MIDTERM PERIOD

CHAPTER 6

DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY

1. The End of the Act is the natural termination or completion of an act. The end of the act of
eating is appeasing hunger, the end of playing basketball is scoring a point, and end of
medication is curing illness.

The end of the act determines whether an act is intrinsically or extrinsically good or evil. Any act
which is consistent with the natural tendencies of human nature is intrinsically good. But those that are
contrary to reason are intrinsically evil, such as murder, abortion, kidnapping, robbery and rape. We
speak of these acts as contrary to natural law.

Actions which are neutral or indifferent to the norm of morality are extrinsically good or evil. These
actions are either good or bad, not on account of their nature, but because of factors or circumstances
concomitant to them. The act of eating, for example, is an amoral act and is neither morally good or
bad. But either over-eating or excessive dieting could be healthy and therefore, morally objectionable.

Actions which are intrinsically evil are prohibited at all times. Actions which are extrinsically evil may
be permitted when the factors which render them evil are removed or corrected.

It is a fact that some actions entail pain and suffering, while some do bring pleasures to their doers.
Pain or pleasure do not define whether an act is moral or immoral. The sexual act, for example, could
either be moral or immoral regardless whether it is a painful or pleasurable experienced.

2. The End of the doer is the purpose or motive which the doer wishes to accomplish by his
action. Without a motive, an act is accidental and involuntary. A good motive is truthful,
prudent, temperate, and just. It is the most equitable for the most number of people, or in the
words of the existentialist “the most loving of all in a given situation”.

“The end does not justify the means” is a fundamental moral principle. It affirms that one should not do
wrong (means) in order to attain a good purpose (end). The motive of a person, no matter how noble,
does not excuse as act which is intrinsically evil. The desire to pass a subject does not justify a student
who cheats in the examination. Likewise, the need to feed a family does not justify stealing. The desire
to know the truth does not justify torture of a suspect by the police. The rule is – don’t do wrong even if
this will result in something good.

Motive and Action

a. An evil act which is done on account of an evil motive is grievously wrong. A bad action and
a wrong motive make for a dangerous combination. Stealing in order to buy “shabu” means
double trouble.

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 b. A good action done on account of an evil motive becomes evil itself. This means that
something nice and sweet may turn ugly and sour because of a bad motive.

c. A good action done on account of a good purpose acquires an additional merit. This means
one can go ahead and do the right thing. You can never go wrong with this one.

d. An indifferent act may either become good or bad depending on the motive. This means you
be careful of what you eat or what you say.

3. Circumstances of the Acts are the historical elements surrounding the commission of an
act, such as the status of the doer, the place, the time, or the intensity of an act. The
circumstances are hinted by the interrogative pronouns – who, what, where, with whom, why,
and how.

3.1. “Who” refers either to the doer of the act or the recipient of the act. It has to do with the
age, status, relation, schooling, social standing, an economic situation of those involved
in an act. In this regard, we note the following:

a. The moron, insane, senile and children below the age of reason are incapable of
voluntary acts and are not morally accountable.

b. Educated persons have greater accountability than those with less or without
education.

c. Persons constituted in authority have accountability for the actions of those under
them. This is the meaning of “command responsibility”. Thus, parents have command
responsibility over their children who are minors; employers, over the actuations of
their employees, and superiors, over the acts of their subordinates. The law on sexual
harassment is based on the doctrine of command responsibility.

d. The legal or blood relation of people involved in act may modify the nature of such
act. For instance, killing of a parent changes homicide to parricide.

3.2. “What” refers to the act itself, or to the quality and quantity of the results of such act. In
robbery, for instance, what is stolen and how much is stolen are aggravating factors.
Likewise, the number of victims determines the seriousness of the murder.

3.3. “Where” refers to the place where the act is committed. A crime inside a church is more
scandalous that that committed in a secluded place. Murder in a marketplace is more
heinous than that done in a mountain trail.

3.4. “With whom” refers to the companion or accomplices in an act. The more people are
involved in the commission of an act, the more serious is the crime.

3.5. “Why” refers to the motive of the doer.

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 3.6. “How” refers to the manner the act is perpetrated. Homicide committed with much
cruelty is a heinous crime.

3.7. “When” refers to the time of the act. A murder committed when the victim is sleeping is
more offensive that the one done when the victim is awake.

The Morally Good Act

A morally good act is that which sound in all aspects – in its nature, motive, and circumstances.
In the Scriptures, the morally upright is a just man, one who weights his actions in relation to what the
law demands, to what the circumstances would allow, and to what fits his stature as a rational being. A
morally good action, therefore, is a just act – “makatarungan”.

We also speak of it as “maka-tao”, or “maka-Diyos”, indicating that such action is fair to the
other person and in accordance with the Will of God.

The Relevance of Laws

Laws mandate some actions as prohibited and others as permitted and required. We may
therefore consider laws as determinants of human behavior. Some people do not do what is good unless
they are forced to. St. Thomas points out that laws are made for those who are weak in character.

Society adopts laws to protect its members from themselves or from those who might want to
hurt them. By prescribing punishments for transgressions, laws encourage and compel people to act for
the good of all. Everyone should obey the law or risk being punished. As authorities would put it –
“dura lex, se lex”, and everyone must obey.

The Definition of Law

Law, according to St. Thomas Aquinas, is an ordinance of reason, promulgated for the common
good by one who has charge of society.

Laws are “ordinance of reason” because they are results of serious study, deliberation, or public
debate. They are “promulgated” because they are made known to people who are bound to observe
them. They are “for the common good” because the purpose of the law is the general welfare of the
people. They are enacted “by who has charge of society” because only those who have legitimate
authority to govern may pass laws.

Kinds of Law

1. Divine Positive Laws are those made known to men by God, like the Decalogue given to
Moses. We also call them moral laws because they are concerned with moral acts. Violation of
these laws constitutes a sin.

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 2. Human Positive Laws are those made by legitimate human authority, such as the laws enacted
by the State or the Church. Human positive laws are intended to preserve peace and order and to
direct members to work towards the common good. They may also have as their object the
moral acts. Violation of these laws constitutes an illegal act. The Constitution, the Civil Code,
the Revised Penal Code, embody the laws of the Philippines. The Code of Canon Law embodies
the laws of the Catholic Church.

3. Affirmative and Negative Laws. Both divine and human law positive laws are either
affirmative or negative. Affirmative laws are those that require the performance of an act, like
that of giving respect to parents and that of paying taxes when due. Negative laws are those that
prohibit the performance of an act, like the prohibition against smoking in designated public
places.

Basis of Moral Judgment

Moral judgment is based on of norms of morality – the eternal law, natural law, and conscience.
Eternal law is the ultimate norm, natural law is the remote norm, and Conscience is proximate norm of
morality. Since both natural law and conscience are derived from Eternal law, there is only one and
ultimate basis of morality – God who created all creatures.

1. The Eternal Law – Eternal law is the plan of God in creating all creatures, both animate and
inanimate, giving to each of them its perspective nature. The Book of Genesis tells the story of
creation.

St. Thomas Aquinas refers to eternal law as “exemplar of divine wisdom as directing all actions
and movements”. St. Augustine definesit as “the divine reason or will of God commanding that
the natural order of things be preserved and forbidding that it be disturbed.

The concept of Eternal Law is inferred from the order and harmony in the created universe. The
ancient Greeks referred to the universe as “cosmos” – beauty, and spoke of “cosmic order”. We
use the term natural order to refer to the harmony present in the material universe. In the natural
order, every creature acts and reacts according to the demands of its nature.

2. The Natural Law – refers to the operational tendencies of the human nature – the chemical,
biological, physiological, and rational properties of man as an organism.

St. Thomas Aquinas says that “the natural law is nothing else than the rational creature’s
participation of the eternal law” and “provides the possibilities and potentialities which the
human person can use to make human life truly human”.

Paul Tillich refers to the natural law as “the inner law of our true being, of our essential created
nature, which demands that we actualize what follows from it”. Pointing to it as the “will of
God”, he explains it to be – “the command to become what one potentially is, a person within a
community of persons.

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 Natural law is the tendency of human nature towards growth and self-fulfillment. Accordingly,
anything contributing to the actualization of man’s potential is morally good; and anything that
contradicts the self-realization of a person as person is morally evil. While the morally good act
contributes to the integration of a person, the morally evil act causes its integration.

Characteristics of Natural Law

A. It is Universal – because it is the human nature which is shared by all men, though realized
differently according to their respective cultures.

B. It is Obligatory – because the tendencies of our human nature are the laws of our desires and
actuations which we cannot ignore without dire consequences.

C. It is Recognizable – because man, being self-reflexive, is aware of his nature, of what he is and
what he is capable of and what is expected of him by his own kind.

D. It is Immutable and Unchangeable – because, although change is a rule of life, human nature in
its essentially and substantially remains permanent and unchangeable.

3. Conscience – while natural law is the tendency towards good in general, conscience is the
choice of a particular good in a given situation. People refer to conscience as “the voice of God”
– a whisper of admonition.

Conscience is the practical judgment of reason telling us what should be done because it is good,
or what should be avoided because it is evil. The judgment is “practical” because it leads to a
course of action.

Conscience is “judgment of reason” because it derives from our understanding of what ought to
be done as good and what ought to be avoided as evil. This is how actions are said to be in
accordance with dictate of reason.

Moral decisions may sometimes require serious study and deliberation. But the urging of
conscience is often spontaneous and instantaneous. Thus, conscience is considered as the “voice
of God”.

Conscience has two functions. Before the commission of an act, conscience directs towards that
which is good. After the commission of an act, conscience either approves or reproves the act. A
reproaching conscience punishes the doer with remorse. An approving conscience rewards the
doer with “peace of mind”.

Types of Conscience

A. Correct Conscience sees the good as good, the evil as evil. It comes from enlightenment; from
refined moral sensibility, or from the habit of doing good. The correct conscience is the result of
sound upbringing, education, good habits, and intelligent laws.

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 B. Erroneous Conscience sees evil as something good. Erroneous conscience comes from malice,
ignorance, bad habits, and bad influence.

C. Doubtful Conscience is a vacillating conscience, unsure of itself.

D. Scrupulous Conscience is overly cautious, meticulous, and fearful of committing a mistake.

E. Lax Conscience is indifferent, unmindful of right or wrong.

Compulsory Conscience

“Our bond with the natural moral law” writeBernanrd Haring, “is an exalted participation in the
eternal law of God manifested by our conscience whose natural function it is to reveal our likeness to
God”.

When conscience operates in the realm of truth and sound reason, it is compulsory to listen to it.
It is only when conscience urges us to act according to our rational insights that it is aptly the “voice of
God”. But when conscience deviates from the norm and urges us to do what is unreasonable, it is “our
own evil work”.

Conformity and Non-conformity

The conformity or non-conformity of a human act with the norms constitutes morality. We
recall the definition of Aristotle of the good as that which fits the function. For example, it fits the
function of a talented singer to sing well. Similarly, it fits the function of a decent and honorable person
to do what is honorable.

The same may be said of evil actions. Some actions do not fit the dignity and nobility of man as
man. Like the junk food does not fit the health of a person, immoral acts do not fit the human soul.

Formal and Material Norms

Formal norms relate to formation of character, what kind of person we ought to be. These
consist of such directives towards character development, such as “be honest”, “be direct”, “be
respectful”, etc. (Example: Being respectful to parent is explicit at all times) The directives of formal
norms are permanent and unchangeable because they are the requirements of natural law.

Material norms relate to actions, what actions we ought to do. Material norms are determined
whether an act on account of its nature conforms or does not conform with the formal norms. The
directives of material norms are temporary and changeable because they are the result of rational
evaluation.

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Moral Relativism

Moral relativism is possible because the human mind, being finite and limited, does not always
grasp the moral significance of certain acts or event. Thus, debates would continue on whether death
penalty, divorce, abortion, gay marriage, or euthanasia is morally permissible. Moral relativism is also
descriptive of cultural difference.

However, there are absolute truths and principles of morals. Man seeks the good that fits his
nature is a universally accepted truth. That“do to others what you want others do to you” and do not do
unto others what you don’t want others do to you” is a universally accepted truth. That man deserves to
be punished for his evil deeds is yet another universally accepted truth. The trouble is that people may
not agree how these truths apply.

Physicalism vs. Personalism

Physicalism suggest that the physical and biological nature of man determines morality.
Morality is in accordance with the natural order in the universe. Anything opposed to man’s physical,
physiological, or biological tendencies is wrong and immoral.

Personalism suggests that reason is the standard for moral judgment. Right reason, or “recta
ratio”, is the dynamic tendency in the human person to know the truth, to grasp the whole reality as it
is. Morality is in accordance with the order of reason, or the dictate of reason.

CHAPTER 8

HUMAN VALUES

The Meaning of Values

A value is anything which satisfies a human need. Value is identical to that which is good
defined by Aristotle as “fitting a function”.

Anything which enriches our experience of life is a value, such as a person, a relationship, a
feeling, an object, a place, an event, an opportunity, a profession, a work, a travel, or a state of being.
Thus, parents regard their children as their “treasure”; individuals care about their friendship, and a
community values peace and cooperation. One’s life and beliefs are values.

The Significance of Values

Our ultimate happiness in this in life, says Aristotle, consists in the sum of earthly goods
essential to us. Accordingly, values relate to our ultimate purpose, to that which would make us
completely happy. In this respect, our actions are significant because they are the means by which we

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attain happiness. Good actions are those that bring happiness. Evil actions are those that bring
unhappiness.

Morally good actions are authentic values, while immoral actions are “apparent values”, that is, evil
disguised as good. While these evil acts often promise pleasure or profit, they lead to pain and misery.
Immoral actions do not fit human nature and, thus, w say they are contrary to natural law.

Kinds of Values

1. Biological Values are necessary to the physical survival and growth of man such as food,
shelter, work, pleasure, sex, sports, career, health, and medicines.

2. Psychological Values are necessary to the psychological maturation of man such as

companionship, friendship, marriage, family life, and social interaction.

3. Intellectual Values are necessary to the mental fulfillment of man, such as truth, science, art,
and religion.

4. Moral Values are necessary for the development of character.

5. Cultural Values are shared in the community such as ideals, laws, customs, beliefs, rituals, and
ceremonies.

The Hierarchy of Values

1. The Biological Values which correspond to our survival and procreation, are the lowest. The
most fundamental value in this category is self-preservation, or health. The other values, such as
food, exercise, work, pleasure, and sex, are the means of sustaining and promoting the physical
life.

2. The Social Values corresponding to our psychological growth and the lower middle values. The
fundamental value in this category is love which is the foundation of friendship, marriage,
family, or community.

3. The Intellectual Values corresponding to our mental growth. Are the higher middle values. In
this category, the most fundamental value is Truth. The value of science, arts, technology and
experience are means of acquiring knowledge.

4. The Moral Values corresponding to spiritual development rank the highest in the hierarchy.
These values constitute moral integrity.

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Social Dimension of Values

The authenticity of values consists in their being shared with others. The higher a value goes up
the ranking the more it becomes altruistic.

The lower values are seen as competitive and egoistic because they tend towards the
accumulation of material possession which man finds difficult to share with others. Thus, man would
not easily share food and would wage war to defend or acquire the source of food. On the other hand,
the psychological value of love lends itself to sharing with others. Friendship, for instance, is possible
only with mutual respect and care.

The nature of intellectual value is also altruistic. People find it easy to talk, to communicate, and
to share news with one another. Knowledge lends itself to sharing. Thus, thinkers share their thoughts,
inventors share their inventions, teachers share their skill, and artists share their artworks.

The moral values are even more meaningful because it allows man to live with others in peace
and harmony. The virtues of charity and justice are the foundation of society. No society would be
possible where men do not have goodwill towards one another.

Just as a child grows up with the parents, a human being grows and becomes an authentic person
only in the community with others. This is what God means when he said: “It is not good for man to be
alone; I will give him a helper who will be like him”.

Moral Values

Moral values are those pertaining to the functions of the intellect and the will – our choices,
decisions, actions, and habits. Moral values relate to our spiritual growth.

Strictly speaking, only those related to the spiritual growth are moral values. But in the context
of integral perfection, all values whether biological or social, acquire moral significance. For example,
eating becomes the object of temperance, so that over indulgence to food is gluttony. Again while
eating is necessity, the act of fasting is also required for medical, political, religious, or moral purpose.
In this sense, every human activity has a moral dimension and, depending on one’s motive, an innocent
act like working or playing may be moral or immoral.

Characteristics of Moral Values

1. They have intrinsic worth. This means that moral values are in themselves good and
independent of our opinion of them. The act of feeding the hungry, for example, is a good act
regardless of the motive of it.

2. They are universally accepted by all people. None would find fault with helping the needy, or
testifying on the truth of something, or working honestly for a living. The Bill of Rights is
accepted by the community of nations.

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 3. They are obligatory. This means that a person, when so capacitated, is duty bound to do what is
good when the situation demands it. Thus, one is duty bound to return to its rightful owner a
lost-and-found property. Likewise, one is duty bound to help accident victims. This also means
that every person is obliged to be honest, to be respectful of others, to be diligent, and to avoid
doing what harm others.

Choosing Values

Since values have relative worth, a person has to choose those which are relevant to him:

1. Permanent or Lasting Values must be preferred over temporary or perishable ones. For example,
education is objectively better than leisure; moral habit better than physical strength.

2. Values favored by the majority must be preferred over those appealing only to a few. For
example, marriage is better than remaining single; wealth better than staying poor.

3. Essential values must be preferred over the accidental values. For example, good reputation is
better than being pretty; attending to parental duties better than involvement in social gatherings
or parties.

4. Moral values must be preferred over the physical values. For example, the practice of religion is
better than sports; feeding the orphans is better than spending money for luxuries.

Moral Habits

Moral character is the sum of man’s good habits. Habit comes from the Latin word “habere”,
meaning – to have or to possess. Habits are either entitative or operative.

Entitative Habits- predispose man to acquire certain nature or quality, like being healthy, being
beautiful, being intelligent, or being rich.

Operative Habits- predispose man to act readily towards a purpose, like singing, dancing, playing
basketball, or helping others. The operative habit of doing well is called “virtue”; that of doing evil is
“vice”.

Virtues pertaining to mental or intellectual operation is called intellectual virtues; those pertaining to
the will are moral virtues.

Moral Virtues

A. Prudenceenables a person to know the best means to employ in attainting a purpose. A prudent
person weights the pros and cons of a situation and acts with reasonable caution.

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 B. Justice inclines a person to give to everyone what is due. A just person pays his legal debts,
honors his elders, observes the laws of society, and worships God.

C. Fortitudegives a person the strength of the will to face dangers and the problems in life. A
person of fortitude is not easily discouraged and is ready to stand by what is right.

D. Temperancemoderates a person’s instincts and emotions. A temperate person is not given to

inordinate anger, jealousy, desire, or love.

Intellectual Virtues

A. Understanding is the habit or intuition of the first principles, such as “the whole is greater than
the sum of any of its parts”, or that “doing well is better than doing bad”. This is also called
“common sense”.

B. Science is the habit of proximate causes, why things are such because of their nature or natural
properties. Thus, we have the different sciences on different field of studies.

C. Art is the habit of making beautiful things, such as in literature, in architecture, and in fine arts.

D. Wisdom is the habit of the ultimate causes, such as the inter-dependence of created things in the
eco-system; or how the negative emotions of man - like hatred, anger, or sadness – are not signs
of weakness but the natural instincts for self-preservation and growth.

Vices and Character

A Vice is the opposite of virtue. Vice is the habit of doing evil acquired through the repetition of
an evil act. One immoral act does not constitute a habit or a vice for that matter. But it is no less
unfortunate. The fact is every single evil act speaks of an evil character.

A vice is evil either because of Excess or of Defect:

A. Vices opposed to prudence by excess are – cautiousness, fraud, flattery, trickery. By defect –
imprudence, impulsiveness, carelessness or stubbornness.

B. Vices opposed to justice by excess are – profligacy, idolatry, fanaticism, and superstition. By
defect – disrespect to elders, irreligion, and non-payment of debts.

C. Vices opposed to fortitude by excess – rashness, boldness, recklessness. By defect – cowardice,

timidity, sensitivity and depression.

D. Vices opposed to temperance by excess – rigorousness, lack of self-confidence, moroseness. By

defect – pride, lust, hatred, gluttony, and vanity.

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Moral integrity is man’s true worth. With it, a person is distinguished as “mabutingtao”. Without it, a
person is “masamang tao”.

CHAPTER 9

FILIPINO VALUES

Filipino values are our cultural values. They sum up our responses to the meaning of human life in the
context of the cultural setting. They show our strengths and weaknesses as a people.

Filipino Cultural Values

Cultural values are “our distinctive may of becoming human on this particular place and time.”
Says Vitaliano Gorospe.The concept of “becoming human” means “pagpapakatao”.

Filipino values spring from our peculiar way of viewing life – its origin, its meaning, and its
purpose. Foremost among our values is pananaligsaMaykapal. The Filipino puts his trust entirely in
God’s hand. He believes that his destiny, or “suwerte”, depends on God’s wishes.

The Filipino calls to God when things are bad, when there is a calamity or an epidemic, or when
a friend or relative is sick. He praises God for a good harvest, for passing a Board exam, for the return
of stolen property, for surviving an illness or an accident, and for living a long life. He attributes his
misfortunes to his sinfulness and he vows to endure physical suffering in atonement. He entrust to God
any unresolved issues or suffered injustice – “ipapasa-Diyosnalamang”. And he swears to God to prove
his honesty, swearing – “sumpa man saDiyos”.

The Filipino expresses concern for others through pakikipag-kapwa, pagmamahalsapamilya, and
pagmamahalsabayan. He believes in himself and his abilities.

Filipino Moral Ideal

The Filipino believes moral integrity is the essentiality of “becoming human”. It is above the
desire for material enrichment – “Di baling mahirap, basta’tdangal”.

This moral expectation is similar, though with much lesser significance, with such concepts as
“magpaka-lalakika”, or “magpaka-babae ka”, implying that man and woman have different traits and
capabilities. Just as a man or a woman must act in accordance with the demands of their respective
gender, a person ought to live up to the demands of his humanity or “pagkatao”, “pagpapakatao”. The
Filipino moral ideal coincides with what other people of any culture regard as the greatest attribute of a
human being. A person must be caring, honest, hardworking, and respectful of others. He must have an
impeccable character. Failing the moral standard makes a person “masamangtao”, and is looked down
as “hayop”, or “walanghiya”, a shameless beast.

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Ambivalent Values

Filipino Values are described as ambivalent, because they are either advantageous or
disadvantageous to the person. For instance, the value of family closeness promotes love and mutual
care, but at the same time promotes dependence, lack of self-confidence and initiative among its
members.

Another example of ambivalence is pakikisama. Coming from the word “sama”, or company, it
means fellowship or caring for another person. But oftentimes it becomes a form of concession, a
giving or yielding to the will of the leader or of the majority. Thus, “magalingmakisama” refers to one
who is disposed to do anything, including that which is wrong, for his gang or barkada. When he pays
for the beer of his gand mates. A “tapatnakaibigan” is one who is ready to lie for you.

Double-Standard Mentality
It is commonly held, for example, that it is alright for a man to be unfaithful to his wife because
that is what masculinity means – a macho. On the other hand, a woman is expected to be modest, and
pure. It is only in 2006 that Congress ruled that adultery as a single act of infidelity by either married
man or woman so that either is accountable in the same manner and degree. Earlier the law was tilted
against the woman who could be punished for a single act of extramarital relation, whereas the man
may be charged with the same crime only when he keeps a mistress.

Another example of double-standard is the situation where the rich gets undue advantage over
the poor in the interpretation of the law. Likewise, the Filipino is not scandalized that the church where
he worships was built by the local drug lord. Neither does it bother the Filipino that there are pimps,
prostitutes, and thugs in the neighborhood, because these characters are just earning a living –
“naghahanapbuhay lamang”. Indeed, the Filipino has a kind and forgiving soul. He condemns sin but
condones sinners. He regards human nature as inherently weak and, therefore, mistakes are expected –
“sapagkat taolamang”.

False Norms of Morality

The double-standard mentality comes from following false norms of morality. Paradoxically,
Filipinos defines what is right or wrong (1) on the basis of group-centeredness or “group-thinking”; or
(2) on the basis of shame and fear of authority figure”.

Group-thinking is the mentality of the heard. What the group prefers, or what the dominant
figure in the group wishes, becomes the basis of individual choice. Thus, instead of relying on his
personal conviction, a person becomes “sunod-sunoran”, “uto-uto”, a blind man following the lead of
another blind.

The other false norm is fear or shame of authority. This is the don’t-be-caught” attitude.
According to this norm, it is alright to do wrong provided one is not caught. Thus, it is alright for a
student to cheat during exam, provided he is not caught by the teacher. This is the mentality of palusot,
pagkukunwari or kaplastikan.

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Re-orientation of Attitudes

The double-standard mentality may be corrected by removing its causes: ignorance, complacency, and
rationalization

1. The Filipino does not often bother with the complexity of a situation, but plunges headlong into
action propelled by the impulse of “bahalana”. The Filipino, therefore, must not be gullible, and
learn how good fortune is the result of thinking and planning. Instead of putting his hope on luck
or “suwerte”, he must trust himself or seek guidance from reliable persons, not from charlatans,
visionaries, and street-wise preachers. He must distinguish between the fantasies of the movie
and the reality of flesh and blood.

2. The Filipino must free himself from the belief that his life is a matter of destiny, and everything
that happens is “tinalaga ng Diyos” “Ganyantalagaangbuhay” expresses resignation to one’s
misfortunes. But instead of resigning to his fate, one must strive harder to improve his life.

3. The Filipino must revolutionize his ways of thinking. Instead of rationalizing, inventing excuses
for his mistakes, one must accept and correct them. He must assume responsibility over his
actions, and not blame others. Rationalization is making “palusot” or lame excuses.

Characteristics of a Responsible person

1. A responsible person differentiates between what is essential from what is accidental. The
Filipino must cultivate his moral sensibility so he is able to discern what is good or bad in a
situation. He must be able to see through the actuations of do-gooders so that he is not deceived
by false promises or pretenses.

2. A responsible person internalizes his values. Values must be ingested and digested, so to speak,
so that they become part of your character. An act of kindness, for example, must come from the
heart. And when we say we love God, it is loving God – with all our mind and with all our soul.

3. A responsible person accepts the consequences of his actions. When the Filipino wishes to
guarantee the truth of anything, he swears by his life, declaring “ Mamatay man ako”. The
Filipino needs more than just rhetoric. He needs to show deeper maturity, accepting his mistakes
instead of attributing them to others.

Core Values of the Filipino

Moral maturity is process of change. It means a new way of thinking, a new perception of
realities. For the Filipino, this growth begins with the fresh view of human dignity.

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 While the significance of human dignity has always been part of the Filipino tradition, somehow
its true meaning has been lost in the national consciousness of the people. Today, for example, people
rarely act on the basis of “delicadeza”.

Vitaliano Gorospe suggests that the education of Filipinos should center on these values, namely
– Truth, Love and Faith; Integrity, Industry, and Social Justice.

1. Truth, Love and Faith

One should seek the truth relevant to his circumstances. Applying oneself to research or seeking
the counsel of prudent men leads to proper instruction. On the other hand, listening to rumors and
gossips is always risky.

Love for the good should be the basis of decisions and choices. One should be ready to choose
not on the basis of what is pleasant or unpleasant, convenient, but solely on the basis of what is
objectively good under the circumstances.

Religious faith in needed too. Reason and good intention are not enough. There are many riddles
in life which only faith can answer.

2. Integrity

The word stands for completeness. It connotes perfection, adhering to what is truth and
committing oneself to what is good. It means condemning deceit, cheating, stealing, fraud, hypocrisy
and dishonesty in all its forms, such as “lagay, padulas, areglo, palusot, kaplastikan, garapalan, and
palakasan” It means internalizing values. It means loving oneself.

3. Industry

Filipinos believe in honest work and have uneasiness about feeding their families through ill-
gotten money. The desire to improve his life and that of the family drives the Filipino to work any
place in the world, and where he goes he is recognized for his competence, diligence, and honesty.

4. Social Justice

Social Justice is more than just the act of charity. It is founded on the truth which holds all
earthly goods as belonging to all men and to be shared equally by them, not in the mathematical sense
od equality but in the prudential sense, so that everyone has access to a decent life.

This is the basis of land reform program in the Philippines which, however, remains ineffective,
causing endless conflict between landowners and tenants. On personal level, Social Justice urges one to
help the poor in every way possible, not because it is the “pious” thing to do, but because it is the duty

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of every capable individual to do so. Social justice demands that we share our good fortune with the
less fortunate.

CHAPTER 10

LOVE OF NEIGHBOR

Neighbor is any person other than oneself – parents, relatives, friends, officemates, superiors
and strangers. Even our enemies are our neighbor whom we ought to respect.

Principles of Neighborliness

How we should treat others is expressed negatively by the golden rule: “Do not do unto others,
what you do not want others do to you”. The positive formulation of this rule is the command: “Love
your neighbor as yourself”. Jesus Christ teaches that the two greatest commandments are: first, to love
God, and second, to love thy neighbor.

Two significant virtues regulate our relationship with one another – charity and justice. Justice
requires that we render to another what is due to him. Justice implies a law binding us to give what we
owe to another either in terms of respect or payment of debt. Charity, on the other hand, is rendering to
another something which is not due to him by the demand of a law. Charity is expression of goodwill
and love on the part of the giver.

In the social order, justice takes precedence over charity. One must first render justice to his
neighbor before he may rightly claim loving his neighbor. In the moral order, charity is higher than
justice because it is doing good to another out of love and not out of an obligation imposed by a law
which is the case with justice.

Meaning of Justice

St. Thomas Aquinas defines justice as the firm and constant will to give to each his due. This
means giving to someone what is his own or his right. By “right” we mean that which is strictly owed
according to proportional equality. By “someone” we mean the object or receiver of justice, oneself,
another person, or the community.

“Proportional equality” is not treating all persons the same way in strict mathematical equation.
Because people differ with one another, their claim to rights differs with those of others. For example,
your parents have a greater claim than your friend to your love and care.

Types of Justice

Those who have less in life must have more in law.

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 1. Commutative Justice – regulates the rights of persons towards one another in accordance with
the principle of equality in give and take. The object of commutative justice is the private
advantage or profit. It requires that one may not take advantage of another person by violating
his right, say, to his life or interest. It is commutative justice that, for example, obliges a person
to pay his debts, or compels the employer to pay a just wage. The common violations of
commutative justice includes theft, fraud, and unjust damage to property or reputation.

2. Distributive Justice – regulates the rights of persons as members of the community. Since the
members of the community are not equally situated, whether morally or economically, it is the
responsibility of the community to determine the proportionate share of each members in the
privileges, aids, burden, and obligations towards the community. It is due to distributive justice
that, for example, citizens of a given community do not pay the same amount of taxes relative to
their income.

3. Legal Justice – regulates rights of the community or those charged with the welfare of the
community. The aim of legal justice is the promotion of the common good. The officials of the
community exercise legal justice by passing such laws that would promote the common good.
The citizens exercise this virtue by faithful obedience to the laws which promote the common
good.

4. Social Justice – regulates the rights of persons towards the weaker members of the community –
those who are poor and needy. Social justice, being concerned with the welfare of the
community, must attend to the needs of all its members, especially those who are poor, weak,
and disadvantage. Social justice is based on the principle that the wealth of the earth belongs to
everybody.

Hence, social justice requires that wages should not be based solely on what is materially
equitable as may be determined by law, but on what the laborer needs to sustain a decent life for
him and his family.

5. Vindictive Justice – regulates the rights of the community or State to restore public order by
punishing criminals in proportion to their guilt. The aim of vindictive justice is “the furtherance
of the common welfare, i.e., public order and security, universal respect for justice, confidence
in authority, and if possible, correction of the guilty.

The Goal of Social Justice

Social justice as explained is the preferential option for the poor and a way of sharing one’s
talent, treasure and time with the needy. “In practice, “magpakatao para sakapwa” means three things:
(1) sharing with others especially the poor, (2) “subversion” in the sense of struggling for structural and
cultural change, simplicity of life style, because by having more and more, the great majority of the
poor may have less and less.

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 “Less human conditions” refers to lack of material necessities for those who are without
minimum essential for life; oppressive social structures caused by either abuse of power or abuse of
ownership. Pope Paul VI exhorts modern man to bring about the conditions for a true and authentic
human existence.

The same pope cites the needs for reforms, “bold transformations, innovations that go deep.”
Towards this goal, private initiative and public authority must work and apply their resources in
programs that will “reduce inequalities, fight discriminations, free man from various types of servitude
and enable him to be the instrument of his own material betterment, of his moral progress and of his
spiritual growth”.

Duties towards Neighbor

Because rights and duties are reciprocal, any right we claim for our self becomes a duty towards our
neighbor. For instance, our right to life becomes a duty to respect and protect the life of another person.
We may classify our duties towards the neighbor pertaining to his:

1. Body–Every person has a right to his life, bodily health and well-being. This right comes from
the force of natural law and we are bound to respect it, both morally and legally. It becomes
therefore our duty with regards to our neighbor’s right over his body and life, to refrain from any
activity that may, directly or indirectly, violate such right.

The Decalogue expresses these duties as commands, requiring the omission of certain
acts because they are unjust. These prohibited acts are intrinsically evil, such as murder,
abortion, rape, slavery, human trafficking, drug pushing, kidnapping, torture, and other unjust
acts that threatens a person with bodily harm.

2. Soul- Every person has the right to the truth and to the good that befits his rational soul. This is
a right coming from natural law, since man is endowed with the intellect for knowing the truth
and the will for desiring that which is good.

Accordingly, it is our duty, with respect to our neighbor’s right to truth, to be honest
towards him, telling him what he has the right to know or to helping him acquire such
knowledge necessary for his development. For example, because children have the right to
education, parents have the duty to educate their children according to their means.

A person who has the authority over a person, such as a parent over his child, has the
right to be informed, if this serves a reasonable purpose, about the activities of under their
charge. Thus, teachers not only have the moral obligation to counsel erring students, but to
report wrongdoings to the school officials or to the parents. In the same respect, manufacturers
or sellers of consumer goods, such as food or medicine, have the duty to inform the buyers about
the ingredients of the product, or to warn the patient of any adverse or side-effect of a medicine,
as the case may be. Thus, we speak of truth in advertising.

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 Some actions prohibited in this regard are lies, cheating, fraud, slander, gossips,
misinterpretation, falsification, perjury, petty rumor, superstition, fortune telling, and other acts
which hide, obscures, or muddles the truth.

3. Property–Every person has the right of ownership over things honestly acquired. This right
implies moral power to use and to exclude other persons from such use. “Property” refers to
external and material goods which, strictly speaking, can be possessed, disposed of, or
consumed, such as food, clothes, house, land, and money. However, the term property may
mean the result of our work or achievement. In this sense, we speak of reputation or “good
name” as a property. Writing, work of arts, or inventions are also property, called “intellectual
property”.

On every person is imposed the corresponding reciprocal duty to respect the property of
the neighbor in all its forms. Prohibited acts in this regard are – stealing, trespassing, invasion of
privacy, plagiarism, arson, land grabbing, vandalism, squatting, malversation, and many other
acts which deprives a person the right to own and use his property.

Correcting an Injustice

One who willfully violates the right of another person is bound by natural law, and also by the
laws of society, to rectify any act of injustice he has done. This effort to correct injustice is called –
restitution, from the verb“to restore” or “to bring back”.

The concept of restitution in the ancient law of Talion demands “an eye for an eye and a tooth
for a tooth”, which the Filipino translates as “buhay and inutang, buhayangkabayaran”. In some
cultures, restitution for an act of murder is accomplished by paying “blood money” to the family of the
victim.

Restitution is a difficult thing, especially where the damage done is not materially quantifiable,
such as in the case of physical injury, damage to one’s honor, or death. In cases where the damage is
materially quantifiable, such as the amount of stolen money, restitution is accomplished by paying back
the amount plus some compensatory amount for the anguish and emotional distress suffered by the
victim.

The rule is, the greater the damage, the greater the restitution. Since the determination of
restitution cannot be left to the decision of the parties concerned without the risk of committing further
injustice, the determination of restitution becomes the responsibility of Court of justice. Punishing a
crime, such as imprisonment, constitutes restitution. It is not rare that the Court decides not only on the
terms of imprisonment as commensurate to the crime but rules on such other monetary penalties to
compensate for moral damages in those cases when the crime has caused scandal, embarrassment,
anxiety and worry on the victim.

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The Principle of Self-Defense

ApolinarioMabini refers to the principle of self-defense when he states: “Love your neighbor as
yourself because God has imposed upon him as well as upon you the obligation to help and not to do to
you what he does not want to be done to him by you. But if your neighbor, failing in this sacred duty,
attempts against your life, liberty, or interest, therefore, you must destroy him and annihilate him,
because the law of self-preservation must prevail.

Our inalienable right to life includes its defense from an unjust aggressor. An unjust aggressor is
anyone who without proper authority and just reason attempts against our life or interests, such as a
robber, rapist, kidnapper, or a murderer.

The principles of self-defense anticipates a situation where a victim, without the means to take
recourse to the police or the court, is being threatened here and now by an unjust aggressor and is in
immediate danger. In this case, the law of self-preservation grants the probable victim a reasonable
defense of his right in defense of his life. A person has the right of self-defense either by incapacitating
or killing an unjust aggressor, such as one who threatens to shoot him.

Conditions:

1. The attack is unjust. The attack comes from an aggressor who is acting in his own private
authority and not from duly constituted authority. Example, a criminal who is sentenced to be
executed by the State may not claim self-defense and kill the prison guards. Police officers do
not have the authority to summarily “salvage” criminals unless they are attacked first and placed
in immediate danger to their life.

2. The attack is serious in nature. An attack is serious when it is an attempt to cause death to a
victim who is then placed in a grace danger to his life.

3. The defense must be simultaneous to the attack. The defense should be made at the same
time as that of the actual attack. An act of defense before or after an actual attack is not self-
defense.

4. The means employed for defense are reasonable. The purpose of self-defense is to protect
oneself and not to commit murder. Therefore, the victim may not kill the aggressor when it is
possible to incapacitate him and thwart his evil purpose.

5. The motive of the defender is honest. The only laudable motive for self-defense is to save
one’s life from an unjust attack. It should not be taken as an opportunity to exact vengeance or
punishment on the aggressor.
Capital Punishment

Capital Punishment or the Death Penalty, is a controversial topic. Some countries demand it,
others condemn it as an unjust and immoral punishment even for them whose guilt has been established
beyond reasonable doubt.
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The Pros and Cons

The PROS, or those who are in favor of death penalty, like the Volunteers against Crime and
Corruption, believe that the State, like the private individual, has the right of self-defense in defending
society from criminals. Death penalty is a just, especially when imprisonment is not sufficient or
commensurate to the crime committed. Henry Davis, a theologian, thinks that every person has the
right to live without “unjust molestation” from others. Capital punishment is therefore necessary for
peace and security of life and property. It is deterrent against crimes.

However, death penalty is morally permissible under the following conditions:

1. The criminal is given “due process” in court.

2. The crime must be grave and serious.
3. The guilt of the criminal is sufficiently proved beyond reasonable doubt.

The CONS, or those who are not in favor of capital punishment, like the CBCP, consider death
penalty inhuman and unchristian. Theologian Brendan Soane points out that the sacred text in the
Scripture in support of death penalty belong to an old order, “written at a time when the blood
vengeance was exacted for murder and it was believed that the blood of the victim cried out from earth
until it had been avenged by the blood of the murderer”. Jesus repudiated the law of Talion and
insteadtaught us to love our enemies. Although this does not mean that we should not punish at all, for
we have seen that punishment can be good and just, it is a claim on us to temper the severity of
punishment with the mercy which is born of love.

It is also argued against the death penalty that it does not deter criminals to indulge themselves in
their evil ways. If death penalty is a deterrent against crime, then society would have rid itself of
criminals long time ago. The fact is that there are other ways for punishing criminals, punishments
which are humane and just.

Capital punishment should not be compared to a medical surgery to remove a tumor for the purpose
of preserving life. The life of the victim of a crime is not preserved by taking away the life of the
murderer. Neither is the peace and order in society preserved since it has been already disturbed prior
to the mortal punishment of the criminal and the death of any number of criminals does not necessarily
results in harmony in society. Furthermore, death penalty effectively and with finality destroys the life
of a person, preventing him to make amends and to reform his life.

Theologian Bernard Haring believes crimes are the result of socio-environmental conditions and
states that: “the State has no right to uphold death penalty unless it has done all its power to give better
education and to care for a more and just environment”.

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