Non Homogenous Combustion – A review

A report presented by: Ibrahim Mohamed Saied Elgarhi

Presented to Prof. Dr. Mohamed Noor ElDin Saeed

12-10-2022
The aim of (Abdul Rasid & Zhang, 2021) is to determine the effect of uniformly suspended soot
on the evaporation characteristics of a diesel droplet. An experimental study has been carried out.
Soot formed by the combustion of diesel was collected and suspended uniformly within a neat
diesel. The particle loadings were varied from 0.1% to 0.5% by mass and ignited in a single
isolated droplet, normal gravity and ambient condition. It has been found that the burning rate of
contaminated droplets is lower than the neat condition in all particle loading. A critical loading
was identified to be at 0.2% which has shown a slight improvement in the burning rate despite
having a reduced rate compared to its neat counterpart. It has also been found that within the
critical loading, the particle briefly improves the thermal conductivity towards the core of the
droplet which in turn slightly enhances the evaporation rate. Once the shear stress exerted by the
external gas flow is subjected to the droplet, the internal circulation is induced and moves the
particle towards the surface of the droplet. Agglomeration of particles on the surface of the
droplet inhibits the liquid diffusion from the core to the surface of the droplet thus suppressing
the evaporation rate. High particle loading would accelerate the agglomeration process whereas
low and critical particle loading briefly improves the evaporation in a reduced condition. These
insights are of significance for determining the main cause of the detrimental effect of soot
contamination in a liquid fuel; providing a base approach upon identifying the role of
nanoparticles within the fuel droplet combustion study.

Figure 1. experimental setup (Abdul Rasid & Zhang, 2021).

 Figure 2. Repetitive measurement on D2 regression of (a) neat, (b) SC, (c) 0.1% VC, (d) 0.2% VC, (e) 0.3%
VC and (f) 0.4% VC diesel droplets (Abdul Rasid & Zhang, 2021).

Figure 3.Disruptive burning of VC droplet with particle mass loading of (A) 0.2% and (B) 0.3% (Abdul Rasid
& Zhang, 2021).

(Al Qubeissi, et al., 2017) presented a new approach to the modelling of heating and evaporation
of dual-fuel droplets with a specific application to blends of biodiesel (represented by the widely
used soybean methyl ester, SME) and Diesel fuels in conditions representative of internal
combustion engines. The original compositions, with up to 105 components of Diesel and
biodiesel fuels, are replaced with a smaller number of components and quasi-components using
the recently introduced multi-dimensional quasi-discrete (MDQD) model. Transient diffusion of
these components and quasi-components in the liquid phase and temperature gradient and
recirculation inside droplets are considered. The results are compared with the predictions of the
case when blended biodiesel/Diesel fuel droplets are represented by pure biodiesel fuel or pure
Diesel fuel droplets. It has been shown that droplet evaporation time and surface temperature
predicted for 100% SME, representing pure biodiesel fuel, are close to those predicted for pure
Diesel fuel. Also, it has been shown that the approximations of the actual compositions of B5
(5% SME and 95% Diesel) and B50 (50% SME and 50% Diesel) dual-fuels by 17 quasi-
components/components, using the MDQD model, lead to under-predictions in droplet lifetimes
by up to 9% and 4%, respectively, under the same engine conditions. The application of the latter
model has resulted in an above 83% reduction in CPU time compared to the case when all 105
components are considered using the discrete component model.

Figure 4. The plots of droplet surface temperatures 𝑇𝑠 (a), and radii 𝑅𝑑 (b) versus time for various
Diesel/SME (Al Qubeissi, et al., 2017).
 Figure 5. The plots of surface liquid mass fractions 𝑌𝑠 of representative components versus time for a B50
fuel (Al Qubeissi, et al., 2017).

Figure 6. The plots of the droplet surface temperatures 𝑇𝑠 and radii 𝑅𝑑 versus time for 10 approximations of
B50: 105 components (ME); 90, 63, 45, 25, 21, 19, 17, 12, and 10 C/QCs (numbers near the curves); (b)
Zoomed parts of (a) (Al Qubeissi, et al., 2017).
The purpose of (Antonov, et al., 2019) is an experimental study of the effect the conductive,
convective, and radiative heat input onto the surface of a two-component droplet has on the sizes
of the polydisperse ensemble of fragments forming upon its micro-explosion. As a result of the
experimental study, the limit conditions by the heating temperature and the concentrations of
components necessary and sufficient for the micro-explosion fragmentation of droplets of the
compounds investigated have been established. Three possible heating regimes were
distinguished:(1) a monotonic decrease in the sizes due to evaporation with conservation of the
droplet integrity, (2) partial and long-lasting fragmentation and (3) micro-explosion
fragmentation (Antonov, et al., 2019).

These regimes are different by both the durations of droplet evaporation and the combination of
processes and effects. In particular, the conditions for the monotonic evaporation/puffing/micro-
explosion regimes for the three heating schemes were 100/150/250°C for the scheme with the
heating surface, 200/250/300°C for the scheme with silica-glass cylinder, and 200/250/300°C for
the scheme with muffle furnace. The maximum duration corresponded to the first regime,
whereas the minimum duration corresponded to the micro-explosion. The summery of the results
are presented as follow (Antonov, et al., 2019):

The main reason for the micro-explosion destruction of inhomogeneous liquid droplets is the fact
that the temperature achieves values near its boiling temperature, and the generation of bubbles
near the interface was registered. The vapour pressure in the last bubble was higher than the
pressure caused by the surface tension forces, and the liquid film was destroyed with the
formation of a cloud of small fragments. In the scheme with a muffle furnace and the scheme
with silica-glass cylinder, the sizes of the clouds formed were significantly larger than in the
scheme with the heating surface. It is caused by the fact that the generating fragments flew away,
and there was no constraining factor in the form of the basement of the heated base. The higher
the heating temperature, the more significant these effects are (Antonov, et al., 2019).

The number of small droplets was maximal in the experiments with the scheme with a muffle
furnace, and the minimum number was observed in the scheme with the heating surface
(Antonov, et al., 2019).

the heating times for the scheme with silica-glass cylinder have values in-between the two other
schemes. Since the liquids in the droplets are intensely heated, the surface tension and viscosity
significantly decreased relative to the scheme with a heating surface. The number of small child
droplets increases (Antonov, et al., 2019).

Analysing the results of experiments with a muffle furnace of droplets, it could be noted that the
number of child droplets formed is maximal (Antonov, et al., 2019).

It was established that there are ranges of heating temperatures and of the corresponding heat
fluxes upon exceeding which the number and the sizes of the child droplets generated do not
change considerably (Antonov, et al., 2019).

Figure 7. Heating schemes (view from above) with different schemes of heat exchange (1 is the scheme with
heating surface, 2 is the scheme with silica-glass cylinder, and 3 is the scheme with muffle furnace) of two-
component droplets for realization of their mic (Antonov, et al., 2019).
Figure 8. Ratio of the averaged size of child droplets to the analogous size of the original droplet (Diesel fuel
(10 vol %) and water (90 vol %), Rd0 ≈ 1.33 mm) for different heating temperatures and three schemes of
heat input (1 and 4 are for the scheme with muffle furnace) (Antonov, et al., 2019).

Figure 9. Ratio of the average size of child droplets to the analogous size of the original droplet (Diesel fuel
and water, Rd0 ≈ 1.33 mm) at variation of the concentration of flammable liquid for three schemes of heat
input (1 and 4 are for the scheme with heat (Antonov, et al., 2019).
In (Bennewitz, et al., 2019), an experimental study has been carried out, a new data reduction
approach was developed for measuring droplet burning rate constants that automatically find the
most linear part of the d-squared curve for the longest period of time. the approach, called Kβ,
was developed in response to the observation that burning rate constants can vary by up to 10%,
depending on the reduction approach used, especially for fuel types such as non-volatile simple
hydrocarbons and kerosene. To evaluate this new method, burning rate constants were measured
for 10 fuels, including two alcohols, four simple hydrocarbons and four kerosene blends. The
measured rates ranged from 0.74 to 0.94 mm 2∕s, typically grouped by similarities in the
thermophysical properties of the fuel types. Notably, Kβ and its simpler equivalent K end;5;70
yielded burning rates with small statistical uncertainty (≈0.006 mm 2∕s average) across all fuels
and were associated with the highest coefficient of determination for all K measurement
approaches, indicating that these two methods are viable options for improved consistency in
measuring burning rate constants. In addition, a systematic method has been presented for
measuring ignition delays τign using a short-duration plasma source for ignition. The ignition
delays ranged from 65 to 110 ms for most fuels, correlating well with the fuel boiling
temperature. Combined, this work provides baseline data and data reduction tools suitable for
future droplet combustion studies.

Figure 10. Droplet experiment test facility consisting of the high-speed imaging configuration and the plasma
arc ignition system connected to the automated motorized track (Bennewitz, et al., 2019), .
 Figure 11. Ignition delay τign summary for the various hydrocarbon fuels (excluding hexadecane) evaluated
from the infrared thermal images (Bennewitz, et al., 2019).

In (Botero, et al., 2012), Freely-falling droplets of ethanol, diesel, (castor oil) biodiesel, and their
mixtures were experimentally examined in a high-temperature combustion chamber. The
combustion characteristics including the burning rate, micro explosion, and sooting propensity
are reported. Results show that (Botero, et al., 2012):

 The addition of biodiesel to diesel substantially reduces the extent of soot formation,
primarily because of the reduced aromatics content of the mixture and the oxidizing
functionalities of the biodiesel. Castor oil biodiesel appears to be more effective in soot
suppression than the much-used methyl esters, ostensibly because of the presence of the
extra OH function group in its molecular structure.
 Castor oil biodiesel has a slightly lower burning rate than that diesel because of its lower
heat content and higher boiling point.
 The diffusion-limited mechanism for multicomponent droplet burning with highly
disparate boiling points was demonstrated for diesel/ethanol and biodiesel/ethanol
mixtures. Three phases were observed: 1. almost steady burning of the more volatile
components with lower boiling points; 2. an intermediate transient heating period as the
 dominant surface components transition from the more volatile to the less volatile ones;
3. almost steady burning supported by the co-gasification of both the more and less
volatile components.
 Diesel and biodiesel mixtures with ethanol blending both micros explode during burning,
with the latter exhibiting it earlier in the droplet lifetime and with stronger intensity, and
are also promoted for near equi-volume mixtures. Micro explosion reduces the overall
burning time and hence increases the overall fuel consumption rate.
 The addition of ethanol to diesel reduces the yellow luminosity of the flame at the early
stage of the droplet lifetime, indicating an overall reduction in the sooting propensity, 9
especially recognizing the relatively large amount of soot formation when the flame size
is also larger during that stage.

Figure 12. Experimental setup (Botero, et al., 2012).

In (Faik & Zhang, 2020), high-speed imaging and subsequent image processing leading to
quantitative analysis of the binary fuel droplet combustion including liquid-phase dynamics are
performed. Two categories of binary fuels – in which diesel is the base fuel – are prepared and
utilized. The first category is biodiesel/diesel and bioethanol/diesel blends, while the second
category is the water-in-diesel and diesel-in-water emulsions. A specific optical setup is
developed and used for tracking droplet combustion. The resulting magnification of the droplet
images is up to 30 times the real size, offering the possibility of droplet interior visualization at
high imaging rates of up (to 40,000 fps). With the aid of this setup, spatial and temporal tracking
of nucleation, bubble formation, puffing, micro explosion, and secondary atomization during the
combustion of two adjacent binary fuel droplets are performed. The burning rate constants are
evaluated and found to have the same trends as the isolated droplet combustion. However, the
ratio of the droplet burning rate constant of the interactive droplet combustion to that of the
isolated droplet combustion is higher than unity. This is the same for the nucleation rate within
the interacting fuel droplets. the summery of the concluded points in this paper are presented as
follow:

 The critical normalized spacing distance below which the two adjacent droplets will be
surrounded by a single flame is estimated to be around 3 in the case of the
biodiesel/diesel blends and to some extent higher for each of the ethanol/diesel blends,
water-in-diesel emulsions, and diesel-in-water emulsions.
 For all the binary fuel mixtures, the nucleation rate is inversely proportional to the
additive concentration (biodiesel, ethanol, or water). Additionally, the droplets of both
emulsions had the highest nucleation rates, then the ethanol/diesel blends, and the lowest
were the biodiesel/diesel blends. This is attributed to the miscibility of these additives to
diesel.
 Compared to the corresponding isolated fuel droplets, the nucleation rate in the
interacting fuel droplets is higher. This is attributed to the increased heat transfer rates to
the droplet from the flame and neighbouring droplets.
 Except for the diesel-in-water emulsion, the bubble growth rate is inversely proportional
to the increase in additive concentration. Additionally, the water-in-diesel emulsions and
ethanol/diesel blends have the uppermost growth rates, while biodiesel/diesel blends and
diesel-in-water emulsions had the lowermost growth rates respectively.
 The secondary atomization of the burning droplet is highly affected by the secondary
atomization and micro explosion from its neighbouring droplet.
  Furthermore, separation and accumulation of the less volatile component (diesel in the
ethanol/diesel blends, and water in the water-in-diesel and diesel-in-water emulsions) in
the binary fuel droplets have also been observed.

Figure 13. The effect of droplet normalized spacing distance on the flame surrounding the burning diesel fuel
(Faik & Zhang, 2020).

Figure 14. Temporal sequence of the flame propagation from a burning DW20 emulsion fuel droplet to its
neighbor droplet (Faik & Zhang, 2020).
Figure 15. The interactive combustion of two-biodiesel fuel droplets at different normalized spacing distance
(Faik & Zhang, 2020).

Figure 16. The effect of normalized spacing distance on the flame surrounding two interacting BD10 fuel
droplets (Faik & Zhang, 2020).

An auto-ignition process of a non-homogeneous mixture in fuel concentration was

fundamentally investigated in (Kawanabe, 2012) by means of a numerical calculation based on
chemical kinetics and the stochastic approach. The auto-ignition process of n-heptane is
calculated by means of a semi-detailed mechanism and the non-uniform state of turbulent mixing
is statistically described by means of probability density functions and the stochastic method.
The following conclusions are derived from the results (Kawanabe, 2012):

1. For the auto-ignition process of a non-homogeneous mixture during the mixing process, the
ignition delay time of the cool flame is almost constant against the mixing rate. On the other
hand, the ignition delay time of hot flame becomes longer with increasing mixing rate. This is
because the hot flame ignition delay is more sensible to equivalence ratio than the cool flame
delay (Kawanabe, 2012).

2. For the temperature-rising process of hot flame, start points of heat release vary depending on
the equivalence ratio in a non-homogeneous mixture. Therefore, the rise period increases with
increasing non-homogeneity. Also, the temperature rise rate due to the heat release of the hot
flame increases with increasing mixing rate (Kawanabe, 2012).

3. The tendencies described above are the same for the case of changing equivalence ratio,
initial temperature and pressure (Kawanabe, 2012).

The ignition delay time of each fluid particle varies due to the variation of equivalence ratio at
ignition, therefore, the temperature rise period increases. In addition, the temperature rise rate
becomes larger with decreasing variance of fuel-mass fraction distribution (Kawanabe, 2012).

In (Piskunov & Shcherbinina, 2015), Using high-speed video recording tools (up to 105 frames
per second) and «TEMA Automotive» and «Phantom Camera Control» software packages the
experimental features of explosive disintegration, boiling and evaporation of water droplets with
comparably sized solid inclusions heated in high-temperature (more than 650 K) gaseous region
were determined. The necessary and sufficient conditions of explosive vapor formation
achievement with the next heterogeneous water droplet disintegration were found. It has been
found that the explosive vapor formation conditions of heterogeneous droplets 3-4 mm in size
are possible at the gas temperatures of more than 650 K. So, the existence times till breaking up
the droplets, as a rule, were several seconds. The phase change features of heterogeneous water
droplets were recorded. It was revealed the significant impact of radiation energy on the
considered process. Therefore, the explosive disintegration conditions of heterogeneous water
droplets heated in combustion products of petrochemicals are realized during a short time versus
hot air at the same temperatures.

(Piskunov, et al., 2015) examined the features of the heating and evaporation of heterogeneous
liquid (water) droplets (with an initial radius from 1.5 to 2.5 mm) in the combustion products of
typical liquid combustible substances (acetone, technical ethanol, butane-propane gas mixture)
and heated air explored as a part of university research work. The investigations have been
performed by means of high-speed video recording and software “TEMA Automotive” and
“Phantom Camera Control”. The gas temperature varied from 300 to 850 K in the experiments.
The results demonstrate the effect of radiant (radiation) heat transfer on the conditions of the
phase transitions of heterogeneous water droplets in high-temperature gas environments. The
experimental studies suggest that there are three simultaneous mechanisms of phase changes
during the heating of heterogeneous droplets: the evaporation from the free surface, vaporization
at the internal boundaries (inclusion/liquid) and the “explosive” vaporization of a liquid droplet.
A comparative analysis of the characteristics and times of the complete evaporation of liquid
from the inclusion surface may improve and complete modern technologies based on
heterogeneous vapour-droplet flows. Moreover, the implementation of investigations presented
in this work allowed participants to develop a research base.

The use of the high-speed (not less than 105 frames per second) video recording tools (Phantom)
and the software package (TEMA Automotive) allowed (Piskunov, et al., 2015) to carry out
experimental research of laws of intensive vaporization with an explosive disintegration of
heterogeneous (with a single solid non-transparent inclusion) liquid droplet (by the example of
water) in high-temperature (500-800 K) gases (combustion products). It was established that
large heat fluxes to inclusion/liquid interface are the necessary conditions for this effect. The
conducted experiments illustrated that two schemes of droplet explosion with different processes
of energy supply to internal interfaces and one scheme of intensive evaporation from a free
surface of heterogeneous droplet were possible. The established laws allowed the development
of the physical and mathematical models of heat and mass transfer considering the formation of a
vapour layer between liquid film and inclusion. The prediction of the main parameters' influence
of the studying process on explosive vaporization times was carried out by using this model. The
created model can be applied to analyse the necessary and sufficient conditions of explosive
droplet vaporization of various heterogeneous liquids under conditions of intensive heat
exchange considering various inclusion shapes and their location in a droplet according to the
features established in the conducted experiments appropriate.

(Piskunov, et al., 2016) presented the experimental results on heating and evaporation features of
heterogeneous (with opaque solid particles – the size of 0.05-0.5 mm, relative mass
concentration 0-1%) water droplets (the initial size – radius 1-3 mm) during their motion through
high-temperature (500-1800 K) gases. A significant increase in the integral characteristics of
evaporation by introducing opaque inclusions into droplets was observed. the experiments were
conducted with the combustion products of kerosene, gasoline, industrial alcohol, acetone, and
oil. The particles of graphite, carbon, and aluminium as solid inclusions were used. The
investigation compared integral characteristics of heterogeneous droplet evaporation under the
conditions of non-stationary (gas temperature varied from 1800 K to 500 K over the length of the
channel) and nearly stationary (gas temperature was maintained at about 1100 K) heating. this
paper defined the integral characteristics of heterogeneous droplet evaporation. They were the
values of the ΔR parameter depending on the initial droplet size and the size of inclusions for
combustion products of considered flammable liquids.

 The ΔR parameter may significantly differ by almost several times (under identical initial
conditions) for the combustion products of considered flammable liquids widely used in
gas-vapour-droplet heat technologies (Piskunov, et al., 2016).
 The change in the concentration of inclusions (γ p, mass concentration of solid inclusions
in a droplet) leads to great differences in the ΔR parameter for considered combustion
products compared to the sizes of inclusions (L p, size of solid inclusions, [mm])
(Piskunov, et al., 2016).
 The growth of (Ud, droplet velocity, [m/s]) velocities leads to the decrease of ΔR (for
example, at Rd ≈2 mm, γp ≈0.005, Lp ≈0.05 mm, ΔR values are reduced by 15%, while
the rate Ud rises from 0.5 m/s to 2 m/s). By increasing γ p and Lp, the influence of Ud on
ΔR strengthens (Piskunov, et al., 2016).

Figure 17. Dependencies ΔR=f(R d ) by varying Lp at U d ≈2 m/s, γ p ≈0.05 (a – kerosene, b – gasoline)

(Piskunov, et al., 2016).
 Figure 18. Parameter ΔR for suspension droplets (R d =1–3 mm, γ p ≈0.005, L p =0.05–0.5 mm) passing the
combustion products of considered flammable liquids (Piskunov, et al., 2016).

Figure 19. Dependencies ΔR=f(R d ) by varying γ p at U d ≈2 m/s, γ p ≈0.05 (a – gasoline, e – oil) (Piskunov,
et al., 2016)

in (Sazhin, et al., 2004), new solutions of the heat conduction equation inside a spherical droplet
are obtained. The droplet is assumed to be heated by convection and radiation from the
surrounding hot gas--a situation typical in many engineering applications. Initial droplet
evaporation and the effects of time-dependent gas temperature and convection heat transfer
coefficient are considered. In the cases of constant, and almost constant convection heat transfer
coefficients, the explicit formulae for time-dependent radial distribution of temperature inside
droplets are obtained. In the case of arbitrary convection heat transfer coefficient, the differential
equations are reduced to the Volterra integral equation of the second kind. A numerical scheme
for the solution of this equation is suggested. The solution for constant convection heat transfer
coefficient is applied to a typical problem of fuel droplet heating in a diesel engine. It has been
shown that the finite thermal conductivity of fuel droplets and the effects of radiation need to be
considered when modelling droplet heating in diesel engines.

(Sirignano, 2014) presented a review of research on the subject of the vaporization and burning
of fuel droplets configured in a prescribed array, including both classical works and research
over the past decade or two. Droplet arrays and groups and their relation to sprays were
discussed. The classical works are reviewed. Recent research on transient burning and
vaporization of finite arrays with Stefan convection but without forced convection is presented,
including extensions to non-unitary Lewis number and multi-component, liquid fuels. Recent
results on transient, convective burning of droplets in arrays are also examined. In particular,
transient convective burning of infinite (single-layer periodic and double-layer periodic) and
finite droplet arrays were discussed; attention was given to the effects of droplet deceleration due
to aerodynamic drag, diameter decrease due to vaporization, internal liquid circulation, and
arrays with moving droplets in tandem and staggered configurations. The flame structure was
examined as a function of the spacing between neighbouring droplets and Damköhler number:
individual droplet flames versus group flames and wake flames versus envelope flames. Based
on existing knowledge of laminar droplet array and spray combustion theory, experimental
evidence, and turbulent studies for non-vaporizing and non-reacting two-phase flows, comments
were made on the needs and implications for the study of turbulent spray and array combustion.
The following are the summery of the concluded points in this paper (Sirignano, 2014):

 The flames are clearly being held by the droplets; the flame configurations are
determined by the droplet array and spacing; the distinction between diffusion flame,
fuel-rich premixed flame, and fuel-lean premixed fame depended on Damköhler number
and flame location relative to the droplet.
 Schemes that include averaging over shorter length scales should have a unified
averaging process for spray length scales and turbulence length scales.
 The turbulence energy spectrum, turbulence kinetic energy production and dissipation are
significantly modified by the presence of the discrete phase. It is only reasonable to
expect similar consequences for spray combustion.
 The spray droplets can serve as moving flame holders. The flame lets are a combination
of diffusion flames and edge flames.
The main objective of (Basu, et al., 2018)is to provide a detailed investigation for Droplets and
Sprays. Spray characteristics play an important role in determining efficiency of gas turbine,
rocket combustors and internal combustion engines. Droplet atomization and break-up forms the
fundamental building block in many spray-based applications. The detailed investigation
involves Modelling of Droplet Heating and Evaporation, Combustion of Multi-component Fuel
Droplets, Experimental Studies on Multi-component Droplet Combustion, a review about
Atomization in Propulsive, A Comprehensive Model for Estimation of Spray Characteristics,
Modelling of Flash Boiling Phenomenon in Internal and Near-Nozzle Flow of Fuel Injectors, a
comprehensive aspect aspects of Novel Fuel Injection Systems for High-Speed, Experimental
Investigation of Spray Characteristics of Kerosene, Ethanol, and Ethanol-Blended Kerosene
Using a Gas Turbine Hybrid Atomizer and Modelling of Variance and Co-variance in Turbulent
Flame–Droplet Interaction.
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