SSS WRN Semiconductor Physics SSNS IAN erequisites : Intrinsic and extrinsic Semiconductors, Energy bands in con- ductors, Semiconductors and Insulators, Semiconductor diode, IV characteris- palin forward and reverse bias.) eet & indirect band gap semiconductor, Fermi level, Fermi dirac distribution, Fermi energy level in intrinsic & extrinsic semiconductors, Effect of impurity concentration and temperature on fermi level, Mobility, Current density, Hall effect, Fermi Level diagram for p-n junction (unbiased, forward bias, reversebias) Applications of semiconductors : LED, Zener diode, Photovoltaic cell. (06 Hours) (Weightage - 23%) Course Outcome : CO38 : Learner will be able to comprehend the concepts of semiconductor physics and applications of semiconductors in electronic devices. SYNOPSIS 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Prerequisites 3.3 Direct and Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors 3.4 Fermi Dirac Distribution Function and Fermi Level 3.5 Fermi Level Diagram of pn Junction Diode 3.6 Conductivity, Mobility and Current Density in Semiconductors 3.7 Hall Effect and its Applications 3.8 Applications of Semiconductors Important Points to Remember Exercise Previous University Examination Questions with Solutionssting Physics - | (3-2) Semiconducte, ty, y i \ntroduction Semiconductor devices have extensive uses in el highly compact, low power consuming and efficient. ‘These are also called soli ices because the electrons conduct through solid semiconductors. The electron, 7 solids is complex which gives rise to band theory. The unique and remarkable fea, \ A ipolar conducti ¢ miconductor materials is that they can be converted to. an mthis'is ae Materia, i aving two types of free carriers, the electrons and ae eal € basic of : nvention of the diodes and transistors which serve as the €s components 4 s well, like light emitting diodes é so lectronic devices. There are other applications, a cells, etc. lectronic industry, NOW-a-days % id %y a Prerequisites Insolid state physics, the range of energy values that electrons can possess jp, 2 is described by the energy band structure of the solid. ence electrons are represented by the valence bal ty The energy values of the va the energy values of the free electrons is represented by the conduction band. The a t band and the conduction band are separated by the forbidden band which Tepresenyy energy required to liberate a valence electron. The width of the forbidden band, ¢ aly band gap is the characteristic of a given solid. The forbidden band is absent in a conductor as seen in Fig. 3.1 (a) because at availability of the valence electrons for conduction. In semiconductors the forbidden hhich can be overcome easily by the valence electrons as seen in Fig, 3,14 is narrow wl The forbidden band is very wide is insulators which implies the non-availability off electrons, as seen in Fig. 3.1 (c). @ Electron energy Conduction eectron | T condueti band energy ‘onduction Electron, band nergy | | conduction ; band Forbidden Forbidden band band Hole Volence He Valence iole Valence enert band Hole es energy band anenay band i ae (0) Semiconductor (e) sia Fig. 3.1 _(3-3) tl Semiconductor Physics and physics engine ic and Extrinsic Semiconductors ins . jot : 3 2.3' insic semiconductors tu i 1 ) Int Inpure semiconductors, an electron and a hole Been x ce. + é generated in pair. At any temperature the energy a mber of electrons available in the nu i id is equal to the number of conduction ban qt Hole : .B. poles found in the valence band. eneray ms . Ifn, denotes the number density of electrons in the conduction band and np denotes the Fig. 3.2 : Energy a is * ‘ diagram of an intrinsic oles in the val number density of h inthe-valence- band, semiconductor. at any temperature Ne = Dy = Nj where n; is called the intrinsic density or intrinsic carries concentration. The equal number of electrons and holes in an intrinsic semiconductor are called the intrinsic charge carriers. ) Extrinsic Semiconductors + Theintrinsic semiconductors have very low conductivity which can be improved by adding some impurity to them. This is called doping. The impurity added is called dopant. The doped semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor. + The intrinsic semiconductors basically Silicon and Germanium have diamond cubic structure. Every atom in this structure has four nearest neighbours in a tetrahedral configuration. n-type semiconductors + To the tetravalent intrinsic semiconductor if a pentavalent impurity like phosphorus or arsenic is added these impurity atoms contribute some electrons to the semiconductors. These atoms are called donor atoms. These donated electrons do not have an equal number of pairing holes in the valence band. Hence, they can not occupy a level in the conduction band. These electrons accommodate themselves in a level called the donor level Ep, little below the conduction band as seen in Fig. 3.3 (a). As a result, they can easily shift to the conduction band, receiving a very small amount of energy and can take part in conduction as a ne ‘gative charge carrier. tsEngineering Physics - | (3-4) + Semiconducto, If the density of the donor level electrons in Np, the carrier densiticg iy type semiconductor is ny Ne=ni+Mp and Bh Electron electron SS ‘ener energy E> vl «| Hole Depletion <— region (a) Vo Majority P ve a carrier wort - (c) Symbol carrie! it Minority Minority i carrier carrier (yy Fig. 3.4 : p-n junction diode iased diode and its I-V characteristics rward bia! 4) Fo unction is called forward biased when the p side is positive with respect to the a ied voltage V being much higher than the barrier potential V4, acts against side. a prevents the minority carriers and allows the large number of majority me s riets of both sides to flow through the junction constituting a large forward an This is shown in Fig. 3.5. Vo oe (U tam +1 ' jm Hepp | ++t4! ! vee et Ti ail tH © V (volts) (a) ) © Fig. 3.5 : (a) Forward biased p-n junction diode, (b) Symbol, (c) I-V characteristic. ——_— Engineering Physics - | (3-6) Semlconducts, Phy r (B) Reverse biased diode and its I-V characteristics 7 sed when the P side is made Dépay s case acts in parallel to the barrier ive \ charge carriers through the junction ty, ever, in practice a very smal] dite, a, rrent is called reverse saturatio, ait, e stage the junction breaks do an) A p-n junction is said to be reverse bia respect to the n side. The applied voltage in thi and thus strongly prevents the flow of majority ideally no current flows through the diode. How' due to the minority carriers of both sides. This cu! If reverse voltage is increased continuously at one ; heavy current starts flowing. This is shown 10 Fig. 3-6. Vo ct I Pp A a ma) weet ie. vere! i- ETE . V (Wor, ) Li ) | ft! v o ©) (a) Fig. 3.6 : (8) Reverse biased p-1 ‘i junction diode, (b) Symbol, (c) I-V characteris; ic Ea Direct and Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors The energy of a free electron is given by 2 ale 2m where p is the momentum and m is the mass of an electron. he ‘ Electi The energy-momentum relation of an electron Peal | is parabolic in nature as shown in Fig. a7, Ca : E, ¢ o E s Valee Hole tad energy ‘ Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.83-7 ys (3-7) 2a Semiconductor Physics e y-momentum relationship of a sem; . conduct — e on jn the conduction band represents the f 0:8 shown in Fig. 3.8. The ol Tee elect ot 07 pand represent the free holes, The g ing Deweae and the lower parabola fs jen ap Eg: 1 these two parabolas atp p tb? band BaP “e 01s ording to the energy-momentum Telationshj cc Paci 1p Semi s a @ indirect band gap types, Iconductors are Classified into iret i ct bang gap semiconductors In dire et &8., GaAs, the maxi @ pand and the minimum of the conduct « aximum ofthe valence ion band occur a io Ei. t the as shown in Fig. 3.8. Thus an electr the same momentum on making a transit 3 ion fro1 pand to conduction band need not undergo any chain non valence . ntum. All elementary semiconductors ¢,g., gj are indirect band gap semiconductors in which the maximum of valence band and the minimum of the conduction band occur at two different momentum values as seen in Fig. 3.9. Therefore, when an electron makes a transition from the maximum point in the valence band to the minimum point in the conduction band, it requires not only an energy change (2 E,) but also some momentum change (2 p,)- (i Fig. 3.9 The difference between direct and indirect band ‘ap semiconductors is very important or light emitting diodes and semiconductor diode lasers, These devices require direct and gap semiconductors for efficient generation of photons. .3.1; Elemental and Compound Semiconductors The commonly known semiconductors Si and Ge have monoatomic tetravalent iamond cubic structure. Their conductivity is improved by doping them with trivalent or entavalent impurities. These elements in intrinsic and extrinsic form are called elemental emiconductors, During electron transition from conduction band to valence band the ecombination energy is released in the form of heat energy. These are indirect band gap emiconductors,ws} Sem Cong, On the oth Net ethand i : a GaAs, G: » Compound semiconductors are semicondy hi ; ctor Ni bree ‘ASP. In these Semiconductors during electron-hole Tecombinatj, 7 . Pour, eased. These are direct band gap semiconductors which hag mee Pica Se, LEDs and LASER diodes. *PPlicgy Hoy, \ Ei Fermi Dirac Distribution Function and Fermi Level Each energy band ina crystal accommodates a large number of electron G According to Pauli’s exclusion principle any energy level can be Occupied by ney ley only, one spin up and one spin down. However, all the available energy states ° Clea, in an energy band. En ti The separation between the consecutive energy levels is very smal] f Laroy, . Ind J q~. due to which the energy distribution in a band may be considered as continuoy, Iya s 3.4 mi Dirac Distribution Function The carrier occupancy of the energy states is represented by a contin function known as the Fermi-Dirac distribution function, given by i f(®)=— 14 @(E-Epy KT Mos ist, i, (3 This indicates the probability that a particular quantum state at the energy leva MPeratie, Oa Tefetey, occupied by an electron. Here k is Boltzmann’s constant and T is absolute te the semiconductor. The energy Ep is called Fermi energy that corresponds t level called Fermi level. 3.4.2 i Level Fermi level is not an allowed energy level it is an imaginary reference Jeve] Used specify other energy levels. Fermi level is defined as the highest filled energy level in any solid at absoly, zero temperature. Hence, at absolute zero temperature all energy levels below Epare full and all eng levels above Ey: are empty for which the probability of occupancy can be written fro: Fermi-Dirac distribution function as . 0 forE> Ep f(E) = R 1 forE = = i) Ttet-En ipa ) At E=Eg, the function is indeterminate as (iii 1 f(E) = — 7 = indeterminat ¢ 100 inate The above results are summarised in Fig. 3.10 (a). AtT> OK, for E= Eg a fe)=-—__=-_L.! 1+e%T 141 2 This shows that with thermal excitation electrons vacant few energy levels below Eg and shift to occupy equal number of energy levels above Ep. This is seen in Fig. 3.10 (b). Hence, the probability of occupancy of the energy levels very close to Ey and above and below Ef is 50%. f(E) f(E) 4 Probability of vacant states 1 1 t I 1 ! z Probability of t the filled states ' 1 E E E, E (a) (b) Fig. 3.10 (a) and (b)” ail + (3-10) 0K inan intrinsic semiconductor, - ; . . are found in the conduction band and the rest of the va lence We behind in the valence band. me Let there be Ne number of electrons in the conduction bang aa electrons in the valence band. Mm | Hence, the total number of electrons in the intrinsic Semicondycy toy N=ng+ny ri | AtT =0 Kall N electrons occupy energy states inthe Valence se | Out of these total N number of valence electrons any Deities val can reach the conduction band. The probability of occupancy of an energy level in the conduction bani | written from equation (3.1) as £.)—__- = (Ec) Ty elEc-Ep RT where Ec is the potential energy of a rest electron in the conduction: shown in the Fig. 3.10. Here, Ec is the minimum energy required for the electron to reach te level of the conduction band. The extra energy is converted to its inet with which it moves freely in the conduction band at any energy level | | | Hence, the number of electrons found in the conduction band is N te = Nf{(E¢) = — 0 c= NF(Ec) 14 Ec -ER ET t Similarly, any ny number of valence electrons from the total of N can be left behind in the valence band. jof : | tor tre abo as (Ey - Ep) is negative. E sea can be wil” iy The probability of occupancy of a level in the valance band's given! 1 [a Er Ev kT f(Ey)= Hence, the number of electrons in the valence band(3-11) Semiconductor Physics ering Physics <1! ne N ny = Nf (Ey) =p By eT see (3.6) Substituting equations (3.4) and (3.5) in equation (3.6), it is found that ul N N Tree ~EnveT * 7 Ep -EyyneT 1 + 1 1= Trobe -EpET 1+ > Er-Ey)/kT 2+ e7 Er -Ev kT 5 (Ec -Ep)/kT * [a elBe EVEN (4 EP EVIT [1+ Be ~ ERAT) [1 4 @ (Er -Evi/ET) 9 4 9~(Ep-By)/KT 4 (Be -Ep)/KT 14 e(Ec~ ERAT 4 ¢~(Ep-By KT 4 (Ec -2Ep+Ey)/KT e = 2467 (Er-Ey/KT 5 (Bc -Ep)/kT e(Ec-2Eet+Ey kT _ 1 Ec~2Ep+Ey _9 kT Ec+Ey =2Ep Bp = "0+ Ey weeei(3e7), Thus, the Fermi energy level lies in the middle of the forbidden energy gap in an intrinsic semiconductor as shown in Fig. 3.11. Though Fermi level is defined as the highest filled energy level it is found in the forbidden gap. “ This is very similar to the presence of the centre ‘ass of a hollow gs Mass exists, Electron . energy Phere at its centre where actually Ifone side of the sphere is made heavier the centre gE Nass shifts to that side. " Exactly inasimi 7 insi i a : ‘7.4 similar way in extrinsic semiconduc- : aa donor electrons and acceptor holes 4 disb; ‘. Hol alance of the number of charge carriers era © and bel, . energy Fermi loner em level refer Fig. 3.11] shift Fig. 3.11 ; Fermi level in a "evel from the Centre of the forbidden band intrinsic semiconductor. WN ssss—‘i—sEngineering Physics - 1 (3-12) Semicond, orp 3.4.5 : Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors (A) n-type semiconductors In this case the number of electrons is much higher than the number of bh | semiconductor at ordinary temperatures. It can be said that the upper side cine ing band structure is heavier in free charge carrier. So the Fermi level shifts from the; She level Ep to Ep, as seen in Fig. 3-12 (a). at, Electron Electron energy eneray c.B. Er & g Fn ri n Em VB. Hole Hole energy ae (a) n-type (b) p-type Fig. 3.12 : Energy band structures of n- and p-type semiconductors (B) p-type semiconductors In p-type semiconductors at an ordinary temperature the number of holes is mu greater than the number of electrons. Hence, the Fermi level shifts from Ep; to ER, towards the valence band as seen; Fig. 3.12 (b). Solved Problems Problem1 © 3A What is the probability of an electron being thermally excited to the conduct! band is Si at 30° C. The band gap energy is 1.12 eV. | (M.U. Dec. 2017; May 2012, 2018)(3 | Solution : | Data: T=27°C=300K, B=1.12eV, | - 23 | K = 138x103 7K = B8%10 _ g6.25 x10 eK 16x 10719 1 : (Ec) =—_—____ Formulas: “ (Ec) =~ aE er ag) (3-13) Semiconductor Physics | > Ny.1 Semiconductor Physics prysics* (0 fin rf similarly for p-type semiconductors in such case rt F + Ny >> Ne and the conductivity is Op=Mh- Hy -& Atany temperature in an intrinsic semiconductor + Ne = Ny = Nj where n; is the intrinsic carrier concentration. Hence, the conductivity due to both types of the charge carriers is ‘The SI unit of mobility is m7/V-sec. The SI unit of conductivity is mho/m. sw (B14) The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-m. 36.2 : Current Density in Semiconductors When a pn junction is formed due to the opposite doping of the p and n sides, a non- uniformity in the charge distribution occurs across the barrier. This initiates the carriers to diffuse through the junction from the high concentration region to the low concentration region, to restore the uniformity. This results in diffusion current with a density Jaitfusion = Shp + Jeq es (3.15) where, J, hy = Current density due to the majority carriers, holes in the p region, and J, = current density due to the majority carriers, electrons in the n Tegion. | On the otherhand, the polarity of the depletion region initiates the minority carriers ‘oflow through the junction constituting the drift current of density, Tait = Jey + Jy ..- (3.16) Jeg = drift current density due to the minority electrons of the pregion, and Thy = drift current density dues to the minority holes of the n region. where, ee(3-24) Engineering Physics - | Semic, ‘Ong NCtoy by In thermal equilibrium, Jaitfusion = Fait and there is no net current flow through the junction. c ci c P a P oh qo v i | Jaanson > Jere 5 > — ‘te, Fig. 3.21 Fig. 3.22 Fig. 3.23, Unbiased pn junction Forward biased pn junction. Reverse biased pn juneti ion When the pn junction is forward baised the majority carriers are accelerated th, Oy the junction by the applied voltage V > V,. Hence, the diffusion current density inet through the drift current density remains unaffected. Therefore, 4 Jaittusion > Faris Joittusion > Jaritt a z— The reverse biasing of a pn junction the majority carriers are blocked and mino carriers are accelerated constituting the diffusion current density (lb Jacitt = ~ Wey + Ing) where, Terie = 9 3.6.3 : Solved Problems Problem 1 Mobilities of electrons and holes in a sample of intrinsic Ge at room temperatut 3600 cm?/V-sec. and 1700 cm?/V-sec. respectively. If the electron and hole densities each equal to 2.5 x 10'7/cm>, calculate the conductivity. (M.U. Dec. 2017; May 2010) Solution : Data: wt, =3600.cm"/V-sec = 0.36 m?/V-sec, Hn = 1700 cm?/V-sec = 0.17 m7/V-sec, nj=2.5x 103 /om=2,5x 10!9 m3, T=300°K gg57 sy (3-25) Semiconductor Physics ostmtt gate . OEM (He + Hy) re porn +o = 2.5% 10!? (0,36 +0.17) x 1.6 x 10-9 cateulatt = 2.12 mho/meter. ivi = 2.12 mho/m. - Conductivity, © nswer * A 2 _ problen Jate the conductivity of an intrinsic Ge sample with the intrinsic carrier density im? Given, mobility of electrons and holes as 0.36 m2/V-sec, and 32" 4 sec. respectively at room temperature. oi7m yy" ae ny = 3.2.x 10!%m?, He = 0.36 m’/V-sec, Hh = 0.17 m7/V-sec Formula : © =1(He+pp)*€ Calculations: 6 = 3.2 10!° x 1.6 x 10"? (0,36 +0.17) = 2.71 mho-m! Answer : Conductivity = 2.71 mho-m~ I Problem3 7 b For intrinsic Si, the electrical conductivity is 4 x 10~4 mho/m at room temperature. Calculate the electron and hole concentration at room temperature. Given, the mobility of electrons and holes are 0.14 m2/V-sec. and 0.040 m7/V-sec, Tespectively. (M.U. Dec. 2018; May 2014, 2017, 2019) (5 M) Solution ; Data: 6 =4x 10-4 mho/m, p,=0.14 m/V-sec., Hy = 0.040 m/V-sec. Formula : Oj = 1j (Me + My) ve —4 Calculations Fe ny = Si = —— on C(e+Bn) 16x 107!9 (0.14 +.0.040) n, = 1.388 x 10!6/m3 Al vi 2. "sWer : Carrier Concentration = 1.388 x 10!6/ m?.Engineering Physics - | (3-26) se Mico, ue en, Problem 4 Find the resistivity © ; 2.5 x 10!%/m3. Mobility of electrons 1s 0. 0.19 m2/V-sec. Charge of electron is 1.6 x 10~ f intrinsic Ge at 300" K. Given, dengit, ff ey /V-ee. and mobjtiy Sy , (MU. May 2008, Dee ak oN Solution : 19 3 = 2, Data : n=2.5x10°/m, He = 0.39 m‘/V-sec, Ph =0.19 mny = 1.6x 10° °C, T=300°K “$e¢, 1 Formula : pao = Nite tHe Calculations o = 2.5x10!9 x 16x 10 '? 0.39 + 0.19) = 2.32 mho-m™ 1 = — =0.431 ohm-m. p 3 0.431 ohm-m. Answer : Resistivity = 0.431 ohm-m. Problem 5 Calculate the conductivity of a Ge specimen if the donor impurity added to¢ 1.2 x 1073 atoms/m?. Given, mobility of electron is 3800 cm?/V-sec. (M.U. Dec. 2012)/ Solution : Data: .=3800 em?/V-sec. = 0.38 m2/V-sec Assuming that each donor contributes one free electron, n, = 1.2 x 107 n° Formula : 0 =neUe Calculations ; 6 = 1.2 x 107 x16 x 10° !? x 0.38 = 7296 Answer : Conductivity = 7296 mho/m. Problem 6 ‘ Calculate the current produced in a germanium sample of area of on ied act 1 cm? i a and thickness of 0.01 m when a potential difference of 2 V is appl i en, the concentration of free electrons in germanium is 2 x 10! / rm? and a electroy Ctrons and holes are 0.36 m?/V-sec and 0.17 m2/V-sec respectively. él cu. Deo?(3-27) Semiconductor Physics pysics-! writ a geist cm®= 104m, t=0.01m, V=2Volts, n=2% 10!9/m3, p=0.36 m/V-sec, py, = 0.17 m/V-sec. orm o = Ti (Het He, Bee yp: Calculations ¢ o = THe + me = 2x 10! (0.36 +0.17) x 1.6 x 10°? = 1,696 mho/m ¢ “1t RIA OK = nS = 58.96 Q p= Y= =00339 Amp R_ 58.96 Answer: Current = 0.0339 Amp Problem? » 9 ‘An impurity of 0.01 ppm (particle per million) is added to Si. The semiconductor has a resistivity of 0.25 ohm-m at 300° K. Calculate the hole concentration and its atomic weight of Si = 28.1 and density of mobility. Also comment on the results. Given, (M.U. May 2011, 201 6) (5M) Si=2.4 x 10° kg/m’, Solution : Data: Impurity level = 0.01 ppm, r= 0.25 ohm-m, T= 300° K, M=28.1, 1=2.4x 10° kg/m’. Formula: p= I enh Hh Calculations : No. of Si atoms / unit volume a Atomic weight ai 28.1 5.144 x 10° atoms/m?