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    13 views31 pages

    BAB 11 - STEAM - Compressed

    Uploaded by

    Nyet Fc
    This is will help you to understand the concept about steam

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 31
    Steam and air are the ortant working substances used in heat engines. Steam /orking the most importan din ‘deed the first working substance to be usee Mt eighteenth and ‘rstberah centuries, it was 50 widely used that this became known as the i f steam as a work Ai ‘cam, ‘The twentieth century saw a decline 1” the use of orking ey for heat engines, except for large power-generating stations. Howentr, steam has lost no popularity as a heating medium and finds wide ry and commercial application. Large factones and commercial properties are often fitted with steam heating for both comfort and process applications. Also, steam 1S widely used in the drug and food industry, and in hospitals for heating and sterilising. | . "The value of steam as a heating medium is in the fact that steara ' capable of transferring a large amount of thermal energy. This is because the hheat is not just sensible heat, but also latent heat. For example, Table 11.] shows the heat energy available from 1 kg of some vie on gubstances at room pressure and 100°C if they are then cooled to 20°C. Table 14.1 Heat energy (in kilojoules) available from 1 kg of substance cooled trom 100°C to 20°C ‘Substance [_Heat energy (ks) per kilogram mercury 112 copper 312 steel 368 aluminium 70-4 air 814 water 335 steam 2592 ‘The high thermal ener i ie energy available from steam, even at comparatively low temperatures, 1S my cares = ar of steam are obtained from steam tables.* Other methods investigated and the and tables are not used. Various common steam processes a/€ ‘most important components of a steam plant are described. * The tables are usually obtained by ined by computer generati different sets of tables may be noted ene” Benetation from empirical equations. Some variance betwee? 302 1 properties of steam STEAM 9309 11 quantity of water enclosed in a pi 7 east 0 : piston-and-eyline tt 2a atmosphere pressure exists and the weight Of the pie ee Fig. UD. natgure on the Water is also normal atmospheric (the abecluee ees the PF (the abs , temperature just above freezi O12 absolute pressure). ora ng, say O-DI°C (condition (Dr areataratey inti) 5 supplied and the temperature increases alin ae eapacty remains essentially constant, The sputon win Sioa eat at the genic Mowing that the vapour pressure is less th s firmly on the top of the he : ss than atmospheric. There is a sii wai ylure asthe water is heated the change isso smal thatthe or ieee distance. piston moves only a the temperature increases to 100°C, th ‘ces to boil (condition (2)—saturat ere is, Budden: change cand. the “water cater ated liquid), The vapour pressure of the water comr & now equal to atmospheric pressure and the piston begins to rise, The temperature rape does not change and remains at 100°C. This temperature is known as the rowration temperature, Tar. As the piston rises, more vapour 1s formed, which is steam. si ae some droplets of water mixed with the steam, and this mixtuze, when there is stil qnboiled water present, is called wet steam, rewfurther heat is supplied, more and more water is converted into steam and the piston vars ns there is @ great expansion of volume, When one-half ofthe water has been converted to steam, the steam is in condition @—50% dry steam. The temperature is still 100°C. ‘With further heating, all the water and water droplets have been converted into s\e0te and steam is 100% dry. This is condition @—saturated vapour (Fig. 11.4) ‘There has been huge volume expansion, nearly 1700 times the original water volume: the snot LLL water ly Fig. 11.1 Condition @) unsaturated quid Fig. 11.2 Condtion (2): saturated laud Fig. 11.3 Condition @: 50% ary #1207 Flg- 114 Conattion @): 1008 dy steam (eaturated vepour) 304 HEAT ENGINEERING as a gas (although not a perfect gas). The now behaves With further heating the steam id in this condition, the steam is known as temperature, pressure and volume all increase, 2” superheated. For a non: Q-W=-U re process, Equation 3.6 applies: flow process, Equation 4.1 applies: Also, for a constant-pressw W = pi ~ i) But po = Pr = P. 2 W = pk — phi 6 Q - pba + piv = Ur - 2 Q = (Uz + probe) — (a + pik) From Equation 4.8: H= U+ pv 2 Q=ih- Mm H Specific enthalpy h =, or H = mh Therefore, Q = mh - Ay heat transfer to steam (11.1) Notes (a) This equation is valid for mass m of steam, water or wet steam, or transfer from one to the other. (b) This equation applies to closed systems at constant pressure and also to steady flow open systems no! necessarily at constant pressure where heat transfers occur across the system boundary but no work transfers occur, and KE and PE changes are negligible. This occurs because the steady-flow energy equation (Equation 4.9) is . Q-W-=mh-h and with no external work transfer, Q-=-mh- mh mhz — hn) as above. (c) Using the dot notation to indicate ‘per unit time’, the equation may also be written Q = mhz ~ hi) where @ = heat-transfer rate (W) rh = the mass flow rate (kg/s) With an initial mass of I kg, the heat tr: i in speci s 1 ansferred is hn — hu, i.e. the change in specific enthalpy. The zero point for speiic enthalpy is yenerally ‘aken to'be water at | atm and perature just above the freezing point. With this scale, the specific enthalpy of the STEAM 305 id (or fluid), denoted hy, is 419 kJ/kg, and th i 2 ct a Oe gas), denoted hy is 2676 KI kg, % and the specific enthalpy of the ated var enthalpy difference between the saturated liquid and sat * Fs equal © the spe atant heat of evaporation which 2257 KI/ug: Hee specific enthalpy of steam (11.2) re sequence described at the beginning of this section can be shown graphically by poting re emperatare against the specific enthalpy (Fig. 11.5). Tr ro line of constant pressure (101.3kPa) saturated vapour liquid + vapour (wet steam) h (kdikg) | hy = 2287 Fig. 11.5. Temperature-enthalpy (T-h) diagram for water/steam at abmospherio pressure Dryness fraction Dryness fraction (x) is defined as follows: mass of dry steam % = Toyal mass of steam (including water) smal fraction between 0 (saturated liquid) and 1 (saturated vapour), Ieis expressed as a decimal fact ess fraction of O'S. The drier the steam, the less water soon © tee Sethe Moser the steam isto the saturated condition, “The specific enthalpy of the wet steam is piven By specific enthalpy of wet steam (11.3) lus vansion of the steam is much greater than that of the water, the volume Since the volume exe ced, and the speie volume of wet seam i given By (pee) specific volume of wet steam (11.4) 906 HEAT ENGINEERING 11.2. EMfect of pressure on the properties of steam i team at atmospheric pressure (101-3 KPa). Suppose er i 1s me me ya on a maintain the Press a =, 1 MPa, What changey i 1 atmospheri (vithin measurable tolerance) is required to raise the water through the same temperate Increase, showing thatthe specific heat capacity of the liquid has been ile affected at this pressure. However, as might be expected, at 100°C the water does not boil because the molecules require greater energy to overcome the higher pressure before they can break fer and escape as a gas. In fact the water will not boil until about 180°C. so requiring 4 proportionally greater sensible-heat input. The latent heat reduces a little before saturated vapour is achieved, but the total (latent + sensible) heat has increased. ler temperature increase for the same heat input, ‘Superheating the vapour shows a smal indicating a slight rise in the specific heat capacity of the vapour. The effects can be seen graphically by superimposing the | MPa line on the atmospheric pressure line on the T-, diagram (Fig. 11.6) 4 ec) 1 MPa T, = 180 fT 101.3 kPa 100 419788 2676 2778 1h (kdlkg) Fig. 11.6 7-h diagram for water/steam al atmospheric pressure and at 1 MPa IF the pressure is reduced below atmospheric, the saturation temperature is reduced below 100°C;* and, in fact, water can be made to boil almost at the freezing temperature in the Presence of a high vacuum. By repeating the experiment at a series of pressures above below atmospheric, a family of constant-pressure lines is obtained as shown in Figure 11.7. Tt will be noted that there is a point at which the saturated-liquid line and vapour line anes mis ee tie allel point, which occurs at a pressure of 21+] MPa and @ ture of 374-2° ve the critical point, the st itieal and cannot exist in the liquid condition. Bene econ ikenotes ssparni=l * This explains why moumtaincers cannot cook boi h ce ited n i the water temperature at boiling is too low to cook the egg. SES See, of High, mola Nf STEAM 307 supercritical 10) 0 " critical superheat region wry saturated ” liquid line saturated vapour ine 0 100 ® 4000 2000 4 3000 4000 io h (kaha) Fa. 11.7 Th diagram for water/steam at different pressures i isa rater It wil also be seen that as the pressure and temperature increase, there i & Sr liquid. The tesence from the perfect state both for the gas (superheated steam) and fhe Nat Sturted-iquid line shows a distinct curvature near the critical point, ‘MENTOR er ‘Pefic heat capacity may no longer be considered to be constant tg teal reson, Consant-pressure lines show increasing curvature in the superheat et “ain showing that the specific heat capacity no longer remains constan’ "summary: with increasing pressure, Saturation temperature increases; (©) enthalpy of the saturated liquid increases; @ 908 HEAT ENGINEERING increases MPa, th (©) enthalpy of the saturated vapour increases to a maximum at 3 MPa, then decreases, nm (@) Jatent heat of evaporation decreases; (e) specific volume decreases. 11.3 Use of steam tables 1, 2 and 3 in Appendix 7. E: 1m tables are given in Tables t, P Extracts from peal seam or saturated water and steam between O°C and 109%, ‘The corresponding saturation pressure (absolute) is given 2t each termperature, 28 Wels the specific enthalpy of water (/x) and steam (hg), and the specific latent heat of evaporation (ha). Specific volume of saturated steam (v) 18 also listed. from 0 fo:5 Table 2 is a pressure listing, of the same properties for pressures [ro Pa (abs), Table 3 isa pressure temperature listing of specific enthalpy for superheated steam in the range 0-100 MPa (abs) and 50-600°C. Notes (a) The extracts given are not a complete set of steam tables but will be useful for most engineering applications. They are included primarily to show how the tables are used, More precise values, or values lying outside the ranges given, should be obtained from complete sets of steam tables. (b) Linear interpolation may be used for values intermediate to the ones given in the tables, ice, linear proportioning will result in negligible error. (© The specific volume of water is not listed because it docs not vary significantly from 1000 kg/m’, even at high pressures or temperatures. (d) In all cases, hy = Av + Ay. Lh fer hee (@) In Table 2, atmospheric pressure is taken as 100 kPa (rather than 101-3 kPa). This makes conversion and interpolation much easier, and results in negligible error. In practice, pressure gauges are rarely more accurate than té within about 5%, and in any case, they cannot be read more precisely than this. The use of the steam tables will now be illustrated. Unsaturated or saturated water Bests p has negligible effect on the specific heat capacity or specific enthalpy of a liquid. ence the specific enthalpy of water at a1 ail oa ny Pressure may be obtained from the temperature, Example 11.1 Determine the te 5 absolute), MPETATUE at which water boils if the water is at the following pressures (a) 10 kPa (b) 200 kPa t () 37 MPa te Solution Since pressures are given, use T; (a) At 10 kPa (abs), T = Sec > NY STEAM 309 spatabs), T= PC Ma Ais given for 37 MP, so incerpolation will be used: Ce gt 36 MPa, T = 244°C. ‘at 38 MPa, T = 247°C, : At}7 MPa, T = 244 + 0-5 x (247 - 244) = 455°C sgl 112 var aa pressure of 2°2 MPa (gauge) and a temperature of 20°C flows at arate of S ka/s ough & hot-water heater. The water leaving the heater just reaches boiling temperature. tude the boiling temperature and the heat-input rate. solution ‘Te temperature and pressure of the water at the entrance to the heater (condition 1) are join given. Disregard the pressure, and use Table | AL 20°C, Ag = 83-9 KI /ke At the outlet to the heater, the temperature is not known but can be determined from Table 2. Also, the specific enthalpy can be determined from the same table since this is given forthe saturation (boiling) temperature. Imerpolation is necessary: At 2-1 MPa (gauge), T = 217°C, A AL23 MPa (gauge), T = 222°C, hy = 952 kJ/kg. 1. AU2-2 MPa (gauge), T= 219°5°C, hia = 941-5 kJ/kg. Hence the boiling temperature is 219-5°C. . . The heat flow rate may be determined using Equation 11.1 on a unit-time basis, i. 931 kJ/kg. Q = mika — In) 2° Q@ = 5 x (B41:5 — 83-9) = 4288 kW Evaporation of water The heat required to evaporate water may readily be obtained from the tables by determining hig. Example 11.3 2kg of water at 10°C and atmospheric pressure are placed in a pressure cooker and heated tnt the water boils at 140°C. The ppressure-relief valve then opens and allows steam to scape, Five minutes later, there are 1-8 kg of water left in the cooker. Determine e the pressure shown by a gauge on the cooker at full pressure; ) the flow rate of heat to the water; ; (©) the quantity of heat transferred to the water when boiling commences, Solution 7 ne {@) Table 1 does not list temperatures above 100°C, so it is necessary to work from Table 2. ‘At 140°C, p = 270 kPa (gauge) 310 HEAT ENGINEERING (b) From Table 2 at 140°C: iy = 2145 kS/ke Mass of water evaporated = 0-2 kg 2 Q = 2145 x 02 = 429k This heat transfer occurs during a time period of 5 min. j= 4 ra) 1-43 KW (c) From Table I at 10°C, ha = 42 kJ/kg From Table 2 at 140°C, Aiz = 589 kI/kg Q = me — hn) = 2x (589 ~ 42) = 1094 kl Note: The change in pressure which occurs as the water is heated has negiigible effect on specific enthalpy or heat transferred to the water. Saturated steam When steam is saturated, it is only necessary to know either the pressure or the temperature in order to fix all other properties. Table | or Table 2 may be used. Example 11.4 Determine the heat necessary to convert 25 kg of water at 15°C to saturated steam at a Pressure of 180 kPa (abs). If the steam is stored at this pressure, determine the vohine of pressure vessel required. Solution From Table 1: At 14°C, hy = 58-8 kJ/kg At 16°C, Ay = 67-2 kI/kg PAC IS°C, hn = 63 1S /kg From Table 2 at 180 kPa (abs): ha = 2102 kT /kg and va = 0977 m'/kg Q = mz - hy) 25 x (2702 - 63) S6MJ (actually 65975 gy Volume of pressure vessel required: v= 25 x 0977 = 244m \ STEAM SIT es af wet steam are derived from the properties of saturated steam, and from ores and 11.4. In order to use these equations, the dryness fraction of the steam Fons | soot ns . ; sample 114, but with the steam being wet (instead of saturated) with a dryness eae sulfite, at 180 KPa (abs), fy = 492 and fg = 2210 KS/ke. a Equation 11.3: ha he + xhy = 492 + 08 x 2210 hy = 2260 KI), Q = mlz - hi) = 25 x (2260 ~ 63) = 55MJ (actually 54925 kJ) From Equation 11.4: v= avy = 08 x 0977 0-7816 m kg, 25 x 0-7816 19'S m? Superheated steam With superheated steam, two properties must be known before the others can be determined. Table 3 lists specific enthalpy of superheated steam if pressure and temperature are known. Sometimes, both horizontal and vertical interpolation may be necessary if values are between the ones listed. This procedure is illustrated in the following example. Example 11.6 Saturated steam at a pressure of 1-2 MPa (abs) is superheated (at constant pressure) to a temperature of 420°C. Determine the heat-transfer rate to the steam in the superheater if the flow rate of steam is 3 kg/s. Solution . The specific enthalpy of the saturated steam (condition 1) can be obtained from Table 2. At 1-2 MPa (abs), Ay = 2784 kJ/kg. ‘The specific enthalpy of the superheated steam (condition 2) may be obtained Table 3, but double interpolation is necessary. Taking the closest se rom the table: fom 400°C 425°C 1OMPa| 3264 3317 VSMPa | 3256 3310 es 312 HEAT. ENGINEERING i 5 (ter. “The order of the interpotation does POF mal goocc 428: °C yomPa | 32608 331 Now interpolating horizontally, at 420°C: fy = 33035 kJ/ke 2 Q = nila - hi) 3 x (33035 - 2784) 1-56 MW. (actually 1558°6 kW) 1 11.4 Steam generation ‘Steam is generated in a steam generator or bo: fuel (solid, liquid or gas)", nuclear energy. SO! ne to gen of the steam leaving the generator may supercritical. In some overseas power stati higher the steam temperature, the higher tt temperature and pressure introduce metallurgical and stress. pro reproduced here as Figure 11.8, Interpolating vertically first: iter. The heat source may be combustion of a jar energy or electricity. It is also possible io use the hot exhaust gas from a heat engi erate steam or to heat water. The condition ‘be very wett, slightly wet, saturated, superheated, or ‘ons, supercritical steam is generated because the he efficiency (Carnot principle). However, high blems which require thick metal sections and the use of expensive materials. The far higher capital cost associated with supercritical steam has severely limited its application despite the higher efficiency possible. The basic process of steam generation was discussed in Chapter 4. Figure 4.13 is STEAM 313 de variety of designs of steam generators; i a ery wide Varn generators; these designs dey rere ® aay the required condition of steam, the required mass flow ta of tan th Troon types are those using Combustion ofa fuel a the heat source, i tassifed into one of two groups, namely fire-tube boilers and verte poilers In these boilers, the hot gases pass throu i Feed by water which boils and is drawn off as steam. Thee ay boone tnere unde pes, oF a commbnation of large and smal tubes. A typical boiler ofthis ype ia oirated in Figure 19. The chief advantages of this type of boiler are its simplicity and low cost. However, ester level shoul fall so that the fie tubes expose to the hot ese (with resultant softening of the metal) an explosion can result because the entire drum is virtually a pressure: ‘yessel. Hence current regulations in Australia do not allow these boilers ues they ae smal) to be operated without a full-time attendant Fig. 11.9 Fire-tube boler ‘ters. In the water-tube boiler, the boiler drum (or drums) containing » Water Neg outside ‘the path of the hot gases and may be separated from them by refractory OF firebrick. The water circulates from the drum (or drums) through a ‘multiplicity, ‘of small-bore tubes which are in ‘the path of the hot gas. Sometimes, natural Gareulation is used, bUL forced circulation is usually preferred because of the higher heat- sire rate. A typical water-tube boiler is illustrated in Figure 11.10. refer Tape boilers can produce superheated steam by providing additional sunneer tubes through whic the saturated steam passes and is further heated before steam outlet castable —| refractory O Sectional front elevation membrane baffles boiler bank fibreglass insulation Sectional plan view Fig. 11.10 Water-tube boiler flanged end (water drum only) | membrane walls STEAM 315 - also, these boilers are inherently safer 1 woe ill not cause catastrophic Gamage lene henna tobe bole bate tube Nindant, of may be completely unattended if rated at un ao by a part- sin Australia) ler 6 MW (present ater, water-tube boilers are more expensive than fire Howrre from scaling problems because the Ss Ts nee ee Also they a flow rate and heat-transfer rate with a given thickness of seale build-up, seer mal CUDES ATE MOTE difficult to descale than the larger tubes used in fir ube spe of aster generar or Boiler the rato of the het trany be supplied, The heat transferred to the steam is - ferred tothe steam, O = ign - hy) ix is the mass flow rate of steam from the boiler, which, under steady-state hades, sao equal to the mas low rate of water into the boiler. minbustion ofa fuel is sed asthe source of heat, then Qs = mE tere nt = mass flow rate of fuel E = energy content of the fuel Hence the boiler efficiency is raha — tn) nee clic oe boiler efficiency (11.5) Tie typical efficiency of a modem boiler operating on oil or gas i about 80%, this value tring somewhat lower for a solid-fuel-fired boiler. Example 11.7 A seam generator produces superheated steam, at 500 KPa (gauge) and 400°C, at a rate of fuel is.2 heavy fuel oil with relative density 0-98 and 0kg/s, from feedwater at 30°C. The energy content 42-9 MJ/kg. The fuel consumption is 3300 L/h, Determine ‘the boiler efficiency, Solution From Table 3, at 0-6 MPa (abs) and 400°C, ho = 3270 kJ/kg. From Table I, at 30°C, fry = 126 kJ/k8- i . 3300 x 098 _ go gis vn = EO oo kals/ = Talla = hi) ; mE 10 x (3270 — 126) 09 x 429 x 10° 0-816 816% " a ~D 316 HEAT ENGINEERING Improving the boiler efficiency steam generator 1s In the exhaust gases. This rate of loss & mas The greatest heat loss fro en BS sen Q = rig(T - Ti) = This the temperature elevation Tr where nin is the mass flow rate of the exhaust Base’ and Ts i ture. the surrounding air temperat : on aner ane neo this loss, it is necessary Lo extract as much heat as possible from the exhaust gases to bring their temperature down towards abet before they are dissipated ‘The two main methods of doing this are by the use of the following: (2) Economiser. The economiser is a series of pipes located in the path of the aus ‘Bases through which the feedwater passes on its way to the steam generator. By preheating the feedwater, less heat is required to transform it to steam. i inlet air in similar fashion to the way in b) Air preheater. The air preheater preheats the inlet air in simi i ooaeeaeeyeescomomiser preheats the inlet feedwater. The air preheater is the last stage of heat transfer in the path of the exhaust gases and generally consists of a bundle of tubes through which the exhaust gases pass. The inlet air flows around the outside of the tubes and is thereby preheated on the way into the combustion space. Safety devices and controls All steam generators (even those used in small toys) must be fitted with safety valves. These valves are designed to blow off if the safe working pressure is exceeded, and may be spring- loaded or weight4loaded. ‘The other main danger is if the water drops below the safe level, so that the tubes will be dry and will not be cooled by water or steam, This will cause rapid failure, as steel softens at elevated temperatures. To ensure fail-safe operation, fusible plugs may be fitted at strategic points. These melt and blow if the safe temperature is exceeded. ‘Steam generators are also fitted with numerous gauges and sight glasses; in the larger installations, these require a full-time boiler attendant. Smaller steam generators of the so- called ‘packaged’ type are designed to operate in a completely automatic fasbion, but safety regulations may still require supervision. Example 11.8 A steam generator converts water at 30°C and gauge pressure 200 kPa to steam at arate of 2 kg/s. If the heat inflow is 4-1 MW, what is the final condition of the steam? . If the steam is to be transferred through a pipe with a velocity of 25 m/s, what diameter Pipe is required? ° Solution At condition 1: From Table | at 30°C, Ay = 126 ks /kg Heat transfer (per kilogram) = ae = 2050 kI/kg ha = 2080 + 126 = 2176 k5/ke it STEAM 317 ta in THEE 4 jy = 562 KI/kE ng = 2163 kI/kg om Eaton 13: ha hy + xhy 1.2176 = 562 + 2163x sx = 0-746 | amis int ition wit | a scam is sin the Tesolin with a dryness fraction of 0-746. ¥_ = 0°606 m?/ kg, From Equation 11.4 for the wet steam: vaaxyy = 0-746 x 0-606 | = 0-452 m’ /kg w 0 ‘Now {ae mos | ™] | = 215mm 11.5 Steam throttling It was shown in Chapter 4 that in a flow process in which no heat or wor ‘ste boundary, the enthalpy of the fluid does not change (if ietecaea aa | Welsiaenray changes ae negligible), ie. Ms — Hi = 0 oF Zh = Hy. This apples sualy for steam in any condition, of To Wa The process of allowing a fluid to flow trough a small orifice or partly close valve, in which there is a pressure difference aero restriction, is known as throttling; this is therefore an isenthalpic process (Fig. 11 ny r fable 11.2. Various paths involving the process of steam throming Patt Initial condition Final condition a ‘superheated steam Superheated steam — 8 saturated steam superheated steam s wet steam—high dryness fraction suporheated steam D wet steam—high dryness traction saturated steam = wat steam wet steam—increase in dryness fraction | 5 saturated water wet steam | Ss unsaturated water wet steam 318 HEAT ENGINEERING Fig. 11.11 Steam throttling “The process is represented by a vertical straight line downwards on the The diagram. Refer to the T-h diagram for the various paths listed in Table 11.2 (between the same pressure limits p; and p2) on page 317. ; In all cases, there is a decrease in temperature and an increase in specific volume. Formation of flash steam It will be noted from paths F and G that the result of throttling the liquid is the formation of vapour (dry steam). If there is a significant pressure drop, the amount of dry steam consequently formed may be appreciable. This steam, called flash steam, may be separated and used for further heating purposes by the use of a flash vessel, which allows the flash steam to escape from the top and the condensate to be removed at the bottom. The flash steam will be in saturated condition if the vessel is 100% effective in separating the condensate. Example 11.9 A steam plant operating at I+ MPa (gauge) condenses steam at a rate of 5000 kg/h. If the condensate is removed at 50 kPa (gauge), calculate the quantity of saturated figsh steam produced per hour, assuming the flash vessel effects complete separation, Solution From Table 2, at 1100 kPa (gauge), hy = hy = 798 KS/kg 798 k5/kg at 50 kPa (gauge) 468 kJ/kg, hy = 2225 at 50 kPa hy + xhy ‘ee 468 + x x 2225 0-1483, r u fa ee 0-1483 kg of flash steam is formed per kilogram of steam condensed. ‘Therefore, © Flash steam produced per hour = "1483 x sooo = Tad kg XS 6 separating-and-throttling calorimeter ortant to obtain the dryness fracti «pe i . action of a steam sample, This cannot be safer Mervation, since the pressure and temperature do ae oe ath ce with dryness y ait is to use a sey wy tne solution is to use a separator to separate the water from the steam, but th ut this joet with 100% effectivene: ‘pe done 88 unless a very lar} on ‘ge vessel is used. ay ill, BOWE be notre from paths B and C, thet ifthe steam condition oti Hes W! ge set by these paths, the wet steam will be superheated after t For superheated steam, the enthi ais wlpy can be determined by measuring the i eparingand iro core uses a separator to bring the steam sample to a dryness, then ling valve to throttle the steam and superhe v at it.* Nad of eatulating the dryness fraction from the observed Taeasorement iste in frample 11.10. STEAM 319 ample 11.10 Wet seam at a pressure of 1-3 MPa (gauge) is 5 in We eat Ee following results (gauge) is sampled using a separating-and-throttling Water collected in separator = 0°56 kg Water condensed after throttling = 18:32 kg Pressure-gauge reading after throttling = 10 kPa Temperature after throttling = 105°C Determine the dryness fraction of the steam. ‘Solution Refer to Figure 11.12. The solution js best obtained by working backward from condition | @which is superheated since Tax at 10 kPa (gauge) is 102°C (Table 2). | Now ps = 10 Pa (gauge) = 110 kPa (abs) = Ort MPa (abs) separator i to condenser Fig. 41.12 Separating-and-throtling calorimeter xan becaune of peat tases and the diicuty of obtaining as ‘he smal) throttling orifice. éifficul results are difhe yesuling £0 * In practice, accurate ce, actor at ue 1ow TOW rates ‘fective separation at 320 HEAT ENGINEERING From Table 3: = 2676 kS/ks At 100°C, 0-1 MPa (abs). ft = ‘At 150°C. O-1 MPa (abs), # = 2776 KI/ks + AL 105°C, O-11 MPa (abs), fy = 2685 Kd/ ke w py = 2685 kJ/kg (2 = Ay throttling) I Now p2 = pi = 1:3 MPa (gauge) + ALQy Ar = 830 KI /kg (Table 2) hy, = 1960 kJ/kg (Table 2) hy = hy + 2 X 1960 fox = 0-946 ‘Therefore | kg of steam at condition ® Now mass of steam at condition @) = 18:32 kg- 2. Mass of water at Q) = 18:32 kg x 0-054 0-99 kg. +. Total mass of water in original steam sample contains 0-054 kg of water. = 0°56 + 0-99 = 155 ke Total mass of steam at condition (1) = 18:32 + 0-56 = 1888 kg. _mass of dry steam total mass of steam 18:88 - 1:55 18-88 = 0-918 Note that the same result can be achieved by multiplying the pseudo-dryness fraction* before separating, by the dryness fraction before throttling: :. Dryness fraction at ) = Pseudo-dryness fraction before separating = wes = 0-970 Dryness fraction before throttling = 0-946 -. Initial dryness fraction = 0-946 x 0-970 = 0-918 (as calculated above) ‘The proof of this result is obtained by the consideration of mass flows: © ® m ke (m + yh ke ykg * Not a true dryness fraction because the separator is not 100% effect effective. STEAM 324 pryness fraction at = Mass of dry steam Total mass xm m+y =xm poe #1 = pswo-dryes ation before separating m 2 17 Barrel calorimeter simple (and accurate) method of determining t Asoo Gf steam to be drawn off the main through a suable wive ack tote ae sen and reduces it t0 atmospheric pressure. The steam is then bubbled through he sewraned in an insulated vessel called a barrel ealorimete, and the water mass and temperature are measured before and after the sampling. The throttling process does 10 soe the enthalpy of the steam, so the energy balance forthe steam and wateris. Hy (steam) + Hy (water) = Ha (water) Notes (@) The barrel calorimeter is of importance not just as a means of determining the dryness fraction of wet steam, but also as an example of the direct-mixing process of steam with water, (0) If the solid parts of the calorimeter in contact with the water or steam have significant heat capacity, this may be included in the energy balance, which then becomes Hy (steam) + Hi (water) = Ha (water) + me(Ta — TH) mass of the solid parts specific heat capacity of the solid parts where m c Example 11.17 A barrel calorimeter contains 10 kg of water at 18°C. Wet steam at 150 kPa (gauge) is throttled and bubbled through the water ‘until the temperature rises to 85°C. The mass of arerted a alonaneter is then 11-6 kg, Determine the dryness fraction of the steam, neglecting the metal parts ‘of the calorimeter; o We metal parts of Ei calorimeter are stainless steel, mass 1-5 kg. Solution (@) From Table 1 at 18°C: fy (water) = 75°6 KI /ks cs Hy (water) = 756% 10 756 KS From Table 1 at 85°C: fy (water) = 356 kJ/kg 2 Ha Gwater) = 356 x 11°6 4129-6 KS 1 ¥ a a 922 HEAT ENGINEERING My (steam) + Hy (water) = He (water) *. Hy (steam) + 756 = 41296 Hi (steam) 3373-6 2108-5 kJ/kg From Table 2 at 150 kPa (gauge), fr = 536 kJ/kg, Ag = 2181 kI/kg. hah + xh * 21085 = $36 + x x 2181 faxes 0721 (b) From Appendix 4, ¢ for stainless stee! is 0-46 kJ/kg K. ‘The energy balance is: Hy (steam) + H, (water) = Ha (water) + me(T ~ Ti) © Hi (steam) + 756 = 4129-6 + 15 x 0-46 x (85 — 18) " 0 0 5-H (steam) = 34198 3419-8 fy (steam) = = 2137-4 kI/kg 2137-4 = 536 + x x 2181 ox = 0734 Note: The difference between this value and the value calculated in (a) is less than 2%, 11.8 Steam heal exchanger In many applications, steam is used as a heating medium. Direct mixing of steam with the substance to be heated (as occurs in the barsel calorimeter) is usually not desirable so that in order to obtain heat from the steam it is necessary to use a heat exchanger. The overall energy balance of a heat exchanger was treated in Chapter 4 (Section 4,6), and the heat- transier coefficient and log mean temperature difference were treated in Chapter 5 (Section 5.9). A typical example of energy balance in a heat exchanger using steam is given in the following example. Example 11.12 Solution From Table 2 at 200 kPa (gauge), Ay = 2725 kIfkg. he STEAM 323 = m(h2 — hy) air riep(Tr ~ TH) 5 x 1-005 x (30 — 10) 0-0393 kg/s (per room) 12 x 0-0393 0-472 kg/s jug Steam plant for heating applications sdvantage of using steam as a medium of heat transfer is that most of the heat is in the Tr naf lavent heat, Not only does this give a large heat-transfer capacity, but it also enables althe heat exchangers to operate ‘at a uniform temperature. So unless high temperatures are required, there is ‘no advantage to using high-pressure steam, and the steam. pressure at muijon needs only to be high enough to overcome line-pressure Tosses. A typical layout is Fstrated in Figure 11.13. nin an ‘expansion — joints steam ling | separator condensate line steam generator heat exchangers feedwater (es reaires} ome steam ‘condensate receiver traps gO ‘condensate return tine leadwater ‘hot well reaimet Fig. 11.13 Typical steam plant (heating) Steam line The steam line is always jagged oF insulated to roinimise heat losses. Jt should be sized so as to keep the steam velocity to within about 24-36 m/s which will keep the pressure drop to a to keep Or ymin. Bapansion joie Ot }owbe should be provided to allow length changes with temperature variation. ‘Also, the line should be sloped down, with a fall of at least 1 in 250, ianipe steam flow, to allow condensate to drain. im the direction $24 HEAT ENGINEERING Separator i ting generated, it will certainly contain some water droplets When mtr seam ag ae etme by eh ey leaving the stam erty or entifuga atin, removes the mos steam, Air vent ; Al he steam line is a disadvantage; air is an effective ee Also, it blocks the Ay sinh tea i Sea pe ond St ets the plant is shut dawn, and is present in dissolved form in the ' A be vented -sensitive air vents. ‘sing manual air cocks or automatic temperature-sensitive al m me | types, such as ‘Steam traps separate the steam and the condensate. There are several tyPES, (a) the float type which operates on mechanical flotation (Fig. 11.4); (b) the thermostatic type which operates on temperature sensing; (©) the thermodynamic type which operates on a combination of temperature sensing and fluid-flow principles. / Fach type has its own advantages and limitations, which dictate the choice for each application. float ‘condensate + steam in Fig. 11.14 Float-type steam trap Steam traps should be located wherever appreciable quantities of condensate are likely to form, such as at the end of each run of steam line and below each heat exchanger. Each steam-trap installation should include a strainer to remove any solids or flaked metal (which might otherwise clog the traps), and a sight glass to enable a quick check on its, correct operation. Feedwater treatment The steam plant illustrated in Figure 11.13 is of the closed: in which the : ‘ system type, in which 1 condensed steam is recirculated through the steam generator continuously. However, due t0 inevitable leakages and losses, it is necessary to provide some make-up feedwater. make-up feedwater should be treated to remove dissolved gases and minerals. STEAM 325 as removal hi i ier scale” A hal discussed, Minerals sh they hanical ogs the boiler tubes and fitt ‘ould be removed be own and mechanical descaling. fittings. The alternative ecause Is periodic Steam plant for power production ‘when steam jg to be used as the working fluid fc ae s jor wets often generated in the superheated act nel ae (iter exprosting eg " ws becaus (@) cea ae shows that the higher the steam temperat Me ‘ciency (for the same lowe! ure; ») particularly im the f + eyle temperature —usually atmosphere) sear the ( i in the case of a steam turbine, water droplets i Y ets imy blades at high velocity cause ‘mechanical erosion and cventual re. joo Be an In smaller mobile power-producit ‘ vented to the eeipnere alter eX ing plants (such as steam Jocomotives), the steam. & er at a pansion in the cylinder. This ‘considerably reduces the size oft plant, but also reduces efficiency and increases the cost of feedwater treatment OF boiler descaling. a larger plants (such as electric-power peneration stations and steam-turbine-driven ships), @ condenser js provided to ‘condense the spent steam and to recirculate it. The condenser is usually water yooled, either with lake water OF ce water, In these installations, the steam is usually reheated after expanding shrowgh the first turbine StABE> 2 this gives wn in Figure 15.15 (p32 improved efficiency, layout (excl rading fittings) is sho" 6) and should ‘A typical plant be self-explanatory: Example 11.13 . i heated steam at pressure 2:5 MPa (gauge) temperature A sea ale ate eal Praodensate temperate is 38°C andi ves cosa : Fuel oil, with relative iensity wari i Ne roles wee ad L/® Jf line-pressure drops and temperature drops are eplected, dexermine, (a) the turbine efficiency: (bp) the boiler efficiencY (@)_ the overall efficiency (7) Solution sere 3 3) From Table *: ‘at 2 MPa and gore, h = 3248 3 MPaand gore, h = 32 1. 246 MPa (ab) Tae he 248 - 0" 3248 - 3242) Le 3038-4 WI! a 17S /KB ‘table 1, a 28 Che From a Qceurbine) = ms 400 y (3238-4 — 117) i = 3600 = 1214kW roponpaud semod weet wroors Oras. Stt¥ ha ui fen { weld quawieaa semoiq deem —J8IBMPSE} dn-oyew duind wie Jeqempesy zis 198u9pu09 ae vem eqn, “192m nN [— sereeyaud ae yno sare ‘Suyooo 851.0008 seqn, eum av | ch wan! queyd qwawieag seBasneyxo 23 a - ant 08 so seyeaysadns wf STEAM 327 360 pine) = yg a (eurbine) = p14 = 0297 or 29°1% poiler) = ra(in —_hi) ) (boiler) = H 1214 ae, 00 * 0-98 x 42-9 x 10° = 0-742 ot 142% 0 ne = 0297 X 0-742 = 0-22 or 22% Problems unless otherwise stated- Nove: Pressures a8 absolut 11 Determine the specific enthalpy of the following: a) water at 500 KP2 20 orc i eC lied 2 vd chk yoo ke aut he? q7 ed steam at wnt 15 MPa and Cc 293 kJ / ke, (b) 7 kJ {ke © 763 KS {kee 2778 KS/KE @). 930 kS/kes () 3098 KJ {KE Oo 3054 kS/s sacar in the ONE t ¢ if 7790 kS/ KE ‘Determine the 5 fic. enthalP? : pp 2 BE z ¢ volume of y and speci prick yt ns 088 (a) 1-05 MPS KI kg (0) 2454 gape oes (0) 209) KIB: eo fs) 2539 x3 ke; 0163 ke ‘gow Fate ass = 707 k5/ =

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