what is the concept of von neumann machine

6/4/2023, 4:06:55 PM

A von Neumann machine stores both program instructions and data in the same memory space.

6/4/2023, 4:09:16 PM
why memory hieraarchy is needed,
6/4/2023, 4:09:28 PM

Memory hierarchy is needed to provide a faster and more efficient way of accessing the data that a
computer system requires to operate. By using multiple levels of memory with varying speeds,
capacity, and cost, the system can optimize the use of resources and improve overall performance,
while also reducing costs. This allows frequently accessed data or instructions to be stored in high-
speed, low-capacity memory such as cache, while less frequently accessed data can be stored in
larger, slower, and less expensive memory such as hard disk drives (HDD) or solid-state drives (SSD).
The memory hierarchy also helps reduce the bottleneck between the CPU and main memory by
providing a buffer zone of fast-access memory.

6/4/2023, 4:13:48 PM
how the hicrarchy is organizes and why ,explain in easy way
6/4/2023, 4:14:00 PM

Hierarchy refers to the way individuals and groups are arranged in a system of power or authority.
Hierarchy is typically organized in a pyramid shape, with those at the top having the most power and
those at the bottom having the least.

The reason for organizing a hierarchy is to ensure that there is an established chain of command and
clear lines of communication within an organization. This allows for effective decision-making,
delegation of tasks, and efficient distribution of resources.
In a business setting, for example, the CEO would be at the top of the hierarchy, followed by senior
executives, middle management, and then employees. The CEO has the most authority and decision-
making power, while employees have less.

Overall, a hierarchy helps to create order and structure within an organization, which can lead to
greater productivity and success.

6/4/2023, 4:14:35 PM
explain the cache memory,in easy way
6/4/2023, 4:14:49 PM

Cache memory is a small and fast type of memory that sits between the main memory (RAM) and the
processor in a computer. Its purpose is to store frequently used data and instructions so that the
processor can access them quickly, without having to wait for the slower main memory.

Think of it like a librarian who keeps the most popular books near the front desk for easy access. The
cache memory holds onto the most commonly used data and instructions, which the processor can
quickly retrieve when needed.

There are different levels of cache memory, with each level being closer to the processor and smaller
in size. Level 1 (L1) is the smallest and fastest cache memory, followed by Level 2 (L2) and Level 3
(L3).

The use of cache memory can greatly improve a computer's performance by reducing the amount of
time it takes to access data and instructions. However, since cache memory is a limited resource, its
contents must be managed carefully to ensure that the most relevant and frequently used data and
instructions are stored there.

6/4/2023, 4:16:13 PM
describe different type of cache memory
6/4/2023, 4:16:34 PM

There are mainly three types of cache memory:

 1. Level 1 (L1) Cache: This is the smallest and fastest type of cache memory, which is built
directly into the processor and is the first place the processor looks for data and instructions.
L1 cache has a very low latency and is typically measured in kilobytes.

2. Level 2 (L2) Cache: This is a larger and slower cache memory that sits between the processor
and main memory. It stores more data than L1 cache and is typically measured in megabytes.
L2 cache has a higher latency than L1 cache, but is still faster than accessing data directly
from main memory.

3. Level 3 (L3) Cache: This is the largest and slowest type of cache memory that sits outside the
processor and is shared among multiple processor cores. It is intended to reduce the amount
of traffic to the main memory by providing a common pool of frequently accessed data. L3
cache is typically measured in megabytes or even gigabytes.

In addition to these three levels of cache memory, there are also other types of cache memory such
as disk cache, web cache, and browser cache. Disk cache is used by your computer’s operating
system to temporarily store frequently accessed disk data. Web cache is used by web browsers to
store frequently accessed web pages, while browser cache stores various items such as images and
cookies to speed up browsing.

6/4/2023, 4:17:00 PM
describe Dram adn Sram memory cell structure
6/4/2023, 4:17:25 PM

DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) and SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) are two
common types of computer memory that are used for different purposes. The main difference
between DRAM and SRAM lies in their respective memory cell structures.

DRAM Memory Cell Structure: The basic structure of a DRAM memory cell consists of a transistor
and a capacitor. The transistor acts as a switch, allowing the capacitor to either hold an electrical
charge or discharge it. To store data, the capacitor is charged with electrons, which represents a
binary "1". When the capacitor is discharged, it represents a binary "0". However, since the capacitor
gradually loses its charge over time, DRAM requires frequent refreshing to maintain its data.

SRAM Memory Cell Structure: The basic structure of an SRAM memory cell consists of four to six
transistors arranged in a flip-flop circuit. This circuit stores a single bit of data by holding a pair of
complementary values (either "1" and "0" or "0" and "1") on two stable states of the circuit. Unlike
DRAM, SRAM does not need to be refreshed, which makes it faster and less power-hungry than
DRAM.
In summary, both DRAM and SRAM use transistors to store data, but they differ in their methods of
storing and maintaining that data. DRAM uses a transistor and a capacitor to store data, which
requires frequent refreshing to maintain its contents. SRAM, on the other hand, uses a more complex
flip-flop circuit made up of multiple transistors to store data and does not require refreshing.

6/4/2023, 4:17:58 PM
how cpu executes a program ,give detailed description
6/4/2023, 4:18:23 PM

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) executes a program by following a series of steps known as the
"fetch-decode-execute cycle". This cycle involves fetching instructions from memory, decoding them,
and executing them one at a time. Here's a more detailed description of each step:

1. Fetch: In the fetch stage, the CPU retrieves the instruction to be executed from memory. The
address of the instruction is stored in a special register called the program counter (PC). The
PC is then incremented to point to the next instruction in memory.

2. Decode: In the decode stage, the CPU examines the fetched instruction to determine what
operation needs to be performed. The instruction is broken down into its component parts,
including the opcode (which specifies the operation) and any operands (which specify the
data on which the operation is to be performed).

3. Execute: In the execute stage, the CPU carries out the operation specified by the opcode,
using the operands as necessary. This may involve reading or writing data from/to memory,
performing arithmetic or logical operations on the data, or branching to a different part of
the program based on the results of a comparison.

4. Write-back: In the final write-back stage, the results of the operation are stored back in
memory or in registers, depending on the type of operation that was performed.

Once the current instruction has been executed, the process starts again with the fetch stage for the
next instruction in memory. This cycle continues until the program has finished executing.

Overall, the fetch-decode-execute cycle is a fundamental process that allows the CPU to read and
perform the instructions required to execute a program.
 6/4/2023, 4:19:09 PM
describe rom ,prom,eprom and eeprom ,in chart wise
6/4/2023, 4:19:41 PM

Here is a chart comparing ROM, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM:

EEPROM
ROM EPROM
PROM (Electrically
(Read- (Erasable
(Programmable Erasable
Only Programmable
ROM) Programmable
Memory) ROM)
ROM)

Write Cannot be Can be written to Can be erased and Can be erased and
Cycle written to once reprogrammed reprogrammed

Erase Cannot be Ultraviolet light Electric charge

Cannot be erased
Cycle erased required used to erase cells

Slower than
Access Slower than other
Fast Fast ROM, faster than
Time types of memory
EEPROM

Non-
Volatility Non-volatile Non-volatile Non-volatile
volatile

Capacity Limited Limited Limited Limited

ROM (Read-Only Memory): ROM is a type of non-volatile memory that stores data permanently and
cannot be altered or overwritten. It is used to store programs and data that do not need to be
changed frequently.

PROM (Programmable ROM): PROM is a type of memory that can be programmed only once after
manufacturing. Once programmed, the information stored in PROM is permanent and cannot be
changed.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): EPROM is a type of memory that can be erased and
reprogrammed multiple times using ultraviolet light. This makes it useful for applications where the
data needs to be changed occasionally.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM): EEPROM is similar to EPROM, but uses an
electric charge instead of ultraviolet light to erase the memory cells. EEPROM can be erased and
reprogrammed multiple times without removing the chip from the circuit board, making it more
convenient to use than EPROM.

6/4/2023, 4:23:33 PM
describe Dram adn Sram memory cell structure ,show in chart wise
6/4/2023, 4:24:03 PM

Here is a chart comparing the structure of DRAM and SRAM memory cells:

DRAM (Dynamic RAM) SRAM (Static RAM)

Flip-flop circuit made of multiple

Structure Capacitor and transistor
transistors

Requires refreshing every few

Data Retention Does not require refreshing
milliseconds

Access Time Slower than SRAM Faster than DRAM

Density Higher density and lower cost Lower density and higher cost

Power
Lower power consumption Higher power consumption
Consumption

DRAM (Dynamic RAM) Memory Cell Structure: DRAM memory cells are made up of a single
transistor and capacitor. The transistor acts as a switch that controls whether or not the capacitor is
charged or discharged. When a DRAM cell is charged, it represents a binary "1" and when it is
discharged, it represents a binary "0". However, since the capacitor gradually loses its charge over
time, DRAM requires frequent refreshing to maintain its data.
SRAM (Static RAM) Memory Cell Structure: SRAM memory cells are made up of multiple transistors
arranged in a flip-flop circuit. This circuit stores a single bit of data by holding a pair of
complementary values (either "1" and "0" or "0" and "1") on two stable states of the circuit. Unlike
DRAM, SRAM does not need to be refreshed, which makes it faster and less power-hungry than
DRAM.

In summary, both DRAM and SRAM use transistors to store data, but they differ in their methods of
storing and maintaining that data. DRAM uses a transistor and a capacitor to store data, which
requires frequent refreshing to maintain its contents. SRAM, on the other hand, uses a more complex
flip-flop circuit made up of multiple transistors to store data and does not require refreshing.

6/4/2023, 4:25:09 PM
name of the replacement algoritham for cache memory
6/4/2023, 4:25:27 PM

There are several replacement algorithms that can be used for cache memory, including:

1. Random Replacement: This algorithm randomly selects a block in the cache to replace when
a new block needs to be loaded.

2. Least Recently Used (LRU) Replacement: This algorithm replaces the block in the cache that
has not been accessed for the longest time.

3. First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Replacement: This algorithm replaces the block in the cache that has
been in the cache the longest and was the first to be loaded.

4. Least Frequently Used (LFU) Replacement: This algorithm replaces the block in the cache that
has been accessed the least number of times.

5. Not Recently Used (NRU) Replacement: This algorithm divides blocks into two categories:
"recently used" and "not recently used". When a block needs to be replaced, the algorithm
selects a block from the "not recently used" category if one exists, otherwise it selects a block
from the "recently used" category.

Each of these replacement algorithms has advantages and disadvantages, and the best one to use
depends on the specific application and system requirements.
 6/4/2023, 4:28:21 PM
what are the problems in direct mapping and associative mapping ?how these problems are
solved in set asssociative mapping ,describe in easy way and sort
6/4/2023, 4:28:39 PM

In direct mapping, each block of memory is mapped to a specific cache line. This means that if two
blocks of memory are mapped to the same cache line, only one can be stored in the cache at a time.
This creates a problem known as cache thrashing, where cache lines constantly get replaced by new
blocks of memory.

In associative mapping, any block of memory can be mapped to any cache line. This eliminates the
problem of cache thrashing, but it requires additional hardware to search for the correct cache line
for a given block of memory. This hardware can be expensive and slow.

Set-associative mapping is a compromise between direct mapping and associative mapping. In set-
associative mapping, the cache is divided into sets, with each set containing multiple cache lines.
Each block of memory is mapped to a set, and then it can be placed in any of the cache lines within
that set. This allows for more flexibility than direct mapping, while requiring less hardware than
associative mapping.

Overall, set-associative mapping provides a good balance between performance and cost. It allows
for efficient use of cache space while also avoiding the problems associated with direct and fully
associative mapping.

6/6/2023, 10:52:20 AM
what are the method of accessing of computer memory,explain in sort way and step wise
6/6/2023, 10:52:41 AM

There are several methods of accessing computer memory, but here are the most common ones:

1. Direct Memory Access (DMA): This method allows certain hardware devices to access system
memory directly without involving the CPU. The DMA controller transfers data between the
device and memory, freeing up the CPU for other tasks.
 2. Random Access Memory (RAM): RAM is a type of volatile memory that stores data
temporarily while the computer is running. It can be accessed randomly by the CPU, meaning
that any piece of data in RAM can be accessed at any time.

3. Virtual Memory: Virtual memory is a technique that allows a computer to use more memory
than it physically has available. It does this by using hard disk space as an extension of RAM.
When the computer runs out of physical memory, virtual memory swaps data to and from
the disk as needed.

4. Memory-mapped I/O: This method maps hardware registers or devices into the physical
memory address space of the computer. This allows the CPU to access these devices as if
they were ordinary memory locations.

To summarize, accessing computer memory typically involves one of these methods: direct memory
access, random access memory, virtual memory, or memory-mapped I/O. Each method has its own
advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of method depends on the specific needs of the
application.

6/6/2023, 10:53:01 AM
what are the method of accessing of computer memory,explain in step wise
6/6/2023, 10:53:31 AM

Sure, here are the methods of accessing computer memory with step by step explanations:

1. Direct Memory Access (DMA):

Step 1: The DMA controller is programmed to transfer data from a device to memory or from
memory to a device. Step 2: The device sends a request to the DMA controller to initiate a data
transfer. Step 3: The DMA controller gains control of the system bus and transfers data directly
between the device and memory without involving the CPU. Step 4: Once the transfer is complete,
the DMA controller releases control of the system bus back to the CPU.

2. Random Access Memory (RAM):

Step 1: The CPU sends an address to the memory controller to specify which location in RAM to read
or write data to. Step 2: The memory controller activates the corresponding row and column lines on
the RAM chips to access the desired memory cell. Step 3: The data stored in the memory cell is either
retrieved and sent back to the CPU, or new data is written into the cell.
 3. Virtual Memory:

Step 1: A program requests memory from the operating system. Step 2: The operating system
allocates a virtual memory space for the program. Step 3: When the program accesses a memory
location, the CPU first checks if the data is in physical memory. Step 4: If the data is not in physical
memory, the CPU generates a page fault and triggers a swap of data between physical memory and
disk space. Step 5: The operating system manages the swapping of data between physical memory
and disk space as needed.

4. Memory-mapped I/O:

Step 1: The hardware device registers or devices are mapped into the physical memory address
space of the computer. Step 2: The CPU accesses these registers or devices as if they were ordinary
memory locations. Step 3: The values stored in these registers or devices are read or written to by the
CPU as needed.

These are the basic steps involved in accessing computer memory using each of these methods.

6/6/2023, 10:54:25 AM
why access memory in computer architecture
6/6/2023, 10:54:54 AM

"Memory access is a fundamental aspect of computer architecture because it allows the CPU to
retrieve and store data that is needed for program execution."