ZAGADNIENIA Z SEMINARIUM DYPLOMOWEGO

„Wybrane oblicza amerykańskiej prozy II połowy XX wieku”

1. Discuss the main themes and features of Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man
Author- Ralph Ellison

Year published- 1952

Type- novel

Genre- fiction

Perspective and narrator- first person (the perspective of an unnamed narrator)

Tense- past tense

About the title- the narrator's central struggle: feeling invisible in a society dominated by white
culture.

Short summary:

Invisible Man is the story of a young, college-educated black man struggling to survive and
succeed in a racially divided society that refuses to see him as a human being. Told in the form of
a first-person narrative, Invisible Man traces the nameless narrator's physical and psychological
journey from blind ignorance to enlightened awareness — or, according to the author, "from
Purpose to Passion to Perception" — through a series of flashbacks in the forms of dreams and
memories. Set in the U.S. during the pre-Civil Rights era when segregation laws barred black
Americans from enjoying the same basic human rights as their white counterparts, the novel
opens in the South (Greenwood, South Carolina), although the majority of the action takes place
in the North (Harlem, New York).

Themes:

1. Identity- Identity in Invisible Man is a conflict between self-perception and the projection
of others, as seen through one man's story: the nameless narrator. His true identity, he
realizes, is in fact invisible to those around him. Only by intentionally isolating himself
from society can he grapple with and come to understand himself.

2. Race- While most of the narrator's difficulties throughout the novel are associated with his
race, Invisible Man is a novel aimed at transcending race and all the other ways humanity
 has used to categorize people. For a long time, the narrator's identity is defined by his
race, leading to his invisibility.

Invisible Man defines race as simply one of many other categories that prevents people
from truly interacting.

Rather than seeing any particular ideology as securing black progress, Invisible Man
argues that only by seeing one another as individuals (instead of as part of a racial
collective) can everyone improve their positions in life.

Ideology- Invisible Man promotes a political philosophy of appealing to the emotional individual.
It rejects all forms of ideology, arguing that ideology focuses too much on the collective at the
expense of the individual. Several forms of black politics are depicted in the novel, including
conservative progress, black nationalism, and communism.

Lies and deceit- Invisible Man is about the process of overcoming deceptions and illusions to
reach truth. One of the most important truths in the book is that the narrator is invisible to those
around him. In Invisible Man, then, deception is closely linked with invisibility. Because various
people cannot see the narrator for who he is, they use him to suit their own purposes. As often as
he is deceived, however, the narrator does some deceiving of his own, ultimately concluding that
the ease with which he deceives people points to his invisibility.

Power- Power infuses nearly all of the relationships depicted in Invisible Man. More specifically,
white male power threads its way throughout the novel. Even in situations where there are no
white males present, it's clear that white males hold the power. For example, Dr. Bledsoe must
always pretend to bow and scrape to white power in order to maintain his real power over the
college.

2. Discuss the characteristics of the Beat aesthetics

The Beat aesthetics, also known as the Beat Generation or Beatnik movement, emerged in the
United States in the 1950s and had a profound influence on American literature, art, and culture.
Led by a group of writers including Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and William S. Burroughs, the
Beat Generation sought to challenge mainstream society and its conventions through their artistic
expression. The movement embraced a number of distinct characteristics that set it apart from
other literary and cultural movements of the time. Here are some key characteristics of the Beat
aesthetics:

Spontaneity and Improvisation: The Beats emphasized spontaneity and improvisation in their
creative work. They rejected traditional literary structures and sought to capture the raw,
unfiltered essence of their experiences through free-flowing, stream-of-consciousness writing.
This emphasis on the immediate and unedited expression became a defining feature of Beat
literature.

Nonconformity and Rebellion: The Beat Generation was characterized by a strong sense of
nonconformity and rebellion against societal norms. The Beats rejected the materialism and
consumerism of post-World War II America and sought alternative ways of living. They
embraced a bohemian lifestyle and actively challenged the conformity of the "American Dream."

Exploration of Alternative Spirituality: The Beats explored spirituality beyond traditional

religious institutions. Influenced by Eastern philosophies, such as Buddhism and Taoism, they
sought spiritual enlightenment through meditation, drugs, and personal experiences. This search
for meaning and transcendence was a recurring theme in their work.

Emphasis on Authenticity and Authentic Experience: The Beats emphasized the importance
of authenticity and genuine experience. They rejected artificiality and sought to break down
barriers between art and life. Their writing often drew from personal experiences, and they
celebrated the raw and unfiltered aspects of human existence.

Rejection of Censorship and Taboos: The Beats pushed the boundaries of societal norms and
openly addressed taboo subjects such as sexuality, drugs, and social inequality. Their work often
confronted the censorship and conservatism prevalent in the 1950s, challenging readers to
question established moral codes.

Sense of Alienation and Existentialism: The Beats often explored themes of alienation and
existentialism. They expressed a sense of disillusionment with mainstream society and grappled
with questions of identity, purpose, and the human condition. This existential exploration became
a central aspect of Beat literature.

Influence of Jazz and Spoken Word: The Beats drew inspiration from jazz music and
incorporated its improvisational and rhythmic qualities into their writing. They experimented
with spoken word performances, often combining poetry, music, and performance art to create a
multimedia experience that defied traditional literary conventions.

Community and Camaraderie: While individualism was important to the Beats, they also
emphasized the value of community and camaraderie. The Beat Generation was characterized by
a close-knit network of writers, artists, and intellectuals who supported and influenced each
other's work. They often gathered in informal settings, such as coffeehouses, to exchange ideas
and collaborate.

These are some of the key characteristics of the Beat aesthetics. The Beat Generation's influence
extended beyond literature and shaped subsequent countercultural movements, making it a
significant cultural force in the 20th century.
3. Flannery O’Connor’s “Good Country People” as a Southern Gothic short story
Southern Gothic – a genre present in literature since the early 19th c. whose stories are usually
placed in the American South, and revolve around problems connected to this specific region of
the world. It often aims to remind us of the dark, historical past of the South, which include
racism, slavery, repression, and other relevant social issues hidden behind a calm and peaceful
image. To accomplish that, it makes use of traditional Gothic elements, such as grotesque,
macabre or, sometimes, supernatural elements.

Main characteristics of Southern Gothic are:

Placement – Most often, the placement of the story is described as a southern estate, which may
include a plantation, a ranch or other desolate places in the American South

Flawed and grotesque characters – those characters may possess visible flaws, such as physical
deformities, however they also might exhibit certain flaws of personality, such as eccentricity or a
warped worldview

Corruption and decay – especially evident in stories with elements of crime and violence, but in
some stories it may be more subtle, hidden behind the initial innocence or in a more literal sense,
when the scenery is in a visibly deteriorating state

Alienation and Feelings of imprisonment – characters may feel trapped in certain circumstances,
whether literal or metaphorical

Dark Humour – which serves the purpose of presenting a grim reality in a humorous way.

Flannery O’Connor’s Good Country People takes place in the American South, specifically on
Mrs. Hopewell’s farm in Georgia. Mrs Hopewell is a wealthy woman who feels superior to other
people due to her status. She lives with her daughter, Hulga, a cynical 32-year-old woman
educated in philosophy, who suffers from an unspecified heart condition and a missing a leg
because of a hunting accident when she was a child, Mrs. Freeman, an employee of Mrs.
Hopewell, and her two daughters Carramae and Glynese. One day marks the arrival of a Bible
salesperson introducing himself as Manley Pointer. To Hulga’s dissatisfaction, Mrs. Hopewell
invites him into her house, as she perceives him as ‘good country people’, even though she
specifies that she has no need for a Bible. It is then that the salesman starts showing interest in
Hulga and her prosthetic leg and talks with her on his way out, inviting her on a walk. At a
certain point during their next meeting, they decide to climb up a ladder in a nearby barn, where
Pointer professes his love towards Hulga demanding that she does the same by showing him her
artificial limb and teaching him how to remove it. Then, to Hulga’s dismay, he drops the façade
of a good Christian, which he presented to her mother before, and reveals that, like her, he does
not believe in God, and takes her leg with him. Before leaving her, Pointer reveals that he had
seduced women like Hulga before, stating that once he managed to acquire a glass eye. The story
ends with Mrs. Freeman and Mrs. Hopewell watching the man leave, oblivious to what happened
between him and Hulga
This short story is considered to be a Southern gothic, in part, because of its placement. We know
that it takes place on a secluded farm somewhere in the state of Georgia, which lies in the
southeast of North America. Another apparent element of a Southern Gothic in this story is the
existence of flawed characters. Each character feels superior to other characters for different
reasons. Mrs. Hopewell views other people as beneath her class, and divides them in two groups:
“good country people”, who are honest and hardworking, and “trash”, who she deems
untrustworthy. She prides herself in the ability to distinguish between the two. She also believes
that she has the ability to put others bad qualities to good use. It can be seen when hiring Mrs.
Freeman whose flaw is that she tries to control or know everything, which leads her to be
described as nosy by the man providing a reference of her employment to Mrs. Hopewell. Mrs.
Freeman is also shown to be reluctant to admit when she is wrong. Hulga presents both the
grotesque, due to her missing limb, and the flaws of personality. She exhibits a sense of
superiority thanks to her education. She considers other people to be naive, especially religious
people. This leads her to try and seduce the salesman, who in turn proves that she can be as naive
as other people, by revealing himself to be a fraud. He in turn, represents the moral corruption,
which is another element of a Southern Gothic. He is a liar and a scam artist, who is constantly
travelling impersonating a Bible Salesman, changing his name from house to house. He shows no
remorse for his actions, and even seems to be proud of them, as is seen when he tells Hulga about
a glass eye that he managed to acquire from another woman. This suggests that he specifically
seeks out physically impaired women, only to steal the things connected to their disabilities. The
final element of a Southern Gothic shown in this story are the feelings of entrapment and
isolation presented through Hulga. She is shown to feel resentment towards the fact that she has
to live with her mother due to her heart condition and disability. She often states that if she was
healthy, she would be a professor at a university giving lectures to like-minded people. Those
feelings cause her to spend most of her time in solitude, reading books .In a sense, Mrs. Hopewell
also trapped Hulga in an image of a small child, unable to fend for herself. This fact is proven
through her own admission, as well as the infantilising way in which she describes Hulga.
4. Discuss the key features of postmodern literature
-self-awareness

-intentionality

-metafiction (stories in which the characters, author, or narrator acknowledge the fact that they're
parts of a fiction)

-intertextuality (inclusion of other texts in the story, in form of quotation, allusions or calques)

-pastiche (imitating other authors’ styles)

-eclecticism (drawing upon multiple styles or registers)

-fragmentation (collage-style form)

-non-linear narrative (jumping around the timelines, changing points of view)

-discontinuity
-embrace of randomness

-decentralized thinking

-multiplicity and pluralism (different perspectives)

-relativism (no universal truth)

-rejection of ‘grand narratives’, certainty and stability of meaning

-playfulness

-irony (contradiction between what is expected and what happens)

-dark humor

-parody

5. Discuss the main themes and features of Sandra Cisneros’ “Woman Hollering Creek”
short summary: The protagonist Cleofilas marries a young man named Juan Pedro, with whom
she moves across the border to the U.S. Soon after they get married, the first child is born and
Cleofilas finds herself at the starting point of an abusive marriage. Her dreams of a happy life,
which she has seen from the telenovelas, start to fade. Love and passion have been replaced by
suffering and violence. She finally escapes with the help of a Chicana woman who becomes
Cloefilas’ heroine in the end. Felice stands against the stereotypical image of a woman and builds
up her own standards and therefore inspires Cleofilas to break the silent suffering and to become
a new version of herself.
The story is told by a third-person omniscient narrator. The narration makes frequent use of
flashbacks. Also, the narration is often quite dramatic at the beginning of several passages,
starting by reporting a shocking incident, only to track back and provide exposition some
passages later. This technique successfully mimics the shocks Cleófilas herself undergoes at the
treatments meted out to her by her abusive husband.
Foreshadowing is seen at the very beginning of the story when Cleófilas’s father ponders about
how Cleófilas will be taken to the other side of the border by Juan. This thought and his parting
words to his daughter (’I am your father, I will never abandon you’) are quite foreboding.

The character of Felice is used as a foil to Cleófilas in the story.

Free indirect discourse is widely used in the story in order to bring out the thought process of
Cleófilas in some key passages.

Gender violence and the mistreatment of women are the principal themes in the story. The
Mexican-American community in the story becomes a microcosm for the society at large,
depicting the disparity in the gender roles, and how women are often victims of domestic
abuse, mentally and physically. The abuse is not exclusive to Cleófilas who is the central
character of the story.
Though Cleófilas herself comes from a home with a warm father and brothers, violence seems to
come upon women from all sorts of men in the story, and in society. Indeed, ‘Woman Hollering
Creek’ depicts toxic masculinity whereby husbands beat women, friends of one’s husband
‘jokes’ about sexually abusing one even as the husband dismisses the insult and threat with a
laugh.

The story is also about a love gone wrong. Cleófilas’s idea of love has always been a highly
embellished one, with ample inspiration from the TV serials she loves watching. Because of
this, the domestic abuses she faces and the general decaying of the love she once had for her
husband are particularly tragic. Also, the story is a fine portrayal of how art, mostly popular art
catering to a large audience, can often shape one’s ideas about reality, and when one sees how
the reality itself is rockier than what one has been led to believe, there is a struggle to come to
terms with the now-discovered harshness of reality. The TV serials have convinced Cleófilas
so far that ‘to suffer for love is good. The pain is all sweet somehow. In the end.’ However, at the
end of the story, Cleófilas has had enough of suffering for the sake of love; she chooses to love
herself instead and finds happiness. Cleófilas’s journey from anticipating and then failing to
attain a highly idealized and stylized notion of love to understanding the complexities of reality
and choosing to walk out of the abuse rather than accept it is effectively brought out in the story.

‘Woman Hollering Creek’, nevertheless, is not a pessimistic or cautionary tale against love per
se. It is a tale denouncing only abusive love. Indeed, the stories of Soledad and Doleres are proof
of how true love can make one’s life meaningful.

It is clear from the opening passages of the story that Cleófilas is a dreamer, a soul hungry for
the lofty passions of life. The torturous marriage with Juan ebbs much of her vivaciousness.
However, the story shows in the end, the important part is to never give up on one’s dreams.
The dreams and aspirations that many women have but are forced to abandon are perhaps
symbolized by the name of the titular river Woman Hollering. This is the only thing in this town
named after a woman -already a powerful symbol by virtue of that- and Cleófilas is seen
throughout the story yearning to know how this creek got this name. No wonder it is Felice who
shows Cleófilas the significance of the name while crossing the creek. This river is perhaps a
portal away from a place where women are perpetually abused to a brighter future. The hollering
woman symbolized by the river hollers for a positive alternative in the lives of the caged
women. This positive alternative is made manifest in the character of Felice. No wonder
people of the town itself do not understand or care about the name of the river: ‘a name no one
from these parts questioned, little less understood’.

The issue of boundary, in many senses of the term, is another subtle thematic focus in the story.
The father ruminates in the opening passage of the story how his daughter will be taken ‘on the
other side’ of the border. This, of course, is the border between the USA and Mexico. There is
also the border between men and women as seen in the story, defined by the differential gender
roles allocated to them. At another point in the story, Cleófilas thinks about how the ‘towns here
are built so that you have to depend on husbands’. This divide between men and women prevents
most women from having meaningful relationships with men. In the end, Cleófilas is helped by
other women so she can break free from the abuse.

6. Discuss the main themes and features of Art Spiegelman’s Maus

The graphic novel tells the story of the author's father – Vladek – polish jew who survived
through the WWII and the Holocaust. We follow a narrative framed within conversations
between
Art and Vladek, conversations which actually took place, and the recordings of which
became the
raw material for the comic. The story combines Vladek narrative as a Holocaust survivor
and Arts
difficulties as a son of one and the complexities of their relationship.
Themes in Maus
Survival
– main theme explored during Vladek's experience in concentration camps and his life
after
the holocaust
– “You have to struggle for life” was a phrase Vladek often repeated to Anja – his wife
with
whom he was sent to the camps,
The theme of survival is often reflected through Vladek resourcefulness within the camps,
either
through keeping or acquiring certain useful items, or by taking advantage of the perks
certain jobs
came with. For example, when he worked as a translator and a shoemaker he was treated
specially
by the Polish Kapo and was able to access extra food and clothing. He got the Kapo to
treat his wife
well by repairing their shoes.
Guilt
The story also explores how the holocaust survivors grapple with the deep psychological
scars left
by what they experienced in the camps, and in turn how these emotional burdens transfer
to their
children.
Many of the camps' survivors suffered from depression and survivors guilt. This is shown
through Anja, Art's mother who commits suicide 20 years after surviving the camps. After
having
lost many of her friends and family she struggles to find a reason as to why she survived
and others
did not. This guilt translates to Art, who feels partly responsible for his mother's suicide.
He feels
that people think it is his fault, as depicted in some panels, and expresses his grievances
for not
being the perfect son.
Intergenerational gap
"I mean, I can't even make any sense out of my relationship with my father, how am I
supposed to
make any sense out of Auschwitz? . . . of the Holocaust?"
Being a child of Jewish refugees, Art has not had the same first-hand experience of the
horrors of Holocaust, this in turn results in a difficulty in relating to some of the character
features
or behaviours of his father. He cannot understand Vladek's stubbornness, frugality. Art
reflects on
this whilst talking to Mala about when he would not finish everything his mother served,
he would
“argue til I ran to my room crying”. This emphasises how he didn’t understand wastage or
frugality
even from a very young age, unlike Vladek.
Intergenerational gap
"I mean, I can't even make any sense out of my relationship with my father, how am I
supposed to
make any sense out of Auschwitz? . . . of the Holocaust?"
Being a child of Jewish refugees, Art has not had the same first-hand experience of the
horrors of Holocaust, this in turn results in a difficulty in relating to some of the character
features
or behaviours of his father. He cannot understand Vladek's stubbornness, frugality. Art
reflects on
this whilst talking to Mala about when he would not finish everything his mother served,
he would
“argue til I ran to my room crying”. This emphasises how he didn’t understand wastage or
frugality
even from a very young age, unlike Vladek.
Visual features
“The mouse metaphor allowed me to universalise, to depict something that was too
profane to
depict in a more realistic way”
In Maus Art Spiegelman chose to depict nations as different animals, it
serves as a metaphor for Nazi's hierarchical view of the world. Jews are
depicted as mice, Germans as cats who hunt them, Poles are pigs etc.
In addition to that, Spiegelman masterfully utilises the visual
aspect of the novel to convey the feelings and difficulties faced by the
characters. For example, in the panel in which Vladek recalls that he and
Anja had nowhere to go, the street they walk forms a swastika showing
that the reality of holocaust dominated their lives.
In the second book a panel shows Art working at his desk
 surrounded with bodies piling up around him. As the news host climbs the
pile to ask him what message he would like the viewers to get from his
book, Art replies with “A message? I dunno...” These visuals are
used to showcase how the Holocaust still haunts Spiegelman even
after the publishing of his first book and even though he did not
directly experience it. The tv host climbing the pile of bodies with
Art sitting a top also symbolises the guilt he feels at achieving fame
at the expense of the people who died in the Holocaust.
7. Discuss the main themes and features of Bret Easton Ellis’ American Psycho
●Materialism and Consumption
In American Psycho, Patrick Bateman and his band of incredibly wealthy Wall Street
colleagues live lives of upper class, purchasing only most luxury things, wearing only the
finest designer clothes often consulting and comparing their look, eating at only the
restaurants not available for decent citizen(most desirable by main protagonist "Dorsia"),
and
looking down on any who fall short of their standard. These characters are exaggerated
stereotypes of the 1980s Wall Street “yuppie” class that Ellis means to critique – often to
the
point of satire – in his novel. Ellis engages in this critique not through any attempt at
realism,
but rather by amplifying the characters’ obsession with materiality and abandonment of
all
values other than wealth to extreme degrees.
● Identity and isolation
Throughout the novel, instances of consumed and mistaken identity contribute to a
growing
experience of isolation on the part of both the reader and narrator. Bateman is repeatedly
mistaken for other people; when he is out with his friends it is not uncommon for
someone to
greet him as someone else and not be corrected. These constant moments of mistaken
identity
suggest that, within the world of the novel, it isn’t really important who somebody is
because
the characters’ value and knowledge of one another is entirely superficial.
● Monotony and Desensitization
Patrick Bateman leads a monotonous life. This affects both his behavior and the way he
communicates with the reader. In the novel’s second chapter, titled “Morning,” Bateman
describes his morning routine, involving exercise, multiple skin- and hair-care products,
and
a highly-organized breakfast. By introducing the reader to Bateman’s life in this way, Ellis
sets up an understanding of our narrator as someone who lives a very specifically
regimented
life with day after day of identical, repeated routine. This monotony then extends into
Bateman’s relationships and social life.
 ● Vice and Violence
Patrick Bateman seems to live off sex and drugs as much as he lives off expensive food,
alcohol, and clothing. Early in the novel, his appetite for sex and drugs remains
concurrent
but distinct from his violent acts, however as things develop and his addictions grow
beyond
his control, the lines between sex and violence and between drugs and violence are
blurred,
and Bateman’s vices become intertwined in his torture and murder. This leads him down a
path of even more perverted and reckless behavior.
● The Truth
Patrick Bateman is an unreliable narrator. By pairing the reader with a storyteller who
may or
may not be trustworthy in a landscape of drug-addled confusion and hallucination, Ellis
creates a world for the reader that is constantly in flux and unstable, mimicking the
experience of being inside the mind of a deranged and depraved serial killer and,
ultimately,
revealing the possibility for the spark of an “American psycho” to be dormant within each
of
us.
8. John Barth’s “Lost in the Funhouse” as a postmodern short story
American Postmodern Literature: A form of literature, which emerged in 1960s in the United
States, that is characterized by the use of metafiction, unreliable narration, self-reflexivity,
intertextuality.

Author: John Barth

Year published: 1968

From: short story collection Lost in the Funhouse

Genre: Fiction

Tense: past tense, present tense

Summary: Lost in the Funhouse tells a story of a teenage boy named Ambrose travels with his
family to Ocean City, Maryland, where they spend most of their time sunbathing at the beach,
going on amusement park rides, and entertaining themselves with games at the Ocean City
boardwalk. Ambrose is nervous because he really likes this girl named Magda, and wants to
develop the courage to confess his love for her. Although he eventually invites Magda to go into
a funhouse with him, Magda eventually trails off with Ambrose’s brother, Peter, leaving him
alone and isolated within the dark confines of the funhouse. The rest of the narrative traces
Ambrose’s thoughts and dissatisfaction caused not only by his inability to express his feelings,
but also by his inability to escape from the funhouse.
Lost in the Funhouse is a highly self-referential. Barth places diagrams in his story that refer to
the diagrams known as Freitag’s Triangles to represent the process of writing by showing the
exposition, conflicts, development, climax and resolution of a story on them.

Metafiction: Although the narrator stresses that this is how stories should be structured, “Lost in
the Funhouse” deliberately refutes these. Although the narrator admits that this deviation forsakes
“the effects of drama” that are possible in the short story, he also makes it clear that this deviation
of narrative conventions “can better effect” the dramatic possibilities of the story.

Intertextuality: Barth refers to some nineteenth-century fiction and their common features such
as using blanks or giving proper names to create the impact of reality, to The 42nd Parallel by
John Dos Passos to describe the train journeys and to Ulysses by James Joyce to describe the sea
while the family is approaching Ocean City.

Fragmentation and non-linear narrative: Ambrose ventures through the maze of mirrors in the
funhouse. As Ambrose sees multiple selves being reflected as he tunnels through those mirrored
paths, he realizes the futility of trying to approach the self as a single, atomized unit. The
narrative shifts between the perspective of the protagonist, the perspective of the author, and the
perspective of the speaker/narrator. The self is always more fragmented and unreachable than
narratives of development usually convey, and the self is always found in a state of constant
change and growth. Thus, “Lost in the Funhouse” offers an alternative way of thinking about and
approaching the process of development.

Barth often comments on the writing by referring to general literary writing techniques and
subsequently not adhering to them. Example: the author does not use italics “sparingly,” which
creates an ironic effect.

9. Discuss the style, themes and significance of Allen Ginsberg’s “Howl”

“Howl”
- written by Allen Ginsberg in 1956
- best-known poem produced by the member of the literary movement
“the Beat Generation”
- dedicated to Ginsberg's friend Carl Solomon, who had been confined to
a psychiatric institution
- tribute to rebellious artists, thinkers, and hipsters and an attack on the
oppressiveness of western society, which is depicted as crushingly
conformist, greedy, and violent
- target of censorship for its graphic language and sexual themes
(including homosexuality)
- divided into 3 parts and the footnote
- written as a free verse
- first section explores “mad” friends of the poet, describes their drug use
and sexual habits
- second section describes what drove his friend mad
- third section is devoted to Carl Solomon and what he went through
during his stay at mental hospital
- poem challenges the standards of his time, promotes rebellion against
capitalism and conformity
- poem mentions the themes of madness, society, contemporary rules,
nature
10. Discuss the chief principles of 1960s’ feminism

The women’s movement of the 1960s and ’70s, the so-called “second wave” of feminism,
represented a seemingly abrupt break with the tranquil suburban life pictured in American
popular culture. Yet the roots of the new rebellion were buried in the frustrations of
college-educated mothers whose discontent impelled their daughters in a new direction. If
first-wave feminists were inspired by the abolition movement, their great-granddaughters were
swept into feminism by the civil rights movement, the attendant discussion of principles such as
equality and justice, and the revolutionary ferment caused by protests against the Vietnam War.

Women’s concerns were on President John F. Kennedy’s agenda even before this public
discussion began. In 1961 he created the President’s Commission on the Status of Women and
appointed Eleanor Roosevelt to lead it. Its report, issued in 1963, firmly supported the nuclear
family and preparing women for motherhood. But it also documented a national pattern of
employment discrimination, unequal pay, legal inequality, and meager support services for
working women that needed to be corrected through legislative guarantees of equal pay for equal
work, equal job opportunities, and expanded child-care services. The Equal Pay Act of 1963
offered the first guarantee, and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was amended to bar employers from
discriminating on the basis of sex.

Some deemed these measures insufficient in a country where classified advertisements still
segregated job openings by sex, state laws restricted women’s access to contraception, and where
rape and domestic violence incidents remained undisclosed. In the late 1960s, the notion of a
women’s rights movement took root at the same time as the civil rights movement, and women of
all ages and circumstances were swept up in debates about gender, discrimination, and the nature
of equality.

Mainstream groups such as The National Organization for Women (NOW) launched a campaign
for legal equity, while ad hoc groups staged sit-ins and marches for a variety of reasons - from
critiquing college curricula that lacked female authors to advocating the use of the word Ms. This
is a form of address that is neutral - that is, it does not indicate marital status. Health collectives
and rape crisis centers were established. Children’s books were rewritten to obviate sexual
stereotypes. Women’s studies departments were founded at colleges and universities. Protective
labor laws were overturned. Employers found to have discriminated against female workers were
required to compensate them with back pay. After decades of exclusion, women began finding
jobs as pilots, construction workers, soldiers, bankers, and bus drivers.

Unlike the first-wave, second-wave feminism provoked extensive theoretical discussion about the
origins of women’s oppression, the nature of gender, and the role of the family. Kate Millett’s
Sexual Politics made the best-seller list in 1970, and in it she broadened the term politics to
include all “power-structured relationships” and posited that the person was actually political.
Shulamith Firestone, a founder of the New York Radical Feminists, published The Dialectic of
Sex in the same year, insisting that love disadvantaged women by creating intimate shackles
between them and the men they loved—men who were also their oppressors. One year later,
Germaine Greer, an Australian living in London, published The Female Eunuch, in which she
argued that the sexual repression of women cuts them off from the creative energy they need to
be independent and self-fulfilled.

Any attempt to create a coherent, all-encompassing feminist ideology was doomed. While most
could agree on the questions that needed to be asked about the origins of gender distinctions, the
nature of power, or the roots of sexual violence, the answers to those questions were bogged
down by ideological hairsplitting, name-calling, and mutual recrimination. Even the term
liberation could mean different things to different people.

The Second Wave can be characterized by a general feeling of solidarity among women fighting
for equality. It also saw the creation of several types of feminism. Radical feminism was
prevalent, which involved the complete elimination of male supremacy and the challenging of all
gender roles.
Socialist feminism was also a form of feminism created to post the Second World War. Like
Marxism, it acknowledged the oppressive nature of capitalist society and saw a connection
between gender and racial discrimination. It differed from radical feminism in that it didn’t see
gender as the exclusive basis for all oppression. Eco-feminism was widely recognized. It related
environmental justice and care to women’s rights and liberation.

Pytania na egzamin dyplomowy

Poziom licencjacki
1. Characterize American Romanticism and discuss a writer of choice as its representative
(e.g., Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, Walt Whitman, Emily
Dickinson or other).
● Origin - Romanticism was a literary, artistic, and philosophical movement that first
began in Europe late in the 18th century. American Romanticism developed toward the
end of the Romantic movement in Europe. It spanned from about 1820 to the end of the
Civil War (1861) when another movement, the age of Realism, developed.
Traits:
● Values feeling over reason
 ● Places faith in inner experience and the power of imagination
● Prefer youthful innocence to educated sophistication
● Champions individual freedom and the worth of the individual
● Reject the artificiality of civilization and seeks unspoiled nature
● Contemplates nature's beauty as a path to spiritual and moral development
Representatives and their most famous works :
Herman Melville - Moby Dick
Nathaniel Hawthorne - The Scarlet Letter
Edgar Allan Poe - The Raven
Walt Whitman - Leaves of grass
Emily Dickinson - Hope is the Thing with Feathers
Herman Melville - general info
Herman Melville was born in 1819 in New York City. He wrote many famous novels,
including Moby Dick and Billy Budd. He was one of the most influential writers of his
time.
His writing style was unique and complex.
Writing style:
● Melville’s writing is characterized by its complexity and originality. His sentences are
long and full of clauses, similes, metaphors, and other literary devices.
● Melville’s writing is also highly descriptive. He loved to describe landscapes,
characters, and objects in great detail, often using sensory images to create a vivid
picture for the reader
● Finally, Melville is known for his use of symbolism and allegory. Many of his novels
are full of hidden meanings that can only be understood by reading between the lines.
Influence on American Literature
Herman Melville was one of the most original and daring writers of nineteenth-century
American literature. Together with his friend, Nathaniel Hawthorne, they helped to infuse
American literature with its own unique character, looking to American experience and
sensibility and breaking with European social realism. Melville's complex allegorical
writings were ground-breaking explorations of eternal questions that expanded the scope
of the novel as method of artistic and philosophical inquiry
2. Characterize American Naturalism and discuss a writer of choice as its representative
(e.g., Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser or other).
- Naturalism as a literary movement took place approximately between 1865 and
1900.

- Literary naturalism is closely related to literary realism, sharing with it a rejection of

Romanticism, but it differs from realism in its acceptance of a deterministic outlook.

- Determinism means that every event is caused rather than existing on its own. The
reason that certain things happen is that certain other things happened first, which
caused subsequent events. This chain of causation stretches back as far as the mind
can conceive.

- Focuses on facts and logic rather than imagination and symbolism

 - The naturalist writers did not avoid the dark aspects of reality like poverty,
prostitution, corruption, vice, disease etc

- Due to the influence of determinism, they portrayed human beings as being helpless
in the face of powerful forces like heredity, environment, chance and social conditions
that shape their fate

- The naturalist writers treated the novel as an experiment, whereby they could
determine the forces that shaped behavior, primarily heredity and the environment.
They presented a detached observation of their characters without attempting to
moralize.

- The focus of the novels was mainly lower-middle class or middle class individuals
and their problems.

- There is a range of themes associated with American naturalist fiction. These

include survival and violence, as well as determinism. The other forces at work in
the naturalistic novel are nature, heredity, an ‘indifferent universe’, and the illusion
of free will

- Important American naturalist writers include Frank Norris, Theodore Dreiser, Jack
London and Stephen Crane

- Stephen Crane (1871-1900) was a poet and novelist in the American naturalist
tradition. His writing style has been described as impressionist. He wrote about
themes like crisis, war, death, and identity.

- Jack London whose real name was John Chaney (1876-1916) became
internationally renowned and part of a literary circle known as The Crowd. He lived in
San Francisco and was an avowed socialist with concern for workers’ and animal
rights.

3. Characterize American Modernism and discuss a writer of choice as its representative

(e.g., Ezra Pound, Gertrude Stein, T.S. Elliot, William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway or
other).
American modernism is a trend of philosophical thought arising from the widespread changes in
culture and society in the age of modernity. It is an artistic and cultural movement in the United
States beginning at the turn of the 20th century, with a core period between World War I and
World War II. Like its European counterpart, American modernism stemmed from a rejection of
Enlightenment thinking, seeking to better represent reality in a new, more industrialized world.

Literary modernism allowed writers to express themselves in more experimental ways than in the
past. Modernist works often contain non-linear narratives and free-flowing interior monologues
that emphasize the experiences and emotions of the individual.

The modernist era highlighted innovation in the form and language of poetry and prose, as well
as addressing numerous contemporary topics, such as race relations, gender and the human
condition, nativism (represent the modern American experience in America), the psychological
wounds and spiritual scars of the war experience, the "build a self" theme, madness and its
manifestations.

Modernist literature also allowed for the development of regional trends within American
literature, including the Harlem Renaissance and southern modernism.

- the Harlem Renaissance- it marked a rebirth for African American arts. any
writers of this movement used modernist techniques to represent African American
life, for instance incorporating the rhythms of Jazz music and dialects of African
American culture into poetry and prose,

- Southern modernism- it similarly represented the life and unique experiences of

the South using modernist aesthetics.

Characteristics of Modernism:

1. Experimentation- Modernist literature employed a number of different experimental

writing techniques that broke the conventional rules of storytelling. Some of those
techniques include blended imagery and themes, absurdism, nonlinear narratives, and
stream of consciousness—which is a narrative style that consists of a free flowing inner
monologue that tries to capture a character's thought process in a realistic way.
2. Individualism- Modernist literature typically focuses on the individual, rather than
society as a whole. Stories follow characters as they adapt to a changing world, often
dealing with difficult circumstances and challenges.
3. Multiple perspectives- Many modernist writers wrote in the first person perspective
with multiple characters to emphasize the subjectivity of each character, and add depth to
the story by presenting a variety of viewpoints.
4. Free verse- Many modernist poets rejected the traditional structure of poetry and opted
for free verse, which lacks a consistent rhyme scheme, metrical pattern, or musical form.
5. Literary devices- Many modernist writers rely on literary devices like symbolism and
imagery to help the reader understand the writing, and to create a stronger connection
between the text and the reader.

T. S. Eliot:

- Thomas Stearns Eliot

- 26 September 1888 (St. Louis, Missouri, US) – 4 January 1965 (London, England)

- poet, essayist, publisher, playwright, literary critic and editor

- Considered one of the 20th century's major poets, he is a central figure in

English-language Modernist poetry.
Eliot’s first truly mature piece of verse, “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,” written mostly
when Eliot was only twenty-two (1915), was pioneering in its use of interior monologue, in its
fragmented structure, and in its startling figurative language (“Let us go then, you and I, / When
the evening is spread out against the sky / Like a patient etherised upon a table”).

His other famous modernist works:

- The Waste Land (1922)

- Four Quartets (1943)

4. Characterize American Postmodern Literature and discuss a writer of choice as its

representative (e.g., Thomas Pynchon, John Barth, Donald Barthelme or other).
American Postmodern Literature: A form of literature, which emerged in 1960s in the United
States, that is characterized by the use of metafiction, unreliable narration, self-reflexivity,
intertextuality.

Author: John Barth

Year published: 1968

From: short story collection Lost in the Funhouse

Genre: Fiction

Tense: past tense, present tense

Summary: Lost in the Funhouse tells a story of a teenage boy named Ambrose travels with his
family to Ocean City, Maryland, where they spend most of their time sunbathing at the beach,
going on amusement park rides, and entertaining themselves with games at the Ocean City
boardwalk. Ambrose is nervous because he really likes this girl named Magda, and wants to
develop the courage to confess his love for her. Although he eventually invites Magda to go into
a funhouse with him, Magda eventually trails off with Ambrose’s brother, Peter, leaving him
alone and isolated within the dark confines of the funhouse. The rest of the narrative traces
Ambrose’s thoughts and dissatisfaction caused not only by his inability to express his feelings,
but also by his inability to escape from the funhouse.

Lost in the Funhouse is a highly self-referential. Barth places diagrams in his story that refer to
the diagrams known as Freitag’s Triangles to represent the process of writing by showing the
exposition, conflicts, development, climax and resolution of a story on them.

Metafiction: Although the narrator stresses that this is how stories should be structured, “Lost in
the Funhouse” deliberately refutes these. Although the narrator admits that this deviation forsakes
“the effects of drama” that are possible in the short story, he also makes it clear that this deviation
of narrative conventions “can better effect” the dramatic possibilities of the story.
Intertextuality: Barth refers to some nineteenth-century fiction and their common features such
as using blanks or giving proper names to create the impact of reality, to The 42nd Parallel by
John Dos Passos to describe the train journeys and to Ulysses by James Joyce to describe the sea
while the family is approaching Ocean City.

Fragmentation and non-linear narrative: Ambrose ventures through the maze of mirrors in the
funhouse. As Ambrose sees multiple selves being reflected as he tunnels through those mirrored
paths, he realizes the futility of trying to approach the self as a single, atomized unit. The
narrative shifts between the perspective of the protagonist, the perspective of the author, and the
perspective of the speaker/narrator. The self is always more fragmented and unreachable than
narratives of development usually convey, and the self is always found in a state of constant
change and growth. Thus, “Lost in the Funhouse” offers an alternative way of thinking about and
approaching the process of development.

Barth often comments on the writing by referring to general literary writing techniques and
subsequently not adhering to them. Example: the author does not use italics “sparingly,” which
creates an ironic effect.

5. Discuss the features of 17th century metaphysical poetry in England.

Metaphysical poetry is defined by the exploration of philosophical topics, wit, and a looser use of
meter. These poems often touched on contemporary scientific advancements as well. The best
known of the metaphysical poets is John Done. Donne is most often cited as the originator of the
basic tenants of the genre. It is because of his writing that many writers who came after took on
some or all of the features of metaphysical writing. One of the most prominent characteristics of
this movement is the spoken quality of the poetry, something that many other writers of that time
did not approve of. Other common features include the use of colloquial diction, philosophical
exploration, new and original conceits, irony, and the relaxed use of meter. Poets whose works
have been categorized as “metaphysical” often seek out the answers to questions such as, does
God exist? Or, does humankind really have free choice? Or, what is the nature of reality? The
Flea’ is one of the most commonly cited examples of a metaphysical poem, it is also one of John
Donne’s best. In this kind of poetry, authors often used allusions, metaphors, conceits, imagery,
and colloquial diction. It’s also possible to find a wide range of other poetic devices.

6. Discuss the beginnings of the English novel.

The English novel as a literary form has its beginnings in the 18th century, during a period
known as the "rise of the novel". While prose narratives and fictional works existed prior to this
period, it was in the 18th century that the novel emerged as a distinct and popular genre. Here are
some key aspects and influences that contributed to the beginnings of the English novel:

Development of the Printing Press: The invention of the printing press in the 15th century
revolutionized the dissemination of written works. With the spread of printing technology, books
became more accessible to a wider audience. This facilitated the growth of literacy rates and
provided a larger readership for works of fiction.

Rise of the Middle Class and Literacy: The 18th century saw the rise of the middle class in
England, which led to an increase in literacy rates among this social group. The middle class
sought entertainment and intellectual stimulation in their leisure time, and novels catered to their
growing reading habits.

Influences of Earlier Prose Forms: The novel drew influences from earlier prose forms such as
romances, picaresque tales, and travel narratives. These works provided templates for storytelling
and characterization that were further developed in the emerging novel genre.

Epistolary Novels: One of the early forms of the novel was the epistolary novel, which consisted
of a series of letters exchanged between characters. Samuel Richardson's "Pamela" (1740) and
"Clarissa" (1748) are prominent examples of epistolary novels that gained popularity. These
works explored themes of social hierarchy, morality, and the position of women in society.

Realism and Social Critique: The early English novels often focused on realistic depictions of
everyday life and society. They presented detailed descriptions of characters, settings, and social
interactions. These works aimed to reflect and critique the social, cultural, and moral issues of the
time. Henry Fielding's "Tom Jones" (1749) and Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" (1719) are
notable examples of novels that showcased these elements.

Satire and Social Commentary: Satire played a significant role in the development of the novel.
Authors such as Jonathan Swift with "Gulliver's Travels" (1726) used satire to critique various
aspects of society, including politics, religion, and human nature. Satirical novels were influential
in shaping the satirical tradition in English literature.

Female Authors and Sentimental Novels: Women played a crucial role in the early
development of the English novel, both as readers and writers. Female authors, including Fanny
Burney and Aphra Behn, introduced sentimental novels that explored emotions, love, and
domestic life. These works appealed to a female readership and contributed to the popularity of
the novel as a form of entertainment.

Influence of French and Spanish Literature: English novelists drew inspiration from European
literature, particularly French and Spanish works. Miguel de Cervantes' "Don Quixote" (1605)
and French romance novels, such as those by Madame de La Fayette, influenced the structure,
themes, and narrative techniques of early English novels.

These factors and influences converged in the 18th century to create a fertile environment for the
rise of the English novel. The novel became a versatile form of literary expression that allowed
authors to explore a wide range of themes and narratives, reflecting the complexities and changes
of society. It marked a significant shift in literary culture and laid the foundation for the rich
tradition of the English novel that continues to evolve to this day.
7. Discuss the 19th century as the Age of Female Novelists in British literature.

The rise of female novelists began in the 18th century, but it was not until the middle of the 19th
century that their writings emerged on the literary market. The situation for women writers was
very difficult. With almost no formal educational background and few job opportunities, they had
no other choice but to immerse themselves in writing novels as their way to escape from the
dominant patriarchal society. It has to be taken into consideration that writing, and especially the
novel genre, was for many of them the only way to comment critically on some of the social ills,
including women’s oppression. They regarded the novel as a powerful tool to raise awareness
about restrictions that affected women in the 19th century. Naturally, the messages that they
wanted to convey were carried out under a veil of different literary devices. Their resistance
would be manifested on the level of plot, characterization, or style. Men held almost all the
positions concerned with writing, they were novelists, editors, and publishers and in some
aspects, they felt threatened by the entrance of women in the field of literature.

Famous female British writers in the 19th century

1) Jane Austen ( 1775 – 1817)

She completed only six official works during her lifetime. While this may present something of a
seemingly limited representation of her talents, today each work is well-known and recognized
around the globe, highly regarded for their clear messages delivered by a memorable cast of
characters. Austen did not have a male pen name per se, but she did publish all of her novels
anonymously, with the front covers of her books simply stating: 'By a Lady'. Austen’s
combination of wit and social realism stood out against the traditional perceptions of women’s
writing, and her strong-willed heroines challenged the image of the weak, effeminate, obedient
heroine.

Her works:

· Sense & Sensibility ( 1811)

· Pride & Prejudice (1813)

· Mansfield Park (1814)

· Emma (1815)

· Persuasion (1817)
· Northanger Abbey (1817)

· Sanditon (1817)

2) The Brontë Sisters

Charlotte, Emily, and Anne Brontë all became celebrated authors, beginning their careers using
the names Currer (Charlotte), Ellis (Emily), and Acton (Anne) Bell. In 1846, they published their
first volume of poetry under these names. The Brontë family suffered a series of premature
deaths, and Charlotte outlived all of her siblings despite being the firstborn. In the 19th century,
lives were often shorter than today.

Charlotte Brontë gained popularity with her highly famous novel Jane Eyre (1847).

Her novels:​

· Jane Eyre, published in 1847​

· Shirley, published in 1849​
· Villette, published in 1853

EMILY BRONTE (1818 – 48):- Emily was a poet as well as novelist, and she wrote her one
novel Wuthering Heights, which became a global success.

3) Elizabeth Gaskell (1810–1865)

Aside from writing the first biography of Charlotte Brontë at the behest of the Brontë’s father,
Elizabeth Gaskell wrote well-known novels such as Cranford (1851-53), North and South
(1854-55) and Wives and Daughters (1865). All three of these have been adapted for BBC
television in recent decades. “Mrs. Gaskell”, as she was often called, also wrote popular ghost
stories in collaboration with Charles Dickens.

Her novels:

· Mary Barton (1848)

· Cranford (1851–53)
 · Ruth (1853)

· North and South (1854–55)

· My Lady Ludlow (1858)

· A Dark Night's Work (1863)

· Sylvia's Lovers (1863)

· Wives and Daughters: An Everyday Story (1864–66)

4) George Eliot (1819-1880)

One of the most famous novelists of the Victorian era – and of all time – was George Eliot, whose
real name was Mary Ann Evans. Her most renowned books include The Mill on the Floss (1860),
Middlemarch (1871), and Daniel Deronda (1876). Eliot's expertise was psychological realism
and her texts offered a refreshing and honest take on provincial life in rural England.

Her novels:​
​
· Adam Bede, 1859​
· The Mill on the Floss, 1860​
· Silas Marner, 1861​
· Romola, 1863​
· Felix Holt, the Radical, 1866​
· Middlemarch, 1871–72​
· Daniel Deronda, 1876

5) Mary Shelley ( 1797-1851)

was a novelist who wrote the Gothic novel Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1818),
which is considered an early example of science fiction and one of her best-known works. She
also edited and promoted the works of her husband, the Romantic poet, and philosopher Percy
Bysshe Shelley.

Her main works:

· History of a Six Weeks' Tour (1817)

· Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1818)

· Mathilda (1819)

· Valperga; or, The Life and Adventures of Castruccio, Prince of Lucca (1823)

· Posthumous Poems of Percy Bysshe Shelley (1824)

· The Last Man (1826)

· The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck (1830)

· Lodore (1835)

· Falkner (1837)
8. Discuss the significance of the Great War in the development of British literature.
The Great War, which took place between 1914-1918, shook the very foundations of the
Western world, causing a societal upheaval that left immediate and lasting impressions on
every aspect of society and culture. Great Britain, as one of the primary belligerents of the
conflict, was no exception; and experienced a wave of social and artistic change as a
direct result of the war. Literature during the Great War often reflects upon and bitingly
criticizes the horrors of war, as well as the changes society was undergoing and provides a
drastic transition between pre and post war work. Many social, political, and economic
shifts occurred during the war, and any of the writers of the time felt the need to speak out
against the flaws they saw in their society, sometimes even while fighting for their lives in
the trenches. Literature became a common way for the British soldiers to approach the
reality of the war, whether to express dissent against it, or to simply understand it. Writers
and poets of the Great War attempted to distinguish how this war was different than
anything the world had seen before, both the manner in which it was fought and the
changing attitude toward the purpose of the conflict, and it was a task shared by all of
society, both those on the battlefield and back at home. One of the prominent trends of
poetry and other kinds of literature during the first world war was a persistent propensity
for irony. Much of the poetry produced by the “trench poets” presented the war from the
point of view of the average soldier, depicting in graphic detail the sights and experiences
that were their lives day in and day out that the people back at home never saw, from
descriptions of combat, to the sordid living conditions, to the nightmarish instances of
chemical warfare and the general feelings of hopelessness that the soldiers often faced.
Much of the writing being produced in Britain during the war was religiously charged, or
 at least carried religious themes or evoked religious imagery. Sometimes, it was used to
drum up support for the war, positing that God was on the side of the British and that they
would be protected as a result. Others, particularly a few years into the conflict, expressed
a deep internal conflict between their religious beliefs and the realities that they faced that
called said beliefs into question. The disillusionment that grew out of the war contributed
to the emergence of modernism, a genre that broke with traditional ways of writing,
discarded romantic views of nature and focused on the interior world of characters.
Virginia Woolf’s novels reflected this emerging tone, as did the works of Joseph Conrad
(Heart of Darkness) and James Joyce (Ulysses). T.S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land,”
considered to be one of the most significant poems of the 20th century.
9. Discuss the notion of intertextuality as it has been theorized by Gérard Genette and/or
Julia Kristeva. How does this notion relate to Roland Barthes’ postulated “death of the
author”?
Intertextuality – Term first coined by Julia Kristeva in order to describe a connection between the
idea of semiotics - a study of the creation of meaning of words – and the concept of dialogism – a
study of meaning through a dialogue. Intertextuality refers to the creation of meaning of a text
thanks to the reference to another text. This process can be completed with the use of writing
techniques, such as quotation, allusion, calque, plagiarism, translation, pastiche or parody. If
deliberate, the usage of those techniques often depends on the reader’s knowledge and
understanding of the references to fully comprehend the meaning of a text.

Transtextuality – Term used by Gerard Genette to replace and expand on the idea of
intertextuality, because, according to him, the latter was not inclusive enough. It still stands for
the creation of meaning through a connection of different texts. He divides the term into five
elements:

1. Intertextuality,

2. Paratextuality,

3. Architextuality,

4. Metatextuality

5. Hypotextuality and Hypertextuality

1. Intertextuality – according to Gennete, it describes all relationships of a text with other

texts, however he distinguishes three manners in which those connections can be
conveyed with the use of quotation, plagiarism and allusion:

Ø Implicit or explicit –the usage of direct references without trying to hide the fact that
certain elements of text came from a different writer. This kind of intertextuality is
achieved through quotation.
 Ø Covert or overt – this kind of intertextuality refers to the use of elements of different
authors, without giving them credit or having their permission to use it. It stands for
plagiarism.

Ø Hidden or open – the use of allusions, allegories and metaphors to subtly signal a
reference to another text.

2. Paratextuality – this idea describes the connection between the main body of a text, and
its ‘paratext’. The term ‘paratext’ stands for all the elements that surround the text,
including titles, headings, prefaces, acknowledgements, footnotes and more.

3. Architextuality – it may be used to describe the text as a part of a genre or genres, through
the analysis comparison of connections of a text to similar texts designated to a particular
genre.

4. Metatextuality – it can be described as an implicit or complicit way of providing a critical

commentary of one text via another. It may take the form of a book specifically written to
criticize another work, written beforehand.

5. Hypotextuality and Hypertextuality – it stands for the relationship between the original
text (hypotext), and another, somehow modified text (hypertext) based on the previous
one. To those relations we can include a connection between a text and its parody, sequel
or translation.

The Death of an Author

In an essay Death of an Author, by a French literary critic Roland Barthes, we can observe his
speculations on the matter of intertextuality/transtextuality. He believes that all texts are a part of
intertext, since they all share one thing, which is the use of words. Barthes states that since the
words that writers use are not their original creation, texts that are built with their use are also not
original. However, the meaning that can be created using those words is a different story. Barths
thinks that authors are capable of combining the unoriginal words in order to create unique
meanings. Still, he implies that the meaning that an author imposes on a text from his perspective,
should not be as relevant as our own interpretation of any author’s works. He is convinced that it
is the reader that gives his own meaning to a text.

10. Discuss the main premises of feminist approach(es) to literature.

Feminist literary criticism is literary criticism informed by feminist theory, or more broadly, by
the politics of feminism. It uses the principles and ideology of feminism to critique the language
of literature. This school of thought seeks to analyze and describe the ways in which literature
portrays the narrative of male domination by exploring the economic, social, political, and
psychological forces embedded within literature.

Traditionally, feminist literary criticism has sought to examine old texts within literary canon
through a new lens. Specific goals of feminist criticism include both the development and
discovery of female tradition of writing, and rediscovering of old texts, while also interpreting
symbolism of women's writing so that it will not be lost or ignored by the male point of view and
resisting sexism inherent in the majority of mainstream literature.

Before the 1970s—in the first and second waves of feminism—feminist literary criticism was
concerned with women's authorship and the representation of women's condition within the
literature; in particular the depiction of fictional female characters.

1. First Wave Feminism: Men's Treatment of Women

In this early stage of feminist criticism, critics consider male novelists' demeaning treatment or
marginalisation of female characters. First wave feminist criticism includes books like Marry
Ellman's Thinking About Women (1968) Kate Millet's Sexual Politics (1969), and Germaine
Greer's The Female Eunuch (1970). An example of first wave feminist literary analysis would be
a critique of William Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew for Petruchio's abuse of Katherina.

2. Second Wave Feminism: Gynocriticism

gynocriticism—which is considered a 'female' perspective on women's writings—uses a

historicist approach to literature by exposing exemplary female scholarship in literature and the
ways in which their relation to gender structure relayed in their portrayal of both fiction and
reality in their texts. Gynocriticism was introduced during the time of second wave feminism.

Elaine Showalter pioneered gynocriticism with her book A Literature of Their Own (1977).
Gynocriticism involves three major aspects. The first is the examination of female writers and
their place in literary history. The second is the consideration of the treatment of female
characters in books by both male and female writers. The third and most important aspect of
gynocriticism is the discovery and exploration of a canon of literature written by women;
gynocriticism seeks to appropriate a female literary tradition. In Showalter's A Literature of Their
Own, she proposes the following three phases of women's writing:
The 'Feminine' Phase - in the feminine phase, female writers tried to adhere to male values,
writing as men, and usually did not enter into debate regarding women's place in society. Female
writers often employed male pseudonyms during this period.

The 'Feminist' Phase - in the feminist phase, the central theme of works by female writers was the
criticism of the role of women in society and the oppression of women.

The 'Female' Phase - during the 'female' phase, women writers were no longer trying to prove the
legitimacy of a woman's perspective. Rather, it was assumed that the works of a women writer
were authentic and valid. The female phase lacked the anger and combative consciousness of the
feminist phase.

Additionally, feminist criticism has been closely associated with the birth and growth of queer
studies. Modern feminist literary theory seeks to understand both the literary portrayals and
representation of both women and people in the queer community, expanding the role of a variety
of identities and analysis within feminist literary criticism.

3. Third Wave Feminism: Intersectionality

More contemporary scholars attempt to understand the intersecting points of femininity and
complicate our common assumptions about gender politics by accessing different categories of
identity (race, class, sexual orientation, etc.) The ultimate goal of any of these tools is to uncover
and expose patriarchal underlying tensions within novels and interrogate the ways in which our
basic literary assumptions about such novels are contingent on female subordination. In this way,
the accessibility of literature broadens to a far more inclusive and holistic population. Moreover,
works that historically received little or no attention, given the historical constraints around
female authorship in some cultures, are able to be heard in their original form and unabridged.
This makes a broader collection of literature for all readers insofar as all great works of literature
are given exposure without bias towards a gender influenced system.

Women have also begun to employ anti-patriarchal themes to protest the historical censorship of
literature written by women. The rise of decadent feminist literature in the 1990s was meant to
directly challenge the sexual politics of the patriarchy. By employing a wide range of female
sexual exploration and lesbian and queer identities, women were able to attract more attention
about feminist topics in literature.