le use of by a group n the affairs of their society. all people in a given culture, e learned the system of that culty ite or to interact. Pei & Gaynor (1954: 119)s 1 system of communication by sound, i.e., thr speech and hearing, among human beings p or community, using vocal symbols pos: wentional meanings. Wardaugh (1972:3) d a system of vocal symbols used for humar According to Greene (1972:25), la ible sentences; and the grammar of a langua ‘h distinguish between sentences and no sky (1957:13) defines language as a set (finit (1958:137-138), a habits. This system can be lems: ‘system: a stock of morphemes, s in which they occur; system: a stock of phonemes, and which they occur; emic system: the code which ties tical and and the phonological system: which associates various combinations of morphemes, and in which morphemes can be put, with situations, or kinds of things and ; the ways which sequences of erted into sound waves by the er, and are decoded from the subsystems and the lastdo so even if they were cut off from all h other cats. On the other hand, some ci seems to share the social nature of is therefore learned activity. Nor should it 1 communication is social, a part of our sts of instinctive reactions which like the trembling of fear or the suffusion es anger. It is now clear that there is learned behavior that had at one is systematic. As in any system, arranged in recurrent designs, so that ‘seen, predictions can be made about can be drawn if one side and two is an incomplete sentence likeof language is a substitution a series of entities, for each which a et entities can be substituted without he, Jack, William, the man, her husb: verb, entities like buys, offers, as well as is or gives, may be used. characteristic of language systems is that are grouped into classes, always simpler, d more sharply separated than the infinite e world. For instance, a whole series of under the single word chair, and chair is put of nouns. In dealing with objects in a¢ Pe rest stiking facts i is that ch are not present, and we can talk ly produce a strong physical that reaction. This type of out an immediately present called displaced speech, and it is Tt is what enables 1 man nto know at a given moment. By means of el ate models of distance experience accuracy by acting upon them. All that ion leads to the supposition that is the kind of symbolic activity y connected not merely with of the symbol system itself. We are incapable of displacedhuman language is always to mean that every language ha: It is a characteristic of vocabulary t which have gone out of use, it is a ‘of the fact that resistance to new forms may Since language enables the user to make onses to all things and since vocabulary is thus “open”, differences in vocabulary between function of language is as a means of — n this communicative function, we canobvious instances of this. For affective meaning (what language *s attitudes) is clearly all-important. nection of language is the directive function influence the behavior or attitudes of others. instances of the directive function are jests. This function of social control places *s end, rather than the originator’s end ‘it resembles the expressive function in giving on the whole, to conceptual meaning than to g, affective, and connotative meaning. Function ¢ function can be defined as the use of of the linguistic artifact itself, and for no s aesthetic function can have at least as as with affective meaning. But the poetry is that it is language ; all possible avenues of7 Orientation towards subject-matter “3and morphemes and the phrases at structure of a language. According to 972:132), linguistics is the field of study ch ‘is language. Linguists study language as _ municate, as individual expression, as the ‘a speech community, as spoken sound, as 4 yut not least, Francis (1958:15) defines tific study of language. q ons of linguistics given above, we can es is the scientific study of ae Thetheir carrying on of their it also includes records of ‘some time in the past, namely, nedia as photograph records and produces careful objective of observation used by linguists are Je listening, phonetic transcription, and ts, such as oscillographs, sound- x Records made in these ways ‘objective descriptions, generalizations. The kinds of istics are primarily statements and arrangement of significant ch are actually used by native ition include statements place in specific languages and other relationships 1 in the past.1s ‘now, it is constantly ena all parts of its methods, findings, g to Corder (1973:83-84), the characteristic oach is its objectivity, its logical coherence nd the requirement of verification. unt of the scientific method proposes that its is observation of data. On the basis of this hypotheses about the nature and regularity of the investigation are formed. Using these tions are made about the phenomena, which yw controlled, observation or experiment, are falsified. A hypothesis, confirmed by the omes a theory about the matter in hand. On this eory is what is arrived at as the end point of a set of c ies and is determined by the data which were pint of the process. The implication of this acco starts with an entirely ‘open mind’ about ng presumably an open mind about wof the hypothesis is an objective results are mechanically verifi gation has been empirical (step 1) an results should be independent of th ent the analyst, and publicity verifiable bgroup, (3) Sino-Tibetan Group, widian Group, (6) Austro-Asiatic Group, The Indo-European Group, et divided into: (a) Teutonic Subgroup, | Subgroup, etc. Further, these subgroups of divided into individual languages. The — s includes German, Dutch, English, etc., includes Gaelic, Welsh, Breton, etc., the Subgroup includes French, Spanish, Rumanian, etc., the Slavonic Subgroup:the aspects of linguistics ‘on the basis of time or point distinction is between linguistics. Synchronic means at a given point of time.” It y, in other words. On the other hand, with changes that occur in time.” is distinction between synchronic and is very important because many mistakes overlooking it. e in its diachronic aspect is often is a perfectly acceptable is indeed the description of On the other hand, the study of aspect is often called descriptive ss acceptable and misleading term, : tics is basically descriptive. 1 whieh we can study language. ic statements about twoly ile scientist. ‘The structural linguists y have developed methods and standards n the aspects of linguistics, Crystal (1980 different branches of linguistics may ding to Ag ienists focus and range ¢ical linguist’ are people with very and attitudes. The term structural and specifically used to refer to the to syntax and phonology current in the emphasis was on providing discovery analysis of the surface structure of a es in a more general sense, referring to any ¢ analysis that attempts to establish explicit between linguistic units in a surface emphasis in language study is on the s and units, without referring to such e, some linguists, particularly within talk pejoratively of taxonomicjes may be recognized. They are e subject matter is sound-fe organization into speech-si subject matter is the o groups or families, called photh the structure of word- tates that in addition to the four there are four more branches n us to a greater or less degree. p linguistic geography, and ve in common two qualities: (1) they apply the findings and methods of tion of ees and the attainment of. on materials, as and methods from the strictly defined limits of nature both of applied sciences. dy of meaning. If it deals with is philosophical semantics. If it ning, it is referential or, ina ties. Only if it deals with it be called linguistictten that it uses synchronic as well. gr is a "liaison science", because ls drawn from other subject matter of linguistics proper. The most fields are history, economics, demography. In fact, not only does it e disciplines, it contributes to them as the preparing of dictionaries. This is the most important branch of applied d the one most familiar to the general ‘our purposes, three facts about ‘important: graphy is an applied science, one with the practical needs of users e, it is still a science. This means that use the methods of objective zation, and constant revision are essential to the scientificlinguistics ches of Structural Linguisticse study of the articulatory and acoust the term phonology is often used to and principles that govern the distrit sense of the word, phonology ref he branch of linguistics which st uunds form systems and and Rodman, 1983:71).e of speech sounds, as ear; (3) auditory phonetics to speech sounds, as mediated d brain. According to O'Grady and phonetics is the study of the inventory of language. There are two ways of “One way studies the physiological tion. This is knownas articulated ywn as acoustic phonetics deals with sounds. It examines the physical sh sounds as they are determined and ines, and attempts to deduce the acoustic tion and perception. Francis (1958:57) are three branches of phonetics: which deals with speech production, deals with speech reception, and ch deals with speech transmission. es phonemics as a branch of r Bae crpsization of phonesmechanism consists of the ‘les. The respiratory muscles t air is either drawn into the lungs or The air-stream drawn into the lungs is r-stream, and the air-stream pushed out egressive air-stream. The air-stream m nt role in the production of linguistic air stream. also play a very important role in the sounds. These articulators lie in the head, These articulators are commonly tive articulators and (2) passive e articulators are the articulators that can e articulators and include the lower lip, of the tongue, the blade of the tongue, 1e, and the back of the tongue and e articulators, except the velum, li ith. The passive articulators are the e and lie in the upper part of thecords are brought close together, r-stream passing between them causshare. The most basic ‘main classes, namely, a and vowels can be f differences in articulation. articulated with a narrow or tract. The air-stream is either icted so much that noise is passes the constriction. On the ed or articulated with little | tract. The difference in articulation ywels to differ in the way they sound. than consonants. This means that er lasting than consonants. of Consonants be classified on the basis of (1) the manner of articulation and (3) ss. The place of articulation is each can be modified to produce a sulation is the modificationarticulated by justing voicing or voicelessness. int in English, that is, h. er of articulation, consonants are with a complete and momentary ugh the oral cavity. In the world's bilabial, dental, alveolar, palatal, articulation. The stops in English belong to a large class of at also includes vowels and The fricatives form a production, they are The air streamhindering the air- at the air-stream cannot meantime, the velum is through the nose cavity. als transcribed as m, n, and mmonly found in the worlds nerous variants. They form a ywn as liquids. Liquids are — obstruction formed when as it is for the fricative properties of both Glides may be thought he aud itory impressionshangeably with the elessness, consonants are are consonants produced with the The voiced consonants in English n, n, 1, r, w, and y. s are consonants produced without ds. The voiceless consonants in of articulation, and whether e consonants are put into the ‘easy to describe and namenell ) simple vowels and (2) diphthongs. Simple v« ot ¢ hibit a change in quality as in the following . a single syllable. This change in vowel quality is cl le in the following words: say, buy, cow, ice, go,els produced with the tongue high u:, and U. rowels produced with the tongue is They are: e, a, a, and A. wels produced with the tongue is 0. lips are round or unround,ee and nature of the stricture? n of consonants, some examples are n mechanism is the pulmonic air-ing of Vowels d and named by using four part of the mouth where they are tongue in the mouth, (3) whether and (4) whether the vowel ‘that must be mentioned first is g, followed by the parameter then followed by themv words which are of the same class asthe base they are formed, whereas class-changing z words which belong to different classesords. Morphology 22n be divided into inflectionz!_ morphology and word ed lexical morpholegy). Inflectional deals with various forms of word, while word- als with the formation of new words from given ation can, in turn, be subdivided into ‘compounding (or composition). Derivation is the formation of new words by affixation, ing is concerned with the formation new words from 2) potential stems. Derivation is sometimes also into class-maintaining derivation and class g vation. Class-maintaining derivation is the of new words which are of the same class as the base they are formed, whereas class-changing es words which belong to different classes Compounding is usually subdivided class of the resultant compound: that is, into (boy-friend, manservant, woman doctor, erbs (carbon-date, color code, head-hunt,(1980:232-233), morphology is studies the structure of words, ‘of morpheme construct. It is ation of words in sentences. It is in the 1940s and 1950s, analysis in this sense ; morphologicalnent ofa grammar that deals with the particularly of complex words. The se can be divided into two broad categories, 1, of which only the latter are relevant to ne closed categories are the function words, s, determiners, and a few others. Newly ° words cannot be added to these categories, we say that they are closed. The categories of open are the major lexical categories: nouns (N), ectives (Adj), and adverbs (Ady). It is to these new words may be added. Because the major ology is how people make up and understand have never encountered before, morphology is ly with major lexical categories. ord that is a member of a major lexical category item. A lexical item can best be thought of or lexicon. The entry for each lexical addition to its pronunciation (phonology): meaning (semantics), to what lexical “English Morpholos? adefined in terms of the way in which ).In this way, the word can be defined as A free form is an element that can occur hose position with respect to neighboring h they may be definable as minimal free meaningful units of language we are are often broken down further. In al meaningful units are called ay consist of one or more morphemes. nple, only consists of one morpheme; of two morphemes; and the word e morphernes Thus, the difference can be stated that all (simple)es are all morphemes that can hich can constitute words morphemes are all morphemes elements. Roots or stems usually whereas affixes belong to bound — & Harnish (1984:68) classify allh, and Allomorph (3-16) defines a morpheme as the atical analysis; a morph as a segment of Tepresents a particular morpheme; and an ically, lexically, or grammatically of a set of morphs representing a In English, the plural morpheme in its ee different phonological realizations. It is er sibilant consonants /s, z, 8, 2, ¢, j/ as in it is realized as /s/ after any other voiceless in books, deaths; and it is realized as /z/ n beds, bones, boys. Which of these forms the phonetic environment; that is, it is d. Each of these three forms is a morphshows that inflection takes place after all sses, including derivation. based on their productivity, inflectional affixes very few exceptions, whereas derivational tically apply to restricted classes of stem le, can combine virtually with any noun form; whereas the suffix -ize can combine ns and adjectives to form a verb. English Morphology 5!ne affi> Mal forms adjectives from nouns; from adjectives; and the affix -ation ‘the word decentralization can best be 1g with the simple free form centre,line in the table above is actually a which predicts how words may be formed inIs, We can add the suffix —ment to meaning ‘the act or result of X-ing’.Ys ngement of the constructions formed and inflection (words) into study of the Perit of ¥ words, we can say that ire of word groups.Furthermore, Hockett (1958:164) | is a pattern for building composite lass out of ICs of specific form- 1e old dog lay in the corner contains rmed. For example, the old man who to his son's house are immediateC analysis shows, English sentences are organized, patterned way. ‘The smallest unit Jevel of structural grammar analysis is the est unit is the sentence. Within these lower ts, the sentence is the only unit that is not a and the word is the only unit that is not a ‘All units in between are both constructions and upon which level of sentence analysis syntactic constructions: (1) phrase, (2) ». A phrase, according to Elson & ed of two or more words jicate, a clause,means that the whole phrase can . d Based on the number and types ogroup with noun as its head. of a determiner which functions as h is the head of the group.seriously sick. p tastes delicious.(1969:39), the sentence is a in which the constitute is any contour, and the constituents are particles, and intonation patterns. (1933:170) defines the sentence as an form, not included by virtue of any uction in any larger form. Based on this (1958:199) defines the sentence as a is nota constituent, a grammatical form which fion with any other grammatical form. From on, we can conclude that there are three essential ; (1) they are relatively isolatable, (2) they tion patterns, and (3) they are composed of ‘are at least five criteria that can be used to (Cook, 1969:40-41): (1) according to the in the base, (2) according to the internal e main clause, (3) according to the type of ed, (4) according to the actor-action according to the presence or absence of verb phrase. Based on the number of nces can be classified into (a) simplesentences and (b) presence and absence of can be classified into (a) ‘bcomplete, (c) statement, (d) active, sentences which lack one of thesent + be +ing + V + Deon rule can be applied. If we want to the following string: : permutation, incorporation, and m permutation transformation can be form(1983:35) define a referring used in an utterance to refer to ted collection of things or people), ar referent in mind. The name Fred in ed hit me", where the speaker has a nd when he says "Fred", is a referring in "There's no Fred at this address" is not , because in this case a speaker would not in mind when he utters the word. expression can be a referring expressions or on the context. This is true of indefinite noun noun phrase a man, for example, can be sion or not. depending on the context. When was in here looking for you last night", is used to refer to a he first sign of the ave been drawn from service by the a referring expression, but in the power of forty buses", fortytic analysis of simple de two major roles played by namely, (1) the predicator a s they can take. The predicates iment are called one-place that can take twoite as the set of all individuals to which that r ly be applied. It is the set of things which lly be referred to by using an expression whose is that predicate. The extension of window is the rindows in the universe; the extension of dog is the dogs in the universe; and the extension of house is the ill houses in the universe. ____ It should be remembered that extensions are relative to times, past, present and future. The extension of house, for iple, includes all past houses, all present houses, and all future houses. According to Hurford & Heasley (1983:85), a Prototype of a predicate is an object which is held to be very typical of the kind of object which can be referred to by an expression containing the predicate. A man of medium height and average build, between 30 and 50 years old, with brownish hair, with no particularly distinctive characteristics of defects could be a prototype of the predicate man in certain areas of the world. C. Sense 1. Sense Properties and Stereotypes According to Hurford & Heasley (1983:91), the sense expression is its indispensable hard core of meaning. Theor phrase is ambiguous, if it has tw ‘not themselves synonymous of e: k is synonymous with eleph elephant's proboscis andthe disjunction of two propositions in an infer the disjunction of the same two pposite order. For example, b STRANGLE m is equivalent to C STRANGLE m Vb of inference can be expressed as follows (premise) ) (conclusion) that if, for example, the premise If Henry died, is given, and further the premise Henry did n, it would be correct to conclude that Tarryt “writer, on the other hand, * terms undefined. These semantic primes. The semantic linguistic semanticist's dictionary is a list of es a their senses. A dictionary entry is given to each a predicate which lists the sense properties of that and the sense relations between it and other s. To give a concrete idea of the shape of the semantic /, an informal example is given below: BEING: One place Synonym of MAN1 One place Synonym of HUMAN BEING One place Hyponym of MALE Hyponym of ADULT Hyponym of HUMAN BEING.fa What telat d in relation to the verb. The has the following role-frame: AFFECTED: (INSTRUMENT)in this case, the Greek language, had been given to divine gift. Ar g the Greek philosophers who were concerned 1e study of language were Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, n Thrax. Plato developed his theory of "natural ‘speculating about words and their meanings, he ed that a given word bears an inherent, natural, and ¢ logical relationship to the thing or concept for which Believing as he did in the universal "rightness" of Plato concentrated his philosophical attention on the ‘of words and their meanings. He devised what is ly the first system of word-classification in the western His system was based on meaning and had only two- ‘classes: onoma and rhema. He defined words in theseemed to be on the side of the analogist. the importance of including the study of grammar in the education of the cultured Roman. In his Is S of language he was on the opinion that proper usage st be based on three criteria: reason, authority, and antiquity. ‘Studies of word etymology convinced him that meaning more significant than form in word development. He concluded that "reason" was fundamental, that word choices ‘were made originally on the basic principles of natural logic and analogy. Concerning the correctness of current language Practices, he urged that the scholar pay attention to the "authority" of current usage, which he defined as the undisputed practices of educated men. If and when scholars ‘were unable to agree, however, he supported the exercise of “critical judgment," which he felt to be best served by consulting the older language practices of Greek "antiquity." ‘The two Latin grammarians whose work has had the ‘most continuing influence were Donatus (about A. D. 350) and iscian (about A. D. 500). Donatus wrote one book on parts of ech and another, Ars Minor, in which he summarized the i " of Latin grammar; and Priscian wrote an eighteen- grammar. Both of these men based their work on eTut also extended its influence during thin the Catholic church, as the guardian came the official language. g the Medieval scholars whose work has recently to have been familiar to those who followed were Peter of Spain, and Peter Helias. Anselm wrote a the title De Grammatico in which he expressed interest in grammatical distinctions such as by the concepts of the "signifier" and the thing . " Peter of Spain was similarly interested in such al questions as the grammatical and semantic ions of different meanings given to a single word or Peter detected an important difference between the " of a word. Peter Helias, a in mid-twelfth century scholar, whose philosophic ary on the Latin grammarian, Priscian, Stressed that it significance of grammar study. Another important Medieval development was the g body of written grammar of the European vernacular By the end of the 16 century grammars had been n for nearly all of the European vernacular languages. of the most fascinating and certainly one of the - grammars was the First Grammatical Treatise an Old Norse Grammar written in the‘was characterized by the ist position was based on the of Rene Descartes, who believed that , capabilities, and ideas were innate. He acquisition of knowledge is determined by ct, built-in principles which are present in every from the moment of birth. Among the most human achievements is the creative use of language. The empiricists, on the other hand, whose earliest dard bearers were John Locke and David Hume, insisted hat everything humans come to know including language is explainable as sense-oriented, learned behavior. The ‘ists denied the existence of innate ideas. For several decades, this controversy became so important and dominated the thinking of scholars in many disciplines, including linguistics. Grammarians of the rationalist school returned to the ‘notion of the early Greek philosophers: that the very fact of - language pointed to the existence of certain eternal, universal truths. They followed the thinking of Descartes who argued that Tanguage has both an outer and an inner form. It is the inner of language that ought to tell us more about the human ‘He cited language use as the particular form of human r He argued that human language is not only species- ‘but also inevitable. It is an ability acquired by every person. In particular, Descartes stressed the freedom avernacular languages, Intrigued by the great g languages revealed by their came to believe that there must be language principles. They concluded an's work ought to be focused on the ersals. They were convinced that these e reflected in all natural human languages. French was not inferior to Latin, they became ent to replace Latin with French as the in France. They argued that any fully al vernacular language was bound to be more resentative of universal language principles than ‘ing that any natural language was an outer of the inner workings of human mentality, the Port ed that the only proper role of the grammarian is as accurately and objectively as possible, the actual actices of a speaking community as they exist, not 1g to subjective prescriptive notions about what the to be, and above all not according to the rules ofothesis of the inner and outer aspect of language, oned that language is phrase-rather than word- d; every sentence is a series of phrases, each of which nts an underlying thought or idea. Instead of the term er and inner form, they spoke of surface structures and deep ures, They defined a surface structure as the observable er grammatical form of a sentence. Underlying this surface they posited the existence of one or more abstract or deep structure. The deep structure of language, ouch not actually expressed, represents the implicit body of abstract ideas or thought relationships which are present in the human mind and which are common to all human thinking. The fact that identical thought relationships are expressed by a great "variety of surface forms in the particular grammars of different Janguages worried the Port Royalists not at all. Such surface variations were considered alternative devices for expressing the same universal thought concepts. The Port Royalists claimed that this sort of surface _structure-deep structure relationships is basic. It is common to all languages and thus constitutes a universal language inciple.ne other scholars whose work seems to have been ideas of Descartes and his followers were A. W. Wilhelm von Humboldt (both were Germans). solely as outside forces. He was particularly in the existence of what he called poetic quality of e. He did not limit it to that highly developed and ly rare excellence of language which can be as true art. Wilhelm von Humboldt's large work was Verschiedenheit des Menschlichen Sprachbaus shed in 1836. He supported the proposition that an organic form of language for which there is 2 or fixed number of . inherent rules, the surfacees may result in cultural y part of the 18th century, the great scholarly works continued to be written re ess, as early as the late Middle Ages, a few ‘begun to write grammars of the European This trend continued through the period Then, during the 17th and 18th centuries, scholars became increasingly interested in such tracing the etymologies of word, and as more and came to the fully developed European vernacular ‘interest in writing grammars of these languages creasingly widespread. Along with this interest there or redeveloped a second major linguistic between the descriptivist and the prescriptivists that actually exist among the native But the descriptivists disagreed among he following points: (a) whose usage was to be d?, and (b) should it be the "best" or most or should "general" usage as illustrated by lage practices of the majority be the guide?. Developments orical Comparative Linguistics Inspired by the discoveries made by Sassetti (an Italian nt) on Sanskrit and those of Sir William Jones (a ment official with East India Company) on Panini's of Sanskrit, European scholars developed the so- historical and comparative linguistics. Franz Bopp, a language scholar who is often called the pioneer of and comparative linguistics, published Uber das yystem. In this book he did two things. First, he the results of his own comparative studies of verb tions in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Persian and several of the n Teutonic (Germanic) languages. Second, he argued ; own results, along with those of other comparative , provided convincing support for the theory that not l ese languages developed simultaneously,d reasonable doubt that humans societies at least as early as six rs before the birth of Christ. _ evidence had been accumulated to gly support the theory of related languages, "families." English, most of the European guages, and a number of Asiatic languages were all 1 ght to have been developed from a single parent Tanguage which linguists called Indo-European. ‘The development of the existing "sister" languages had ‘taken place independently but simultaneously. ‘This development had, furthermore, taken place over a __-very long period of time. The original Indo-European language had vanished long ago. Alll existing vernacular languages were still changing and developing. ‘Language change is a continuous, open-ended process never stops so long as a language continues to betentative conclusions were reached, required to verify or disapprove a theory, e are at least three different kinds of linguistic at were carried out. The first of these was diachronic stigation, namely, detailed studies of a particular over a long period of time, or comparative language h over an extended period of historical time, Other s concentrated on synchronic language studies, namely, "the careful analysis of a particular language at one specific ‘point in historical time. Linguists who concentrated their research on the diachronic study of English looked for historical explanations of such language phenomena as the existence of so many regularities in word forms. Then they looked for explanations for such things as how the English spelling system had come to be so "irrational." Historical explanations were advanced for all of these language peculiarities. ‘ At the same time other scholars became interested in _ newly revived speculations about the origin of language, and ‘numerous theories were offered, among others, the "Bow Wow heory", the "Ding Dong Theory”, and the "Yo He Ho ory" According to the speculation of Bow Wow Theory, The Historical Developments5 that lang! e of the need to express such than by a need for practical majority of 19th century linguists in England interested in the existing work in historical iti linguistics, with the result that the b 1s of philosophical grammarians such as Wilhelm fumboldt and Otto Jesperson were largely ignored. In the ., the prescriptive grammars of the pedagogues were more firmly established in English and American _ American Structural Linguistics The discoveries of the European historical comparative s were influential. They could shed much light on the a of language development and rid language ‘of some of their earlier ideas about the nature of Further, their newly developed empirical methods: the way for new approaches to language study. The ant work which made use of these new field-study, and that, above all, they would refrain judgment or reaching premature and the method of analyzing the sounds of a ch was a valuable tool for the historical linguists, a practical necessity for the American anthropologists. od was one of recording hundreds and thousands of s, then attempting to distinguish those sound differences were significant. After that, it was possible to devise a alphabet for translating the important sounds of a Whether by accident or by design, the linguistic ions of the American structuralists followed a order: first, they must isolate and identify the nt sounds (phonemes) of a language; next, they must which particular sound sequences make up the words e language; and last, the structure of the languages ‘must be analyzed and recorded. These cea called discovery procedures. One consequence of es was the postponement of syntactical most important contributions of styes, a number ae ‘by their success and dedication to the analysis they had developed and refined turned their attention to writing a structural ish. this time, most of the structuralists had been ly critical of traditional grammar. Most of the alists expressed their utmost contempt for the methods ional grammarians, most of which they labeled guided." They attacked traditional grammar as meaning subjective, prescriptivist, intuitive - in short as Tt was Franz Boas and later his student Edward Sapir, anthropological linguists, who established the basic r Boas was the first linguist who formally proposed. t al analysis should be conducted on three successive s, beginning with the sound level, proceeding next to word ure analysis, and only then to the analysis of syntax or oe structure. ir further developed the system proposed by Boas. obably the first to have called attention to theructural theory. First in his e Study of Language (1914), and later in 933) he presented a detailed outline of the ‘structural language analysis. He stressed the of using empirical data only. The grammarian's task as much language data as possible, then to e and classify the data, and then, on the basis of objective ce alone, to reach conclusions. Bloomfield's most important contribution was his d of immediate constituent analysis. He pointed out English sentences are expanded, on a binary principle. At __any level, from simple to complex, a sentence can be divided ‘into a pair of units called immediate constituents, each of which applies its whole grammatical or structural meaning to the ~ other. This system of syntactical analysis became the _ Structuralists' chief tool at the third level of grammatical _ analysis, that is, the syntactic or sentence analysis. Another important figure among the structuralists was cf es Carpenter Fries. Among Fries' contributions were: /@) he devised a word classification system based solely on the rms or structures of isolated words, (b) he listed five tural grammatical devices which serve, in English to nal grammatical clues, and (c) he invented a system of matical analysis by means of test frames. Fries also The Historical Developments of Linguisticsstructuralists' work in phonology; and many others their own important contributions: W. Nelson Haas, Archibald Hill, Zellig Harris, Charles These people and many others worked with great nd enthusiasm during the forties and fifties and nd. Many of them are still very much in the linguistic continuing to make important contributions to the of language. Latest Developments - ‘Transformational Generative Grammar In 1957, Noam Chomsky published a book with the Syntactic Structures. This book challenged many of the ic beliefs of the linguistic "establishments." This book soon a deep influence on language studies. In this book, put forward major criticism on the structural h to language study. The criticism ranges from a charge that the entire struct i "wrong" assumptions to the rejection of such specific ralist me as their taxonomic -gathering techniques and ef in the adequacy of "discovery procedures.”the assumption that a grammar adequacy can be against the intuitions of mature native speakers. An e grammar should be able to explain what the speaker 10Ws to be possible. No grammar can be said that it is adequate unless it is able to mirror the speaker's ability to produce and to understand an unlimited number of grammatical utterances - even sentences which he has never spoken or heard before. According to Chomsky, a grammar model should be based on syntax rather than on semantics. Syntax is a primary independent component of a grammar system. One more condition is added by Chomsky that must be met by an adequate grammar, that is, a correct grammar must be able to account for recursiveness. The recursiveness is a process in which the repeated application of a small number of rules permits the generation of infinitely long sentences. It is truly a property of all human languages. In 1965 Chomsky published Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, his first major revision of transformational-generative grammar. This book came to be referred to in the literature as _ the Aspects model or as Standard ‘Transformational . Grammar Theory. “The Historical Developments of~ to call attention to unresolved problems still in need of investigation. Chomsky's assertion that the linguist must rely on the ic intuitions of native speakers was one of the most ial assumptions. Most structuralists rejected the ‘intuition," and they considered Chomsky's method as _ subjective, unscientific, and circular. If the linguist begins a study by consulting the native speaker's intuitions, they construct a grammar which describes these intuitions, and _ finally tests the correctness (or truth) of the grammar against the original intuitions. Chomsky answered such charges by insisting that it is r more dangerous to view objectivity as an end in itself. If the al is insight and understanding (the concern of all sciences), bjectivity is used merely as a tool for the search. He admitted there are certainly problems inherent in relying on ition, but at the moment he knew of no better way to begin.ed by native speakers can tell us very competence, because in the normal living it is inevitable that all kinds of interruptions, emotional state, and so on) interfere with linguistic performance. In other are limits to performance that have nothing to do ical ability. was this realization that led Chomsky to reject the ts! data-collecting approach to language study from ing. By confining themselves to a description of poken utterances, the structuralists limited themselves dy of linguistic performance. By so doing, the really ant goal was missed, because what linguists should seek and explain is intuitive language competence. Structural linguists had argued that language learning explained solely as a form of conditional behavior. By srocesses of observation, imitation, and cultural ent, a child learns the sounds and the syntactical ‘the language to what it is exposed. It is only through rs of observation and induction that a child is able toky, language Ascaris cannot the Tesult of some kind of inductive ge user can go beyond the evidence ary data. This means that the child itself me additional component to the task, some concept-forming capacity, which enables it to om the available information exactly what is needed, discarded. He argued that there exist in the mind ructure which determines, in advance of its acquisition, of the specific forms of the acquired knowledge. In is, a child must possess some kind of inherent ic theory that generally limits and specifies the possible any human language; it must have, at birth, a termined strategy for choosing which information, among amounts of random data to which it is exposed, is and which should not be ignored. ‘Such conclusions led to a renewed interest in the ce of language universals, that is, a property or set of which are common to all natural languages and e are necessary present in the psychological ies of the human mind. If a child who automaticallyith the problem of meaning and meaning y linguists came to feel that meaning is basic ence, and that therefore the grammar theory w to semantic considerations in the phrase of the grammar. Syntactic Structures, Chomsky had argued that a is best formulated as a self-contained syntactic without reference to and independent from r tions of semantics. This was not to deny the ortance of meaning in language. He simply believed at that that once one discovers the syntactic structure of a that knowledge can be put to use in discovering the g function of the language. ; Chomsky had accepted the notion that all transformations should be meaning-preserving. Now he _ conceived a revised mode! with a base component called the deep structure. The base component would include syntactical semantic and phonological information represented by e matrixes of lexical item, and phrase markers (NEG, Q 3). All sentences would then be generated directly from the \cture, or base, by means of various transformation to become actual sentences or surface structures. ~The Historical Developmen of Linguists 131 alllthese obstacles, however, the idea of making f revision was appalling, for what it would mean is the abstract material contained in the deep structure (the of the grammar would represent linguistic universals. the transformation operations would give instruction for neratic forms of particular languages. Another advantage of the revised model is that the guistic property of recursiveness (the ability to repeatedly embed one sentence into another), which the Syntactic _ Structures model had for the most part assigned to the transformation rules, would now be completely accounted for in the base. This would mean that whenever the constituent NP appears in a deep structure derivation, we would have the option of embedding an S (sentence) after it. The most serious problem encountered in reformulating the grammar model was that of deciding how to include both semantic and syntactic information in the deep structure rules. Chomsky's solution (in Aspects) was to ~ continue to consider the syntax rules primary. Semantic rules then be merely interpretive.lary, there are many difficult problems that by the decision to revise the model; and there are ifficulties that remain unresolved and Possibly to the Aspects Grammar ional grammar theory against the criticisms sts. This aim was clearly accomplished. Most have by now tg agree that the concept of ions is of vital importance to an adequate grammar ed to meet. It is also widely agreed today that a grammar y should seek to explain the roles of phonology, syntax, Semantics in the derivation of sentences, particularly the tribution of each of these components to the meanings of . Chomsky was so convinced that human language on is a remarkable phenomenon to be attributable only ion and training. The majority of linguists today € rationalist view that language leaming is a ly unique and inevitable result of the fact of being than an achievement based on varying degrees of The Historical Developments of Linguistics 133ic debate is that being conducted onalists, who are joined in the search for rsals. In fact, it is this search which led to Chomsky's syntactic approach even before published. — George Lakoff brought forward the first of these es at the Aspects theory. In his doctoral dissertation, Nature of Syntactic Irregularity. Lakoff argued that he categories generated by the phrase structure rules are face structure categories, and therefore not the best ones for ; Bireibing deep structures. It is important to realize that Lakoff’s argument relied heavily on semantic considerations. And what he found led him and others to question the validity of basing grammar theory on the belief that syntax is primary. His research led him to conclude that Chomsky's Aspects grammar theory, a syntactical based description which considered semantics to be interpretive only, was simply wrong. Essentially, Lakoff argued that deep structures are far more likely to be semantic than syntactic categories, and in fact that Chomsky's deep structures are inadequate because they fail to account for many mysteries of meaning, Perhaps what linguists should search for an even deeper, more abstract linguistic level which es the meaning of sentences and which in some way s the surface syntax of sentences.‘ith Chomsky as their spokesman. The n as the generative semanticists, which equally respected linguists as Lakoff, Ross, and James MacCawley. Postal was one of those who became interested in Lakoff notions. Shortly after Lakoff had argument concerning the relationship of verbs Postal, in a monograph with the title On So- onouns" in English (1966), presented a similar concerning definite articles and pronouns. Beginning 1e proposition that the presence of a particular form ina structure does not necessarily prove it is present in the nor, conversely, that a surface form's absence arily proves its absence from the deep structure, Postal ‘Out to show that personal pronouns and definite articles nate as deep structure nouns (i.e., as NP segments which atures of the dominant N segment), but that pronoun in structures are really articles. Another group of linguists challenged the standard y of deep and surface subjects and objects. They claimed a deeper semantic distinction which explains the telation of nouns to verbs, a distinction that is by @ syntactically based grammar theory. Theyers of the standard theory have y as a result of the work of Lakoff, that all meaning is not accounted for x than deciding that a syntactic theory ‘they have attempted to explain that some | by the surface structure. In 1971 Chomsky er Of revisions of the standard model which of the standard school think go a long way toward for the influence of surface structures on the s es. These revisions were set out in an article, Surface Structure, and Semantic on, which appeared in a book of readings on , linguistics, and psychology edited by L. A. ts and D. D. Steinberg. The revisions which Chomsky suggested were as The Base: The lexicon should be "enriched" by the addition of stems, prefixes, and suffixes. This enrichment, along with projection rules for word- forming transformations, will greatly add to the explanatory power of the grammar theory. The base, which is composed of categorial branching rules and a revised lexicon, will generate deep structures.ional school are unwilling to deny the nce of the syntactical component. They w the semantic and phonological components as e, and they continue to believe that basic relations and meaning are primarily contained in ies and therefore determined primarily by the component of the grammar. The main difficulty facing Chomsky's current that no one has developed a well-formulated, sonably complete, semantic-based model grammar theory. sum, the generative semanticists have not yet been able to ‘formally that they are right.