OLD TESTAMENT ESSAYS 9/1 (1996), 9-19 9

A context to frame the book of Job

L C Bezuidenhout (UP)

ABSTRACT
This article examines the possibility to establish a context that can serve
as a hermeneutic key to the interpretation of the book of Job. The
reconstruction of a historic context is considered. Special attention is
paid to the reconstruction of the social context of the book of Job by
means of social paradigms. Although this approach does contribute to
the understanding of the book, there are certain constraints that must
be kept in mind.
In the book of Job the causality principle is undermined. In an ana-
logous way, a direct relationship between context and text in the case
of the book of Job cannot be uncritically accepted. If a primary context
should be identified that can serve as a hermeneutic key, it can only be
common human experience.

In order to understand literature, one must appreciate it within an appropriate

context as hermeneutic anchoring point. To demarcate that appropriate context
might prove to be a formidable task. One of the possibilities is to try to
reconstruct a historical context or perhaps the community out of which the text
originated.
There is an interrelationship between a person and his community. The
characteristics of the community will be evident in the texts produced by the
community. The very fact that a text is preserved by a certain community implies
that the text must be of relevance to that community. At this point, certain critical
questions must be asked: To what extent does the book of Job reflect social,
national or political tensions in which a community somewhere in history shared
- or to what extent does it reflect intimate, personal tensions? The destruction of
Jerusalem is a source of emotional and theological disorientation creating an
10 A CONTEXT TO FRAME THE BOOK OF JOB

immense power field, but the illness or death of a child can have a similar, even
a stronger effect.
Is it possible to draw a profile of the community from which a book like Job
emanated? Does the book of Job supply prompts for such a venture? Can such
a construction serve as a mediator in understanding the book and in applying the
message of the book to our own context? Does such a construction serve as a
filter in order to block out aspects of the book which are not accounted for by the
postulated context and in this way reduce the meaning of the book? In this paper,
some of these questions are addressed in the quest to find a legitimate point of
reference from which the book of Job can be appreciated. As Job is part of
wisdom literature, one might benefit from establishing the context of wisdom
literature.

A THE CONTEXT OF CONVENTIONAL WISDOM LITERATURE

Traditionally, wisdom typifies a way of viewing the world based on close

observation and careful reflection in an effort to discern the substantial harmony
and order that are constitutive of it. Its goal is to integrate the individual's
existence with the perceived order of the world, and to know what to do when the
anticipated order fails (Gottwald 1985:564-566).
According to this definition, wisdom can be found in different spheres of life.
There are three propositions for the setting of the wise: They may be parents in
families or elders and counsellors in clans and tribes; they may be government
officials, scribes and priests, who kept records of state, counselled kings, and
trained future political parties; they may be non priestly authorities on the
collected Law of Moses who interpreted its meaning and passed on their skills in
legal-scribal schools.
The following development may be accepted: Secular wisdom might have
started in government circles around Solomon and, after the fall of the state it
might have been transmuted into religious wisdom focused on the Torah. Scribal
circles continued to enlarge wisdom traditions. At the same time, Deuteronomists
might have viewed the Law of Moses through the medium of wisdom teaching.
After the exile, colonial administrative scribal circles might have preserved and
composed wisdom literature. Perhaps the Deuteronomists, who produced the
finished Torah, and who were sympathetic to wisdom, were responsible for its
transmuting into religious wisdom focused on the Torah (Gottwald 1985:
567-570).

B THE HISTORIC CONTEXT OF THE BOOK OF JOB

To find the setting of the book of Job in this outline is problematic, since it
probably came to completion after the government scribalism had collapsed, and
probably before the new religious scribalism of the Torah was fully developed
(Gottwald 1985:570). On the other hand, Job is subverting orthodox concepts of
traditional wisdom - it can hardly be stated that Job shared in the ideologies of the
groups in which traditional wisdom was cultivated.

I Locating the geographic setting of the book of Job

Uz is given as the place where Job lived. It must be somewhere in the East. The
names Eliphaz and Teman both appear in Edomite genealogies (Gn 36:4, 15,28).
Uz is also associated with Aram (Gn 10:23; 22:21). According to Jeremiah 49:7
Teman was an Edomite centre associated with wisdom. In Lamentations 4:21 Uz
appears in parallel with Edom. The addition to Job in the LXX identifies Job
with Jobab, grandson of Esau and king of Edom (cf Gn 36:33). The narrator is
using an obscure designation to conjure up an image of antiquity and mystery
(Habel 1985:86).
It is evident that the author, for some reason, is trying to isolate Job from the
Israelite context. Yet, the book of Job indisputably breathes an Israelite spirit.
The book is the product of an Israelite community. It utilises the spiritual heritage
of Israel. But, as Whybray formulates it: 'What is surprising about the book of
12 A CONTEXT TO FRAME THE BOOK OF JOB

Job is not that its author was familiar with these various forms, which would be
part of Israel's literary and cultural heritage, but that he felt free to use them as
he chose' (Whybray 1974:63).
What is the reason for the alienation of the text from the Israelite context and
community? This mystery will be addressed.

2 Establishing the date of this composition

The story is deliberately written as if it happened in the distant past. This is

evident from the following facts:

• Job's wealth is measured in livestock and servants.

• His religious worship is the domestic sacrifice of burnt offerings and the
names of God used by the speakers are archaic.
• The only unit of currency mentioned is the ancient ‫ה‬1‫קשין‬
• Job describes his home repeatedly as 'my tent'.
• His life-span exceeds 150 and perhaps 200 years (Driver & Gray 1921:
lxvi).

The text offers no explicit historical allusions which would suggest a

particular period when the book was written (Habel 1985:40).
Some aspects of the story are reminiscent of ancient literature. The posi-
tion of Satan in the heavenly court can be explained by Ugaritic parallels
(cf Lowell 1993:107-118).
In the context of Ezekiel 14:14,20, Job is a legendary hero from the distant
past. Ezekiel probably refers to the original Job legend which was used and
transformed by the author - a legend that has its parallels in Mesopotamian
literature (cf Weinfeld 1988:217-226).
According to the reference in Baba Bathra 14b and 15a, Moses is the author
of the book of Job (cf Hazelton 1914:573-581). This is probably deduced from
the fact that the story is put in a patriarchal or pre-patriarchal age. The rabbis
dated Job or its author at various periods from the time of Isaac and Joseph to
that of Cyrus and Ahasuerus (Dell 1991:160).
The monarchic period could also be the setting for the book. In the time of
Solomon, wisdom literature was supposed to develop under the influence of
Egyptian and other foreign cultures (cf Young 1949:319-331).
Wolfers (1995:70-73) is of the opinion that the history of Israel from the
reign of David to the time of Hezekiah is reflected in the book of Job. In the
prologue, Job symbolises Solomon. The conquest of Israel by the Assyrians is
symbolised by the death of Job's children. The events in Israel in the eighth
century is the context of the dialogue between Job and his friends, while Job
symbolises the Jewish people and Hezekiah.
The exile could provide a probable setting. The kind of questions that are
asked, could fit into the general spiritual milieu of the exile. Parallels in
language and thought can be discerned in Job and Isaiah 40-55, a more direct
parallel is evident between Job 3 and Jeremiah 20:14-18.
Gottwald puts Job sometime during the exile or within a century or so after •
the first return to Palestine (1985:575).
A post-exilic date can be assigned on the grounds that Job can be interpreted
as representing the spirit of the Jews in this era. The Satan and angelology are
concepts that are relevant to this period (Dell 1991:162). The author employed
the technique of misuse of forms or parody forms from many other traditions,
both to disguise and to convey his radical message. Many of the books that use
parody as a technique occur at the end of a tradition (e g Jonah). It is the same
with Job. Parody is a late genre that feeds on other genres. This observation
would support a late date for the book, possibly the late fourth or early third
century BC (Dell 1991:159-162).
According to some scholars, a Greek setting may be appropriate for the
production of the book of Job. The following characteristics of the book of Job
may point in this direction: The prominence of the individual, propagation of
14 A CONTEXT TO FRAME THE BOOK OF JOB

encyclopaedic knowledge; a universalist view of God, individual, critical attitude

towards the doctrine of retribution (cf Hengel 1978:109; Dell 1991:163-164).
Although direct Greek influence on the book of Job cannot be proven, the
following perspective is acceptable: In Judaism an intellectual trend which was
related to Greek popular philosophy, developed before the onslaught of Hellenism
(cf Hengel 1978:109-110).
In trying to identify a specific social-historic context, one has to bear in mind
the following remarks made by Habel (1985:42): 'Consistent with the orientation
of traditional wisdom thinking, the author of Job has created an artistic work with
universal dimensions rather than a text directed at a particular historical situation
or theological issue alive in Israel at a specific time. Because the characters of the
book are located in a distant heroic non-Israelite setting, a universal perspective
is more readily established .... Such a figure (Job) would have been an
uncomfortable model of faith for any Israelites, before, during or after the exile
of Israel. Thus, while the cumulative evidence may tend to suggest a post-exilic
era, the book's literary integrity, paradoxical themes, heroic setting, and
uncomfortable challenge are pertinent for students of wisdom and life in any era
and far more important than the precise date of this ancient literary work.'

3 Reconstructing the social context of the book of Job by means of

social paradigms

In the book of Job, two models of social organisation are evident, namely the
models of order and conflict. The friends of Job are trying to protect the status
quo by means of traditional arguments. In this paradigm of order, the world
order is envisaged as originating at creation and continuing to categorise and
regulate all existing elements into a harmonious whole. Accordingly, every-
thing has its place, norms, time and function. God is maintaining this order
(cf Perdue 1991:6). God has to subscribe to an abstract idea of righteousness.
His actions are therefore predictable. A rigid system of causality forms the basis
 OLD TESTAMENT ESSAYS 9/1 (1996), 9-19 15

of this perspective and implies adherence to the doctrine of retribution. Suffering

must be explained in order to be dealt with. It is the natural consequence of sin.
This perspective can only be challenged if a righteous person suffers. This is by
definition impossible, as the doctrine of original sin precludes such a possibility.
Salvation will follow automatically if a person admits his guilt and repents.
On the other hand, Job is subverting the institutional values and undermining
traditional teaching. He actually uses the forms of his counterparts, but gives it
new contents. According to his model, the world is not a harmonious order, but
an arena of opposing forces (cf Perdue 1991:8-9). According to him, his friends
are committing pious fraud. In order to save God's reputation, they are forcing
the truth. Their way of interpreting life might offer them security, but it is not
life-related.
These two models may represent different trends in the society from which
the book of Job originated. These trends would correspond to attitudes in the
time after the exile. There would have been a serious questioning of traditional
values, especially the theory of retribution. On the other hand, people who are
defending traditional values, would be even more rigid in times of crises. Job's
appeal to friendship and understanding of his situation would have necessitated
their repudiation of the paradigm of order constructed by traditional wisdom and
therefore it is regarded as unacceptable (cf Perdue 1991:26).
Dell infers from the questions asked by Job and the techniques by which its
radicalism is conveyed, a more philosophical group as background to the pro-
duction of the book. By utilising a parallel between Job and the Greek sceptics,
she hopes to reconstruct a philosophising, intellectual tradition or school that
existed in Israel and produced literature of a sceptical kind. According to her,
such a group may have started as part of the wisdom group, but would have
broken away (Dell 1991:167-168).
The crisis of the exile and its aftermath was traumatic, yet fertile. Hengel
finds the richness and pluriformity of the literature in the Persian and early-
Hellenistic period astonishing, especially the fact that in Job and Ecclesiastes a
16 A CONTEXT TO FRAME THE BOOK OF JB

critical reflection could break through the traditional religious views (Hengel
1978:112-113). The question arises whether the official wisdom schools would
initiate such a current of thought. According to Hengel, groups of the priest-
hood, the Levitical writing schools and the lay nobility probably shared in
producing this rich writing. He believes that a division took place in the middle
of the third century when the aristocratic minority became open to the critical and
universalist spirit of early Hellenism, whereas conservative circles, in deliberate
antithesis, opposed it by referring to the national tradition, with the help of
certain arguments taken from the thought of the new period (1978:113-114). This
tendency could be ascribed to an educated laity which was in contact with the
culture of its environment. The use of a variety of smaller genres in the book of
Job implies a broad intellectual environment (Dell 1991:166; cf Roberts
1977:107-114).

4 The relative value of reconstructing the social setting

Although the endeavour to reconstruct the social context of the book of Job by
means of social paradigms provides us with valuable insights, the following
corrections must be made:
Social paradigms are used to explain social construction, deconstruction and
reconstruction. Although social paradigms can be used to illuminate the context
of the book of Job, it must be kept in mind that the book of Job represents a
conceptual revolution and not a social revolution. Instead of a new society, the
author envisages a new perspective.
This subversive literature should not necessarily be seen as the product of a
group - it could have been composed by an individual. A group might have
formed around this literature and accepted responsibility for the preservation of
the literature. In the epilogue of Qohelet, there may be evidence of such a
development (cf Perdue 1991:13-14).
It is not justifiable to assign a certain date to sceptical, critical thought. The
human spirit did not evolve in a linear, chronological way with our way of
 OLD TESTAMENT ESSAYS 9/1 (1996), 9-19 17

thinking at the summit. To assume contact with Greek thought as a prerequisite

for this tendency is not legitimate. There are interesting Mesopotamian texts
from the seventh century portraying criticism and scepticism, even with regard
to the gods. All trends of thought are in some way or another present in every
age, although it does not necessarily represent main stream trends. These moda-
lities are in a certain sense universal.
One must be clear on what is meant by explaining the book of Job by iden-
tifying its context. One can assume that the historic context has influenced the
book considerably. Yet the book of Job might not be the predictable product of
its context, just as the reaction of the character Job is not the obvious, predeter-
mined reaction to his circumstances. Job's position is influenced by, but not
determined by concrete circumstances. In the book of Job the causality principle
is dethroned. Job's motive for fearing the Lord is described as •JIJ (not due to
a cause). The character Job is anchored in the transcendent concept of integrity.
It implies the following:
A true relationship with God is not based on the concrete benefits of such a
relationship. A critical inclination is preferred to simulated submission which
might prove to be effective. The truth is liberating although it undermines tradi-
tional concepts of reality. The traumas in life must be addressed in their com-
plexity and not dissolved in digestible dogmas. The paradoxes of life can be
accommodated in a realm beyond the boundaries of logic.
The community can live reassured on earth, although they do not understand
into what the pedestals of the earth are sunk. The existence of the sea of chaos
must be accepted, but in a way God restrains the power of its waves by enclosing
it within doors. Anomalies exist, like the physically handicapped ostrich that has
wings, but cannot fly. Yet, in a way it can beat the horse in racing.
Job is not modelled by reality - he is modelling reality.
18 A CONTEXT TO FRAME THE BOOK OF JOB

C CONCLUDING REMARKS

Due to intensive research by many scholars, one can reconstruct the historic
context of the book of Job to a certain extent. The book of Job contains ancient
material, but in its final form it can be placed in an Israelite context after the
exile. It is interesting that the book itself is resisting the attempt to tag it by
ascribing a certain historic context to it. The story of Job unfolds in a fictitious
setting and the author has camouflaged his own social setting effectively. This
is perhaps a deliberate strategy to emphasise the a-historic, universal character
of the story. The historic context can frame the book historically, but cannot
explain it. The book bears evidence of a distant, foreign setting, yet it still
resonates in the hearts of people across the boundaries of space and time. It
transcends time and space, even the laws of causality which constitute the foun-
dation of logic.
In the hermeneutic process, a text has to be framed by an external context.
A reconstructed historic setting can be useful. It must be kept in mind that such
a context is a text in itself which must be interpreted. It can only function as a
supplementary context. The primary context is universal human experience. The
book of Job can be appreciated best by people who are experiencing trauma, but
who have a respect for integrity.

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L C Bezuidenhout, Department of Old Testament, Faculty of Theology (A),

University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002, Republic of South Africa.