Task 1

Cryptography:
Cryptography, often described as the art and science of secure communication, stands
as an indispensable pillar in the modern digital age. Its primary mission is to ensure the
confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of information, allowing access only to those who are
authorized to view it. To achieve this, cryptography harnesses the power of complex
mathematical algorithms and cryptographic keys, making it a multifaceted science with a
profound impact on cybersecurity. At its core, cryptography revolves around two fundamental
processes: encryption and decryption.

Encryption:
Encryption, the cornerstone of modern cryptography, stands as the first and most crucial
pillar in the realm of data security. It is the process through which plain, readable data, known
as plaintext, is transformed into an enigmatic, scrambled format called ciphertext. This intricate
transformation occurs through the orchestration of a cryptographic algorithm, but it requires a
critical ingredient - the secret key. The key serves as the catalyst that shapes the encryption
process, ensuring the confidentiality and security of the data. In the world of encryption, two
primary paradigms take center stage: symmetric and asymmetric encryption.

a. Symmetric Encryption:

In symmetric encryption, a single, shared secret key is employed for both the encryption
and decryption operations. This key must be securely established and known to all
parties involved. Symmetric encryption algorithms, among which the Advanced
Encryption Standard (AES) and the Data Encryption Standard (DES) are prominent,
utilize this shared key to transform plaintext into ciphertext. The key, in this context, can
be likened to the key of a lock; possessing it grants access to the encrypted data.
Symmetric encryption is renowned for its efficiency and speed, making it ideal for
securing large volumes of data. However, it faces a significant challenge in securely
distributing the secret key to all authorized parties. If the key falls into the wrong hands,
the entire security infrastructure can be compromised.

b. Asymmetric Encryption (Public-Key Cryptography):

Asymmetric encryption, or public-key cryptography, introduces a dual-key system: the

public key and the private key. The public key is openly shared and can be disseminated
freely to anyone. However, the private key is a closely guarded secret, known only to its
owner. When data is encrypted with the recipient's public key, only the corresponding
private key can unlock and decipher it. Asymmetric encryption algorithms, including the
widely used RSA and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), are not only fundamental for
secure communication but also play critical roles in digital signatures and key exchange.
They address the key distribution challenge inherent in symmetric encryption. Yet, due
to their computational complexity, asymmetric encryption operations are slightly slower
 compared to their symmetric counterparts. In essence, encryption stands as the
guardian of data's confidentiality. It transforms information into an unreadable format,
ensuring that even if it falls into the wrong hands, it remains indecipherable. Encryption
is the silent sentinel that shields our sensitive data in an interconnected world, upholding
the principles of confidentiality and privacy that are paramount in the digital age.

Decryption:
Decryption is the inverse process of encryption, the process of converting ciphertext
back to its original plaintext form. While encryption is the keeper of data security, decryption is
the key to unlocking and accessing protected information. Within the realm of decryption,
authorized users gain access to sensitive data, distinguishing them from unauthorized entities.

In symmetric encryption, the cornerstone is the shared secret, the same key used for
encryption and decryption. It is the possession of this key that separates those with authorized
access from those who lack it. When the correct key is applied to the ciphertext, it acts like a
digital lock and key combination and the data is uncovered, restored to its original, once again
readable state.

However, the field of asymmetric encryption introduces a complex algorithm between

two keys (public and private). In this paradigm, private keys are the keepers of secrets, digital
treasures that must be kept secret. This private key is used to decrypt data previously encrypted
using the corresponding public key. This one-way relationship between public and private keys
forms the cornerstone of secure digital communications.Public keys, as the name suggests, are
public and can be shared publicly. It is the key that initiates the encryption process, converting
plaintext into ciphertext.

Besides, the advantage of asymmetric encryption is that even though the public key can
be used to encrypt data, it cannot be used to decrypt it. This one-way nature ensures that only
the owner of the private key (the person or entity to whom the private key belongs) can unlock
the encrypted data. This asymmetry is the essence of digital trust and security. It allows secure
communication and data exchange across untrusted networks. When data is encrypted using
the recipient's public key, the data is protected from prying eyes while in transit. Only the
recipient with a strictly protected private key can decrypt and access the information, thus
ensuring the privacy and authenticity of the communication.

In the broader world of digital security, decryption is more than just granting access; This
is about restoring trust. It guarantees that data, whether personal messages, financial
transactions or critical business documents, remains confidential and protected from
unauthorized intrusion.
Major Cryptographic Protocols:

Cryptographic protocols are sets of rules and procedures designed to secure the
transmission of data over networks. They serve as the backbone of secure digital
communication, ensuring data confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity. Several cryptographic
protocols are paramount in today's interconnected world:

1. Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security (SSL/TLS): These protocols are

instrumental in securing internet communication. SSL/TLS ensure the encryption of
data exchanged between web browsers and servers, safeguarding sensitive
information during online transactions. They utilize both symmetric and asymmetric
encryption techniques to achieve secure communication.

2. Secure Shell (SSH): SSH provides secure remote access to computer systems and
secure file transfers. It employs public-key cryptography for authentication, making it
resistant to various forms of cyberattacks.

3. Internet Protocol Security (IPsec): IPsec is a suite of protocols that secure

communication at the IP layer. It's commonly used in Virtual Private Networks
(VPNs) to protect data in transit.

4. Pretty Good Privacy (PGP): PGP is an encryption program used for email
communication. It utilizes both symmetric and asymmetric cryptography to secure
emails and provide digital signatures for authentication.

5. Kerberos: Kerberos is a network authentication protocol used to verify the identities

of users and services over a non-secure network. It's often employed in corporate
environments to ensure secure user authentication.

6. Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (S/MIME): S/MIME is a protocol

used to secure email communication. It provides encryption, digital signatures, and
authentication for email messages.

These cryptographic protocols form the bedrock of online security, allowing individuals and
organizations to protect sensitive information from prying eyes and malicious actors. They
provide the necessary layers of protection to ensure that data remains confidential during
transit, cannot be tampered with, and is only accessible to authorized parties.

Conclusion:
Cryptography, the art of securing digital information, is vital in our digitalized world. It
fosters trust online by encrypting data for secure transactions and private communications. It
empowers digital identities with tamper-proof signatures. Additionally, it safeguards national
security against cyber threats and adapts to emerging technologies. Cryptography remains
essential in our interconnected, data-driven era.
Task 2

Embedded Hardware Authentication

Introduction:
In an era where digitization has seeped into nearly every facet of our lives, the importance of
robust cybersecurity measures cannot be overstated. Cyberattacks have grown in
sophistication, frequency, and impact, making it imperative to explore innovative solutions to
protect sensitive data and critical systems. Embedded Hardware Authentication, a technology
that blends physical hardware with digital security, has emerged as a potent tool in this ongoing
battle to safeguard digital assets. In this comprehensive exploration, we delve deeper into
Embedded Hardware Authentication, its significance, operation, components, ability to counter
security threats, and the profound impact it has on digital security.

Significance:
The significance of Embedded Hardware Authentication lies in its response to the shortcomings
of traditional authentication methods, primarily based on something the user knows, such as
passwords or PINs. These methods, although widely used, have proven vulnerable to various
attacks, including phishing, brute force, and credential theft. Embedded Hardware
Authentication represents a paradigm shift by introducing a tangible component into the
authentication process, relying on "something you have" rather than "something you know." This
transition enhances security, particularly critical in today's digital landscape, where data
breaches can have severe consequences, ranging from financial loss to compromising national
security.

Operational Mechanism:
Embedded Hardware Authentication operates on a simple yet powerful principle: it introduces a
physical element into the authentication process. When a user seeks access to a system or
data, they must present a physical authentication token or device alongside traditional
credentials. This token can take various forms:

1. Hardware Tokens: These compact physical devices generate secure authentication

codes that frequently change, adding an extra layer of security. Users typically carry
these tokens on keychains or as standalone devices.
2. Smart Cards: Smart cards, often resembling credit cards in size and shape, contain an
embedded chip. Authentication requires both a Personal Identification Number (PIN) and
the physical smart card. The chip securely stores cryptographic keys and certificates.
 3. Biometric Sensors: Biometric authentication leverages unique physical characteristics,
such as fingerprints, iris patterns, or facial features, to verify a user's identity. Biometric
data is inherently tied to the user, making it difficult to impersonate.
4. Hardware Security Modules (HSMs): Specialized hardware devices known as Hardware
Security Modules are used to protect cryptographic keys and perform cryptographic
operations securely. They are often utilized in highly secure environments, such as
financial institutions and government agencies.

Countering Security Threats:

Embedded Hardware Authentication effectively mitigates a spectrum of security threats:

1. Password-Based Attacks: Traditional attacks like brute force and credential stuffing,
which rely on the knowledge of passwords, are rendered ineffective. Embedded
hardware tokens and smart cards require possession of the physical token, adding a
significant layer of protection.
2. Phishing: Phishing attacks, which attempt to trick users into revealing their credentials,
are hampered by this technology. Attackers cannot remotely obtain the physical tokens
or biometric data required for authentication.
3. Credential Theft: Perhaps one of the most common cybersecurity threats is the theft of
usernames and passwords. Embedded hardware tokens and smart cards provide an
additional layer of security, making stolen passwords useless without the accompanying
physical token.

Components and Technologies:

Embedded Hardware Authentication encompasses a range of components and technologies,
each contributing to its security prowess:

1. Hardware Tokens: These devices generate time-sensitive or event-based authentication

codes. The constantly changing nature of these codes adds a formidable layer of
security.
2. Smart Cards: Credit card-sized smart cards contain embedded chips that securely store
cryptographic keys and certificates. These chips require user authentication, typically in
the form of a PIN, to unlock access.
3. Biometric Sensors: Biometric authentication employs unique biological markers for
identity verification. Fingerprint scanners, iris recognition systems, and facial recognition
cameras are common biometric sensors.
4. Hardware Security Modules (HSMs): HSMs are specialized hardware devices that
provide secure key storage and cryptographic operations. They are utilized in high-
security applications such as financial transactions and government systems.

Impact:
The impact of Embedded Hardware Authentication extends across multiple dimensions,
encompassing a range of benefits, limitations, and future potentials.
a. Benefits:

1. Enhanced Security: The paramount benefit of Embedded Hardware Authentication is the

substantially elevated level of security it provides. By introducing a physical component
into the authentication process, it becomes exceedingly challenging for unauthorized
users to gain access. This not only protects sensitive data but also safeguards critical
systems from potential breaches.

2. Protection Against Credential Theft: One of the most prevalent cybersecurity threats is
the theft of usernames and passwords. Embedded hardware tokens and smart cards
provide an additional layer of security, rendering stolen passwords ineffective without the
physical token. This addresses a fundamental weakness in traditional authentication
methods.

3. Two-Factor Authentication (2FA): Many implementations of Embedded Hardware

Authentication offer 2FA. This means that in addition to something the user knows (e.g.,
a PIN), they also require something they have (the physical token). This multi-layered
approach significantly enhances security, as an attacker would need to compromise both
elements to gain access.

4. Non-Repudiation: Hardware-based authentication can establish non-repudiation,

meaning that users cannot deny their actions. This is crucial in scenarios where
accountability and traceability are essential, such as financial transactions and legal
processes.

b. Limitations:
1. Cost: Deploying Embedded Hardware Authentication can be costly, particularly for large
organizations. Acquiring and distributing hardware tokens or smart cards to employees
or users can involve substantial upfront expenses.

2. User Inconvenience: While security is paramount, the inconvenience to users is a

potential drawback. Remembering PINs or carrying physical tokens can be seen as
burdensome, potentially leading to resistance from users.

3. Deployment Complexity: Implementing Embedded Hardware Authentication across an

organization can be complex. It requires infrastructure changes and often necessitates
training for both users and administrators.

c. Future Potentials:
1. Integration with Emerging Technologies: Embedded Hardware Authentication can be
expected to integrate with emerging technologies to enhance security further. For
example, combining hardware tokens with biometric authentication methods like
fingerprint or facial recognition could provide an even more secure and user-friendly
experience.

2. IoT Security: As the Internet of Things (IoT) continues to expand, Embedded Hardware
Authentication could play a pivotal role in securing IoT devices and networks. Ensuring
 the authenticity of devices and data in IoT is crucial, and hardware-based authentication
offers a promising solution.

3. Continuous Authentication: Future developments might focus on continuous

authentication, where a user's identity is continuously verified during their interaction with
a system. This could add an extra layer of security in scenarios where a user's session
might be hijacked.

Conclusion:
Embedded Hardware Authentication is a game-changer in the realm of cybersecurity. It
addresses the inadequacies of traditional authentication methods and offers a robust solution to
combat a wide array of security threats. By incorporating physical hardware components into
the authentication process, this technology significantly enhances security, protecting sensitive
data and systems from unauthorized access.

As the digital landscape continues to evolve and cyber threats become increasingly
sophisticated, the importance of Embedded Hardware Authentication will only grow. Its impact
on cybersecurity is profound, spanning critical domains such as finance, government, and
healthcare. This technology represents a pivotal advancement in the ongoing battle to secure
digital assets and ensure trust in our interconnected world.
Blockchain Cybersecurity
Introduction:
Blockchain technology, originally developed as the foundation for cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin,
has grown into a transformative force with applications extending well beyond digital money.
One of its most promising aspects lies in its potential to revolutionize cybersecurity. In today's
interconnected digital world, where data breaches and cyberattacks are common, blockchain
emerges as a powerful solution.

The Significance of Blockchain in Cybersecurity:

The significance of blockchain in cybersecurity stems from its capacity to address fundamental
challenges in data security and trust within the digital realm. Conventional centralized systems
are susceptible to various attacks, from data breaches to ransomware. Blockchain, with its
decentralized, immutable ledger, reimagines how data is stored and accessed, offering robust
potential for safeguarding digital assets.

How It Works:
Blockchain is essentially a decentralized, distributed ledger that records transactions across a
network of computers. Transactions are grouped into blocks and linked together in a
chronological chain. The key components and technologies in blockchain cybersecurity include:

Decentralization: In contrast to traditional systems where data resides on central servers,

blockchain operates on a network of nodes, each maintaining a copy of the ledger. This
decentralization eliminates single points of failure, enhancing security by making it challenging
for a cyberattack to compromise the entire system.

Cryptography: Blockchain relies on intricate cryptographic algorithms to secure transactions and

data. Public and private keys ensure that only authorized users can access and transact on the
blockchain. Additionally, cryptographic hashing is used to link blocks in a tamper-resistant
manner.

Consensus Mechanisms: To validate and add transactions to the blockchain, consensus

mechanisms like Proof of Work (PoW) or Proof of Stake (PoS) are employed. These
mechanisms ensure that all participants in the network agree on the state of the blockchain,
making it resistant to fraudulent activities.

Smart Contracts: Smart contracts are self-executing agreements with predefined terms and
conditions written into code. They automate processes and transactions, reducing the need for
intermediaries and enhancing security by eliminating the potential for human error or
manipulation.
Addressing Security Threats:
Blockchain cybersecurity effectively mitigates several security threats:

Data Tampering: Blockchain's immutability ensures that once a transaction is recorded, it

cannot be altered or deleted without consensus from the network. This makes data tampering
exceptionally challenging.

Unauthorized Access: Cryptographic keys and permissions-based access control ensure that
only authorized parties can access specific data or execute transactions.

Single Point of Failure: Decentralization eliminates single points of failure. Even if one node is
compromised, the network remains secure.

Trust Issues: Blockchain instills trust in the digital world by providing a transparent, auditable,
and verifiable ledger. Users can trust that the data they access or transactions they make are
secure and legitimate.

The Impact of Blockchain Cybersecurity:

Blockchain cybersecurity carries profound impacts, presenting numerous benefits, limitations,
and future potentials.

a. Benefits:
1. Enhanced Data Security: Blockchain's immutability and cryptographic security
significantly enhance data security, making it highly resistant to tampering and
unauthorized access.
2. Decentralization: Decentralized storage and processing reduce the risk of single points
of failure, making it harder for malicious actors to compromise the entire system.
3. Improved Transparency: Blockchain's transparent ledger enhances trust among users,
businesses, and organizations. It allows for real-time auditing and verification of
transactions and data.
4. Streamlined Processes: Smart contracts automate processes, reducing the need for
intermediaries and minimizing the potential for errors or manipulation.
5. Data Integrity: Blockchain's tamper-resistant nature ensures the integrity of data, making
it valuable for critical applications like supply chain management and voting systems.

b. Limitations:
1. Scalability: Blockchain networks, particularly public ones, face scalability challenges. As
the number of users and transactions grows, scalability becomes a concern.
2. Energy Consumption: Proof of Work (PoW) consensus mechanisms, as seen in Bitcoin,
consume substantial energy. Efforts are underway to develop more energy-efficient
alternatives.

c. Future Potentials:
1. Interoperability: Future developments may focus on interoperability between different
blockchain networks, allowing seamless data transfer and transactions across platforms.
 2. Scalability Solutions: Solutions such as sharding and Layer 2 scaling aim to address
blockchain's scalability issues, enabling it to handle a larger volume of transactions.
3. Privacy Features: Enhancements in privacy-focused technologies, such as zero-
knowledge proofs, aim to make blockchain more suitable for sensitive data.

Conclusion:
Blockchain cybersecurity stands at the forefront of digital defense, offering solutions to
contemporary cybersecurity challenges. Its decentralized, immutable ledger, coupled with
cryptographic security, has the potential to redefine how data is stored, accessed, and secured
in the digital age. While scalability remains a concern, ongoing research and development
efforts seek to overcome these limitations, making blockchain an increasingly integral part of the
cybersecurity landscape. As the digital world continues to evolve, blockchain cybersecurity will
play a pivotal role in safeguarding data, transactions, and trust in our interconnected society.
Reference
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/cryptography-and-its-types/

https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19047-01/sunscreen151/806-5397/i996724/index.html

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-encryption-and-decryption/

https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/definition/encryption

https://preyproject.com/blog/types-of-encryption-symmetric-or-asymmetric-rsa-or-aes

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-symmetric-and-asymmetric-key-encryption/

https://embeddedcomputing.com/technology/security/hardware-security/hardware-
authentication-secures-design-ip-and-end-user-experience

https://www.techopedia.com/definition/23920/hardware-authenticator

https://www.optiv.com/cybersecurity-dictionary/hardware-authentication

https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/89170348/SEH_script.pdf

https://www.ibm.com/topics/blockchain-security

https://www.upguard.com/blog/the-role-of-cybersecurity-in-blockchain-technology

https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/02/blockchain-has-high-potential-but-beware-of-cyber-
threats-8642651f20/

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-34354-x
Task 1
The cryptography
The study and practice of safeguarding communication and information via the use of codes and
ciphers is known as basic cryptography. Its primary purpose is to keep data safe from unwanted
access or modification. All cryptography techniques include five key components, which begin
with "plain text." The plain text message is designed to be sent over the network and must be
kept private from malicious actors. The network is deemed dangerous, and any malicious actors
can listen in on any communications sent over it.

Encryption:
Encryption is the process of encoding information in cryptography. The original representation
of the information, known as plaintext, is converted into an alternative form known as ciphertext
during this process. Only authorized parties should be able to decipher ciphertext back to
plaintext and access the original information. Encryption does not prevent interference in and of
itself, but it does deny a would-be interceptor access to intelligible content.

An encryption technique typically employs a pseudo-random encryption key generated by an

algorithm for technical reasons. Although it is feasible to decrypt the communication without the
key, a well-designed encryption method necessitates significant computational resources and
abilities. The key provided by the originator to recipients but not to unauthorized users allows an
authorized recipient to simply decode the communication.

Decryption:
Decryption is the process of converting encrypted data that has been made unintelligible back to
its unencrypted form. The system extracts the jumbled data and converts and transforms it into
sentences and graphics that both the reader and the system can understand. Simply described,
decryption is the inverse of encryption in that it needs coding data to render it unreadable, but
matching decryption keys can render it readable.

To access the original details, the recipients must have the appropriate decryption or decoding
tools. Decryption is carried out with the greatest decryption software, as well as unique keys,
codes, or passwords. Text files, photos, e-mail messages, user data, and directories are all
examples of original files.

The original format is known as plaintext, whereas the unreadable format is known as ciphertext.
In a secret discussion, parties employ an encryption system known as an algorithm and keys to
encrypt and decrypt communications. A cipher is another name for the decryption algorithm.
Symmetric Encryption:
Symmetric encryption is a type of cryptography in which the same key is used for both data
encryption and decryption. It is also known as secret-key encryption or private-key encryption.
In other words, a single shared secret key is used to jumble (encrypt) and decrypt the
information. Key Generation is the Symmetric Encryption procedure. Both the sender and the
receiver must agree on and keep a secret key confidential. This key is either shared by the two
parties or obtained from a shared secret in some situations. The sender encrypts data by
converting plaintext (original message) to ciphertext (encrypted message) using the secret key
and an encryption algorithm. This method renders the data illegible to anyone who does not have
the secret key.

Asymmetric Encryption:
Asymmetric encryption, commonly known as public-key cryptography, is a type of cryptography
that employs two keys that are mathematically related but distinct: a public key and a private
key. Each key has a distinct purpose, and data encrypted with one key may only be decoded with
the other. Asymmetric encryption is most commonly employed in secure communication, digital
signatures, and key exchange. Key Pair Generation is the Asymmetric Encryption procedure.
Anyone who wishes to send you encrypted messages or verify your digital signatures can use
your Public Key. It is not capable of decrypting data.

The Private Key must be kept private and only known to the key owner. It is used to establish
digital signatures and decrypt messages encrypted with the accompanying public key.

Major Cryptographic Protocols

Major cryptographic techniques are required to ensure secure communication and data security
across a wide range of applications. Cryptographic techniques are used in these protocols to offer
secrecy, integrity, authentication, and other security features.

1. Kerberos: Kerberos is a network authentication protocol that uses secret-key cryptography to

ensure user and service authentication over an insecure network. It is frequently used in business
settings.

2. Transport Layer Security (TLS): TLS (Transport Layer Security), formerly known as SSL
(Secure Sockets Layer), is used to secure internet communication. It protects the confidentiality
and integrity of data transmitted between a client and a server. TLS is widely used to secure
online traffic (HTTPS), email communication (SMTPS, IMAPS), and other applications.
3. IPsec (Internet Protocol Security): IPsec is a protocol suite that secures internet
communication at the network layer. It protects IP packets with authentication, encryption, and
integrity, making it useful for VPNs (Virtual Private Networks).

4. Secure Shell (SSH): SSH is a protocol that allows for secure remote access to PCs and
servers over an insecure network. It protects data sent between the client and server via
authentication, encryption, and integrity.

5. Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) and GNU Privacy Guard (GPG): PGP and GPG are
cryptographic systems that are used for email encryption and digital signatures, respectively.
They let users encrypt emails and digitally sign communications to secure message
confidentiality and integrity.

6. OpenPGP: OpenPGP is an open email encryption and digital signature standard. It enhances
the capabilities of the PGP protocol, enabling for more adoption and compatibility.

Task 2
Hardware Embedded Security
A) Background

As electronic system firms expand, approved third-party manufacturers will inevitably

expand as well. Electronic system makers will increasingly rely on these authorized third-
party producers for parts and accessories. This can substantially assist electronic system
firms in reducing the resources used to make a single electronic product, allowing them to
release the product to the market faster and at a reduced cost and time. While there are
authorized third-party manufacturers who continue to make authentic hardware parts and
accessories, there may also be counterfeit products that seem so similar to the original that it
is impossible to tell them apart. These forgeries may contain dangerous software that can be
used to attack an unwitting electronic device. The hardware Trojan is one such assault. Once
a compromised part/accessory containing this trojan is installed in an electronic device, the
attacker can later exploit a hardware weakness to get complete access to the device. The rise
of hardware embedded security is one attempt to address this growing problem.

B) Detailed discussion on how the security related technology works.

Trusted Platform Module (TPM)

A Trusted Platform Module is a hardware chip that is installed alongside other computer
components in a computer. The Trusted Platform Module may securely store information during
encryption, decryption, and key signature, as well as digital certificates and other comparable
secrets. It also assures that all critical cryptographic activities take place within a safe
environment. This prevents intruders from accessing and compromising the operations,
eventually gaining access to the computer system.

The Trusted Platform Module is made up of several components, beginning with the Functional
Units. The functional units are in charge of cryptographic operations such as Hash Message
Authentication Code (HMAC), Random Number Generator (RNG), Secure Hash Algorithm
(SHA-1) and others. The TPM also has two memory sections, one for non-volatile memory and
one for volatile memory. The non-volatile memory area is intended to contain vital data that
must be retained and stored even if the TPM loses power. It keeps Endorsement Keys, Storage
Root Keys, Attestation Identity Keys, and other information. The volatile memory sector, on the
other hand, holds information for continually changing cryptographic processes such as RSA
Key slots, Key handles, Session Handles, and so on.

Trusted Platform Module Processes

TPM-encrypted data is encrypted in a series of phases. To begin the encryption process, an
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) key of 256 bits length must be produced, which is
accomplished using the TPM's RNG functional unit. The TPM then conducts a command to
generate the key. Encrypt the readable message sent by the computer system. Despite the fact
that TPM generates the AES key, because it lacks an AES module, it cannot carry out the
encryption procedure. As a result, it is dependent on the computer system to install cryptographic
libraries such as OpenSSL. The encryption procedure. The AES symmetric keys must be
protected, and TPM begins by creating a RSA key pair with a size of 2048 bits. The produced
RSA key is then used to encrypt the AES. The key is symmetric. This RSA key pair is then
encrypted with a one-of-a-kind Storage Root Key (SRK). utilizing various TPMs. Even if the
encrypted keys are exported to different TPMs, they are impossible to be decrypted. to decrypt
since the TPM has a different SRK than the one used to encrypt the data. This ensures that the
files within the computer system are safe and that the files saved cannot be decrypted Even if
enemies steal it.

Threats Addresses by Trusted Platform Module

1. Software attacks to reveal keys on hard disk drive

- The keys, which are the most important component of encryption, are held within
the TPM.

- This means that the encryption keys are no longer stored on the computer
system's disk drives, which means that software attacks that search the entire disk are
no longer possible. The possibility of software attacks

2. Physical attempt to remove TPM chip

 - TPM is often soldered to the motherboard as well. If an attacker attempts to pull
the TPM off in order to obtain access to its content, it is pointless because the
information on the TPM is automatically lost the instant it is wrenched off because it
activates a physical security mechanism that kills the TPM chip.

3. Modification of system files

- TPM can specify a Dynamic Root of Trust, which can be used to assess whether
or not the system can be trusted during runtime. This Dynamic Root of Trust can also
be used during the boot process of a computer system to authenticate the entire boot
process, resulting in a transitive chain of trusts. If the TPM detects an irregularity
during the boot process, it will shut down the computer.

TPM Relevant usage

1. Platform Integrity

- TPM requires the BIOS to give hashes of the system files via the TPM's PCR
slots. TPM may then compare the hashes provided by the BIOS to the hashes kept
within the TPM to determine whether or not the system has been tampered with.
When it detects that the computer system has been tampered with, it will not boot up
and will prohibit access to the computer system.

2. Anti-cheat in Games

- TPM allows for the verification of computer hardware and assigns a hardware id
to each computer. Furthermore, the TPM may verify system integrity and offer
verification to anti-cheat software that the computer system has not been tampered
with. If the anti-cheat receives proof of suspicious behaviour on the system, it may
potentially opt to physically prohibit the computer's hardware id from playing the
game via TPM.

3. Hard drive encryption (Windows BitLocker)

- TPM is used by Windows BitLocker to encrypt hardware disk data in order to

maintain data secrecy when it is at rest. Windows BitLocker is in charge of
encrypting user data, while the TPM keeps the key required to decrypt the data. TPM
will demand the user's password for authentication before notifying Windows
BitLocker to decrypt the hard disk drive.
c) Impact of TPM

Benefits of TPM
1. Separate Key Management from Hard drive to the TPM

- Because TPM is isolated from the rest of the computer resources, it protects the
encryption keys from software attacks.

2. Low costs for implementation and maintenance

- TPM is a little integrated chip that is soldered into the motherboard and is very
inexpensive to make and install.

Limitations of TPM
1. Loss of data if TPM chip dies

- The TPM stores keys, which are immediately lost if it is wrenched off or dies due
to unforeseeable causes. The keys have been backed up. A backup of the keys is
conceivable, but it is complex and involves the involvement of a third party.

2. Not all cryptography operations are supported

- Certain cryptographic procedures, such as the AES encryption technique, must be

performed on the computer because it is not offered natively in the TPM.

Future potential of TPM

1. Full protection of Encryption Keys

- Attackers will no longer be able to execute software attacks to get cryptographic

keys in order to steal information once all encryption keys have been relocated to the
TPM and are safely guarded.

2. Support of more encryption algorithms

- If more encryption algorithms are built in the TPM, data encryption will no longer
require external assistance, and the hazards of software attack during encryption will
be eliminated totally.
Blockchain Cybersecurity
a) Background

Blockchain is a distributed, immutable ledger that is used to ease transaction recording and asset
monitoring in corporate networks. It is also a chain of block following block. Each block
contains specific information, which is linked into a chain based on the chronological sequence
established by each block. This chain is stored on all servers. The blockchain is still relatively
safe as long as one server in the entire system is operational. These servers are known as nodes
in the blockchain system, and they give storage space and computing power to the entire
blockchain system. Assets can be tangible, such as houses, automobiles, cash, property, and so
on. It may also be intangible, such as intellectual property, patents, copyrights, brands, and so on.
A blockchain network can track and sell almost everything of value, lowering risk and cost in
every way. Blockchain is a promising digital technology due to its decentralized system,
anonymity, immutability, uniqueness of value, and smart contracts. The first blockchain
prototypes were created in the early 1990s to preserve digital information. As the practical utility
of blockchain was discovered, blockchain systems began to develop a technical trend that gave
rise to digital cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin in recent years.

b) Detailed discussion on how the security related technology works.

Blockchain Technology and its components

A blockchain network consists of the following 4 components:

· Block

- A block is the fundamental building block of a blockchain. Blocks store records of prior
transactions in addition to segments set aside to store data for prospective transactions.

· Chain

- A blockchain network links its blocks together. When several blocks are joined, a chain
is formed.

· Node

- On huge blockchains, a million records are stored. Nodes are the pieces of hardware that
store these vast amounts of data. Nodes are large servers, laptops, and PCs. Each node is
linked by a blockchain network.

· Master Node

- Certain blockchain networks have master nodes. Master nodes are more powerful than
normal nodes. They are constantly active (24/7). Master nodes in a blockchain network
facilitate voting events and anticipate other results.
Blockchain Processes
The processes to add additional blocks to blockchain networks are as follows:

1. Authenticating the transaction

a. Cryptographic keys are used to validate transactions inside a blockchain network.

b. Users must enter "passwords" to complete transactions. Cryptographic keys are

used to gain access to the accounts and wallet systems. These keys strengthen security
by functioning similarly to one-of-a-kind passwords.

2. Authorizing the transaction

a. When the majority of nodes approve a new transaction, a new block is added. The
major owners of the blockchain network utilize "proof of work" to validate
transactions.

b. The term "proof of work" refers to the monetary incentives provided by

blockchain owners to miners in exchange for breaking the hash code.

3. Proof of work

a. Miners must answer the difficult mathematical problem in order to go to the next
phase. Complicated problems are solved by computers with great computing skills.

b. Mining is necessary for a new block to be added to the database system. Miners
are those who work in the mining industry.

4. Validation

a. If the hash codes cannot be deciphered, every new block added to the blockchain
must go through a series of validation stages.

b. As the network develops in size, adding blocks becomes more difficult. Further
validation becomes increasingly challenging as the equation's complexity and scope
increase.

5. Staking the Cryptocurrency in the Proof of stake

a. Users who will make changes to the blockchain network at this point must be in
possession of a certain coin.

b. As a result, the term "mining" is no longer applicable. Users who possess bitcoins
can make indirect changes to the transaction process.
Threats Addressed by Blockchain
· Confidentiality

o Blockchain data is completely encrypted to ensure that it cannot be viewed by

unauthorized parties while traveling through untrustworthy networks. To protect
against threats from within the network, security measures such as access limits
should be implemented at the application level.

· Integrity

o Blockchains' inherent immutability and traceability enable organizations to

ensure the integrity of their data. Blockchain keeps a complete history log by
storing the previous state of the system with each new iteration.

· Availability

o Due to the lack of a single point of failure, IP-based DDoS attacks are less
likely to disrupt business operations when blockchain technology is used. Because
data is always available across different nodes, full copies of the ledger are always
available. Because of the usage of several nodes and distributed operations, the
platforms and systems are long-lasting.

Blockchain Use cases

· Cryptocurrency

o Cryptocurrency is based on a component of blockchain technology known as

the distributed public ledger. This ledger keeps track of all transactions as well as
currency holders. A consensus method maintains the legitimacy of each
transaction record by verifying and agreeing on each transaction recorded. The
creative use of blockchain ensures the security of transaction records without the
need for a trusted third party.

· Smart Contracts

o Smart contracts are basic programs made up of conditional statements that are
stored on the blockchain. These contracts contain instructions that be executed
automatically once all of the contract's criteria are met. These instructions could
be as simple as releasing payments to the proper party or as complex as triggering
a chain of other contracts to be completed and performed. The recorded
transactions are transparent to the parties involved and are extremely valuable for
implementing within the supply chain since trusted and reliable information can
be communicated across the parties.
· Health care

o Blockchain enables the exchange of medical records, such as patient records,

among hospitals, diagnostic laboratories, and pharmacy enterprises. Because
entries on the distributed public ledger cannot be changed, the integrity and
trustworthiness of medical records for study and diagnosis in the medical
profession is ensured. Scholars and clinicians can gain simple and dependable
access to enormous amounts of medical data without having to worry about the
data's legitimacy.

c) Discussion on the impact

Benefits of Blockchain

· Higher Accuracy of Transactions

o A blockchain transaction must be validated by many nodes, which may reduce

errors. If one node had a database problem, the other nodes would notice and
recognize the problem.

· No Need for Intermediaries

o Two participants in a transaction can use blockchain to confirm and finalize it

without involving a third party. This saves both time and money spent on paying
an intermediary, such as a bank.

· Extra Security

o Because blockchain is a decentralized network, suspicious transactions are

extremely difficult to carry out. To add phony transactions, they would have to
hack every node and change every ledger.

Limitations of Blockchain

· Limit on Transactions per Second

 o Because transactions must be approved by a larger network, blockchain has a
speed limitation. Visa, for example, can manage 1,700 transactions per second,
whereas Bitcoin can only handle 4.6. As a result, a surge in transactions may
cause the network to slow down.

· High Energy Costs

o The total number of nodes necessary to validate transactions consumes far

more power than a single database or spreadsheet. This not only raises the price of
blockchain-based transactions, but it also has a major negative environmental
impact due to the quantity of carbon it emits.

· Risk of Asset Loss

o A cryptographic key provides security for some digital assets, such as

cryptocurrency in a blockchain wallet. Keep this key safe at all costs. Due to the
system's decentralized design, you are unable to contact a centralized institution,
such as your bank, to request access once more.

Future potential of Blockchain Cybersecurity

- Blockchain offers a huge advancement in internet cybersecurity and will help ensure that
the CIA triads of cybersecurity are followed. However, due to its complexity, application can be
difficult at times.

References
What is Cryptography? (Definition, Process, and Types)
<https://www.gudstory.com/how-blockchain-works-in healthcare/#:~:text=Blockchain%20is
%20a%20reliable%20solution%20for%20healthcare%20apps.,healthcare%20providers%20to
%20quickly%20and%20reliably%20exchange%20informatio>

Encryption Wikipedia

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encryption#:~:text=In%20cryptography%2C%20encryption
%20is%20the,and%20access%20the%20original%20information. >

What is Decryption?

< https://intellipaat.com/blog/what-is-decryption/ >

Muñoz, A., & Fernandez, E. B. (2020, July 1). TPM, a pattern for an architecture for
trusted computing. ACM International Conference Proceeding Series.

< https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3424771.3424781 >

Hoffman, C. (n.d.). What is a TPM, and Why Does Windows Need one for Disk
Encryption? How-To Geek. Available at:

<https://www.howtogeek.com/237232/what-is-a-tpm-and-why-does-windows-need-one-for-
disk-encryption/ >

Rodeck, D. (2021). What Is Blockchain? Forbes Advisor. Available at:

< https://www.forbes.com/advisor/investing/cryptocurrency/what-is-blockchain/ >

Nidey, N. (2021). Role of Blockchain in Cybersecurity. GeeksforGeeks. Available at:

< https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/role-of-blockchain-in-cybersecurity/ >

Kaushik, V. (n.d.). Blockchain Technology Explained (Components and Applications) |

Analytics Steps. Analytics Steps. Available at:

<https://www.analyticssteps.com/blogs/blockchain-technology-explained-components-and-
applications >

www.ibm.com. (n.d.). What is Blockchain Technology? - IBM Blockchain. Available at:

< https://www.ibm.com/topics/blockchain >

www.javatpoint.com. (n.d.). History of Blockchain - Javatpoint. Available at:

< https://www.javatpoint.com/history-of-blockchain >

Chaudhary, A. (2022). How Blockchain Works in Healthcare and What the Benefits of
This Technology Are. Gud Story. Available at:
<https://www.gudstory.com/how-blockchain-works-in-healthcare/#:~:text=Blockchain%20is
%20a%20reliable%20solution%20for%20healthcare%20apps.,healthcare%20providers%20to
%20quickly%20and%20reliably%20exchange%20information. >