of the cladding material is less than that of
the core material. The cladding is generally made of glass or plastic. The
cladding executes such functions as decreasing loss of light from core into the
surrounding air, decreasing scattering loss at the surface of the core, protecting
the fiber from absorbing the surface contaminants and adding mechanical
strength. The light-guiding principle along the fiber is based on the “total
internal reflection”. The angle at which total internal reflection occurs is called
the critical angle of incidence. At any angle of incidence, greater than the
critical angle, light is totally reflected back into the glass medium [4].

64 | P a g e
 Fig.2 (a) Components of an optical fiber (b) propagation of light wave in
optical fibers

Classification of optical sensor based on its application [5]

Based on the application, an optical fiber sensor can be classified as follows:
• Physical sensors: Used to measure physical properties like temperature,
stress, hazardous gas etc.
• Chemical sensors: Used for pH measurement, gas analysis, spectroscopic
studies, etc.
• Bio-medical sensors: Used in bio-medical applications like measurement of
blood flow, glucose content etc.

Use of Surface plasmon resonance in fiber optic sensor

In general, the cladding from a certain small portion (middle portion for most
of the cases) of the fiber core is removed and is coated with a metal layer,
which is further surrounded by a dielectric sensing layer. The light from a
polychromatic source, if wavelength interrogation method is used, is launched
into one of the ends of the optical fiber. The TIR takes place for the rays
propagating with an angle in the range varying from the critical angle
(depending upon the numerical aperture of the fiber and the light wavelength)
to approximately 90 Deg. Consequently, the evanescent field is generated,
which excites the surface plasmons at the fiber core-metal layer interface. This
coupling of the evanescent field with surface plasmons strongly depends upon
light wavelength, fiber parameters, fiber geometry, and metal layer properties.
For instance, coupling mechanism will be different for single-mode and
multimoded optical fibers due to having different mode transmission
65 | P a g e
properties depending upon the number of modes a fiber will support. fiber-
optic sensor supports wavelength interrogation method because all the guided
modes are launched in the fiber so it’s different from prism coupling method
where angle interrogation is most suitable technique. Strength of light
coupling with surface plasmons depends on an important fiber parameter
known as numerical aperture. The spectrum of the light transmitted after
passing through the SPR sensing region is detected at the other end. The
sensing is accomplished by observing the wavelength corresponding to the dip
in the spectrum. This wavelength is called as the resonance wavelength. A plot
of resonance wavelength with the refractive index of the sensing layer gives
the calibration curve of the fiber-optic SPR sensor[6].

Fig.3(a) fiber-optic SPR sensor probe setup for the detection of biosamples or
chemical samples SPPs at metal/dielectric interface excited by p-polarized
laser beam at incident angles greater than the critical angle for total internal
reflection. (b)bonding of antigen-antibody on biorecognition layer Excitation
of free electrons takes when excite with P polarized (or TM polarized)
incident light under total internal reflection (TIR) condition.This phenomenon
gives rise to evanescent wave which is the strongest at metal dielectric
interface. The resonance of free electrons (Plasmon) realized in terms of
minimum reflectance where SPR angle reaches to its lowest value of reflection
intensity. The mathematical expression of surface Plasmon resonance
generation is given [7] in Eq.1.
66 | P a g e
 √ }

(1)
Where the dielectric constants of the metal and the sensing are layer
respectively, and ⁄ is the wavenumber of the incident light in free
space, is refractive index of dielectric material (core of fiber).
Sensitivity, figure of merit, detection accuracy and dynamic range these are
various kinds of parameters of a optical sensor and they can modify by using
various types of nanomaterials like graphene, MoS2, Heterostructure of
2D/TMD materials etc.
Phase modulated optical sensor[8]
Let there are two waves having amplitude of . If they are in phase
then after superposition of them their amplitude will enhance and net
amplitude will be | | similarly in out of phase condition of two waves
net amplitude will | |. Net intensity of signal in former case will be-
| |
| | | |
If δ is phase term then resultant intensity will be -
| | | |
Or √
This additional term √ is interference term.
If
I=2
By applying cos property

If
And if
If d1 and d2 are distance between mirror M1 andM2 respectively in any
Michelson interferometer then net path difference will be 2(d1 -d2).
From the relation formula of path difference and phase difference we have
Phase difference=

67 | P a g e
By using this property one can make phase modulated optical sensor. Since
optical phase cannot be detected directly by the optical detectors. So
interferometric techniques are required to convert phase change into intensity
change. The most commonly used interferometers are Mach-Zehnder,
Michelson, Fabry Perot, Sagnac polarimetric and grating interferometers.
Here, in an interferometer light is spitted into two beams where one beam is
exposed to the sensing environment and undergoes a phase shift and other one
is used as a reference because it is isolated from the sensing environment.
Once these two separated beams recombine they interfere with each
other(refer to Fig.4(a,b))[9].

Fig.4(a)A fiber-optic Mach–Zehnder interferometer, in which two 3dB fiber

couplers (b)A fiber-optic Michelson interferometer-based sensor

Conclusion
In this paper author have shown basic concept of optical sensor and use of
optical fibers in sensing application. Optical fibers based sensor have various
application and advantages over already existing sensors, they are useful in
medical use chemical sensing gas sensing and remote sensing application.
Surface plasmon resonance based optical sensor shows sensing ability by
detecting change in refractive index of sample under consideration and they
show real time sensing, high accurate and real time monitoring so widely
acceptable technique. Phase modulated optical sensor is also shown in the
68 | P a g e
manuscript which done sensing by using interference-based device like MZM
modulator and Michelson interferometer.

References
1. X. Li, C. Yang, S. Yang, and G. Li, “Fiber-Optical Sensors: Basics and
Applications in Multiphase Reactors,” Sensors, vol. 12, no. 9, pp. 12519–
12544, Sep. 2012
2. B. D. Gupta and R. K. Verma, “Surface Plasmon Resonance-Based Fiber
Optic Sensors: Principle, Probe Designs, and Some Applications,” Journal
of Sensors, vol. 2009, pp. 1–12, 2009
A. K. Sharma, R. Jha, and B. D. Gupta, “Fiber-Optic Sensors Based on
Surface Plasmon Resonance: A Comprehensive Review,” IEEE Sensors
Journal, vol. 7, no. 8, pp. 1118–1129, Aug. 2007
3. J. Militky, D. Kremenakova, and J. Saskova, “Optical Attenuation of
Linear Composites Containing SEPOF,” IOP Conference Series: Materials
Science and Engineering, vol. 460, p. 012035, Dec. 2018
4. Homola J., Piliarik M., Surface Plasmon Resonance Based Sensors vol. 4,
Springer, 2006, pp. 46–47.
5. Priyanka Khandelwal “Optical Fiber Sensors: Classification &
Applications” Vol.2(7), IJLTEMAS, ISSN 2278 - 2540 , July 2013
6. Srivastava A. and Prajapati Y. K., “Effect of sulfosalt and polymers on
performance parameter of SPR biosensor,” Optical and Quantum
Electronics, vol. 52, no. 10, (2020)
7. J. W. Berthold, “Industrial Applications of Fiber Optic Sensors,” Fiber
Optic Sensors, pp. 349–371, Jul. 2011
8. C.K. Kirkendall and A. Dandridge, “Overview of high-performance fibre-
optic sensing,” Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, vol. 37, no. 18, pp.
R197–R216, Sep. 2004
9. Luo, F.; Liu, J.; Ma, N.; Morse, T.F.A Fiber optic microbend sensor for
distributed sensing application in the structural strain monitoring. Sens.
Actuat. 1999, 75, 41–44.

69 | P a g e
 Chapter-7
Thermoluminescence Study and Evaluation of Trapping
Parameters in ZnSe: Gd and ZnSe:(Cu, Gd) Phosphors
Pragati Mishra, A.K. Mishra *and Janardan Prasad Pandey
Department of Physics (MLK P.G. College Balrampur)
Siddharth University, Kapilvastu Siddharth Nagar, U.P., India.
Department of Physics, Wollega University, Nekemte, Ethiopia.
Corresponding author

Abstract
Thermoluminescence (TL) of ZnSe doped with Gd and (Cu, Gd) Phosphors
has been studied. A method of preparation of ZnSe Phosphors doped Gd and
(Cu,Gd) with varying concentration in an inert atmosphere is described. The
TL glow curves are recorded in the temperature range from 110 K to 340K.
Analysis of trapping parameters and order of kinetics for these glow peaks
have been done using Curie method, heating rates (peak shift) methodand
peak shape method.

Introduction:
Thermoluminescence (TL) or more precisely thermally stimulated
luminescence is a type of luminescence which is emitted by giving a thermal
stimulation to the sample. The TL study provides the information about
trapping parameters such as the activation energy of trap, frequency factor, life
time of electron/holein traps, order of kinetics of electron /holeand their
capture cross-section [1-4,8-10,12-14]. ZnSe doped with Cu is one of the best
TL studiedmaterials.The introduction of rare earth doped phosphors has
resulted in a drastic improvement it is therefore ZnSe:Gd and ZnSe: (Cu,Gd)
phosphors are chosen. The present paper reports the study of TL of the UV
irradiated above phosphors. The TL studies carried out in 110K -340 K
temperature range. After evaluation of glow peaks trapping parameters have
been determined and their nature has been discussed.

Materials and Method:

70 | P a g e
ZnSe: Gdand ZnSe: (Cu,Gd) phosphors were prepared by firing a mixture of
Luminescence grade ZnSe powder and appropriate amount of CuCl2 and
Gd2O3 in a silica tubular furnace maintained at (780 ± 20) 0C for 1hour in
nitrogen gas atmosphere [1,8 ].

To record TSL glow curves the samples were excited for 3minutes by 3650A0
radiation. When the phosphorescence decayintensity became negligible the
sample was heated at constantheating rates 0.3K/s. Further the TSL glow
curves were recorded at two different constant heating rates 0.6 K/s and 0.9
K/S for each sample. Details of the experimental arrangement has been
described in details elsewhere [1,9].

ResultsAndDiscussion:
Glow Curves. Glow curves for ZnSe: Gd and ZnSe: (Cu,Gd) phosphors have
been recorded from 110K temperature to 340K temperature at constant
heating rate 0.3 K/s after 3 minutes excitation by UV radiation (3650A0) fig
(1) and (2). Again, the glow curves for only main peak were recorded at
constant heating rates of 0.3 K/s, 0.6K/s and 0.9K/s for these phosphors shown
in fig (3). It is apparent from these curves that the peak shifts to higher side at
higher rate of heating [1,2,8,9,10,15].
Activation Energy. To calculate the value of activation energy (E) for the
above phosphors having different concentration using Curie’srelation
– ( )
. The value of S has been taken 109 in all the cases. Calculated
( )

values of E are tabulated in table 1. Glow peak temperatures corresponding to

three heating rates were determined from the glow curves (fig. 3)and
calculation was performed using relation [ ]

( )( ) [1,2,8,9,15]for determination of E and values are shown in

table 2. Thermal activation energy was also determine using peak shape
method, fig (4), ( ) ( )[1,4,9,10]. This method utilizes
the temperature maximum (T m), its half width parameter and its symmetric
71 | P a g e
property at the halve intensity (Im/2). In fact, the value of E is determined by
using this method is in good agreement with the values determined from
above two methods. Values of E have shown in table (3).
Frequency Factor: Values of frequency factor (S) for individual phosphors
( ) ( )
were determined using relations and
( )
[1,2,3,9,10] and values are tabulated in table (2) and (3)
respectively. These values are found to be order of 108sec-1.
Life Time (τ) of Electron in Traps and Capture Cross-Section (σ).The
values of life time (τ)of electrons and capture cross-section (σ) have been
⁄
calculated using equation ( ) and √ ( )
respectively [1,2,9,10] and the values are tabulated in table 3.It is evident that
thevalue of τincreases with increase of temperature [1,7,9,10,15]. The value of
capture cross-section is found to be of the order of 10-22 m2 for electron traps in
all the phosphors [1,7,9,10,15]. It is evident that the values of capture cross-
section decrease with increase of activation energy.
TABLE 1: Values of peak temperature (T m) activation energy (E) life time (τ)
and capture cross section (σ) of electron in traps.

Sl. Phosphor Peak E (eV) τ (sec) σ × 10-

22
No. temp.(K)
1. ZnSe: Gd
Gd = 0.01% 190 0.38 27.17 7.52
220 0.44 31.40 4.85
295 0.59 42.21 2.01

Gd =0.05% 185 0.37 26.45 8.15

215 0.43 30.68 5.20
290 0.58 41.46 2.12
2. ZnSe:(Cu, Gd)
Cu = Gd 160 0.31 23.63 5.91
=0.1% 215 0.43 30.68 5.20
290 0.58 41.46 2.12

72 | P a g e
 Cu = Gd 180 0.35 26.49 4.48
=0.05% 230 0.46 32.87 4.24
290 0.58 41.46 2.12

Cu = Gd 175 0.34 25.02 4.97

=0.01% 225 0.45 32.17 4.53
300 0.60 42.81 1.91

Cu=0.01% & 170 0.34 24.29 10.51

Gd=0.05% 208 0.41 30.10 4.05
295 0.59 59.22 2.01

Table 2:Values of peak temperature Tm (K) trap depth E(eV) and frequency
factor S (sec-1) calculated by various heating rates method in these
phosphors at three heating rates β1=0.3K/s, β2=0.6K/s and β3=0.9K/s:

Sl. Phosphors Peak At β1 & At β2 & At β1 &

No. Temperatures T1 β2 β3 β3
at β1, T2 at β2 and
T3 at β3
T1(K), T2(K), E(eV) & E(eV) & E(eV)
T3(K) S(sec-1) S(sec-1) &S(sec-1)
1 ZnSe: Gd
Gd = 0.01% 185 190 193 0.39, 1.49 0.39, 2.13 0.39, 1.67
Gd=0.05% 190 195 198 x109 x109 x109
0.41, 2.86 0.41, 4.19 0.42, 3.38
x109 x109 x109
2 ZnSe:(Cu, Gd)
Cu = Gd 160 165 168 0.28, 0.29, 0.29,
=0.1% 4.29x107 7.16x107 5.31x107
Cu = Gd 0.37, 0.37, 0.37,
=0.05% 180 185 188 7.19x108 1.84x109 8.39x108
Cu = Gd 0.34, 0.35, 0.35,
=0.01% 175 180 183 3.49x108 5.52x108 4.22x108
Cu=0.01% 0.33, 0.33, 0.33,
&Gd=0.05% 170 175 178 1.79x108 2.79x108 2.12x108

73 | P a g e
Table3: Values of peak temperature, activation energy (E), frequency factor
(S) and order of kinetics calculated by Peak Shape Method:

Sl. Phosphor Peak Eδ S δ Eτ Sτ Ew Sw Order

No temp. (S-1) of
(eV) (eV) (S-1) (eV) (S-1)
. (K) kineti
cs

1 ZnSe:
Gd
175 0.41 6.1x 0.39 1.6x1 0.38 8.6x1 I
Gd = 109 09 08 order
190 0.38 0.38 0.38
0.01%
4.4x 4.4x1 4.4x1 I
Gd=0.05 108 08 08 order
%

2. ZnSe:(C
u, Gd)
160 0.31 2.4x 0.31 2.4x1 0.31 2.4x1 I
Cu = Gd 108 08 08 order
180 0.34 0.33 0.34
=0.1%
1.2x 6.1x1 1.2x1 I
175 0.36 0.34 0.34
Cu = Gd 108 07 08 order
=0.05% 170 0.34 0.36 0.36
9.5x 2.5x1 2.5x1 I
Cu = Gd 108 08 08 order
=0.01%
4.9x 5.2x1 5.2x1 I
Cu=0.01 108 08 08 order
% &
Gd=0.05
%

74 | P a g e
 80

TL Intesity (Arb. Unit)

ZnSe: Gd
60 Gd=0.05
%
40

20

0
110 140 170 200 230 260 290 320 350
Temperature (K)
Fig 1: TL glow curves for ZnSe: Gd
phosphor
80
ZnSe: (Cu, Gd)
Cu=Gd=0.1
TL Intesity (Arb. Unit)

60
%
Cu=Gd=0.0
40 5%

20

0
110 140 170 200 230 260 290 320 350 380
Temperature (K)
Fig 2: TL glow curves for ZnSe: (Cu, Gd)
phosphor
120
ZnSe: (Cu, Gd)
TL Intesity (Arb. Unit)

100 Cu=0.01%
80 β=0.3
K/s
60 β=0.6
K/s
40
20
0
120 150 180 210 240
Temperature (K)
Fig 3: TL glow curves for ZnSe: ( Cu, Gd)
phosphor at three different heating rate.
75 | P a g e
 60

TL Intesity (Arb. Unit)

50
40 ZnSe: Gd
30 Gd=0.0…

20
10
0 T1 T2
110 140 170 T m200 230 260
Temperature (K)
Fig 4: TL glow curves for ZnSe: Gd
phosphor

Conclusion:
It is found that the peaks of glow curves shifted to higher temperature side at
higher rate of heating. The values of activation energy calculated by the above
three methods are in very good agreement. Variation of capture cross-section
with activation energy shows that greater the depth lesser the capture
probability. First order of kinetics is found in all the phosphors.

References

1. SanjayaKumar Mishra, ‘Luminescence In Some Inorganic

Phosphors ' LAMBERT Publ. ISBN-10 – 9783659148071, ISBN-
13- 978-3659148071, 2012.
2. L.N. Tripathi, Sanjaya Kumar Mishra & U.N. Pandey.Phys. Lett.A,
154, 56, S312, 1991.
3. R.Chen andY. Kirsh , ‘Analysis of Thermally Stimulated Process '
PargamonPress, Oxford UK,1981.
4. R.K. Gartia, S.J. Singh and P.S. Mazumdar. Phys. Stat. Sol. (a) 114,
1, 407-411, 1989.
5. Adrie J.J. Bos, Materials ( Barsel Switzerland) 10(12), E.1357, 2017.
6. Mahua, Karmakar. IND. J. of Sci. &Tech. 5,11,1-4, 2012.

76 | P a g e
7. B.A. Smita, J.Z. Zhang, A. Jolyand J liu. Phys. Rev. B; 62,3, 2021-
2028, 2000.
8. A.K. Mishra, L.N. Tripathi, U.N. Pandey &Sanjaya K. Mishra. Ind.
J.Pure& Appl. Phys. 40, 337-341, 2002.
9. Pragati Mishra, A K. Mishra, S.P Pandey and Janardan Prasad
Pandey, Mol. Symp. DOI:10.1002/masy.2021100413, 2021.
10. A.K. Mishra, S.K. Mishra, S.P. Pandey and Kshama Lakshmi
Mishra. J. of Semicond. 39,2,2018.
11. N.F. Mott& R. W. Gurney ' Elec. Proc. in ‘Ionic Crystals’ Oxford
University Press Oxford,1940.
12. Y.Aljalani,M.Oglakci, U.H. Kanyar, M. Ayvavikli, Z. G. Portakal-
Ucar, M. Topaksu and N. Can, J.of Asian Ceramic Societies,
9,1,2021.
13. H. Luo, A.J.J. Bos, A. Dobrowolska, Phys. Chem. 17, 15419-15427,
2015.
14. NebiyuGemechu, Debelo, Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ., 6, 2,2012.
15. Macro molecular Symposia, DOI: 10.1002/ masy.202100413.
16. R. Chen and S.A.A. Winner, J. Appl. Phys. 41, 5227, 1970.

77 | P a g e
 Chapter-8
Measurements of natural radioactivity levels in the
indoor environment
Mohammad Suhel and M. S. A. Khan
Department of Physics
Gandhi Faiz-e-Aam College Shahjahanpur (U.P.), India

Abstract
Measurements of natural radioactivity levels have been carried out in the
dwellings of Rampur District (U.P.) in then indoor environment by using
radon-thoron twin cup dosimeter. For the measurements of activity levels, the
dosimeters containing LR-115, type II SSNTD film were installed in both old
houses (i.e. Mud houses and poorly ventilated having small one window or
without window and with only one door) as well as new one. It was found
that during winter season, indoor radon activity varies from 25 Bq/m3 to 80
Bq/m3 with an average value of 45.32 Bq/m3 where as thoron activity levels
varies from 18Bq/m3 to 41Bq/m3 with an average value of 31.44. In summer
season indoor radon activity levels varies from 12Bq/m3 to 55 Bq/m3 with an
average of 19.84 Bq/m3thoron activity levels varies from 10Bq/m3 to 30Bq/m3
with an average value of17.28Bq/m3.In rainy season indoor radon activity
level varies from 19 Bq/m3 to33 Bq/m3 with an average value of 25.16
Bq/m3thoron activity levels varies from 19Bq/m3 to 31Bq/m3 with an average
value of 23.41Bq/m3. In autumn season indoor radon activity levels varies
from 19 Bq/m3 to 42 Bq/m3 with an average of 30.40 Bq/m3 whereas thoron
activity levels varies from 18Bq/m3 to 39Bq/m3 with an average value of
27.25 Bq/m3.Present result shows that levels of natural activity were found
below the recommended action level (147Bq/m3) as set by ICRP [5] and EPA
[17]. Thus the study area is safe from radiation protection point of view.

Keywords: Radon, Thoron, Solid State Nuclear Track Detector (SSNTD),

dosimeters, dwellings

Introduction
78 | P a g e
At present, changes in living conditions among the population, and the
significant increase and differences of sources of pollution in the environment
produce a significant effect on the health of the population. One source of
such health problem of pollution is indoor radon. The inhalation of radon and
its short-lived daughter products represents the main source of exposure to
natural radiation. Radon is now believed to be the most important source of
ionizing radiation in our environment [1]. Radon is a gas that is produced
naturally in the ground and seeps into most houses. Inhalation of radon or
more specifically the Radon daughters, leads to deposition of radioactive
atoms on the walls of the lung, especially in the bronchial region. When these
atoms are decayed, alpha particles are emitted which irradiate the cells of the
lung tissue through which they pass. These irradiated cells may become
cancerous. The contribution of indoor thoron concentration is generally
considered negligible because of its short half-life about 55.6 second
[2, 3].Therefore special attention has been drawn to the indoor radon
concentration. The behaviors of the radioactive gasses have received
considerable attention over the past few decades due to the radiological risks
to humans in indoor atmosphere. High radon and thoron activity levels were
measured in dwellings of different country and there is a concern that high
levels of radon and thoron may contribute to an increased risk of lung cancer
if the radon levels exceed to the recommended international accepted levels
[4]. In India out of 98% exposure dose from natural radioactive sources, about
75% is due to radon and its progeny. Recent epidemiological evidence
suggests that inhalation of radon decay products in domestic environments
could be a cause of lung cancer [5-10]. Therefore activity levels of radon and
thoron should be measured across the different part of the country from
radiation protection point of view. It is observed that the seasonal variation of
indoor radon and thoron activity levels (concentration) depends on several
parameters such as type of houses, radon source, living style of inhabitants,
temperature, pressure, humidity, ventilation system of the houses and outdoor
climate. In the present paper an attempt has been made to measure the natural
radon and thoron activity levels i.e. radon and thoron concentration in the
dwellings of Rampur district of western Uttar Pradesh in the indoor
environment.
79 | P a g e
Measurement Techniques
The indoor radon/thoron activity levels in the indoor environment of Rampur
district have been measured using LR-115 type- II alpha sensitive plastic track
detectors by means of twin cup radon dosimeter. The experimental
arrangement for the same is shown in the figure 1(a) and figure1 (b). The
alpha sensitive plastic track detector is a 12 µm thick film red dyed cellulose
nitrate emulsion coated on inert polyester base of 100 µm thickness and has
maximum sensitivity for alpha particles [11, 12], fission fragments and
ionizing particles. Small pieces of LR-115 type II plastic track detectors film
of size 2.5cm x 2.5cm is put in a radon twin cup dosimeter having three mode
namely bare mode, filter mode and membrane mode. The filter mode of the
dosimeter gives radon and thoron gasses where as the membrane mode of the
dosimeter gives radon gas only. The bare mode of the dosimeter gives the
tracks of radon and thoron gasses along with the progeny concentration. The
dosimeters containing LR-115, type II film were suspended inside the house at
a height of about two meters. For the measurements of natural activity levels
of radon and thoron, eighty (80) dosimeters were installed in the dwellings of
the study area. The houses chosen for installation of dosimeters are mud as
well new one. In rural area some dosimeters are also installed in mud houses.
In order to install the dosimeters, the dwellings are chosen taking into account
the degree of ventilation, type of floor, number of windows and doors as they
responsible for variation in indoor radon/thoron concentration.

Figure 1(a): Twin cup radon Dosimeter

80 | P a g e
 Figure1 (b): Experimental setup

The dosimeters containing the LR-115 detector film were exposed for a period
of three months. After the completion of exposure time, the detectors were
removed. After that the detector were subjected to chemical etching with a
solution of 2.5 NaOH at 700C in a constant temperature bath for one hour and
thirty minutes and scanned in the laboratory for track density. The season wise
indoor radon/thoron activity levels were obtained after converting measured
track densities with spark counter in Bq/m3 by using appropriate calibration
factor formula [13-16].
125tracks cm─2 d─1=1WL
3.12x10−2tracks cm─2 d─1 =1Bq/m3

The Area under Study

Rampur district is one of the districts of Uttar Pradesh state of India. It is a
part of Moradabad division. The main town is Rampur. It is located between
Longitude 78-0-54 & 69-0-28 East and Latitude 28-25 & 29-10 North. The
district is spread in area of 2367 Square Kilometer range. The height from sea
level is 192 Meter in north and 166.4 m in South. It is situated on the national
highway 24(NH24). The district is part of Central Ganga Alluvial Plain and is
represented by high slopes in the north, which gradually becomes flatter
towards south. Generally, the dwellings in the urban region of the study area
are good and made with the building materials like concrete, cement, bricks,

81 | P a g e
marble, sand, block, etc. but mostly they are poorly ventilated in the rural
region and made with mud materials.

Results and Discussion

The observed radon and thoron activity levels recorded at different locations
in four different season winter, summer, rainy and autumn of a calendar year
are given in a table 1 and 2 where as the variations of radon and thoron
activity levels in four different seasons are shown graphically in figure 2 and
3.

Table 1: Natural radon activity levels in the indoor environment at different

locations in Bq/m3

S.No. Locations No. of Seasons

sample Winter Summer Rainy Autumn
(Bq/m3) (Bq/m3) (Bq/m3) (Bq/m3)
1 Ajitpur 4 45 20 28 32
2 Haji Nagar 3 39 18 23 35
3 Patwai 4 80 15 34 35
4 Kathkuiyan 2 57 20 29 42
5 GuiyanTalab 5 29 31 30 30
6 Prof. Colony 4 54 13 NA 22
7 Khusru Bagh 3 58 17 32 39

8 Bajoli Tola 3 36 18 19 20
9 MazarChups 5 59 15 27 36
hah
10 Bazar 4 25 18 20 19
Safdarganj
11 Zeena Inayat 2 42 17 19 19
12 Old Awas 4 51 21 25 37
Vikas

82 | P a g e
13 Shah 2 46 20 23 29
Enclave
14 Diamond 3 32 17 23 27
Road
15 Raza college 3 52 55 26 35
16 Qila Rampur 2 36 15 20 20
17 Ekta Vihar 3 42 18 24 33

18 Milak 2 34 23 23 24
19 Dhamora 4 48 20 23 25
20 Shahzad 3 49 19 21 30
Nagar
21 Bilaspur 3 45 12 29 35
22 Kemri 2 50 18 20 36

23 Suar 2 45 17 23 29
24 Shahabad 5 40 21 30 39
25 Tanda 3 39 18 33 32
Maximum / - 80/25 55/12 33/19 42/19
Minimum
AVERAGE - 45.32 19.84 25.16 30.40

Table 2: Natural thoron activity levels in the indoor environment at different

locations in Bq/m3

S.No Locations No. of Seasons

sample Winter Summer Rainy Autumn
(Bq/m3) (Bq/m3) (Bq/m3) (Bq/m3)
1 Ajitpur 4 31 19 21 31
2 Haji Nagar 3 20 18 20 29
3 Patwai 4 37 15 30 34
4 Kathkuiyan 2 41 20 23 39

83 | P a g e
5 GuiyanTalab 5 26 30 27 27
6 Prof. Colony 4 24 13 NA 21
7 Khusru Bagh 3 18 17 31 37
8 Bajoli Tola 3 29 15 19 20
9 Mazar 5 42 13 25 31
Chupshah
10 Bazar 4 19 17 20 19
Safdarganj
11 Zeena Inayat 2 28 10 19 18
12 Old Awas 4 38 20 23 32
Vikas
13 Shah Enclave 2 36 19 21 24
14 Diamond 3 30 16 23 26
Road
15 Raza college 3 39 23 19 32
16 Qila Rampur 2 29 14 18 19
17 Ekta Vihar 3 32 19 23 31
18 Milak 2 31 20 21 22
19 Dhamora 4 31 17 27 20
20 Shahzad 3 37 18 24 26
Nagar
21 Bilaspur 3 32 11 28 31
22 Kemri 2 41 16 21 28
23 Suar 2 31 15 19 23
24 Shahabad 5 29 20 29 34
25 Tanda 3 35 17 31 31
Maximum / - 41/18 30/10 31/19 39/18
Minimum
AVERAGE - 31.44 17.28 23.41 27.25

84 | P a g e
Figure 2: Variation of natural radon activity levels in the indoor
environment at different locations

Figure 3: Variation of natural thoron activity levels in the indoor

environment at different locations

85 | P a g e
In the present study the observed result shows that during winter season,
indoor radon activity varies from 25 Bq/m3 to 80 Bq/m3 with an average of
45.32 Bq/m3where as thoron activity levels varies from 18Bq/m3 to 41Bq/m3
with an average value of 31.44. In summer season indoor radon activity levels
varies from 12Bq/m3 to 55 Bq/m3 with an average of 19.84 Bq/m3thoron
activity levels varies from 10Bq/m3 to 30Bq/m3 with an average value
of17.28Bq/m3.In rainy season indoor radon activity level varies from 19
Bq/m3 to33 Bq/m3 with an average of 25.16 Bq/m3thoron activity levels varies
from 19Bq/m3 to 31Bq/m3 with an average value of 23.41Bq/m3. In autumn
season indoor radon activity levels varies from 19 Bq/m3 to 42 Bq/m3 with an
average of 30.40 Bq/m3 where as thoron activity levels varies from 18Bq/m3
to 39Bq/m3 with an average value of 27.25 Bq/m3. Observed result shows that
in winter season the indoor radon and thoron activity levels was found
maximum (80Bq/m3 and 41Bq/m3) and minimum (12 Bq/m3 and 10Bq/m3) in
summer season. Observed data represent that the radon and thoron activity
levels (concentration) is maximum in winter and minimum in summer. The
maximum activity levels in winter is because intense temperature inversion
which generally occurs in winter season when the wind velocity is low. The
maximum activity levels in this season is also the result of decreased
ventilation because the doors, windows of the houses are closed for maximum
time and radon accumulated inside the room. The radon and thoron activity
levels (concentration) gradually decreases towards summer and monsoon.
Due to high temperature and low pressure in summer, the radon and thoron
activity levels are decreases. Due to strong south west wind velocity and
heavy precipitation in the monsoon season, a decrease in radon and thoron
activity levels was found. Decrease of radon and thoron activity levels is also
due to the saturation of soil with water during the mansoon season. The result
obtained in different seasons for radon measurement show variations due to
change in design of the houses, geology of the soil, moisture in the
atmosphere, temperature, pressure, humidity, ventilation, and wind speed. In
summer season people lives self-ventilated, houses keep open which result the
minimum radon concentration. Based on the result, it was also concluded that
the activity concentration of radon and thoron levels are largely influenced by

86 | P a g e
the factors such topography, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure,
type of houses construction, building materials and ventilation. As
temperature increases virtual mixing and rising of aerosol and dust particles to
higher altitude as a result there will be the reduction in aerosol and dust
particles near the surface of earth and hence the radon and thoron activity
levels i.e. concentration decreases. As the temperature increases, the humidity
decreases which results in the maximum vertical mixing and rising of dust
particles and vice versa. In a national radon survey done by BARC, Mumbai
and published by Head, Library and information services Division in
September 2003, the minimum/
maximum concentration of radon in India was reported 4.6 Bq/m3and 147.3
Bq/m3.The result obtained in the present work was found below the
recommended action level
(147Bq/m3) as set by International Commission on Radiological Protection [5]
and Environmental protection Agency [17, 18].

Conclusions
The observed values of natural radon/ thoron activity levels measured at
different locations in four different seasons winter, summer, rainy and autumn
at different locations of the study area are given in the table 1 &2. Based on
the results, it was found that the natural radon/thoron activity levels are
maximum in winter season where as minimum in summer season. The
maximum activity levels in winter are due decreased ventilation because in
winter season the houses are closed for long time and radon accumulated
inside the room. The minimum value of radon-thoron activity levels in
summer is due to fact that the house are open for a large time and therefore
most of the radon-thoron gas escaped away from the house. Also the
decreased radon and thoron activity level towards summer is due to the factors
that affect on the decreased indoor radon-thoron activity levels is high
temperature and low pressure in summer. Obtained result shows that natural
radon and thoron activity levels was found below the recommended action
level (147Bq/m3) as set by International Commission Thus the study area is
safe from radiation protection point of view.

87 | P a g e
Acknowledgement
The author is grateful to the residents living in the dwellings who willingly
helped during the installation and replacement of the dosimeters to carry out
this work.

References
1. Biological Effect of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR); Health Risks from
Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation. ISBN 978-0-309-09156-
5(2006).
2. R. C. Ramola, M. S. Negi and V. M. Choubey; Radon and Thoron
monitoring in the Environment of Kumaun Himalayas: surver and
outcomes, Journ. Envir. Radioac., 79 (1), 85 (2005).
3. T.V. Ramchandaran, K.P. Eappen, R. N. Nair, Y. S. Mayya and S.
Sadasivan; Radon Thron Levels and Inilation Dose Distribution Patterns
in Dwelling, Envir. Assessment division, BARC (2003).
4. International commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP): Lung
Cancer Risk for Indoor Exposure to Radon Daughters, ICRP Publication
50, Pergamon Press, Oxford (1988).
5. International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), Protection
against radon-222 at home and at work, ICRP Publication No.65,
Pergamon Press, Oxford(1993).
6. United Nations Scientific Committee on Effects of Atomic Radiation
(UNSCEAR): Sources and effects of ionizing radiation, Report to General
Assembly with annexes, United Nations sales Publications E.94.IX.2.
United Nations New York (1993).
7. J.H. Lubin, J. D. Boice, C. Edling, R. W. Hornug, G. Howe, E. Kunz, R.
A. Kuziak, H.T. Morrison, E. P. Radford, J. M. Samet, M. Timarche,
A.W. Ward, S. X. Yao and D. A. Pierce ; Lung Cancer in radon exposed
miners and estimation of risk from indoor exposure. J. National Cancer
Inst., 87, 817(1995).
8. National Research Council (NRC); Health Effects of Exposures to Radon,
BEIR VI, Washington National Academy Press (1999).
9. World Health Organization: Report on the Global Tabacco Epidemic–the
MPOWER Package, WHO Geneva (2007).
88 | P a g e
10. World Health Organization: Report on the Global Tabacco Epidemic-the
MPOWER Package. WHO, Geneva (2008).
11. K. P. Eappen and Y. S. Mayya; Calibration factor for LR-115 type-II
based radon thoron discriminating dosimeter, Radia. Meas., 38, 5 (2004).
12. K. P. Eappen, T. V. Ramchandaran, A. N. Shaikh and Y. S. Mayya;
Calibration factor for SSNTD Based radon/Thoron dosimeter, J. Radiat.
Prot. Environ., 24, 410(2001).
13. M. C. Subba Ramu, T. V. Ramchandaran and U. C. Mishra; Assesment of
radiological effects of indoor radon and its progeny, BARC-1432 (1988).
14. R. C. Ramola; Calibration of LR-115 Plastic Track Detector for
Environmental radon Measurement, Indoor Built Environ., 5, 364(1996).
15. R. C. Ramola, R. B. S. Rawat, M. S. Khandari, T. V. Ramcharan and V.
M. Choubey (1997); Measurement of Radon in Drinking water and Indoor
air, Rad. Prot. Dosi., 74(1-2), 103(1997).
16. R. C. Ramola, M. S. Khandari, M. S. Negi and V. M. Choubey; A study
of Diurnal Variation of Indoor Radon Concentration, Health Phys., 35(2),
211(2000).
17. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): A citizen’s guide to radon,
Technical report, U.S. Environmental Protection agency, September 2005.
18. United Nations Scientific Committee on Effects of Atomic Radiation
(UNSCEAR): Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation. UNSCEAR
report, United State publication, New York (2000).

89 | P a g e
 Chapter-9
Synthesis, characterization and properties of Carbon
Quantum dots (CQDs)
Rutam Biswal
Centre of Material Sciences, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj

Abstract
The current need of the hour is to synthesize novel multifunctional materials
to improve the hitherto known properties and applications. This paper presents
a novel yet simple method to design Carbon Quantum dots. The formatsion is
confirmed by X-ray diffraction. Using Debye-Scherrer’s equation, the average
size found is ~13.5 nm. Based on SEM analysis, grain shapes were analysed.
The UV-visible and Photoluminescence spectrum confirms the fact that CQDs
exhibit optical absorption in the visible range. The band gap energy of CQDs
using the Tauc plot method was found to be 1.88 eV. Dielectric properties are
explained by the dipolar-relaxation-phenomenon. Its extraordinary properties,
such as high ε and low tan δ, make it suitable for capacitors, microelectronics,
optoelectronics, and microwave applications.

Keywords: Carbon Quantum dots (CQDs); Sol-gel; Carbonization; Optical

properties; Dielectric properties.

Introduction:
Multifunctional advanced materials are the novel "smart” materials engineered
specially to perform multiple functions in a system due to their specific unique
properties. As potential rivals to traditional semiconductor quantum dots,
fluorescent carbon nanoparticles, also known as carbon quantum dots (CQDs),
are a new class of carbon nanomaterials that have recently come into
existence. CQDs have the desired benefits of low toxicity, environmental
friendliness, low cost, and straightforward synthetic routes in addition to their
comparable optical properties. After CQDs were unintentionally discovered by
Xu et al. in 2004 while separating and purifying single-walled carbon
nanotubes (SWCNTs), further research was conducted to take advantage of
90 | P a g e
their fluorescence properties and develop a new class of useful fluorescent
nano materials[1-9]. In 2006, Sun et al gave fluorescent carbon nanoparticles
the name "carbon quantum dots." non-water-based solvents.[10] The oxygen
content in the oxidised CQDs ranges from 5 to 50% (weight) depending on the
method of synthesis [11–18]. Numerous carboxyl moieties, as seen in Fig. 1,
are present on the surface of CQDs, giving them excellent water solubility as
well as suitable chemically reactive groups for surface passivation with a
variety of organic, polymeric, inorganic, or biological materials. CQDs'
fluorescence properties are improved by surface passivation. Their physical
characteristics, such as their solubility in aqueous and non-aqueous solvents,
are also altered by surface functionalization. For a variety of applications,
including drug delivery, photodynamic therapy, photocatalysis, and
electrocatalysis, CQDs have demonstrated tremendous potential as adaptable
nanomaterials. The distinctions between CQDs and conventional
semiconductor quantum dots are their chemical make-up, controllable
fluorescence emissions, ease of functionalization, and superior
physicochemical and photochemical stability [19–20].

The well-known organic compound known as citric acid (CA) is renowned for
being nontoxic, stable, and serving as a ligand for metal ions. Due to the
formation of citrate ions, it acts as a good capping agent to stabilise the
nanoparticles, making it valuable for use as a regular green organic acid in the
production of inorganic nanomaterials. [7] Utilized as a capping agent, a cheap
citric acid with three carboxyl groups per molecule easily forms an organic
monolayer on the surface of nanoparticles. These monolayers prevent the
nanoparticles from aggregating and maintain their uniform dispersion in
aqueous media. [21-22] This procedure avoided the use of organic solvents
and additives by using green solvent water, which is an environmentally
friendly technology and suggests sustainable and green chemistry. [23] So, in
this paper we will discuss properties of CQDs as well as precursor CA as well.

91 | P a g e
 Fig. 1: Chemical structure of CQDs

Lattice parameters of Citric acid (CA)

Table 1: Lattice parameters of CA

Title Citric acid (C6H8O7)

Lattice type P

Space group name P 21/a

Unit-cell volume (V) 770.943358 Å^3

a = 12.81700 Å α = 90.0000°

b = 5.62800 Å β = 111.2200°

c = 11.46500 Å γ = 90.0000°

Formal Charge = 0

Connolly Accessible Area = 322.253 Å^2

Connolly Molecular Area = 148.932 Å^2

Connolly Solvent Excluded 130.636 Å^3

Volume =

Exact Mass = 192.0270026115 g/Mol

Mass = 192.12352

92 | P a g e
 Mol Weight = 192.12352

Ovality = 1.19617663334479

Principal Moment = 403.260 590.860 740.745

Elemental Analysis = C, 37.51; H, 4.20; O, 58.29

m/z = 192.03 (100.0%), 193.03

(6.8%), 194.03 (1.6%)

Mol Formula = C6H8O7

a = 12.81700 Å α = 90.0000°

b = 5.62800 Å β = 111.2200°

c = 11.46500 Å γ = 90.0000°

Title Citric acid (C6H8O7)

Lattice type P

Space group name P 21/a

Unit-cell volume (V) 770.943358 Å^3

93 | P a g e
 Table 2 : Properties of CA
Formal Charge = 0
Connolly Accessible Area = 322.253 Å^2
Connolly Molecular Area = 148.932 Å^2
Connolly Solvent Excluded 130.636 Å^3
Volume =
Exact Mass = 192.0270026115 g/Mol
Mass = 192.12352
Mol Weight = 192.12352
Ovality = 1.19617663334479
Principal Moment = 403.260 590.860 740.745
Elemental Analysis = C, 37.51; H, 4.20; O, 58.29
m/z = 192.03 (100.0%), 193.03
(6.8%), 194.03 (1.6%)
Mol Formula = C6H8O7

Figure 2: [A]Ball and Stick Model of CA. In the diagram, the red dots
represent oxygen, the grey dots carbon and the white dots hydrogen [B]
Molecular Structure of CA

94 | P a g e
Figure 3: Various ways of representations of Citric acid (CA) (C6H8O7) (a)
Ball and stick model (b) Space-filling model (c)Stick model (d) Polyhedral
model (e) wireframe model

Figure 4: Various ways of representations of Citric acid (C6H8O7) in 3D

(a)Ball and stick model (b) Space-filling model (c)Stick model (d) Polyhedral
model (e) wireframe model. In the diagram, the red dots represent oxygen, the
grey dots carbon and the white dots hydrogen

95 | P a g e
Materials and Methods:
Materials.
Distilled water, CA, Ethylene glycol were purchased.

Synthesis
200 g CA was dissolved in 500 ml of distilled water (DW) and 300 ml
ethylene glycol. The mixture was stirred for about 250 minutes and then
heated at 130°C for about 200 minutes. Then it was cooled to room
temperature (RT). A light yellow CQDs were observed.

Figure 5: Synthesis

Characterization used
The structural characterization and phase formation have been carried out
using X-ray diffraction (XRD) smart lab diffractometer. For identifying the
surface functional groups, the Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
study of the CQDs was conducted. Samples were prepared in KBr for FTIR
spectra in the range 400–4000 cm− 1 using Spectrum 2 FT-IR

96 | P a g e
spectrophotometer. Raman spectra were carried out using Raman microscope
system. A conventional ultraviolet–spectrophotometer was used to study the
optical properties. The morphologies were analysed by the field emission
scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) technique. The typical elemental
compositions were obtained by the energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX)
attached to the same FESEM. Electrical measurements were conducted by
applying conducting silver paste to the pellets and drying them for 2 hours at
373 K in the frequency range of 100 Hz to 1 MHz at different temperatures.
The magneto-electric analysis had been done with a variable magnet of
capacity 2 Tesla.

Result and Discussions:

Structural analysis
X-ray diffraction analysis shows the diffraction pattern. Using Scherrer’s
equation, the average sizes of the crystals synthesized from the sol gel method
was estimated to be ~13.5 nm. The Scherrer equation as expressed in equation
2:

τ =K λ/ β cos θ
where η is the mean size of the ordered domains, K is a dimensionless shape
factor (0.94) , λ is the X-ray wavelength (1.54Ao), β is the line broadening
at FWHM (0.44), θ is the Bragg angle (17.65). [21,22]
(002) XRD
Intensity ( a.u.)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
2 Theta (degree)
Figure 6: XRD of CQDs
97 | P a g e
WH Plot for CQDs
In order to determine the precise value of crystallite size, a well-known
relation discussed by Williamson and Hall has been used known as W-H plot.
According to the W-H plot,

where k is Scherrer constant, λ is the wavelength of X-ray used to record the

XRD pattern, and θ is the angular position of Bragg’s peak in radian, micro-
strain ( ), crystallite size (L) of the sample, full-width at half maxima
(FWHM) of XRD peak (β). The values of crystallite size and micro-strain for
CQDshave been found to be 22.18 nm and 2.308x 10-3 respectively. The
calculated value of crystallite size using W-H plot is found to be higher than
the Debye Scherrer value. [21]
The dislocation density (δ) which is defined as the length of dislocation lines
per unit volume of the crystal, was evaluated from the relation: δ = 1/D2,
where, D is the crystallite size
The interplanar spacing ‘d’ was evaluated from the expression
d=
√

where, h, k & l are Miller indices. The internal stress (ζ) in the as formed nano
phosphors is calculated using the relation:
ζ=

E and Y are the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of CQDsrespectively.

Table 2 : Parameters of CA
‘d’ space ‘a’ Lattice Disloca
(Å) constant (Å) Micro tion
Internal Crystallit
strain ε density
Stress σ e size D
(x 10-3 δ
(GPa) da d0 aa aa (nm)
lin-2 m-4) (x 1018
lin/m2)
2.946 2.98 5.108 5.17 2.308 1.234 22.18

98 | P a g e
 0.8

 Cosx 10 -3
0.6

0.4
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
4 Sin

Figure 7: WH Plot of CQDs

Raman spectra:
Raman spectroscopy acts as a platform for fast fingerprint spectroscopy by
which formation of sample molecules can be well identified. Here the various
peaks present confirm the presence of C, H and O molecules in CQDs. [22]

Raman
Intensity (a.u.)

900 1200 1500 1800

Raman shift (cm-1)
Figure 8: Raman spectra of CQDs

99 | P a g e
Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM)
FESEM was used to study the microstructures and morphologies. The grains
appear almost circular in shape. The frequency of maximum particles lies
between 150 to 250 nm.[22]

Figure 9: (a) FESEM image of CQDs and (b) Frequency histogram for CQDs

Fourier Transform infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

FTIR was used for analysing functional groups. Pure citric acid shows three
bands from 1100 to 1800 cm−1, assigning C-O vibration band of COOH
groups present in citric acid. [21,22] CQD samples have two peaks in common
with aromatic C-C peaks in between 1400 cm-1 and 1560 cm-1.

FTIR
% Transmittance

4000 3000 2000 1000

Wavenumber (cm-1)
Figure 10: FTIR spectra of CQDs

100 | P a g e
Cyclic Voltammetry (CV)
CV consists of the electrode potential versus time that forms a triangular
waveform and recording the current as function of potential that is called
cyclic voltammogram.

2.0 CV
1.8
1.6
Current

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Voltage
Figure 11: Cyclic Voltammetry of CQDs

Optical Studies
Ultraviolet visible spectroscopy is a very useful characterization to investigate
the optical properties. It is also used to estimate the band gap energy of sample
materials. UV-vis spectroscopy uses electromagnetic radiations between 200
nm to 800 nm. The optical band gap is calculated from (αhν)2 versus photon
energy (hν) plot, known as Tauc plot. The band gap is found to be 4.01 eV.
[21]

Figure 12: (a) Absorption spectra (b) Tauc Plot of CQDs

101 | P a g e
3.8 Photoluminescence spectroscopy
Photoluminescence spectroscopy (PL) spectra are an important tool for
analysing the purity, crystalline quality, band gap, and exciton lifetime of
functional materials species.
Eg = 1240/ Wavelength (nm) in eV. Here the obtained band gap is 4.05 eV.

Figure 13: (a) PL spectra (b) Band gap using PL data for CQDs

Dielectric Characterization
Figure 12 (a) and (b) depicts dielectric permittivity (ε) and tangent loss (tan δ).
Both ε and tan δ are found to decline monotonically in a similar pattern with
rising frequencies. [22]

Figure 14: Frequency dependence (a) dielectric permittivity (ε) and (b)
tangent loss (tan δ) at 300 K and 500 K temperatures

102 | P a g e
Conductivity Analysis
The frequency dependence of ac conductivity from 100 Hz to 1 MHz is shown
in Figure 13. [22]
sac (W-1m-1) 500 K
3.0µ 300 K

2.0µ

1.0µ

0.0
100 1k 10k 100k 1M
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 15: Frequency-dependent ac conductivity for CQDs
Magneto-dielectric coupling
Figure 14 (a) shows the variation of dielectric permittivity vs frequency at
different magnetic field and Figure 14 (b) shows tangent loss vs frequency at
different magnetic field for CQDs measured between 100 Hz and 1 MHz. [22]

Figure 16 :(a) Dielectric permittivity vs frequency (b) tangent loss vs

frequency at different magnetic fields for CA

103 | P a g e
NMR spectra analysis
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique
to observe local magnetic fields around atomic nuclei. It can be of many types:
the most commonly used ones are 1H and 13C.

C-13 NMR
Figure 15 shows the C-13 NMR of CQDsin which peaks were observed at
44.3- 177.0 δ. The peak at 44.3 δ ppm refers to the CH2 group present, peaks
between δ 174.5 -177.0 ppm shows carboxylic acids functional group present
while peaks at δ 76.9 ppm corresponds to the alkyl carbon present.

Figure 17: C-13 NMR of CA

Table 4: Protocol of the C-13 NMR Prediction:

Node Shift Base + Inc. Comment (ppm rel. to TMS)

C 177.0 166.0 1-carboxyl
13.5 1 -C(C)C
-2.5 general corrections
C 174.5 166.0 1-carboxyl
11.0 1 -C-C-C
-2.5 general corrections
C 174.5 166.0 1-carboxyl

11.0 1 -C-C-C
104 | P a g e
 -2.5 general corrections
C 76.9 -2.3 Aliphatic
21.8 1 alpha -C(=O)-O
18.2 2 alpha -C
49.0 1 alpha -O
4.0 2 beta -C(=O)-O
-13.8 general corrections
CH2 44.3 -2.3 Aliphatic
21.8 1 alpha -C=O)-O
9.1 1 alpha -C
2.0 1 beta -C(=O)-O
9.4 1 beta -C
10.1 1 beta -O
-2.8 1 gamma -C(=O)-O
-3.0 general corrections
CH2 44.3 -2.3 Aliphatic
21.8 1 alpha -c(=o)-o
9.1 1 alpha -C
2.0 1 beta -C(=O)-O
9.4 1 beta -C
10.1 1 beta -O –
2.8 1 gamma -C(=O)-O
-3.0 general corrections

H NMR
Figure 16 shows the 1H NMR spectrum of CQDs in which peaks are observed
at δ 11.0, 3.65, 2.61. 11.0 δ ppm represents carboxylic acid group, 2.61 to
CH2 group while 3.65 to OH group present.

105 | P a g e
 Figure 18 : 1H NMR of CA

Table 5: Protocol of the H-1 NMR Prediction:

Node Shift Base + Inc. Comment (ppm rel. to TMS)

OH 11.0 11.00 carboxylic acid
OH 11.0 11.00 carboxylic acid
OH 11.0 11.00 carboxylic acid
OH 3.65 2.00 Alcohol
1.65 general corrections
CH2 2.61 1.37 methylene
0.90 1 alpha -C(=O)-O

0.15 1 beta -O
0.23 1 beta -C(=O)-O
-0.04 1 beta -C
CH2 2.61 1.37 methylene
0.90 1 alpha -C(=O)-O

0.15 1 beta -O
0.23 1 beta -C(=O)-O
-0.04 1 beta -C

106 | P a g e
Table 6: 1H NMR Coupling Constant Prediction

Shift Atom index Coupling partner Constant and vector

11.0 11
11.0 9
11.0 13
3.65 4
2.61 2
2.61 6

Rietveld refinement
The Rietveld refinement was performed by using FullProf software and in it
pseudo-voigt function applied because it is a combination of both Lorentzian
and Gaussian functions; and is also used to resolve strain and size
contributions to peak broadening by applying a number of consecutive
refinements.[21]

For good refinement we tried to refine our data several times in order to match
with original data. It is observed that the observed and calculated patterns are
in good agreement. The fitting quantities of our synthesised samples were
calculated by computing χ2 and various R factors showing peak shape,
structure, position and background etc. The various R values obtained are as
follows: Rp = 14.4, Rb = Bragg R factor, Rwp (weighted R factor) = 8.32 and
Rexp = expected R factor= 3.80. The χ2 is found to be 4.796. The χ2 is in good
agreement proving the successful synthesis of the sample.

The values of Rexp and Rwp are considered good standard for judging the
samples. The decreasing Rwp proves refinement to be successful. The XRD
pattern obtained further successfully confirms the cubic phase structure.

107 | P a g e
 Figure 19: Rietveld refinement

Conclusion
In summary, we have developed a novel and efficient route for production of
CQDs from CA using the sol gel method. Various characterizations were
done for analysing the same. Recently, the need for multifunctional materials
have soared. Multifunctional advanced materials are the novel "smart”
materials engineered specially to perform multiple functions in a system due
to their specific unique properties. Apart from the usual material properties
(such as electrical, mechanical or optical characteristics); materials of this kind
show tremendous potential to impact new system performances by reducing
size, weight, cost, power consumption, and complexity while also improving
efficiency, sustainability, safety, versatility etc. The multifunctionality of
materials is not confined to nano levels but also to macro levels as well.

Declaration
Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no competing interests
relevant to the content of this article.
Data availability
The corresponding author can provide the data supporting the findings of this
study upon reasonable request.

108 | P a g e
References
1. Kubicek, C. P.; Röhr, M.; Rehm, H. J. Citric acid fermentation. Crit.
Rev. Biotechnol. 1985, 3, 331−373.
2. Vandenberghe, L. P. S.; Soccol, C. R.; Pandey, A.; Lebeault, J.-M.
Microbial production of citric acid. Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol. 1999,
42, 263−276.
3. Schuster, E.; Dunn-Coleman, N.; Frisvad, J. C.; van Dijck, P. W. M.
On the safety of Aspergillus niger−a review. Appl. Microbiol.
Biotechnol. 2002, 59, 426−435.
4. Show, P. L.; Oladele, K. O.; Siew, Q. Y.; Aziz Zakry, F. A.; Lan, J.
C.-W.; Ling, T. C. Overview of citric acid production from
Aspergillus niger. Front. Life Sci. 2015, 8, 271−283.
5. Amato, A.; Becci, A.; Beolchini, F. Citric acid bioproduction: the
technological innovation change. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 2020, 40,
199− 212.
6. Soccol, C. R.; Vandenberghe, L. P. S.; Rodrigue, C.; Pandey, A. New
perspectives for citric acid production and application. Food Technol.
Biotechnol. 2006, 44, 141−149.
7. Kanse, N. G.; Deepali, M.; Kiran, P.; Priyanka, B.; Dhanke, P. A
review on citric acid production and its applications. Int. J. Curr. Adv.
Res. 2017, 6, 5880−5883.
8. Pazouki, M.; Panda, T. Recovery of citric acid−a review. Bioprocess
Eng. 1998, 19, 435−439.
9. Singh Dhillon, G.; Kaur Brar, S.; Verma, M.; Tyagi, R. D. Recent
advances in citric acid bio-production and recovery. Food Bioprocess
Technol. 2011, 4, 505−529.
10. Mores, S.; Vandenberghe, L. P. D. S.; Magalha s u ior, A. . de
Carvalho, J. C.; de Mello, A. F. M.; Pandey, A.; Soccol, C. R. Citric
acid bioproduction and downstream processing: status, opportunities,
and challenges. Bioresour. Technol. 2021, 320, 124426.
11. Kertes, A. S.; King, C. J. Extraction chemistry of fermentation
product carboxylic acids. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 1986, 28, 269−282.

109 | P a g e
12. Bizek, V.; Horacek, J.; Rericha, R.; Kousova, M. Amine extraction of
hydroxycarboxylic acids. 1. Extraction of citric acid with 1-octanol/n-
heptane solutions of trialkylamine. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1992, 31,
1554−1562.
13. Kertes, A. S.; King, C. J.; Harvey W. Blanch, I. b. Extraction
chemistry of fermentation product carboxylic acids. Biotechnol.
Bioeng. 2009, 103, 431−445.
14. Djas, M.; Henczka, M. Reactive extraction of citric acid using
supercritical carbon dioxide. . Supercrit. Fluids 2016, 117, 59−63.
15. Arau o, E. M. R. Coelho, F. E. B. Balarini, . C. Miranda, T. L. S.
Salum, A. Solvent extraction of citric acid with different organic
phases. Adv. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2017, 07, 304−324.
16. Hong, Y. K.; Hong, W. H.; Han, D. H. Application of reactive
extraction to recovery of carboxylic acids. Biotechnol. Bioprocess
Eng. 2001, 6, 386−394.
17. Thakre, N.; Prajapati, A. K.; Mahapatra, S. P.; Kumar, A.; Khapre, A.;
Pal, D. Modeling and optimization of reactive extraction of citric acid.
. Chem. Eng. Data 2016, 61, 2614−2623.
18. Thakre, N.; Datta, D.; Prajapati, A. K.; Chaudhari, P. K.; Pal, D.
Reactive extraction of citric acid using different extractants:
equilibrium, kinetics and modelling. Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q. 2017,
31, 437−446.
19. Djas, M.; Henczka, M. Reactive extraction of carboxylic acids using
organic solvents and supercritical fluids: A review. Sep. Purif.
Technol. 2018, 201, 106−119.
20. Bauer, U.; Marr, R.; Ruckl, W.; Siebenhofer, M. Reactive extraction
of citric acid from an aqueous fermentation broth. Ber. Bunsenges.
Phys. Chem. 1989, 93, 980−984.
21. Rutam Biswal, et al. Synthesis and optical properties of citric acid
(CA) doped ZnFe2O4 hybrid nanocomposite. Materials Today:
Proceedings. 2022; 67 (6): 145–150.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.05.575

110 | P a g e
22. Rutam Biswal, et al. Synthesis, optical, dielectric, and magneto-
dielectric properties of graphene quantum dots (GQDs). Journal of
Materials Research. 2022; 37(4): https://doi.org/10.1557/s43578-022-
00717-9
23. Rong Ye, Zirui Zhao, Rong Gao, Junfen Wan, and Xuejun Cao ACS
Omega 2022, 7, 683−687 Conversion of Calcium Citrate to Citric
Acid with Compressed CO2.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.1c05316
24. X. Y. Xu, R. Ray, Y. L. Gu, H. J. Ploehn, L. Gearheart, K. Raker and
W. A. Scrivens, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2004, 126, 12736–12737..
25. Y.-P. Sun, B. Zhou, Y. Lin, W. Wang, K. A. S. Fernando, P. Pathak,
M. J. Meziani, B. A. Harruff, X. Wang, H. F. Wang, P. G. Luo, H.
Yang, M. E. Kose, B. L. Chen, L. M. Veca and S.-Y. Xie, J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 2006, 128, 7756–7757
26. S. N. Baker and G. A. Baker, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2010, 49, 6726-
6744}
27. R. Q. Ye, C. S. Xiang, J. Lin, Z. W. Peng, K. W. Huang, Z. Yan, N. P.
Cook, E. L. G. Samuel, C. C. Hwang, G. D. Ruan, G. Ceriotti, A. R.
O. Raji, A. A. Marti and J. M. Tour, Nat. Commun., 2013, 4, 2943

111 | P a g e
 Chapter-10
A comparative study of moderate, intense and severe
geomagnetic storms in relation to solar wind speed for
Solar Cyclcle 20
Chandni Mathpal, Lalan Prasad
Department of Physics, Govt. P.G. College,
Berinag-, Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand, India

Abstract
This research paper uses the hourly mean averages of geomagnetic activity
index and solar wind speed to conduct a long-term correlation investigation
between solar wind speed and geomagnetic activity index for the studied
period of 1964-1975 by the incorporation of the analysis technique by the
superposed epoch method. In the present study, we used the Dst index as a
sign of a geomagnetic storm. A statistical correlative study of the Dst index
with diverse solar wind parameters by the superposed epoch method yields
good correlations. The correlation coefficient we obtained from our research
work strongly suggests that solar wind speed, have a strong impact on the
cause of geomagnetic storms. The outcome of the current analysis indicates
that solar wind speed is a geo-effective parameters and act as reliable
indicators for predicting the strength of geomagnetic storms
Keywords Solar wind parameters, geomagnetic storms, geomagnetic activity
indices
Introduction
A global disruption in the magnetic field of the earth generally occurs due to
abnormal conditions in the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) and discharge
of solar wind plasma induced by diverse solar phenomena. This is called a
geomagnetic storm (Akasofu 1983 and Joselyn et al., 1981). Geomagnetic
storms (GSs) are often preceded by a sudden increase in geomagnetic fields, a
phenomenon termed storm sudden commencement (SSC). Storm Sudden
Commencements are associated with interplanetary shocks driven by coronal
mass ejections (CMEs), while the gradual onsets are driven by high speed
solar wind streams (Borovsky and Denton, 2006). It generally occurs due to
rapid magnetic field variations. The interplanetary magnetic field is a part of
the sun’s magnetic field that is carried into interplanetary space by the solar

112 | P a g e
wind. Geomagnetic storms are categorized as severe storms (Dst ≤ -200nT),
intense storms (-200nT < Dst ≤ -100nT) and moderate storms (-100nT < Dst ≤
-50nT) (Gonzalez et al, 1994). Numerous studies are being conducted
continually by different researchers to determine the geo-effectiveness of
various solar wind and interplanetary parameters (Echer et al., 2008, Maggiolo
2017, Opera et al., 2013, Rathore et al., 2014, Verbanac et al., 2011, Saiz et
al., 2008, Kane 2005, Badruddin and Aslam 2013).
Data analysis
To analyse the GSs variation with respect to solar wind speed (i.e. 400 < v <
800 km/s), we used a Chree analysis (superposed epoch analysis). As our
criteria for the judgment is -100nT < Dst ≤ -50nT for moderate geomagnetic
storms, -200 < Dst ≤ -100nT for intense geomagnetic storms and -350 < Dst ≤
-200nT for severe geomagnetic storms, assuming it as a occurrence day of
geomagnetic storm, 30 data points before the occurrence day are taken into
consideration and, further, the average of a set of five data points is calculated,
which is assumed as−5, -10,−15,−20,−25,−30 hours. Similarly, 30 data points
after the occurrence day are taken into consideration and further, the average
of a set of five data points is calculated, which is assumed
as+5,+10,+15,+20,+25,+30 hours. Proceeding in such a manner, a table with a
column of information is drafted for the respective years. After this, the
average value of these hours (−30 to+30) is reckoned and the graph is outlined
between the two parameters for the respective years. The hourly mean values
of solar wind parameters is taken from the Omni web data center
(omniweb.gsfc.nasa.gov/form/dx1.html) for the study period of 1964-1975.
Results and discussion
We study the correlative importance of solar wind speed, influencing the
geomagnetic activity for SC 20.
Dst and Solar Wind Speed ( i.e. 400 < v < 800 km/s)
We investigated the association of the Dst index with solar wind speed and
observed that solar wind speed has a strong impact on the cause of GSs. The
strongest increment in solar wind speed does not always occur on the
happening day of Dst, i.e. a time delay of a few hours is always found between
the extreme value of solar wind speed and the least value of Dst. We also
calculate an average correlation coefficient between the Dst index and solar
wind speed. The highest correlation coefficient was seen between the Dst
index and solar wind speed (r= -0.74) for moderate geomagnetic storms. The
113 | P a g e
correlation coefficient between the Dst index and solar wind speed is found to
be -0.65 for intense geomagnetic storms and -0.60 for severe geomagnetic
storms. The average correlation coefficient which we have acquired from our
study displayed here firmly recommends that solar wind speed is a geo-
effective parameter. Our outcome is in good agreement with the result of
Yermolaev et al., 2005, Echer et al., 2007, Richardson et al., 2002, Gonzalez
et al., 2011, Alves et al., 2006 and Kamide et al., 1998.

114 | P a g e
115 | P a g e
116 | P a g e
117 | P a g e
Figure 1(a): Chree analysis plots depicting the Solar Wind Speed and Dst
index mean values for moderate GS from-30 to +30 hours with respect to zero
epoch days for solar cycle 20.

118 | P a g e
Figure 1(b): Chree analysis plots depicting the Solar Wind Speed and Dst
index mean values for intense GS from-30 to +30 hours with respect to zero
epoch days for solar cycle 20.
Table 1: The correlations of various parameters for the complete SC 20 in the
case of a moderate, intense and severe geomagnetic storm.

Dst index and solar wind speed Corelation

coefficient

Moderate -0.74

Intense -0.65

Severe -0.60

119 | P a g e
Conclusions
After the detailed analysis of our study, various conclusions have been
observed and are discussed. In the present paper, we used the hourly mean
averages of solar wind speed for SC 20 to construct their association with
moderate, intense, and severe geomagnetic storms by the incorporation of the
analysis technique of superposed epoch method. The outcome of our research
paper indicates that solar wind speed (i.e. 400 < v < 800 km/s) is a driver of
geomagnetic storms. Correlation coefficients were found to be high for some
SCs, with a maximum of -0.74 for SC 20 in the case of a moderate GS. Our
findings show that the correlation between geomagnetic activity index (Dst
index) and solar wind speed decreases from moderate to severe geomagnetic
storm. We also performed a time delay analysis and observed that the time
delay between these two parameters is at its maximum during an intense
geomagnetic storm (0-20 hours) as compared to moderate and severe
geomagnetic storms. We found a time delay of 0 hours in case of a moderate
geomagnetic storm and 0-5 hours in case of a severe geomagnetic storm.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Journal of Solar Physics for Content Page
Service of every latest issue to update us. The well satisfactory data available
in omniweb site taken by the experiments provided by Advanced Composition
Explorer (ACE) spacecraft and also from other space mission such as Ulysses,
DSCOVR, etc expected for Solar Cycle 24. Authors are also thankful to the
college authority of Govt. PG College, Berinag, Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand for
providing us the work station.
References
1. Akasofu, S.I.: 1983, Space Sci. Rev. 34,173-183.
2. Alves, M.V., Echer, E., and Gonzalez, W.D.: 2006, J. Geophys. Res.,
111, A07S05.
3. Badruddin and Aslam, O.P.M.: 2013, Planetary and Space Science,
85, 123-141.
4. Borovsky, J.E., and Denton, M.H.: 2006, J. Geophys., 21, 1577-1588.
5. Echer, E.: 2007, Journal of Atmospheric and Solar Terrestrial
Physics, 69(4), 621-627.
6. Echer, E., Gonzalez, W.D., Tsurutani, B.T., and de Gonzalez, A.L.C.:
2008, J. Geophys. Res., 113, A05221.

120 | P a g e
7. Gonzalez, W.D., Joselyn, J.A., Kamide, Y., Kroehl, H.W., Rostoker,
G., Tsurutani, B.T., Vasyliunas, V.M.: 1994, J. Geophys. Res., 99,
5771-5792.
8. Gonzalez, W.D., Echer, E., Tsurutani, B. T., de Gonzalez, A.L.C., and
Dal Lago, A.: 2011, Space Sci. Rev, 158, 69-89.
9. Joselyn, J.A., McIntosh, P.S.:1981, J. Geophys. Res., 86, 4555.
10. Kane, R.P.: 2005, Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics,
110, Issue A2.
11. Kamide, Y., Baumjohann, W., Daglis, A., Gonzalez, W.D., Grande,
M., Joselyn, J.A., McPherron, R.L., Phillips, J.L., Reeves, E.G.D.,
Rostoker, G., Sharma, A.S., Singer, H.J., Tsurutani, B.T., and
Vasyliunas, V.M.: 1998, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 17705-17728.
12. Kane, R.P.: 2005, Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics,
Vol. 110, Issue A2.
13. Maggiolo, R., Hamrin, M., De Keyser, J., Pitkӓnen, T., Cessateur, G.,
Gunell, H.. Maes, L.: 2017, Journal of Geophysical Research: Space
Physics, 122, 11, 109-11, 127.
14. Oprea, C., Mierla, M., Ionescu, D.B., Stere, O., Muntean, G.M.: 2013,
Geophys., 31, 1285-1295.
15. Rathore, B.S., Gupta, D.C., Parashar, K.K.: 2014, International
journal of Geoscience, 5, 1602-1608.
16. Richardson, T.J., Paularena, D., Wang, K.I.C., Burlaga, L.F.: 2002, J.
Geophys. Res., 107 (A4) 1041,1.
17. Saiz, E., Cid, C., Cerrato, Y.: 2008, Geophysicae, 26, 3989-3998.
18. Verbanac, G., Vršnak, B., Živković, S., Hojsak, T., Veronig, A.M.,
Temmer, M.: 2011, A&A 533, A49.
19. Yermolaev, Y.I., Yermolaev, M.Y., Zastenker, G.N., Zelenyi, L.M.,
Petrukovich, A.A., and Sauvaud, J.-A.: 2005, Planetary and Space
Science. 53, 189-196.

121 | P a g e
 Chapter-11
Nanotechnology and Environment
Dr. Sadguru Prakash
Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology Zoology
M.L.K.P.G. College, Balrampur, U.P. (India)

Abstract
Numerous technologies that are now being developed at the nanoscale fall
under the umbrella of nanotechnology. It has a significant impact on the
creation of novel production techniques, the replacement of outdated
production machinery, and the reformulation of new materials and chemicals
with enhanced performance, all of which reduce energy and material
consumption, lessen environmental harm, and facilitate environmental
remediation. Even if less energy and material use become beneficial to the
environment, nanotechnology will allow it to resolve problems with existing
processes in a more sustainable manner. Applications of nanotechnology to
the environment focus on developing remedies for current environmental
issues, safeguards against potential future issues brought on by the interactions
of energy and materials with the environment, and any potential dangers posed
by nanotechnology itself. Thus nanomaterials exhibit special physical and
chemical properties that make them interesting for novel, environmentally
friendly products.
Keywords: Nanomaterials, Nanotechnology, Environmental Issues,
Introduction:
Increasing human activities are disrupting the ecosystem's balance and putting
human health in danger by supplying the environment with copious amounts
of anthropogenic harmful poisonous compounds that pollute the water,
atmosphere, and soil. Industrial activity involves the production and use of
various toxic organic and inorganic chemicals which pollute nearby water
streams, indirectly influencing aquatic and human life. Thus, there is a need to
protect the environment through the development of new technologies and by
enacting awareness drives for environmental sustainability. In order to create
devices, systems, and materials with primarily new functions and properties,
nanotechnology is one of the most promising techniques for transforming
environmental remediation.
122 | P a g e
Numerous applications of nanotechnology are being used to improve or aid
the environment by cleaning the existing pollution, improving manufacturing
methods to reduce the generation of new pollution, and lowering the cost of
alternative energy sources. Nanotechnology is the manipulation of matter on
the nanoscale (1-100 nm) in diverse fields such as engineering, materials
science, chemistry, and biology. Nanoparticles are ultra-small particles with
exceptional properties like smaller size and large surface area to volume ratio
compared to their bulk components, which confers specific optional,
magnetic, interfacial, and electrical or chemical properties (Weiss et al., 2006)
but some nanoparticles and nanomaterials also exhibit harmful properties.
Numerous industrial fields, including biomedicine, defense, energy and
storage, pharmaceuticals, food and agriculture, and environmental
remediation, are particularly interested in the possible applications of
nanomaterials. Treatment of wastewater and contaminated soil, remediation,
sensors, and energy storage are some potential applications for
nanotechnology in the environmental field. So, the key focus of the
environmental nanotechnology also includes safe design of nano materials
with potential environmental benefits and promotion of sustainable
development of those materials.
Environmental sustainability is concerned with pollution of the air, land, and
water as well as global climate change. The technologies that are accessible
can provide direct control over environmental pollutions that come from a
number of sources, such as heavy metals, organic compounds, biological or
radiation risks, oil spills, and microplastics, etc. Recently, the utilization of
nanomaterials has significantly advanced the technologies for environmental
applications, such as sensing and cleanup (Khin et al., 2012). This
demonstrated how environmental nanotechnology was developing and
growing.
Potential environmental benefits:
An abundance of items on the market that offer specific benefits for
environmental and climate preservation is caused by rising prices for raw
materials and energy combined with consumers' growing environmental
consciousness. For examples include improved materials' resistance to
mechanical stress or weathering, extending the useful life of a product;
nanotechnology-based coatings that are water- and dirt-resistant, requiring less
cleaning; novel insulation materials that increase buildings' energy efficiency;
and the incorporation of nanoparticles into materials to reduce weight and
123 | P a g e
conserve energy during transport. Nanomaterials are used in the chemical
industrial sector based on their unique catalytic capabilities to increase energy
and resource efficiency, and in some applications, nanomaterials can replace
ecologically harmful chemicals.
High expectations are being placed on energy production and storage products
and processes that have been nanotechnologically optimized; these are
currently in the development stage and are expected to make a significant
contribution to reducing global warming and resolving our energy issues in the
future.
A wide range of adjustment agents have been used to manipulate the
bioavailability of heavy metals and to impede their diffusion in soil by
inducing various sorption processes like mineral surface adsorption,
establishment of stable organic ligand complexes, ion exchanges, and surface
precipitation. This is because the activity of heavy metals in soils is controlled
by desorption and sorption reactions with other components of soil (Socas et
al., 2017).
There are two main categories of amendment mediators: mobilising agents,
which increase the mobility and bioavailability of heavy metals and improve
their elimination through soil washing and plant uptake (specifically,
phytoextraction), and restraining agents, which decrease the mobility and
bioavailability of heavy metals and decrease their transference to the food
chain by preventing their groundwater leaching (specifically, Phyto
stabilization). The development of phytostabilization and phytoextraction
technologies are both a part of the phytoremediation approach used to deal
with damaged soils (Li et al., 2015).
Environmental protection is not the main objective of the majority of
commercially marketed nano-consumer goods. Neither very stable golf clubs
made with carbon nanotubes, nor clothing treated with nano silver to fight
perspiration odour, contribute to environmental protection. Manufacturers
frequently make such claims, usually without supporting documentation. Self-
cleaning surface coatings and fabrics with stain protection are two examples
that are advertised as requiring less cleaning work and using less energy,
water, and cleaning solutions.
Application of Nanotechnology to Environmental Issues:
The potential applications of nanomaterials or Nanoparticles (NPs) has
significantly affect the environmental protection through understanding and
124 | P a g e
control of emission from a wide range of sources, development of new
“green” technologies that minimize the production of undesirable byproducts,
and remediation of existing waste site and polluted water sources. The
potential uses of nanotechnology in the environmental sector to remove the
finest contaminants from water supplies and air as well as continuously
measure and mitigate pollutants in the environment. Application areas for
nanofiltration include the purification of drinking water, the food sector, as
well as the dyestuff and textile industries. In the fields of saltwater
purification, nanotechnology is expected to have a larger potential.
Researchers and developers working with nanotechnology are pursuing the
following directions in an effort to improve our sick environment:
 Reducing the generation of Pollutants during the manufacture of
materials. By acting as catalysts, silver nanoclusters can drastically
reduce the amounts of harmful byproducts produced during the production
of propylene oxide. Common goods including plastics, paint, detergents,
and brake fluid are all made with propylene oxide.
 Generation of the Power from solar cells. Collection of silicon
nanowires embedded in a polymer produces solar cells with a low cost but
excellent efficiency. This and other initiatives to develop solar cells with
nanotechnology may lead to solar cells that are as efficient at producing
power as coal or oil.
 Generation of Electricity by windmills. Windmill blades are created
using epoxy that contains carbon nanotubes. Because the resulting blades
are more durable and lighter, more electricity is produced by each
windmill.
 Removal of Organic Pollutant from groundwater. Iron nanoparticles
have the ability to remove organic solvents from groundwater effectively.
The organic pollutants are broken down by the iron nanoparticles as they
disseminate across the body of water. Compared to treatment techniques
that involve pumping groundwater out of the earth, this approach may be
both more efficient and much less expensive.
 Removal of Oil spills. Copper tungsten oxide nanoparticles are used
to break down the oil into biodegradable compounds because
nanoparticles offers a lot of surface area for the reaction which is activated
by sunlight and can work in water, making them useful for cleaning up oil
spills. Although the application of nanotechnology for the removal of oil
spill is still in its nascent stage, it offers great promise for the future. In the
last couple of years, there has been particularly growing interest
125 | P a g e
 worldwide in exploring ways of finding suitable solutions to clean up oil
spills through use of nanomaterials.
Removing Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) from air. Since last
35 years, the nanotechnology has been functional in motorized catalytic
exhaust converters. Moreover, products of nanotechnology are
implemented in photocatalysis and in air filters for purification of air
(Peters et al., 2016). A catalyst composed of porous manganese oxide
having embedded gold nanoparticles break down the VOCs at room
temperature.
 Reducing the cost of fuel cells. The catalytic capacity of platinum used in
fuel cells can be increased by varying the distance between its atoms. As a
result, the fuel cell may operate with around 80% less platinum,
considerably lowering the fuel cell's cost.
 Storing hydrogen for fuel cell powered cars. A fuel tank can store a
greater volume of hydrogen and weigh less by using graphene layers to
raise the binding energy of hydrogen to the graphene surface. This might
aid in the creation of useful hydrogen-powered vehicles.
 Recycling of Rechargeable Batteries. Many batteries still contain heavy
metals including mercury, lead, cadmium, and nickel, which when
disposed of improperly can harm the environment and may be pose a
threat to human health. Use of lithium batteries cathode particles are eco-
friendly because it can be recycled and regenerated to perform just as well
as new. Although lithium-ion batteries took over more than 82% of the
small portable market in a few years, still there are some challenges, such
as higher cost, toxicity, and the charging voltage is too high for lithium
cobalt oxide, which is unsafe for electric vehicles. Hence, nanostructures
are used to enhance power performance and battery specific energy by
developing advanced electrode materials and electrolyte solutions. For
better safety, the anode made of graphite can be replaced with
nanostructured materials such as nanowires, nanorod, and nanoporous
materials (Li et al., 2014).
 LED Lighting: Theoretically more energy-efficient than fluorescent
bulbs, light-emitting diode (LED) technology is one of the potential
lighting options that is currently the subject of intensive research. Organic
LEDs (OLED) are those whose light-emitting component is an organic
molecule. A semiconductor material utilized for LED applications must
possess both high crystallinity and an adjustable band gap due to the high
efficiency and good rendering properties. Due to their high crystal quality

126 | P a g e
 and controllable emission, semiconductor nanostructures like QDs are
being explored for the creation of light-emitting materials.
Nanoengineered InGaN/GaN (indium gallium nitride/gallium nitride)
layered structures, silicon nanowire systems, and the Bi2Te3-Sb2Te2 two-
dimensional superlattice system are some examples of nanostructures for
energy-saving applications. The improved efficiencies have been ascribed
to the impedance of the flow of heat by phonon scattering at the interfaces
in these nanomaterials (Pathakoti et al., 2018).
 Removal of Radioactive ions from water. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is
one of the popular materials used in various applications because of its
semiconducting, photocatalytic, energy converting, electronic and gas
sensing properties. Titanate nanofibers can be used as absorbents for the
removal of radioactive ions from water. Unique structural properties of
titanate nanotubes and nanofibers make them superior materials for
removal of radioactive cesium and iodine ions from water.
 Capturing the Carbon dioxide. CO2 must first be isolated from the other
waste gases produced by combustion or industrial operations before it can
be stored using Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage (CCS) techniques.
The majority of the current techniques for this kind of filtration is costly
and relies on chemicals. Nanotechnology techniques to fabricate
nanoscale thin membranes could lead to new membrane technology that
could change that.
 Production of Hydrogen Production. Hydrogen-powered technology is
a environmentally friendly technology that will save the planet. While
hydrogen fuel indeed is a clean energy carrier, the source of that hydrogen
often is as dirty as it gets. The problem is that you can't dig a well to tap
hydrogen, but hydrogen has to be produced, and that can be done using a
variety of resources. Artificial photosynthesis, using solar energy to split
water generating hydrogen and oxygen, can offer a clean and portable
source of energy supply as durable as the sunlight. It takes about 2.5 volts
to break a single water molecule down into oxygen along with negatively
charged electrons and positively charged protons. It is the extraction and
separation of these oppositely charged electrons and protons from water
molecules that provides the electric power.
Challenges in Environmental Nanotechnology:
The two main issues facing humanity in ensuring the planet's long-term
viability are energy and the environment. In terms of supplying renewable
energy sources and carrying out environmental restoration, modern
127 | P a g e
technologies have proven incredibly effective. After that, the interconnections
between energy, environment, and technology drive society's advancement of
civilization. Due to high surface area-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles, bulk
environmental materials like metals, metal oxides/sulfides, polymers, and
carbons are expected to have fascinating physiochemical properties down to
the nanoscale. As a result, in comparison to their bulk counterparts, diverse
functions and improved reactivity/selectivity might be anticipated. The
manipulation of nanomaterials in terms of morphology (particle size and
shape), microstructure (pore and surface), and composition might increase the
capabilities of environmental nanotechnology (heterojunction and doping).
When new conspicuous traits, such as electrical, thermal, optical, magnetic,
and electrochemical qualities toward adsorptive and/or catalytic performances,
appear, new opportunities and difficulties also do so (Hochella et al., 2019). In
addition to the fundamental difficulties faced by nanotechnology,
environmental nanotechnology faces the particular difficulties listed below
(Sun, 2019).
Balance among Activity, selectivity, and stability: High performance in
environmental applications-whether adsorptive or catalytic-comes from the
high reactivity caused by the sensitive surface and microstructure. For
particular environmental problems, the selective adsorption and/or degradation
would also be essential. Moreover, the composition and/or structure of the
nanosized catalysts would be easily destroyed by the severe and dangerous
circumstances that are frequently present in environmental applications. The
stability, which is the primary determinant of practical viability, will then be
in doubt. The stability is more crucial in environmental applications compared
to chemical manufacturing and the energy sectors because secondary
contaminations might result from metal leaching from nanoscale metal-based
catalysts and/or newly generated intermediates (Saputra et al., 2013). The
applications should be carefully controlled and the nanomaterials should be
designed logically.
Mechanistic studies: The novel environmental applications made possible by
nanomaterials will not only show improved performance but also trigger
various processes with their own specific mechanisms (Duan et al., 2018). The
size, form, composition, surface characteristics, or hybridizations of the
materials can all give rise to new mechanisms. The composition of the
materials may also influence the competitive adsorption or catalysis on the
nanoparticles. To maximize environmental nanotechnology, it is important to
illustrate both environmental dynamics and materials science. Computational
128 | P a g e
analyses, in situ spectroscopy, conventional quenching experiments, and their
combination are required. The use of the theoretical discoveries for the
practical environmental applications may also require chemical engineering
efforts.
Nano pollution and Nano/bio interfaces: As the use of nanomaterials
increases, opportunity and problem frequently coexist together (Hochella et
al., 2019). Numerous biological applications, such as sensing, diagnosis, and
healing, have been made possible by nanomaterials and nanotechnologies but
cannot be achieved by bulk materials. The fate and transport, exposure to
people and the environment, and direct risks to human bodies should all be
considered as ramifications of these applications. Nanopollution is now a risk,
not a topic for discussion. Therefore, the main difficulties of environmental
nanotechnology are the fundamental comprehension, identification, and
manipulation at the nano/bio interfaces.
Conclusion: The extraordinary properties of nanotechnology for
multifunctionality, robustness, and advanced treatment procedures which can
improve treatment performance, pollution monitoring, in addition to overcome
all the aforesaid barricades. Thus, in the present situation, nanotechnology
gains the importance because of the increased environmental challenges due to
the impact of modern industrial activities. Numerous effective applications
have been proven, including innovative sensing and monitoring, selective
adsorption on nano sorbents, nanomembrane separation, and environmental
nano catalysis. These urgent problems still present significant difficulties,
nevertheless. Finding the delicate balance between activity, reactivity, and
stability is essential for the rational design and improved application of
nanomaterials for environmental processes. It is important to do mechanistic
research on environmental and nanotechnology processes. By analyzing the
processes at the nano/bio interfaces, it will be possible to more fully evaluate
the risks that nanomaterials pose to the environment. The engagement and
endeavors to environmental nanotechnology would contribute to future
environmental sustainability as a whole.
References
1. Duan, X. G., Sun, H. Q., and Wang, S. B. (2018). Metal-free
carbocatalysis in advanced oxidation reactions. Acc. Chem. Res. 51, 678–
687. doi: 10.1021/acs.accounts.7b00535
2. Hochella, M. F., Mogk, D. W., Ranville, J., Allen, I. C., Luther, G. W.,
Marr, L. C., et al. (2019). Natural, incidental, and engineered
129 | P a g e
 nanomaterials and their impacts on the Earth system. Science
363:eaau8299. doi: 10.1126/science.aau8299
3. Khin, M. M., Nair, A. S., Babu, V. J., Murugan, R., and Ramakrishna, S.
(2012). A review on nanomaterials for environmental remediation. Energy
Environ. Sci. 5, 8075–8109. doi: 10.1039/c2ee21818f
4. Li J, Zhao T, Chen T, et al. (2015). Engineering noble metal
nanomaterials for environmental applications. Nanoscale. 7(17):7502–
7519.
5. Pathakoti, K. Manubolu, M. and Hwang, Huey-Min (2018).
Nanotechnology Applications for Environmental Industry. Handbook of
Nanomaterials for Industrial Applications. Pp 894-907. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813351-4.00050-X
6. Peters RJB, Bouwmeester H, Gottardo S, et al. (2016). Nanomaterials for
products and application in agriculture, feed and food. Trends in Food
Science & Technology. 54:155–164.
7. Saputra, E., Muhammad, S., Sun, H. Q., Ang, H. M., Tade, M. O., and
Wang, S. B. (2013). Different crystallographic one-dimensional MnO2
nanomaterials and their superior performance in catalytic phenol
degradation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 5882–5887. doi:
10.1021/es400878c
8. Socas-Rodríguez B, González-Sálamo J, Hernandez-Borges J, et al.
(2017). Recent applications of nanomaterials in food safety. Tr AC Trends
in Analytical Chemistry. 96:172–200.
9. Sun, H. (2019). Grand challenges in Environmental Nanotechnology.
Front. Nanotechnology. 1:2. Doi: 10.3389/Fnano.2019.00002
10. Weiss, J., Takhistov, P. and McClements. D.J. (2006). Functional
materials in food nanotechnology. J. Food Sci. 71 (9): R107-R116.
11. Li, Y.W., Zhan, X.J., Xiang, L., Deng, Z.S., Huang, B.H., Wen, H.F. et al.
(2014). Analysis of trace microcystins in vegetables using solid-phase
extraction followed by high performance liquid chromatography triple-
quadrupole mass spectrometry, J. Agric. Food Chem. 62 (49) 11831118

130 | P a g e
 Chapter-12
A new approach to design Class C amplifier at nano scale
with low power consumptions for mobile application
Tripathi Arunendra Nath
Research scholar Department of Physics and electronics Dr ram Manohar Lohiya
Awadh University Ayodhya Uttar Pradesh India
Tiwari Rajkumar
Prof. Department of Physics and electronics Dr ram Manohar Lohiya Awadh
University Ayodhya Uttar Pradesh India
Tiwari Monika
Rajkiya Polytechnique college Gonda Uttar Pradesh India

Abstract- At present, saving energy is one of the important goals, keeping

this in mind we present a new approach to design class c amplifier which
works at very low power consumption in the range of micro watt and low
noise in range nano watt and works in frequency range tera hertz 1.563THz to
6.930 THz with voltage gain 20dB. Present pair is combination of NMOS
and PMOS in compound pair form and it is simulated on cadence virtuoso
software at 180nm scale. It can be used in radio astronomy, satellite, and
communications.
Key words – Class C amplifier, Low noise, Low power Consumptions, NMOs
and PMOS pair, Nano technology
Introduction- In any transceiver power amplifier is always a last block for the
transmission of wave. It amplifies an electrical signal to ample power level that
secures a transmission signal to spread across some distance and received at
the receiver end like mobile GSM application. Power amplifiers uses are
different at different places which has so many applications.1
CMOS technology reduces fabrication cost: and therefor it is used in
buildings of many IC systems. It is also Better than other available options
when it comes at VLSI. However, CMOS having poor performance in radio
frequency Circuits. CMOS has lousy current drive and large associated
parasitic capacitance.2 The suspense of integrated PA within CMOS stands up
because of this technology have so many limitations that vastly limits the
efficiency of power applications.3 The primary difference among these PA
classes is the passage of the radio frequency cycle for which the transistor
131 | P a g e
conducts.3 In class A PA, transistor conductus for the entire radio frequency
cycle, while in class B amplifier PA it is on state for all half cycle, and is less
than half of the RF cycles for class C PA, Class A Class B, AB may be used
as linear amplifier in power applications, while the nature of class C is
nonlinear.4
The class C amplifier is biased below down its turn-on voltage and the input
drives the active device on for a small part, which is slightly less than the cycle
of inputs. This is results of the pulsed current in the devices, these currents are
filtered to excerption of the basic frequency component, and this is passes
through the load resistance and the output wave is the basic frequency
waveform. The efficiency of class C amplifier lies between 50 to 85 percent.5
In this paper we present a new approach to design the class C amplifier at nano
scale by using COMS technology. This pair is simulated on cadence virtuoso
at 180nm scale. This pair consumes very low power and improves the battery
life and efficiency of communications apparatus.
Working principal of complementary compound pair
This work we present new innovative pair, this pair is design with the help
of two complementary pair, this pair is designed with the help of two PMOS
and NMOS transistor. The working principal of this pair is, if a
complimentary pair consist NMOS in deriver stage and PMOS work as
output devices, then hole pair act as a simple NMOS transistor and its
vice-versa6-8. It can be easily understood by below figure,

Figure- Model of complementary compound pair i.e. RKTG pair [6]

132 | P a g e
This pair is very effective to increase the frequency bandwidth of
signal, at very low power consumptions with very low input supply and
temperature stability is high and this pair is provided high current gain9.
Exploratory circuit
In this part we take a transistor base class C amplifier circuit i.e., a NPN
transistor whose operate at 15V Vcc and tuned circuit values L and C values
are 2 µH &470pF respectively Cin be 0.1 µF RB is 4.7KΩ, C2 is 1000pF and
load resistance is 1 KΩ.
Key words – Class C amplifier, Low noise, Low power Consumptions, NMOs
and PMOS pair, Nano technology
Key words – Class C amplifier, Low noise, Low power Consumptions, NMOs
and PMOS pair, Nano technology
Key words – Class C amplifier, Low noise, Low power Consumptions,
NMOs and PMOS pair, Nano technology

Fig- reference circuit model

In above circuit when we calculate some parameter like resonance
frequency found 5.19MHz, inductive resistance 65.2 Ω parallel resistance
values 65.2, AC load resistance 765 Ω bandwidth is 0.444KHz AC output
compliance.
133 | P a g e
When all parameter are constant and one change in above circuit is NPN
transistor is replace RKTG pair it is fond that lower cut off frequency fL =
473.42GHz and Upper Cut off frequency fH = 721.96 ZHz. Therefore, we
get bandwidth in ZHz, but gain is slightly less than unity. When we
increase the value of C2 we get narrower bandwidths (6.93- 1.56) THz i.e.,
5.37 THz with voltage gain 20db. This circuits is simulated on Cadence
virtuoso at 180nm. In above circuit when we vary the value of C2 it is found
that bandwidth and gain vary.
Simulations of circuits- this circuit is simulated on the Cadence Virtuoso
software 180nm, and the firstly AC analysis are taken, the frequency
response curve are given below. After this we analysis the transient analysis
at MHz to GHz. This transient analysis is when the input frequency in MHz
amplitude is 1mV.

Fig- Frequency response of class c proposed amplifier

Figure- transient response of proposed class c amplifier

134 | P a g e
The power consumptions are this pair is very low in like as µW so this pair
save a lot of power and increases the life of battery life use in
communications devices.
Conclusions- form above simulations result we conclude that RKTG pair
provided better respond than NPN transistor and an-other pair, the strength
of this pair is provided larger band width at very low power
consumptions and very low input voltage supply, and one weakness are
fond low voltage gain but power delivered at output is larger than the other
pair.
Future work- In this section we work its mathematical verification and
reduces the is weakness
i.e. Increases the voltage gain.
References –
1- L. Samal, K. K. Mahapatra and K. Raghuramaiah, "Class-C power
amplifier design for GSM application," 2012 International Conference
on Computing, Communication and Applications, 2012, pp. 1-5, doi:
10.1109/ICCCA.2012.617921
2- Karthik, Natarajan, S. Walling, Jeffrey and David J. Allstot. "A class-C
power amplifier/antenna interface for wireless sensor applications."
IEEE Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits Symposium, In 2011 IEEE
pp. 1-4.
3- Choi, H. Development of a class-c power amplifier with diode expander
architecture for point-of-care ultrasound systems. Micromachines,
pp.10(10), 697. (2019).
4- Chenyuan, Zhao, Jian Liu, Fangyang Shen, and Yang Yi. "Low power
CMOS power amplifier design for RFID and the Internet of Things."
Computers & Electrical Engineering 52 157-170. (2016):
5- Ramakrishna Sekhar Narayanaswami, “RF CMOS class-C power
amplifier for wireless communications,” PhD Dissertation, UCB, 2001
6- Tiwari, Raj Kumar, Shiksha Jain, and Gaya Prasad. "Complementary
Compound Push Pull Power Amplifier for Wide Frequency Band
Applications Using CMOS Nanotechnology." 2020 International
Conference on Electrical and Electronics Engineering (ICE3). IEEE,
2020.
135 | P a g e
7- Raj Kumar Tiwari and Jyotsna Mishra, “A New Circuit Model for
Distortionless Push-Pull Amplifier” in Bulletin of pure and applied
sciences, An International Journal of Physics, Vol.29D(No.1) JanJune
2010.
8- R. Gupta and D. Allstot, “Parasitic aware design and optimization of
CMOS RF integrated circuits,” IEEE RFIC Symposium, pp. 325- 328,
June 1998.
9- Tiwari, Raj Kumar, and Shiksha Jain. "Complementary Compound
Wide-band Amplifier for Broadband Communication System."
International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and
Technology (IJARET) 11.6 (2020).
10- Thomas H. Lee, “The design of radio-frequency integrated circuits,” 2
nd edition, Cambridge University Press, 2004.
11- Christian Fager, José Carlos Pedro, Nuno Borges de Carvalho, Herbert
Zirath, Fernando Fortes, and Maria João Rosário, “A comprehensive
analysis of IMD behavior in RF CMOS power amplifiers,” IEEE journal
of solid-state circuits, vol. 39, no. 1, January 2004.
12- Nuno Borges de Carvalho and Jos´e Carlos Pedro, “Large-and small-
signal IMD behavior of microwave power amplifiers,” IEEE
transactions on microwave theory and techniques, vol. 47, no. 12,
December 1999.
13- Sanghoon Kang, Byounggi Choi, and Bumman Kim, “Linearity analysis
of CMOS for RF application,” IEEE transactions on microwave theory
and techniques, vol. 51, no. 3, March 2003.
14- Jongchan Kang, Jehyung Yoon, Kyoungjoon Min, Daekyu Yu, Joongjin
Nam, Youngoo Yang, and Bumman Kim, “A highly linear and efficient
differential CMOS power amplifier with harmonic control,” IEEE
journal of solid-state circuits, vol. 41, No. 6, June 2006

136 | P a g e
 Chapter-13
Comparative DFT Study of Parallel and Antiparallel Conformation of
C18MIM.PF6 Ionic Liquid Crystal Dimers

Varsha Gautam, Devendra Singh

Department of Physics, School of Physical and Decision Sciences, Babasaheb

Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central University), Lucknow- (U.P.)

Devesh Kumar

Department of Physics, Siddharth University, Kapilvastu, Siddharth Nagar, (U.P.)

Dr. Alok Shukla

Assistant professor, Department of physics, MLK PG College Balrampur UP.

Abstract. An investigation of the interaction of C18MIM.PF6 ionic liquid

crystals along with their dimer configurations in different conformations. The
total energy, thermal energy, HOMO-LUMO Gap, dipole moment,
polarizability, constant volume heat capacity, entropy, zero-point energy
(ZPE), and enthalpy of the different configurations of C18MIM.PF6 ILCs
dimers are affected during the molecular interaction. The different interaction
properties of C18MIM.PF6 ILCs dimers studied in parallel and antiparallel
conformation with the help of density functional theory method b3lyp/6-
31g(d) of C18MIM.PF6 ILCs dimers.

Keywords: ILCs dimer, Molecular properties, Interaction Energy.

Introduction: As the "fourth state of matter," liquid crystals are thought to
exist. Their characteristics fall between between those of the liquid state and
those of the crystalline solid state. Though anisotropic materials, liquid
crystals flow like a liquid[1-2-3]. A category of liquid-crystalline substances
known as ionic liquid crystals contains anions and cations. Due to the ionic

137 | P a g e
nature, some of the properties of ionic liquid crystals are very different from
those of normal liquid crystals. Ionic liquid crystals are materials that combine
the characteristics of ionic liquids and liquid crystals.[ 4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11]
The addition of ionic groups can change the default molecular structure of a
(calamitic or discotic) mesogen, resulting in the creation of mesomorphic salts
known as ionic liquid crystals [12].Pal et.al. reported on the microwave-
promoted synthesis of novel calamitic-calamitic, calamitic-discotic, and
discotic-discotic ionic liquid crystalline dimers. These dimers couldn't be
created using traditional processes. Through the use of X-ray diffractometry,
differential scanning calorimetry, and polarised optical microscopy, the
thermotropic liquid crystalline characteristics of these salts were examined.
These salts with bromide as the counter ion were discovered to be
mesomorphic over a broad temperature range, with the exception of the one
containing calamitic-discotic units[13].Casella et.al. We looked at the
behaviour of freshly synthesised bistriflimide salts of symmetric viologen
dimers in liquid crystals. For intermediate spacer lengths and for relatively
long lateral alkyl chains, a smectic A phase was seen. Thermal analysis,
polarised optical microscopy, X-ray scattering, and solid-state NMR were
used to describe the systems. Except for systems with very short lateral chains,
the compounds also displayed an intermediate ordered smectic phase made up
of partially ordered ionic layers and molten layers of alkyl chains. When these
findings about the mesomorphic behaviour of viologen salts are qualitatively
compared to those of the more popular imidazolium salts, it becomes clear
how important the conformational degrees of freedom of the anions and the
cationic [14].

Computational Method: C18MIM.PF6 ILCs dimers geometries relaxed with

b3lyp/6-31g(d) using Gaussian 09. After optimization of ILCs. Firstly, we
create C18MIM.PF6, and C18MIM.PF6- C18MIM.PF6 liquid crystal dimer
molecules. All the ILCs dimers have the first monomer fixed, and then second
monomer When the first monomer set and the other monomer moved forward
or backward, then the interaction energy, polarizability, thermochemistry, and
dipole. moment will increase or decrease depending on the conformation of
the liquid crystal dimer molecules[15-16-17-18].

Results and Discussions:

138 | P a g e
Based on molecular interactions, we have studied different molecular
properties of different conformations of ILC dimer using the density
functional theory method with the help of b3lyp/6-31g(d) in different
sections. All the optimized structure of . Parallel conformation of
C18MIM.PF6 ionic liquid crystal dimer shown in figure 1., antiparallel
conformation of C18MIM.PF6 ionic liquid crystal dimer presented in
figure 2., cross to each other conformation of C18MIM.PF6 ionic liquid
crystal dimer shown in figure 3.In Table 1 represented the Highest
occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular
orbital (LUMO) gap, dipole moment, thermal energy, polarizability,
total energy, constant volume heat capacity, entropy, zero-point energy
(ZPE), enthalpy, Gibbs energy of C18MIM.PF6 - C18MIM.PF6 dimer in
parallel conformation, C18MIM.PF6 - C18MIM.PF6 dimer in
antiparallel conformation and C18MIM.PF6 - C18MIM.PF6 dimer cross
to each other conformation at 3 Å interacting position (translation along
the long molecular axis) in the forward direction. While Table 2
represented the Interaction energy for all conformation of C18MIM.PF6
- C18MIM.PF6 ionic liquid crystal dimers.

Figure 1. Parallel conformation of C18MIM.PF6 ionic liquid crystal dimer.

139 | P a g e
Figure 2. Antiparallel conformation of C18MIM.PF6 ionic liquid crystal dimer

Figure 3. cross to each other conformation of C18MIM.PF6 ionic liquid crystal

dimer

140 | P a g e
 Table 1. The Highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest
unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) gap, dipole moment, thermal energy,
polarizability, total energy, constant volume heat capacity, entropy, zero-point
energy (ZPE), enthalpy, Gibbs energy of C18MIM.PF6 - C18MIM.PF6 dimer in
parallel conformation, C18MIM.PF6 - C18MIM.PF6 dimer in antiparallel
conformation and C18MIM.PF6 - C18MIM.PF6 dimer cross to each other
conformation at 3 Å interacting position (translation along the long molecular
axis) in the forward direction.
Parameters C18MIM.PF6 - C18MIM.PF6 - C18MIM.PF6 -
C18MIM.PF6 C18MIM.PF6 C18MIM.PF6
Parallel dimer Antiparallel dimer cross to each other
dimer
HOMO-LUMO (eV) 6.127463 6.218 5.802287
Dipole moment 26.2651 13.067 22.7551
(Debye)
Thermal Energy -2401647.005134 2401651.036883 -2401655.671042
(kcal/mol)
Polarizability 336067.979 337289.74 337778.38
(kcal/mol)
Total Energy 857.014 855.885 857.405
(kcal/mol)
Entropy (kcal/mol) 350.641 330.926 339.665
ZPE (kcal/mol) -2401685.691101 2401688.53121 -2401694.025056
Enthalpy (kcal/mol) -2401646.412765 -2401650.444514 -2401655.078672
Gibbs Energy -2401750.955865 -2401749.11036 -2401756.349938
(kcal/mol)

Table2 :Interaction energy of C18MIM.PF6 - C18MIM.PF6 ionic liquid crystal

dimers
Conformations Dimer E1 Monomer  Interaction

141 | P a g e
 Monomer E0 energy (E1- E0
)

C18MIM.PF6 - -2402504.0 --2402380.2

C18MIM.PF6 Parallel
dimer -123.8
C18MIM.PF6 - -2402506.9 --2402380.2
C18MIM.PF6
Antiparallel dimer -126.7
C18MIM.PF6 - -2402513.0 --2402380.2
C18MIM.PF6 cross to
each other dimer -132.8

Conclusion:
In this work, it has found that the parallel conformation of C18MIM.PF6 -
C18MIM.PF6 ionic liquid crystal dimers have minimum negative interaction
energy comparison to all conformations of the dimers. All the conformations
of C18MIM.PF6 - C18MIM.PF6 dimer have negative interaction energy, so we
can conclude that the C18MIM.PF6 - C18MIM.PF6 ionic liquid crystals
strongly interact with each other. The antiparallel conformations of the
C18MIM.PF6 - C18MIM.PF6 ionic liquid crystal dimer have minimum
polarizability and also have the least dipole moment.The parallel conformation
of C18MIM.PF6 - C18MIM.PF6 ionic liquid crystal dimer has the highest
isotropic polarizability.
Acknowledgement: Varsha Gautam are thankful to University Grants
Commission (UGC) New Delhi for providing non-NET Fellowship.
References:

142 | P a g e
1. Saeva, F. D. Liquid Crystals: The Fourth State of Matter; Marcel Dekker:
New York, 1979.
2. Kelker, H.; Hatz, R. Handbook of Liquid Crystals; Verlag Chemie:
Weinheim, 1980. 3. Demus, D.; Goodby, J.; Gray, G. W.; Spies, H.-W.; Vill,
V., Eds. Handbook of Liquid.
4. Welton, T. Chem. Rev. 1999, 99, 2071.
5. Sheldon, R. Chem. Commun. 2001, 2399.
6.Seddon, K. R. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 1997, 68, 351.
7.Earle, M. J.; Seddon, K. R. Pure Appl. Chem. 2000, 72, 1391.
8. Dupont, J.; de Souza, R. F.; Suarez, P. A. Z. Chem. Rev. 2002, 102, 3667.
9.Wasserscheid, P.; Keim, W. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2000, 39, 3772.
10.Wasserscheid, P.; Welton, T., Eds. Ionic Liquids in Synthesis; Wiley-VCH:
Weinheim, 2002.
11. Ohno, H., Ed. Electrochemical Aspects of Ionic Liquids; Wiley: New
York, 2005
12.Paleos, C.M. Thermotropic liquid crystals derived from amphiphilic
mesogens. Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. 1994, 243, 159–183.
13. Pal, S.K. and Kumar, S., 2006. Microwave-assisted synthesis of novel
imidazolium-based ionic liquid crystalline dimers. Tetrahedron letters, 47(50),
pp.8993-8997.
14. Casella, G., Causin, V., Rastrelli, F. and Saielli, G., 2016. Ionic liquid
crystals based on viologen dimers: tuning the mesomorphism by varying the
conformational freedom of the ionic layer. Liquid Crystals, 43(9), pp.1161-
1173.
15. M.J. Frisch, G.W. Trucks, H.B. Schlegel, G.E. Scuseria, M.A. Robb, J.R.
Cheeseman, G. Scalmani, V. Barone, B.I. Mennucc, G.A. Petersson, H.
Nakatsuji, M. Caricato, X. Li, H.P. Hratchian, A.F. Izmaylov, J. Bloino, G.
Zheng, J.L. Sonnenberg, M. Hada, M. Ehara, K. Toyota, R. Fukuda, J.
Hasegawa, M. Ishida, T. Nakajima, Y. Honda, O. Kitao, H. Nakai, T. Vreven,
J.A. Montgomery, Jr, J.E. Peralta, F. Ogliaro, M. Bearpark, J.J. Heyd, E.
Brothers, K.N. Kudin, V.N. Staroverov, R. Kobayashi, J. Normand, K.
Raghavachari, A. Rendell, J.C. Burant, S.S. Iyengar, J. Tomasi, M. Cossi, N.
Rega, J.M. Millam, M. Klene, J.E. Knox, J.B. Cross, V. Bakken, C. Adamo, J.
Jaramillo, R. Gomperts, R.E. Stratmann, O. Yazyev, A.J. Austin, R.I. Camm,
C. Pomelli, J.W. Ochterski, R.L. Martin, K. Morokuma, V.G. Zakrzewski,
G.A. Voth, P. Salvador, J.J. Dannenberg, S. Dapprich, A.D. Daniels, O.
143 | P a g e
Farkas, J.B. Foresman, J.V. Ortiz, J. Cioslowski and D.J. Fox, Gaussian, Inc.,
C.T. Wallingford, Gaussian 09, Revision A.02(2009).
16.Jacobsen, E. and Lyons, R., 2003. The sliding DFT. IEEE Signal
Processing Magazine, 20(2), pp.74-80.
17.Paier, J., Marsman, M. and Kresse, G., 2007. Why does the B3LYP hybrid
functional fail for metals?. The Journal of chemical physics, 127(2), p.024103.
18.Rassolov, V.A., Ratner, M.A., Pople, J.A., Redfern, P.C. and Curtiss, L.A.,
2001. 6‐31G* basis set for third‐row atoms. Journal of Computational
Chemistry, 22(9), pp.976-984.

144 | P a g e