ISLAMIC HISTORY AND CULTURE PART - II

MUSLIMS IN SPAIN

Notes of Study Area – I (A)

CONDITIONS OF SPAIN BEFORE THE ARRIVAL OF MUSLIMS

i. Religious Conditions
▪ The sons of the Spanish soil were the ‘Nature Worshippers’.
▪ The second major religious faction was Jews.
▪ The Gothic rulers, who were Roman Catholic, victimized Jews.
▪ Jews were forcibly converted to Christianity.
▪ Climax of intolerance 694 A.D – when Jews were sold with exception of children
who were to be converted to Christianity.
▪ Jewish uprising had occurred but it failed miserably.

i. Social Conditions
▪ The crown, the church, the Princes, the lords or nobles were different heads of
powers.
▪ Burgers, Serfs, Slaves.
▪ No inter-marriages between the ruling Visigoths and Hispano-Romans.
▪ This ban was put off later.
▪ The slaves were in worst conditions.

i. Economic Conditions
Both Agricultural and Trade were in vogue.
▪ No taxes were imposed upon the privileged class.
▪ Middle class had to bear all burden of taxation.
▪ Land was maintained by Slaves and Serfs.
▪ Heavy taxes on traders and industrialists who constituted the middle class of the
society.

i. Political Conditions
▪ First there was tradition of electing the king by tribal chiefs, nobles and the
Church.
▪ A lot of intrigues took place during the election of a new king.
▪ Army, nobles and church were the different heads of power.
▪ Rebellious conditions prevailed perpetually.
▪ King Roderick was the last Visigoth ruler.
CONQUEST OF SPAIN BY MUSLIMS - 711 A.D

1 Count Julian’s invitation

▪ Count Julian was one of the nobles of the day
▪ Florinda was the daughter of Count Julian.
▪ As the custom went, the children of the nobles were brought up in royal court.
▪ Thus, Florinda lived in king Roderick’s court.
▪ Roderick dishonoured Florinda.
▪ To avenge his daughter’s dishonour, Count Julian invited Musa, the governor of
Qayrowan to invade Spain and over throw king Roderick.

1 Musa sent Tarif, the Berber Commander

2 To probe into the conditions prevailing there.
3 Tarif was accompanied with 400 men.
4 He reported to Musa, the governor, that the conditions were favourable.

1 Tariq bin Ziyad (April – 711 A.D)

2 Tariq marched with his 7000 men.
3 They crossed narrow sea strip, strait of Gibralter in four boats provided by Count
Julian.
4 They landed at Jabal-e-Tariq, which is now called Jibralter.

1 Algeciras
2 Tariq captured Algeciras without any difficulty and made it the base camp for his
men.

1 Roderick, the King

2 Roderick was a usurper.
3 He ascended to throne after unseating his predecessor Watiza.
4 At the time of invasion by Muslim forces, he was engaged in campaign against
Basque rebels in north of Spain.
5 Upon hearing the news of invasion, he marched with his 40,000 troops towards Tariq.

1 Battle of Barbate
2 Both troops came face to face on the banks of Barbate River (Guadal quiver).
3 The army of Roderick was four times larger than that of Tariq.
4 Tariq burnt the boats in the sea as to obviate idea or attempt of fleeing in anyone’s
mind.
5 The companions of Roderick also included followers of former king, Witiza.
6 They deserted king Roderick and joined Count Julian.
7 The battle lasted for a week.
8 Roderick was defeated and drowned.
1 Tariq advances despite Musa’s call of return
2 Musa, the governor asked Tariq to return and warned him of advancing further.
3 Tariq, however, did not comply and went ahead by dividing his men into many
factions to spread them in all parts of Spain.

1 Conquest of Cordova
2 Cordova was an important city of Spain, situated along the river Guadal quiver.
3 Mughalith ar-Rumi, commander of one detachment of Tariq’s army, marched towards
cordova and conquered it.

1 Conquest of Elvira, Malaga

2 Qais bin Qesadi, the commander of another detachment, marched towards Elvira and
occupied it.
3 He also captured Malaga city.

1 Jews Welcome Muslim rulers

2 Jews were sick of Roderick’s oppression.
3 They welcomed Muslim rulers and regarded them as liberators.
4 The Muslim rulers emancipated Jews and granted them religious freedom.

1 Conquest of Toledo – 711 A.D

2 Tariq marched towards Toledo, the capital city and captured it without any
resistance.
3 He also took hold of treasures of Gothic rulers which included Golden table.

1 Conquest of Medina Sidonia, Seville, Carmona by Musa himself in 712 A.D

2 Musa bin Nasayr himself advanced to western cities of Spain.
3 He wanted to share the laurels and victory of conquering Spain with Tariq.
4 He conquered Medina, Sidonia, Seville and Carmona.

1 Siege of Merida
2 Roderick’s Queen Agela, Arabs called her Ayela, was in Merida city.
3 Merida was a strongly defended city of Spain.
4 Musa warned its governor Saracus to surrender or pay Jizya, but he refused.
5 Musa sieged the city for six months and eventually captured it.

1 Theodomir’s Treaty with Abdul Aziz

2 Abdul Aziz, the son of Musa, marched towards eastern Spain.
3 Theodomir, the count of eastern Spain, disguised himself as an agent and came to
offer peace terms with Muslims.
4 Muslims negotiated the terms and Treaty of Peace was accepted mutually.

1 Musa meets Tariq – 713 A.D

2 Musa met Tariq at Talavera, west of Toledo in 713 A.D.
 3 He scolded and imprisoned Tariq.
4 Mughalith warned Musa to treat him with respect.
5 The Berbers also pressurized Musa to release Tariq.
6 Count Julain convinced Musa that it was he who persuaded Tariq for invasion.
7 Musa finally released Tariq.

1 Conquest of Northern Spain

2 Musa and Tariq jointly marched towards northern Spain.
3 They captured Barcelona, Leon and Saragossa.
4 Muslim rule was established in Spain.

1 Social revolution in Spain

2 Muslim rule in Spain brought an end to oppressive regime of Roderick.
3 Slaves were enfranchised by Muslim rulers.
4 The confiscated land was divided among the masses.
5 The powers of privileged classes were diluted.
6 Religious freedom was extended to everyone.
7 Economic security was everyone’s right.
8 Christians embraced Islam in large number which revolutionized their lives.
9 Most of gothic nobles also accepted Islam.
10 The lives of servile classes were ameliorated.

1 Conclusion
2 The victories of Musa and Tariq were spectacular.
3 They were brave, competent and valiant generals.
4 Later, Walid bin Abdul Malik recalled both of them.

“In swiftness of execution and completeness of success, this expedition into Spain holds a
unique place in medieval Military annals.”
(P. K. Hitti)

ABDUL REHMAN – I (AD-DAKHIL) (757-788 A.D)

Introduction:
1 He was grandson of Hisham, the 10th Caliph of Umayyads.
2 He fled to North Africa after the battle of zab in 750 A.D.
3 He escaped assassination at the hands of North African governor, Ibn Habib al-Fahri.
4 Being a son of Berber mother, he reached Centa, North Africa where his maternal uncles
lived.

His Claim to rule Iberian Peninsula

 1 AR-I sent his faithful freedman, Badr, to Spain to find out if the people of Spain would
welcome and support him against the ruling governor appointed by Umayyad Caliph of
Damascus.
2 Badr reported to AR-I that conditions were favourable.

Rivalry between Qaisites and Yeminites

1 Qaisites under Yusuf al-Fahri, the then governor, had defeated Yemenites in the battle of
Secunda in 750.
2 Yemenites were thus ready to welcome any ruler who could emancipate them from
oppressive rule of Qaisites.
3 They supported AR-I when he landed in Spain.

Rejection of Yusuf al-Fahri’s Offers

1 Seeing the massive backing of AR-I by Berbers and Yemenites, Yusuf Al-Fahri, offered
him landed estate and many gifts to obviate any attempt of intrusion in his rule.
2 AR-I, however, turned down all offers as he believed he had come to rule over the region.

Battle of Masarah – 756 A.D

1 AR-I united Yeminites and Berbers against Qaisites.
2 The Yemenites proclaimed AR-I as Emir of Spain.
3 He defeated Yusuf al-Fahri’s army and al-Fahri himself surrendered.
4 As a result, AR-I captured Cordova in 757 A.D

A Radical Transformation of ties between Spain and North Africa

1 It is notable that the coming of AR-I’s power brought a radically transformed nature of
ties between Spain and North Africa.
2 For the first four and half decades (45Years), of Arab rule in Spain, Al-Andulus was in
many ways a dependency of Africa.
3 Although, nominally by the command of the Caliphs, most of the governors has been
nominated.
4 The earliest forms of Arabic lineage in Spain were of African rather than indigenous
Spanish tribes.
5 AR-I reversed all this, and continued his task to pacify the country and to consolidate it in
the face of fierce conflicts and rivalries.

Internal Conflicts of AR-I

1 AR-I soon found that the throne of Spain was no bed of roses.
2 The Arab tribes including Yemenites and Berbers yearned for anarchy, pillaging and
wanted to turn Spain into a sort of conglomeration of petty tribal kingdoms.
3 Berbers believed that they were denied of equal treatment with the Arab tribes.
4 AR-I was steel made , a man of energy.
5 He remained steadfast to fight against a long chain of internal conflicts with iron hands.
Yusuf Al-Fahri’s revolt – 758 A.D
1 Yusuf Al-Fahri had been leniently treated by AR-I.
2 Yusuf’s fibirite and Mudharite client, Yemenite group of tribes constantly prodded him to
revolt against AR-I.
3 Yusuf finally revolted in 758 A.D and captured Toledo.
4 Sumayal did not join his uprising and remained faithful to AR-I but suspecting his loyalty
he was strangled to death in prison.
5 Abdul Malik bin Umar, cousin of AR-I inflicted defeat on Yusuf.
6 Yusuf was killed by his own followers on his way back from Toledo.
7 His head was sent to Emir at the Cordova and his son Abu Zaid as hostage.
8 Later on, both the heads of Yusuf and his son were decapitated and nailed to the gate of
the capital.

The Yemenite Revolt (Ala Ibn Mughith)

1 The Yemenites, the former supporters of AR-I revolted in 763 A.D.
2 They were led by Ala Ibn Mughitth, who was instigated by the Abbasid Caliph Jafar
Al-Mansur.
3 The rebels besieged the Emir AR-I in Carmona.
4 AR-I was in a very critical position.
5 AR-I fought as if it were the last battle of his life.
6 Finally, the rebels were captured, and beheaded.
7 Their heads were wrapped in Abbasid black flag and sent to Caliph Al-Mansur.
8 Upon witnessing this, Mansur cried.
“Thank God! He has placed sea between me and such a foe.”
1 On another occasion, Mansur entitled AR-I as “FALCON OF QURAISH”.

Revolt of Abu Sabbah

1 Abu Sabbah was a Yemenite leader.
2 AR-I knew his rebellious intentions.
3 To placate him, AR-I appointed him as governor of Seville.
4 In 766 A.D, Abu Sabbah was invited to the palace, where he was killed.

AR-I’s Mercenary Army

1 The Berbers and the Yemenites were the sole supporters of AR-I when he entered Spain.
2 However, after their repeated revolts, they were no longer reliable.
3 AR-I recruited Berbers of North Africa as his Mercenary Troops.
4 They would be paid by AR-I in return of their fighting for him.

Abu Ghalib Tamam As Emir-ul-Bahar

1 To check intrigues and instigations of the Abbasids in the east, he built a navy and placed
Abu Ghalib as Emir-ul-Bahar or the Admiral.
2 Abu Ghalib proved an effective admiral and he strengthened AR-I’s fleet as much as it
was then possible.

The Berber Revolt

 1 The Berbers of the east instigated by the school master Shakya revolted.
2 Yemenites joined them to avenge Abu Sabbah’s death.
3 Their revolt was turned down in 774 A.D.

Charlemagne’s Invasion
1 Charlemagne, the emperor of Franks, invaded Spain and was also supported by the
Abbasids of Baghdad and Muslim rebels of Sargossa.
2 In 777 A.D, Charlemagne invaded Spain to derive out Islam from Al-Andulus.
3 A blue eyed son-in-law of Yusuf Al-Fahri also invited the Franks.
4 As the Christians passed the Pyrenees and reached Sargossa, they were defended by
Hussain bin Yahya Al-Ansari.
5 On its retreat, the Christian Army was attacked by the Basques.
6 They were defeated at Pamplona.
7 Roland, the nephew of emperor, was also killed by his own fellow Christians at
Roncesvalles pass in 778 A.D.

Revolt of Hussian Ibne Yahya

1 He was the governor of Sargossa.
2 He revolted in 780 A.D. and claimed himself as governor of Spain on the instigations of
Abbasids.
3 Abu Ghalib Tamam led siege to the city of Sargossa.
4 Finally, Hussain Ibne Yahya was executed.

Revolt of Abul Aswat

1 He was the youngest son of Yusuf Al-Fahri.
2 He revolted but was defeated in 784 A.D
3 He fled away towards Toledo.

AR-I’s policy of Moderation and Magnanimity

1 AR-I was moderate and Magnanimous to a great deal.
2 His policy earned him respect and admiration of both friends and foes alike.
3 These two qualities for which he risked his throne many times because the rebels took
advantage of it.

AR-I as Administrator
1 Besides being, a matchless general of the day, he also proved to be very good
administrator.
2 He divided Spain into six provinces.
3 Each province had a governor called Wali.
4 Later on, a Prime Minister, called Hajib was also appointed.
5 The first Hajib was Abu Ghalib Tamam.
6 And last of AR-I’s Hajib was a eunuch Mansur.
7 AR-I also reorganized the governmental system.

Cultural Achievements
 i. Establishment of cities; He established and embellished cities mosques, bridges,
water channels and fortresses called ribats especially in Cordova.
ii. Palace of Rusafa; AR-I’s nostalgia of his birth place is beautifully reflected in
Palace of Rusafa. It was his private dwelling, full of gardens, like the palace of his
grandfather Hisham.
iii. Grand Mosque of Cordova; This is an eternal Masterpiece of Muslim grandeur
and sublimity in the world. Its construction started in 786 A.D. It is rectangular in
shape, pulpit made of gold, ivory and costly stones.

ABDUL REHMAN – II ( AL – ASWAT ) 822-852 A.D

Introduction:
1 AR-II was an energetic, artisan of the Umayyad Spanish unity and a zealous patron of
Music, art, science and astronomy.
2 He was a wise and sagacious ruler endowed with political insight, administrative acumen
and military foresightedness.
3 His reign has been symbolized as an age of peace and prosperity which the Muslim Spain
had not enjoyed before.
4 His foreign policy based on the principles of defending his kingdom against all
aggressors, the organization of administrative system, the patronage of art and science,
speak of his thrity years of pacified rule.
5 During his reign, the Arabian culture, language and lifestyle so influenced the Spanish
Christians that these Mozarabs or Arabicized Christians were fully imbued with the
Arabic ways of life despite the strong disapproval of their fanatical co-religionists.

A period of Prosperity
1 AR-II’s reign of thirty years was comparatively far more peaceful than that of his
predecessors.
2 It was a period of prosperity which was unprecedented for the Spanish Muslims.
3 The prediction of Hakam, his father, came true to a great extent when he advised his son,
“Peaceful are the provinces, which I hand down to you. They are a couch on which you
may repose undisturbed. I have taken care that no rebellion shall break in upon your
sleep.”

Revolt of AR-II’s Grand Uncle

1 Since the days of Hakam, his uncle Abdullah bin AR-I had resided at Tangir in Africa.
2 His sons held high posts in the court of AR-II.
3 When he revolted he thought his sons would support him but they didn’t.
4 When his revolt failed, he went to Valencia.
5 On the son’s advice, he submitted to the Emir.
6 He was forgiven and appointed as the governor of Murcia by AR-II.
Scuffles between Mudharites and Yemenites
1 There broke out scuffles between Mudharites and Yemenites.
 2 In Tadmir, southern Spain, two tribes started fighting due to their old tribal jealousies and
sectarian disputes.
3 Emir sent royal troops which restored peace in 828 A.D.

Revolt in Merida on the issue of Taxes – 822 A.D

1 Christian majority of Merida revolted on the issue of taxes.
2 The revolt was laid by Mehmud Ibn Abdul Jabbar on the instigation of Frankish emperor
Charlemagne.
3 After Charlemagne’s death, his son Luis the Pious, supported the rebellious.
4 This revolt was crushed and Mehmud, former tax collector went to Sargossa.

Revolt of Blacksmith in Toledo

1 In 829 A.D, a neo-Muslim Hashim, who was a blacksmith led uprising with the support
of Luis.
2 Christians destroyed the fort.
3 Emir sent his brother Umayya bin Hakam, who led siege to Toledo for two years.
4 Then, Abu Ayub Misara, a new commander was sent who crushed the revolt.
5 Fort rebuild and general amnesty to Toledians was granted in 837 A.D.

Diplomatic Exchanges with Byzantines

1 During AR-II’s days, the Abbasid caliph Haroon-ul-Rasheed, attacked Byzantine Empire.
2 The Byzantine Emperor, Theophilus, sort to establish diplomatic relations with AR-II.
3 Emir sent Yahya Al-Ghazab, a scholar, poet and physician, to hold diplomatic relations
with Theophilus.

Issue of Blasphemy
1 Some Christians of Cordova launched a political Movement under the guise of religion.
2 This was a reaction of the Spanish church, against Islam and Muslim rule in Spain.
3 Some fanatic Christians had adopted the way of seeking martyrdom by blaspheming Holy
Prophet (P.B.U.H).
4 They were canonized as the martyred saints.
5 AR-II summoned the church council in Cordova and ordered them to stop the
blasphemous acts.

AR-II’s Foreign Policy

1 His foreign policy based on the principles of defending kingdom against all aggressors.
2 Further, he believed in balance of power doctrine.
3 He created an alliance with Byzantines to counter their common enemies Abbasids and
Franks.

AR-II’s Administrative System

1 One of his greatest achievements was the reorganization of the governmental and
administrative system.
2 He divided the provinces into districts called ‘Kuras’.
 3 Each province had a governor called ‘Wali’.
4 Emir was assisted by ‘Hajib’ or Prime Minister.
5 A ‘Muhtasib’ served as a civic officer to supervise markets and morals of city dwellers.
6 ‘Sahib-ul-Madina’ was also appointed who served as a prefect, police chief of the city.

Four Favourtes of the Emir

1 Reinhart Dozy writes that AR-II’s life was dominated by his four favourites; A
theologian, Singer, Woman and a Eunuch.

i. Yahya bin Yahya, a theologian: He was a student of Imam Malik and was responsible
for the introduction of Malik school of thought in Spain. AR-II gave great respect to
Yahya who one’s revolted against his father Al-Hakam. All the Judicial departments
were under control of Yahya.

i. Ziryab, A Musician: Ali bin Nafe surnamed as Ziryab was a Persian and celebrated
court musician of Haroon-ul-Rasheed, the Abbasid Caliph. However, Ishaq Mawasili,
his teacher out of jealousy sent him away. Thus, AR-II, a great lover of Music,
patronized this talented artist in his royal court. Here Ziryab, revolutionized the
customs, the manners and lifestyles of Spanish people.

i. Sultana Tarub, A Woman: AR-II was highly in love with Sultana Tarub. She was
crazy about gold. She wanted her son Abdullah to be AR-II’s successor but AR-II
disliked him and wanted his another son Muhammad as his successor. Tarub along
with Nasr, the eunuch, planned to give poison to the Emir when he was sick but he
plot was disclosed.

i. Nasr, the eunuch: He was the powerful eunuch. He exercised great influence on
AR-II.

Collection and Translation of literary works during his reign

1 As a great patron of art, music, science and literature, he was blessed with the aesthetic
sense of the highest order.
2 He invited eminent scholars on all subjects of science, philosophy, religion, medicine,
astronomy, astrology who flocked in Cordova where they received generous welcome by
him.
3 He sent agents to distant places to collect rare books.
4 Abbass bin Nasib brought Arabic translations of Persian and Greek works from
Mesopotamia.
5 Translation work was done on very large scale.
6 This translation institution was so highly recognized even after the fall of Muslim Spain
that the Europeans adopted the method on the same pattern.

Public Works
1 Under his wise administration, the revenue of Al-Andulus was considerably increased.
2 He spent a huge amount of money for building palaces, bridges, and laying out pleasure
 gardens, public baths, street lights, new hospitals and public health department during his
time.
Conclusion
1 Sedillot says of AR-II,
“The Splendid culture, the polished chivalry, the delicacy, grace
and elegance of Arab manners which European chivalry
afterwards adopted date back to this epoch.”
1 Dozy says,
“Never had the courts of Sultan of Spain been so brilliant as it became
under the rule of AR-II”.

Ziryab (Ali bin Nafe)

Intorduction
1 His real name was Ali bin Nafe. He was a Persian tenor.
2 He was amongst those celebrated musicians who had the privilege to echo their voice in
the courts of Harun-al-Rashid in Baghdad and Abdul Rehman – II in Cordova.
3 He distinguished himself not only as an excellent artist but also as a man of letters.
4 He was also a poet and a historian.
5 He was well-versed in many genres connected with music.
6 He was gifted with a prodigious memory which enabled him to retain one thousand songs
in it. This number exceeds those recorded by Ptolemy, the first person to give rules on the
science of music.
7 His charming voice and quick-wittedness made him the most popular figure among the
smart set of time.

Disciple of Ishaq Mawasli

1 Ishaq Mawasli was a renowned musician at the court of Harun-al-Rashid, the then
Baghdad Caliph.
2 Ziryab was a disciple of Ishaq Mawasli and was introduced by him to the court of Caliph.

Ziryab’s entry in Harun’s Court

1 Harun highly praised Ziryab’s talent and charming voice.
2 Ziryab had won the heart of Harun by his enchanting musical chords and motivating
lyrics.
3 Zriyab used to sing songs on the tune of his own lute.
4 Harun awarded many gifts to Ziryab and to Ishaq for bringing the best musician to his
court.

Ziryab as a great singer

1 Ziryab was a unique singer owing to the fact that he often sung his own composed poetry.
2 He claimed that he was taught singing by supernatural forces.
3 He asserted that a Jin would come in his dream and sing a song which he retained when
he woke up.
4 He had two slave girls namely; Ghazzlan and Hindah.
5 It is also believed that he invented an instrument of his own which had five strings.
6 That instrument supposedly excelled the ‘Udul-al-Shabut’ invented by Zalat, a renowned
singer of Baghdad.

Ziryab’s Journey to Spain

1 After leaving Baghdad due to threats of Ishaq who became jealous of his recognition, he
went to al-Mughrib to seek his fortune.
2 As he neared Spain, he heard the news of demise of Al-Hakam upon whose invitation he
was marching to Spain.
3 Later on, he was welcomed by AR-II in a blossoming manner.

Ziryab in the court of AR-II

1 AR-II was deeply immersed in the music of Ziryab
2 Emir AR-II had rewarded Ziryab with high titles and gifts.
3 Ziryab exercised huge influence in Emir AR-II’s court.
4 There Ziryab wished to become a Qazi in Cordova and become familiar with theology.
5 AR-II did not want him to quit music become Qazi. Thus Ziryab remained a singer.

Ziryab and the Fashion

1 Ziryab revolutionized the customs and outfits of Spanish people.
2 He inculcated in their minds to change the clothing according to seasons.
3 He introduced soft couches made of leather to repose on rather than old hard stuff.
4 He instructed them to use vessels of crystal rather than gold or silver.
5 In a nutshell, a influenced culture of Spain to a great extent.

Conlcusion
1 Ziryab was undoubtedly an epitome of Muslim expertise in art in general and Music in
specific.
2 He was a devoted artisan who regaled Spanish people with his awesomely composed
music and attractive voice.
ABDUL REHMAN – III (AL-NASIR) 912-961 A.D

Introduction:
1 AR-III was undoubtedly the greatest and most remarkable ruler of Umayyad Spain.
2 When he ascended to the Spanish throne, his kingdom was in a deplorable condition with
revolts on all sides and the Christians in the north, and the fatimids in the north Africa
threatening to advance.
3 But, Salute to his resoluteness bravery, gallantry and prudence that wrenched order out of
disorder and restored peace with a vision.
4 He made Islamic Spain most powerful, richest and prestigious state to this extent that this
glory, splendour and grandeur became the hallmark of his reign.
5 The achievements of this, “Meek, Generous and Wonderful ruler” were equally
remarkable and great both on the fields of battle and in the arts of peace.
6 As Hitti says, “The young Emir was the man of the honour.”

Conditions of Spain at the time of his accession to throne

1 Spain was in deplorable conditions.
2 The authority of emir was confined to Cordova only.
3 Other provinces of the Emirate were in hands of Arabs or Christian rebels and Christian
kings in the North.
4 Grenada, Medina Sidonia, Jaen, Moron, Tadmir were in central and eastern Spain where
various Muslims and Christian rebels were in power.

Abdul Rehman – III as Emir

1 His reign as Emir lasted from 912 to 929 A.D.
2 During this period, he had to confront with innumerable problems.
3 But he was endowed with great qualities.
4 Everyone lauded his talents, clemency and moderation.
5 As Emir, declared to all insurgents; Arabs, Berbers, Mawalids and Christians that what he
wanted from them was not their tributes but their castles, cities and complete authority.

Submission of the Rebels

1 Ecija was the first city to submit to Emir in 912 A.D.
2 The frank and chivalrous manners of this handsome king brought not only victories but
boosted the morale of his troops.
3 He was firm, resolute, daring and moderate general who adopted the bold and straight
forward policy towards his enemies and rebels.
4 Most of the rebels submitted to him without much resistance.
AR-III’s Conquests
i. Jaen, Elvira, Archedonia
▪ These three cities were captured from the allies of Ibne Habsud within a short
span of three months.
ii. Muhammad Ibne Ibrahim of Seville
1 In Seville, Muhammad bin Ibrahim, came to Cordova, and submitted to Emir.
2 But when Royal army reached at the gates of Seville, Mawalids rebels refused to
submit.
3 Muhammad fled to Bobastro and the Sevillians nobles submitted in 913 A.D.
4 Later on, Muhammad also surrendered and joined royal army.

i. War with Ibne Hafsun

1 Ibne Hafsun, old and inveterate enemy of Emirate known as Samuel, was
powerful in Serronia region where Christianity was supreme.
2 AR-III resolved to crush him
3 Meanwhile, Medina Sidonia, Moron and Carmona were submitted.
4 Ibne Hafsun dies in 917 A.D.

i. Valencia, Sargossa, Toledo

1 The province of Valencia came under AR-III rule in 924 A.D
2 Beni Qasi of Sargossa also surrendered at the hands of AR-III and joined royal
army.
3 AR-III pledged to bring Toledo under his kingship and therefore built a town
outside Toledo.
4 Toledians resisted initially but yielded later on in 932 A.D.

AR-III as a Caliph
1 AR-III assumed the title of Caliph, ‘An-Nasir li Din illah’, The Defender of religion of
Allah, in 929 A.D
2 He issued gold coins to compete with the Fatimids and Byzantines in international
markets.
3 His rule as a caliph lasted from 929 to 961 A.D.

External Enemies of the AR-III

1 Fatimids in North Africa and Christians in North of Spain.
2 Fatimids had complete control over north Africa and regarded Abbasids as usurpers.
3 AR-III never fought war with Fatimids but he fought proxy wars with them in North
Africa.

War with Ordono-II

1 Ordono-II, king of Leon, ravished Muslim territory.
2 AR-III sent his Wazir, Hajib Badr, to defeat the king of Leon.
3 The Christians were defeated in the battle of reeds.
4 AR-III himself set out for the north to punish the Christians and captured city after city.
AR-III’s Foreign Policy
1 In order to counter the threat of invasion by Fatimids, AR-III entered into relations with
Byzantines, King of Italy and King of Germany.

Prosperity under AR-III

1 AR-III’s reign witnessed the greatest development and progress in the history of Spain.
2 Agriculture, Industry, Trade, Learning and culture and Music touched its zenith during
his reign.

Development of Agriculture
1 Scientist of his age introduced new arts of agriculture and horticulture for better
production of crops.
2 During his rule Spain presented spectacle of highly cultivated and richly productive
garden.
3 Spain became famous for zoological and botanical gardens.
4 Sugarcane, rice, oranges, cotton fruits and other oriental plants were introduced.
5 In a way, Spain became food basket for Europe.

Development of Industry
1 Industry got boost in his reign.
2 Silk, Cotton, Wool, Leather and Metal in Seville, Cordova, and other cities added to the
wealth of Spain.
3 The silk from Valencia, weapon from Toledo, leather and books from Cordova, were
supplied to the rest of the world.
4 Saddles made of silk were considered superior in the whole of Spain.

Trade
1 Due to industrial development, and conducive environment, import and export increased
revenues and prosperity of Spain.
2 Trade was mainly carried with Byzantines and with the Muslims (Baghdad and
Damascus), with Mediterranean Island and Tunisia.

Learning and Culture

1 AR-III patronized literature and Science and spent one-third of the state money annually
on the advancement of the learning and culture.
2 He also ordered to build university of Cordova.
3 Philosophers like Ibne Masara, Historians like Ibn-ul-Ahmer, Astronomers like Ahmer
bin Nasab, And Muslaima Ibn-ul-Qasim, and Physicians like Yahya bin Ishaque.

Development of Music
1 Mut’a, a pupil of Ziryab captivated heart of AR-III.
2 He composed poems rare in the east.
3 He composed new forms of poetical and musical composition.

Medinat-ul-Zahra
 1 He built the most magnificent palace called Medinat-ul-Zahra.
2 It was initiated after his beloved wife Zahra asked him to found a city and name it after
her name.
3 It was situated 25Kms away in the north-west of Cordova.
4 To attract inhabitants, he offered 400 dirhams to the settlers.

Conclusion
1 AR-III was blessed with extraordinary administrative capacity, industry and daring.
2 Al-Maqqari says that he was the mildest and the most enlightened sovereign that ever
ruled the country.
“His weakness, generosity, and his love of justice, became proverbial.”
1 His ideas were typical of a modern monarch rather than those of a medieval ruler.
2 Like Sher Shah of India, he personally looked after the every minute details of his
administration.
3 He was tolerant and won the public sympathy by reducing lawful and abolishing
unauthorized taxes.

“Never before was Cordova, so prosperous, Andulusia so rich, and the state so
triumphant.”
(P. K. Hitti)

“He raised the ruined country to a tradition such as the wildest imaginations can hardly
conjure up.”
(Lan Pool)

CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL OF MUSLIM EMPIRE IN SPAIN

Introduction
1 The greatest loss of an empire in the Islamic history was downfall of Muslim Empire in
Spain.
2 The reason being, Cordova, which remained a splendid and glorious center of Muslim
Power, authority, culture, art, knowledge and learning for almost eight centuries fell.
3 Following reasons may be cited for its downfall;

i. Internal Conflict
▪ Internal rivalries ate away the consolidation of the Empire like termites.
▪ It cultivated hazardous effects and chronic impacts over the Empire.
▪ The omens of disintegration became too obvious to be conceived much earlier.

ii. Collapse of Administrative Machinery

1 After Abdul Rehman-I, AR-II and AR-III, the administration of the Empire
weakened rapidly and eventually led to its fall.
2 The provinces in the far off suffered ignorance and ill-administration of the center.
3 This diluted the solidarity of the provinces with the center.
 4 Besides, no measures were taken to ensure security and peace in the Empire after it
spread to far north in Africa.

iii. Degeneration of Muslim Nobility

1 Muslim rulers and nobles condoned sensuality and internal rivalry with the passage
of time.
2 They adhered to worldly pleasures while abandoning morality in their lives.
3 Thus, they lost simplicity and purity which were the unmatched principles found in
Muslim rulers.
“Love of Music and pleasure, indulgence in debauchery and drinking, ultimately
corrupted and enfeebled both rulers and subjects.”
(Arshad Khan)

iv. Lack of National Integrity

1 Spanish Empire was home to multifaceted people belonging to various creeds and
practicing number of religions.
2 It was home to Muslims, Christians, Jews, Berbers and pagans altogether.
3 It accommodated men belonging to Arabian Peninsula, Europe and Africa.
4 Except AR-III, no other ruler could sustain the harmony between ethnically diverse
communities dwelling in the same region.

v.Succession Controversies
1 The Arab tradition of electing a caliph was based on age, maturity or in some cases
blood relative of the ancestor ruler.
2 Thus, a definite succession law was non-existent in the Spanish Empire which led
to the controversies among the aspirants to the throne.

vi. Collapse of Military Power

1 The military might of the Spanish Empire had aged considerably and needed
rejuvenation imperatively.
2 Some of the defeats faced by Muslim commanders had also contributed in
demoralizing them.
3 With the diluting military power, it was next to impossible to govern an Empire
abundant of rebellions and multiple differences.

vii. Unfavourable Geographical Proximity within Empire

1 The vast Empire was hard to control for a single king/ruler.
2 The geographical distances of each province demanded vigilant check over borders
and subjects.
3 The communication was not rapid between the second fiddles of the king/ruler.
4 The haphazard infrastructure was also a barrier in the swift movement of army
around the Empire.

viii. Rebellious Attacks

1 Several rebellious movements were launched against Muslim rule in Spain.
 2 These were often orchestrated by Christians, Romans or Berbers.
3 They succeeded in gathering large number of rebellions and prepared for retaliation
against Muslim ruler.
4 Though they met crushing defeat most of the times, yet their evil intentions had
precipitated the fall of Empire.

ix. Condoning of Faqihs

1 The faqihs (Jurists) had also succumbed to the will of rulers to appease them.
2 Their blind condoning had poisoned the social and theological system.

x. Christian Invasion
1 The Christians of Europe never tolerated the Muslim existence in Spain
2 Thus, the kept launching attacks on Muslim Spain
3 It weakened Muslim power a great deal and contributed to its final downfall.

Notes of Study Area – I (B)

DEVELOPMENT OF HISTORY IN SPAIN

Introduction:
1 Before the advent of Islam, there was no systematic way of compiling history.
2 Muslims, for the first time, formally started recording the Holy Prophet’s (P.B.U.H)
sayings and happenings.
3 This, the art of historiography was originated among Muslims.
4 It was taken to zenith by several Muslim historians.
5 Among them following are the most celebrated historians in Spain.

i. Ibne Khaldun (1332-1406 A.D) (732-808 H)

1 He was the greatest historical philosopher of Spain.
2 Hitti says of him,
“No Arab writer indeed no European had ever taken a view of history so
comprehensive and philosophy as done by Ibne Khaldun. He was the
greatest historical philosopher Islam produced and one of the greatest of
all times.”
HIS METHOD
1 Ibne Khaldun gave unique style to the science of historiography.
2 He made it store-house of information and philosophical desertions.
3 He traces the origins of society and the development of civilization in his works.
4 He gives solid reasons for the rise and fall of Kingdoms and dynasties.
5 Most strangely, he brings forth the influence of climate on the formation of a nation’s
character.
6 Thus, his work is more than a simple record of past events, rather it is an account of
moral lessons and philosophical points regarding human history.
 HIS WORKS
1 ‘MUQADMA’ is the greatest evidence of his fame.
2 It is the first volume of his renowned work ‘Kitab-ul-Ibar’.
3 It is detailed history of Arabs, Persians and Berbers.

ii. Ibne Khateeb

1 He was another copious writer in history.
2 He was friend of Ibne Khaldun.
3 His work is ‘History of Grenada’.

iii. Ibne Qutiyah

1 He was one of the earliest and best known of Spanish historians.
2 He produced a work namely, ‘Tareekh Iftitah Al-Andulus’.
3 This history extends from Muslims conquest of Spain to the early part of AR-III’s reign.

iv. Ibne Hayyan

1 He was another prolific writer in the history.
2 He produced five books on history.

STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY IN SPAIN

Introduction:
1 Philosophy was one of the main branches of Knowledge which developed tremendously
in Muslim Spain.
2 Initially, Muslims philosophers were confined to the study of Islamic thought only.
3 Later on, they were attracted by the philosophical works of Greeks.
4 Some Muslims philosophers also produced their own original thoughts.

Muslim and Greek Philosophy

1 Muslims started learning philosophy with the study of Plato and Aristotle.
2 Aristotle influenced Muslim very greatly.
3 Ibne Rushd became devoted disciple of Aristotle.
4 He produced commentaries on Aristotle which became the fountain source for the
Europeans to understand Aristotlian thought.

Themes of Muslim Philosophy in Spain

1 Muslims Philosophers in Spain dealt with variety of themes.
2 They mainly worked on three points;
3 First, to reconcile two opposites: Faith and Reason; Religion and Science.
4 Second, they introduced Scientific Aristotlism in Muslim thought.
5 Third, they worked great deal on speculative Sufism in Islam.

Philosophers in Spain and their works

1 12th C Spain saw spring of philosophical development in Spain.
2 It produced three greatest Muslim Philosophers.
 i. Ibne Bajah
1 He was the most celebrated philosopher in Spain.
2 He was born at Sargossa in 11th C.
3 He gave new life to philosophy after Ibne Sina.
4 He became disciple of Farabi.
5 He gave in fact a neo-platonic interpretation of Aristotle in conservative line.
6 His masterpiece ‘Tdbir-al-Mutawahid’

ii. Ibne Rushd

1 He was born in 1126 A.D in Cordova.
2 He was the greatest commentator on Aristotle.
3 He produced two great masterpieces in philosophy.
4 ‘Tahfat-ul-Tahafat’ (Destruction of the destruction)
5 ‘Kitab-ul-Filasafa’ (Discourse on Philosophy)

iii. Ibne Arabi

1 He was greatest speculative genius of Islamic Sufism.
2 His greatest contribution is to mix Sufism with Pantheism.
3 He exerted great influence on Persian and Turkish Sufi circles.
4 He has been entitled as ‘Qutub-ud-Din’.
5 His philosophical works include, ‘Al-Fatuhat-ul-Makkiyah’ and ‘Fasus-ul-Hikmah’.
6 He promoted the doctrine of ‘Wahdat-ul-Wajood’.
7 He exerted influence on Dante.

iv. Ibne Maymoon

1 He wrote a philosophical work, named, ‘Dalalat-ul-Harim’.
2 He discussed reconciliation of Jewish theology with Muslim Aristotlism.
3 His work has resemblance with that of Ibne Rushd.

v. Ben Gabriel
1 His philosophical work is ‘Yanbu al-Hayya’.
2 He was a Jew and was called Jewish Plato.
3 He worked on neo-platism.

vi. Ibne Tufail

1 His philosophical work is ‘Hayy Ibn Yaqzan’.
2 He has discussed human capacity to attend knowledge of the higher world.
3 This became a celebrated theory in Europe.

DEVELOPMENT OF MEDICINE IN MULSIM WORLD

Introduction
1 Arabs before Islam possessed limited knowledge of medicines.
2 Under Abbasid ruler, development of medical science began in Muslim world.
 3 There were mainly four phases of medicinal development in Muslim world.

I. The Translation Period

1 From 750 A.D to 900 A.D
2 Collection from all over the world.
3 Muslim translators were;
i. Jarjas ibn Bakht Yishu
ii. School for translation in Baghdad

II. Independent Observation and Criticism

1 Golden age in Muslim medicines.
2 This period produced marvelous scholar of medicines.
1. Al – Tabri
o Favourite physician of Mutawakil.
o Firdous-al-Hikmat
2. Al – Razi
3 The greatest physician of Muslim world of all times.
4 His masterpiece in medicine was ‘Al-Hawai’ which was based on 20 volumes.
5 His other book on medicine was ‘Judari-wal-Hasbah’.
3. Ibne Sina
6 Ibne Sina was greatest medical giant of his time.
7 He wrote a renown book titled ‘Qanun-al-Tib’.

“It has remained a medical Bible for a longer time than any other book.”
(Dr. Osler)
1 Dante, the Italian poet, paid high tribute to Ibne Sina.

III. The age of Decline

1 As the name suggests, the decline started in this period.
2 Muslim decline was proportional to European rise
3 All masterpieces were translated into European languages.
4 The rationale for Muslim decline and European rise was the hostility of religious circles
to the development of secular knowledge.

IV. The Present Age

1 In the present age, east is relying mostly on west.
2 The west masters all branches of knowledge including medicine.
3 Muslim medicinal methods abandoned.
4 The western ways being practiced all over the world.

IBNE KHALDUN
Introduction
1 Born in 1332 at Tunis in a Spanish family.
2 Ibne khaldun was the most eminent and unique historical philosopher and social scientist
 of Muslim Spain during the 14th C.
3 He formulated cyclic theory of national progress and decay based on his popular concept
of ‘al-asabiyya’ or ‘Social Solidarity’.

“Ibne Khaldun has taken a view of history so comprehensive and philosophic that no Arab,
indeed no European had done so ever.”
(P. K. Hitti)
1 Being the learned scholar of his time, he held several posts at ‘Fas’ before entering in the
service of ‘Sultan of Granada’.

Intellectual Life
1 He started writing in 1382 A.D.
2 He became professor at Al-Azhar University, Cairo.
3 Later on, he served as Qazi of Cairo.

Historiography
1 He was a keen observer of contemporary politics.
2
MUQADDAMAH
1 ‘Muqadammah’ is Ibne Khaldun’s masterpiece in study of sociology and understanding
of human history.
2 It explains forces of cohesion and solidarity.
3 It formulates a theory of Historical development.
4 It elaborates Role of climate, geography, moral and spiritual forces in rise and fall of
nations.
5 It promulgates laws of national progress and decay.
6 It elucidates origin of society and civilization.

IBNE SINA
Introduction:
1 His full name was Abu Ali Hussian Ibne Sina.
2 In the west, he is knows as ‘Avicenna’.
3 He obtained great fame in the field of medicine.

“In this physician, philosopher and poet, Arab science culminates or one might say
incarnates.”
(P. K. Hitti)
Early Life
1 Born in 980 A.D near Bukhara.
2 He spent most of his lifetime in eastern part of Muslim world.
3 He had the honour to cure ‘Sultan of Bukhara’ in his teenage.
4 He had the privileged access to the Royal Library.

Achievement in Medicine
1 Ibne Sina was an unrivalled expert in the field of medicine.
2 He commenced writing at the age of 21.
3 He wrote more than 200 books on various subjects.

Al-Qanun-al-Tib
1 Sina’s masterpiece on medicine, ‘Al-Qanun-al-tib’ was a detailed account of medicinal
straits and issues in his age.
2 It was encyclopedic piece on medicine.
3 It was translated into Latin and other languages of the world.
4 It was regarded as final codification of Greco-Arab medical thought.
5 It throws light upon diseases, symptoms and drugs to cure them.
6 A veteran writer and historian commented about this book by saying;

“It has remained a medial Bible for a longer period than any other book in the history.”
(P. K. Hitti)
Achievements in Philosophy
1 Ibne Sina was a concurrent philosopher beside physician.
2 His novel work on philosophy was ‘Kitab-al-Shifa’.

Kitab-al-Shifa
1 It was an encyclopedic work on philosophy in the Sina’s times.
2 It was impacted and modified by Neo-Platonism and Muslim theology.
3 It is generally believed that harmonization of Greek philosophy with Islam was
commenced by ‘Al-Kindi’, continued by ‘Al-Farabi’ and completed by ‘Ibne Sina.’
4 It was through him that the Greek system, particularly that of Philosophy, was rendered
capable of incorporation with Islam.
5 It was due to his unmatched endeavours and achievements that renowned Italian poet
‘DANTE, paid tribute him by placing him in the company of Plato and Aristotle.

As a Father of Geology
1 He wrote a book on mountains and earth’s interior.
2 He gave the scientific reasons for earthquake.
3 Thus, he was considered as the Father of Geology.

Achievements in other sciences

1 He has discussed several aspects of Logic, Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy in his
book ‘Al-Shifa’.
2 His other prominent works include;
⮚ ‘Anijat’
⮚ ‘Isharat’
⮚ The book of Theorems

Achievements in Music
1 He wrote commentaries on some earlier works of Music.
2 He also produced some original treatise in his book ‘Al-Shifa’.
 3 Those desertions were translated into Latin and held high influence in Europe.

Literary Achievements
1 The best known rhythmic work of Ibne Sina was in form of an ode.
2 The ode was titled as, ‘The Descent of Soul into the Body from Higher Sphere.’
3 The musical composition of this ode was extraordinary
4 This ode is retained in mind by a number of students in the east and sung by heart.

Conclusion
1 Ibne Sina was undoubtedly the greatest of Muslim intellectuals, Philosophers and
Scientist that Muslim world ever produced.
2 For centuries afterwards, he remained the source of guidance and satisfied the thirsty of
the knowledge.

Notes of Study Area – I (C)

EURPOEAN RENAISSANC AND MUSLIM LEARNING IN

SPAIN/BAGHDAD

“Spain and not Italy was cradle of the rebirth of Europe. After sinking lower I and lower in
barbarianism, it had reached the darkest depth of ignorance and degradation when the cities of
Baghdad, Cairo, Cordova, Toledo were growing centers of civilization and intellectual activity. It
was there that the new life arose which was to grow ino a new phase of human evolution. From
the time when the influence of their culture made itself, began the stirring of a new life.”
(Robert Briffault)

“It was by way of Spain that the longest works of Aristotle reached western Christendom to
revolutionize scholastic philosophy and theology.”
(Hearnshaw)

“The whole of Europe except Italy was in a state of barbarianism it was the civilization of Islam
which fused light into Europe.”
(John W. Cambell)

“The student flocked from the France, England, germany and every part of Europe to drink from
the fountain of learning which flowed only in the city of Moors.”
(Lane Poole)

“In the eighth century, the Moors conquered Spain and as if by magic, a splendid civilization
sprang into being.”
(C. T. Gorham)
EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE AND LEARNING AS A RESULT OF
MUSLIM LEARNING

EUROPE IN DARK AGES BEFORE ARRIVAL OF MUSLIMS

1 Europe had no culture and civilization in dark ages.

2 Learning and knowledge was non-existent for long.
3 The clergy had paralyzed every walk of life.
4 The corruption and atrocities were norms of clergy.
5 Religious freedom was in short supply.
6 Enjoyment and pleasure in life was unknown to human imagination.

EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE DUE TO MUSLIM INFLUENCES

1 Muslims initiated the mighty revolution of culture, civilization and learning in Europe.
2 All the factors that contributed to bring about this renaissance were given birth by
Muslims in one way or the other.
3 Muslim universities effected European renaissance in following ways;

Discovery of Greek Classics

1 Muslims discovered, studied and preserved the Greek classics.
2 Muslim scholar such Ibn Rushd and others became devoted disciples of Aristotle and
other Greek custodians of knowledge.
3 They revived and revitalized the true spirit of classical learning.
4 Thus, it was from the Muslim masters that the Europeans adopted the learning of
classical knowledge which became harbinger of renaissance in Europe.

Decline of Church Dominance

1 Rebirth of reasoning faculty in Europe overthrew inveterate church dominancy.
2 People of European renaissance began to understand life and its problems from a rational
perspective.
3 Blind observance of illogical and dogmatic beliefs became moribund.
4 All this change and development of thought could not have been possible without the
vigour and force of reason derived from the modern and scientific learning of Muslims.

Spirit of Discovery
1 Spirit of discovery was the outcome of renaissance.
2 This spirit was inculcated in minds of Europeans when they acquired knowledge at
Muslims universities.
3 Discovery of America was practical manifestation of this spirit.

Love for Learning

1 Ignorance in Europe had long strangled the love learning/spirit of questioning.
2 Muslim conquest of Spain and their inherent love for learning inspired and inculcated
craving for knowledge among the Europeans.
 3 This became the foundation of European renaissance and modern learning.

Individualism
1 Individualism was spirit of renaissance.
2 It was derived from Islamic culture and spirit.
3 Individual became more important than church and their ilk for the first time in the
history.

Love for Art and Literature

1 Europeans received greatest effect of Arabic language and literature.
2 The Spanish Masterpiece in novel genre: Don Quixote has Arabic origin as claimed by
its author.
3 The most significant contribution of Arabic was to liberate western imagination.

Development of Science during Renaissance and Muslim Influence

1 The European countries got to know about the modern sciences during the renaissance
through Muslim scholars.
2 Al-khuwarizimi in Maths, Jabir bin Hayyan in Chemistry, Ibne Sina in Medicine, Idirisi
in Geography became the Masters of European students.
3 The works of these Muslim scientists were translated into European languages.
4 The translated versions became the part of syllabus taught in schools and universities.
5 Thus, the acquisition of modern science and their subsequent development in Europe
owes a great deal to Muslim knowledge.

WAYS AND MEANS BY WHICH ISLAMIC CULTURE AND

CIVILIZATION TRANSFERRED TO EUROPE

iii. Educational Institutions

▪ University of Granada
▪ Educational Institutes at Cordova.
▪ ‘Baitul Hikma’ in Baghdad.
▪ ‘Nizamiah’
▪ ‘Darul Hikma’ at Cairo.

iv. Translations
1 Toledo Translatory School.
2 Separated from Muslim Spain in 11th Century.
3 Attracted scholars and translators from all over Europe.
4 All masterpieces of Muslim world were translated.
5 Acted as transmitter of Islamic culture and civilization to Europe.

v. Poetry and Literature

1 Arabic poetry and literature translated to European languages.
2 It gave boost to the poetic genius hitherto dormant.
 3 Through poetry and literature, Muslim culture and civilization transferred.

vi. Art and Architecture

1 Muslim arts.
2 Brilliant Muslim Architecture stunned the Europeans.
3 Al-Hamra Palace, Grand Mosque of Damascus and Grand Mosque of Cordova.
4 Through architecture, Muslim civilization impacted European renaissance.

vii. Grandeur of Muslim Cities

1 Cordova, the Jewel of the World.

“The Great social and cultural progress of Cordova inspired awe and admiration in
the hearts of European travelers.”
(R. Dozy)
viii. Conquest of Christian lands by Muslims
1 Spain
2 Sicily
3 Toledo

Notes of Study Area – II:

MUSLIMS IN NORTH AFRICA

THE CONQUEST S OF NORTH AFRICA

From Amr-bin-Aas to Uqba binNafi and onwards

Introduction
1 Islamic revolution and the teachings of the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) were never confined
to the Arabian Peninsula.
2 It spread far and wide into European and African lands.
3 The journey started during the caliphate of Hazrat Umar (R.A) and ended in the days of
Walid bin Abdul Malik, the Umayyad Caliph.

Amr-bin-Aas and the Conquest of Egypt

1 Egypt was under the Roman subjection prior to Muslim conquest.
2 The African Christians were suppressd by their Romans rulers due to the differences in
the beliefs of the two discrete religions.
3 Amr-bin-Aas sought permission from the Caliph Hazrat Umar (R.A) to invade Egypt.
4 He marched with 4,000 Muslims troops towards Egypt.
5 The then governor of Egypt, Maqukas, took refuge in the fort of ‘Kistat’.
6 Hazrat Umar (R.A) sent reinforcement of 10,000 Muslims to quicken the conquest.
7 After seven months of prolonged siege, the city fell in the hands of Muslims.

The Conquest of Iskandria

 1 Amr-bin-Aas sieged Iskandria..
2 The Roman emperor retaliated with a mighty army.
3 The Kasiar of Rome died and Maqukas made agreement with Muslims.
4 Incidentally, the whole Egypt was yielded to Muslims.

The Conquests during Hazrat Uthman’s Caliphate

1 Hazrat Uthman appointed Abdullah bin Abi Sarah as the governor of Egypt.
2 He was man of passions and courage.
3 He first invaded Trablus.
4 The governor of Trablus came with one lac twenty thousand troops.
5 The war lasted for many days and lingered on stalemate.
6 Hazrat Uthman sent reinforcement under the command of Abdullah bin Zubair.
7 He made repeated attacks on Trablus and made them surrender.

Conquest by Uqba bin Nafe during the rule of Amir Muaw’ya

1 Muslim rule was extended and strengthened by Uqba bin Nafe.
2 Uqba conquered two major regions Lawata and Zanana.
3 He laid down the foundation of KIRWAN.
4 He established several cantonments to keep check on the rebellious North-Africans.

Under the reign of Yazid

1 Uqba continued conquering the African cities one after the other.
Rebellion of Kasila
1 Uqba was betrayed by a Berber leader Kasila, who had embraced Islam.
2 He damaged the Muslim army on large scale.
Abdul Malik and North-African Conquest
1 He appointed Zahir to put down the rebellion and rule of Kasila, in Kirwan.
2 Zahir defeated Kasila and destroyed his accomplices.
3 Later on, the Romans attacked Zahir and martyred him.

Hass’an and his Conquests

1 Hass’an once again conquered the lost Kirwan.
2 Hass’an then marched to Kastajna where Berbers ad Romans were gathering force.
3 Here, Hassa’an inflicted a crushing defeat on the both Berbers and Romans.
4 This victory strengthened Muslim rule in North Africa greatly.

Queen Wamiya and Hass’an

1 After victory at Kartajna, Hass’an decided to attack Queen Wamiya’s region.
2 She was very influential and notorious due to her alleged super-natural powers.
3 Hass’an was defeated at her hands and Muslim army suffered huge losses.
4 Nearly half a decade later, Hass’an returned with mighty army and routed Queen
Wamiya.
5 This became a decisive victory for Muslim authority and power in North Africa.

Musa bin Nusair

 1 Musa was appointed by Walid.
2 He expelled all Romans from North-Africa.
3 The elderly and prudent administration of Musa brought prosperity in the region.
4 His principles of equality, honour, justice and liberty won the hearts of many Berbers who
converted to Islam in his reign.

OTTOMANS OF TURKEY
Introduction

1 Timeline (1299 A.D to 1st November, 1922).

⮚ First Caliph: USMAN
⮚ Last Caliph: Muhammad-VI, Wahid-al-Din
⮚ Total 36 Kings (Caliphs).
⮚ Other prominent rulers in this dynasty were;
⮚ Muhammad –II (Al-Fateh)
⮚ Salim-I
⮚ Suleiman-I (1522-1566 A.D)
2 Fall of Anatolia (Modern Turkey).
3 Fall of Byzantine (Constantinopole).
4 Seljuks (Turkish – 1071).
5 Ten Ghazi Principalities.
6 One of the Ghazi Principality was led by Usman-I.
7 Usman-I became the father of Ottoman dynasty.
8

MUAHMMAD – II ( AL - FATAH ) 1450-1481 A.D

Introduction
1 The conquest of Constantinople was the landmark victory which Muhammad-II had
under his belt.
2 It was due to this reason that he was called Al-Fatah.
3 As governor of Manise at an early age, he continued to acquire an excellent education
and expertise in Arabic, Persian and Greek.
4 He was a polyglot as well as a polymath.
5 He was ambitious, persistent and prudent in pursuing his purposed aims.
Early Rebellion by Candash Halil
1 Anti-Muhammad Turkish gentry were led by Candash Halil.
2 They opposed in court to the plans of Muhammad-II against invading Constantinople.
3 He had to force his mother in exile in Serbia to concentrate on his expansion policy.
4 However, to appease Turkish nobility, he signed various peace treaties with Serbia.
5 Furthermore, to concretize his rule, he replaced commanders of janissary corps (personal
guards of Sultan) who sided with Halil.

Muhammad-II’s dream of Establishing a World Empire

1 He cherished a dream to establish World Empire with Constantinople as its centre.
2 Thus, he focused his eyes on realizing this dream by invading Constantinople.

Conquest of Constantinople
1 He began with building a fort of Rumeli Hisa on the European side of Bosporus to gain
control of the water way and shrink Byzantine’s communications with the Black Sea as
well as to assure passage of Ottoman troops from Anatolia to Europe.
2 In February 1453 A.D, first troops occupied Byzantine seaports along the Marmora Sea.
3 In May 1453 A.D, the rampart was demolished and the Ottoman troops entered the
Golden Horn.

Impacts of Conquest of Constantinople

1 It brought with itself the recognition of Muslim authority and suzerainty over the entire
region.
2 Complete control over Black Sea and Mediterranean established a stronghold of Muslims
besides generating ample revenue.
3 This also made it comfortable for Muhammad-II to overthrow Wallachian and annex
Siberia and Bosnia into his empire.
4 It was giant leap towards realization of his dream as he had landed his one foot in Asia
and other in Europe.
5 Muslim world acknowledged his conquest with dignity and pride.
6 He, in return also claimed superiority over his contemporary Muslim rulers especially the
neighbouring Mamluk Sultans..

Restructuring of Empire
1 He dismissed Grand Wazir Candash Halil and imprisoned him along with his family.
2 Zaganos Pasha replaced Halil and was given tremendous powers to exercise.
3 However, Muhammad-II himself controlled revenue, military and other very important
institutions of the Empire.
4 Administration setup was further divided into Chief Judge, Chief Treasurer and Chief
Scribe.

Millet System
1 He put an end to feudal oppression and secured the lives of those oppressed by feuds.
 2 He revived old traditions of peaceful living and preserved the old customs.
3 Religious freedom and security prevailed in his rule.

Moldavia
1 The state of Moldavia was ruled by Stephen, The Great who aimed at gaining control
over Black Sea and The Crimea.
2 Later on, Muhammad-II and Stephen signed a peace treaty which neutralized the
Walachia territory.
3 Muhammad-II then moved to deal with Karaman who was fomenting revolt in Anatolia.

Revolt of Vlad IV
1 Vlad IV invaded northern territories of Bulgaria which alarmed Muhammad-II instantly.
2 Muhammad-II’s severe retaliation brought Wallachia under his rule.
3 However, he returned the territory to Vlad’s brother who promised to pay tribute to
Muhammad-II.

New Wars in Europe

1 War with Venice erupted after the Pope Pius-II conspired against ottomans in 1463 A.D.
2 Venice seized a number of Aegean islands.
3 Mathias Corvinus of Hungary prepared to fight Ottomans in Walachia.
4 Stephen invaded Walachia to replace Radu (Vlad IV’s brother).
5 Jagellonians of Lithuania and Poland allied with the Golden Horde to extend to Ukraine
bordering Moldavia and to Black Sea.
6 Muhammad succeeded at Crimea.
7 Stephen and Jagellonians together with Hungarian troops routed Ottomans at Rakovitza.

Muhammad-II’s war strategies

1 He was deeply engrossed in war tactics and held secrecy as a prime feature in war.
2 He kept his army vigilant but never apprised them of when and where to attack.
3 He once stated;
“If a single hair of my beard knew where to attack, I would pluck it out and cast it into
the fire.”
1 He fortified in surrounding of Constantinople to secure it from all sides.
2 He held the control over Marmora and Black Sea and made it almost impregnable.

Economic Development
1 Native industry flourished enormously in his era.
2 Cotton and Silk especially in Basra, Istanbul and Salonica.
3 He expanded the circle of trade internationally.
4 He minted new coins and appointed executive officers for it.

Muhammad-II’s legal system

1 He utilized the law codes of Byzantines as models for legislation and codification in his
reign.
2 Civil and military laws were especially codified and imposed with effect.
 3 He synthesized the goods and codes of Mamluks, Turkish, Byzantines and Mongols.
4 He was tilted towards liberalism hence allowed much freedom.

Development of Science and Literature

1 He constructed several libraries and an especial observatory adjacent to his palace.
2 He invited a number of artists, scientists, writers, musicians and scholars to his capital.
3 He patronized religious activities as well and made Constantinople a cultural center.

Conclusion
1 Muhammad-II is regarded as the most ablest of Ottoman rulers.
2 An apt statesman, strong soldier, efficient administrator and astute emperor.
3 In his era, literature, science, philosophy, arts and music all flourished richly.
4 His conquests justified his title of Al-Fatah, the Victorious.

Sulaiman the Magnificent – (1520-1566 A.D)

Introduction
1 No other prince of the House of Uthman was able to take the throne with such advantages
as those left to Sulaiman in 1520 A.D
2 He was an able administrator and an enterprising soldier.
3 He conquered lands and consolidated his occupied territories.
 4 He himself led the military on thirteen campaigns and was regarded as greatest of all
military leaders of ottoman.
5 He had under his belt many epithets. The most prominent among all were, ‘Law-giver’,
‘Grand Turk’ and ‘Magnificent’.

Unrivaled Glory of Sulaiman

1 The elongated reign of Sulaiman underscored unparalleled glory of the mighty king.
2 He excelled all his contemporary rulers which include Charles-V, Henry-VIII, Elizabeth,
Sigismund of Poland, Shah Ismail of Persia and Akbar The Great.
3 It was his acumen which enabled him to emerge from the conflicts stronger and
triumphant than ever.
4 His reign saw enormous progress in culture, economy and legislation.

Sulaiman’s Gracious Rule

1 He was well known for his clemency and justice.
2 He punished evil-doers and rewarded virtuous.
3 He showed great prudence in administering the rights to his subjects as well as
strengthening his authority.
4 His magnanimity and altruism were proverbial.

Conquests by Sulaiman the Magnificent

Conquest of Belgrade and Venice in 1521 A.D
1 The convoy of Sulaiman was insulted by Hungary which infuriated Sulaiman.
2 He led a siege and conquered Belgrade.
3 Venice also surrendered which formed a jewel in the ottoman crown.

A Strategic conquest of Rhodes in 1522

1 As pirates of Rhodes used to capture and loot Muslims ships loaded with grain and gold
cutting their way through it, it was imperative for Sulaiman to include Rhodes in his
reign.
2 This was a strategic victory as it also offered Levantine waters to the ottoman fleets.

Revolt of Janissaries and Grand Wazir Ibrahim

1 After surrender of Rhodes, Sulaiman busied himself in quelling a revolt led by Janissaries
in Egypt.
2 He had to compromise by offering colossal amount which proved heavy on state coffins
but helped him to pacify rebels.
3 Ibrahim was made Co-Sultan beside being Grand Wazir in 1523, who knew how to
appease Janissaries.

Fall of Ahmed Pasha and Reorganization of Administrative System in Egypt

1 In 1524, Ahmed Shah vehemently opposed Sulaiman’s authority and declared himself the
sultan of Egypt.
2 However, he was soon killed an uprising which left a vacuum in the authority of Egypt.
 3 Sulaiman sent Ibrahim with special instructions to revitalize administration of Egypt.
4 Various institutions were restructured and reformed added to the proper vigilance of the
state-run institutions.

Revolt in Anatolia (1526-1528 A.D)

1 A number of rebellions were carried out in Anatolia.
2 First one was led by a Celabi preacher Baba Zunnun.
3 Second revolt was led by Kalender Celabi.
4 Both the upheavals were quelled with ease.

Invasion of Hungary
1 One hundred thousand troops siege was laid against Louis – II of Hungary.
2 Sulaiman defeated him at Mohacs and Hungary became a province of Ottoman Empire
for 140 years.
3 Prior to that Hungary was regarded as rampart of Europe against Turks.

Second Hungarian Expedition 1527-1529 A.D

1 Ferdinand-I of Austria had defeated the Prince of Transylvania, John Zapolya, who was
also nominal king of Hungary.
2 John Zapolya, immediately subscribed to the suzerainty of Sulaiman and sought help to
drive out Ferdinand-I.
3 This brought the second siege of Hungary by Sulaiman in 1528 A.D.

Siege of Vienna 1529 A.D

1 Sulaiman mounted the first siege of Vienna in the hope of capturing the Hapsburg capital.
2 This siege had great strategic importance;
3 It secured ottoman possession ofHungary as well as the new vassal relationship with
Zaploya.
4 It ravaged the parts of Northern Hungary and Austria making the Ferdinand-I incapable
of launching any counter attack against Sulaiman.

Attack against Safavids and conquest of Mesopotamia and Persian Gulf

1 Safavids had always been stirring Turkoman uprising in Anatolia.
2 Baghdad and Basra was already in Safavids hands where Shia heresy was prevalent
instead of orthodox Islam.
3 Shah Tahmasp had planned to form his central government in Iran (Mesopotamia).
4 However, Sulaiman had entirely different plans as he saw this region with economic
sight.
5 Iran hindered trade between Far East and Europe.
6 Shah Tahmasp avoided conflict with Sulaiman and abandoned territory in favour of
Sulaiman.
7 Thus, Sulaiman the Magnificent brought under his rule the Persian Gulf in 1538 A.D

Naval Conflicts with Hapsburg and Rise of Khayruddin Barbarossa

1 A naval conflict arose in the 16th century over control of western Mediterranean.
 2 Spanish government imperiously hankered Hafsids, the local dynasty, as well as Algerian
and Moroccans to succumb to their authority.
3 However, Khayrrudin emerged as the greatest of Muslim Admirals and fought
relentlessly against Christian raids from Hapsburg.
4 He also succeeded in annexing Algiers to Ottoman Empire.

Alliance with France against Hapsburg in Mediterranean

1 Admiral Khyruddin Barbarossa built a new fleet and raided against Hapsburg in alliance
with France.
2 Due to the French deceits, a peace treaty was signed in 1545 A.D.

Ottoman’s Naval Supremacy in Aegean and Ionian Seas

1 Withdrawal of France from northern Italy after the conflicts between Charles-V and
Francis had ended, proved to be a betrayal to Sulaiman.
2 Thus, Sulaiman himself endeavoured to bring Aegean and Ionian islands in his
suzerainty.
3 These victories were also achieved under the command of Barbarossa.

Execution of Ibrahim Pasha and Beginning of Sultanate of Women

1 Grand Wazir of Sulaiman, Ibrahim Pasha had started malpractices as he took bribes from
Safavids to revolt against Sulaiman.
2 He also invaded Azerbaijan without the permission of Sulaiman.
3 He intended to make his independent rule over the region.
4 Sulaiman executed him along with ruining all his evil intentions.
5 Later on, Khurram Sultan, wife of Sulaiman (Roxelana), built her own harem party to
control ottoman system.
6 She intended to secure the right of succession for her son.
7 This marked the beginning of ascendancy of the women of harem.

Sulaiman The Magnificent as a law-giver/his system of Justice

1 A vast number of religious scholars and jurists served in his court who joined their
efforts to bring out the best Justice system which suits everyone in the empire.
2 Laws and codes were written, specified and institutionalized.
3 Various punishments and penalties were designed for number of crimes including
robbery, adultery, murder etc.
4 A Qanunnama was also drawn up in Sulaiman’s name which registered and authenticated
punishments and legalities.

His Economic Reforms

1 Sulaiman had the sense to tax everyone accordingly.
2 Taxes were levied according to the taxpayer’s ability to pay.
3 Out of way taxes and confiscations were strictly forbidden.
4 The conquered territories had a governor to oversee the smooth functioning of revenue
system and ensure a fixed amount to be sent to state exchequer.
His cultural Achievements
1 Suleiman was himself a poet.
2 His renowned contribution in poetry was “Mohibbi” in Persian.
3 His verses became Turkish proverbs in the later years.
4 Fuzali – Baki – The Poets of the Day.

Architectural Development
1 Mimar Sinan, chief architect.
2 Ottoman architecture reached its zenith in Suleiman’s period.
3 Master pieces were;
i. Sulaimaniye Mosque
ii. Salimiye Mosque
iii. Restored Dome of the Rock
iv. Renovated Ka’aba.
v.A Complex in Damascus.

Conclusion
1 His rule was like his name, magnanimous.
2 Justice, rule of law, fraternity and liberty was ensured to everyone.
3 His rule marked the apogee of power and apex of glory and grandeur of Ottoman Empire.
4 He was regarded as the sacrosanct throughout his empire.
5 The Nile, The Jordan, The Tigris, The Euphrates, The Danube, The Hubris and The
Ilyssus rolled their waters within the shadow of Horse-tail of Sulaiman.
6 With the death of Sulaiman, the power of Turks began to wane.

Ottoman Tanzimat

Introduction
1 A period of Reforms. (1839-1876 A.D).
2 Ended with the first constitution era.

Origin
1 Emerged from the minds of reformist.
2 Sultan Mehumd-II and Abdul Melid-I were the pioneers.
3 Their recognition of the new needs of the modern trends in the new century.

Goals
1 Ambitious projects launched to combat the slow decline of the empire.
2 To stop the gradual decline of the empire by promoting ottomanism among the people of
the empire.
Reforms
1 Guarantee to ensure ottoman subject. Perfect security for their lives, honour and property.
2 First ottoman paper bank notes in 1840 A.D
3 Reorganization of Army. Formal recruiting, levying the army, fixing the duration.
4 Adoption of ottoman national anthem/flag.
5 Reorganization of Finance system on French model.
6 Establishment of first modern universities in academics.
7 Induction of non-Muslims in ottoman army.
8 Rail roads were constructed.
9 First stock exchange in Istanbul.
10

MUSLIM ARCHITECTURE IN SPAIN

Background
1 Early Muslim not interested in architectural activity.
2 They worshipped ‘Kaba’ which was nothing more than four walls.
3 Later Muslim dynasties adored architecture.

Pre-Islamic Architecture
Byzantine Architecture
1 More developed architecture.
2 Merged eastern and western architectural styles.
3 Main expertise was in church architecture.
4 Masterpiece: Church of St. Sophia at Constantinopole.

Nestorian and Sassinid Architecture

1 Nestorian – in Mesopotamia.
2 Sassinid in Persia.

Coptic Architecture
1 In Egypt.
2 Ancient and outdated.

Muslim Contribution to Architecture

1. The Arch
1 Pointed Arch.
2 Greatest contributed to the art.
3 Employed in Spain.
4 It eclipsed the old horse-shoe form of arch in Northern Syria.

2. The system of Vaulting

1
Masterpieces of Muslim Architecture
1. Grand Mosque of Cordova
1 Founded by A.R-I 170 A.H.
2 Completed by Hisham-I 177 A.H.
3 Twelve hundred and 93 colums (Pillars).
4 Brass lantersn.
5 80 thousand gold pieces spent on its structure.

2. Al-Hammbra – Palace of Granada

1 Built by Muhammad Ali Ghalib. 646 A.H, 1248 A.D
2 Completed by Abu Al-Hajjaj.
3 This is the last word in architecture.
4 Most celebrated portion; ‘Court of Lion’.
5 In the center of court twelve 12 marble lions stand in a circle.
6 Each lion spouting at a jet of water from its mouth.
7 Ceiling depicts scenes painter on leather illustrating tales of chivalry.
8 One of the greatest masterpiece of all times.

3. Madinat-al-Zahra
1 He built the most magnificent palace called Medinat-ul-Zahra.
2 It was initiated after his beloved wife Zahra asked him to found a city and name it after
her name.
3 It was situated 25Kms away in the north-west of Cordova.
4 To attract inhabitants, he offered 400 dirhams to the settlers.

Immitation of Muslim Architecture in Europe

1 In Toledo
IBNE RUSHD (Averros)
Introduction and early life:
1 Abu al Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmed Rushd.
2 Born in Cordova (1126-1198)
3 Grandfather was the chief judge of Cordova.
As a philosopher
1 Greatest philosopher in Muslim Spain.
2 Greatest commentator of Aristotle and Plato.
3 One of the greatest philosopher genius of all times.
As s Rationalist:
1 He believed that the revealed dogmas should be put to question.
2 Everything can be known by human reason.
Ibne Rushd’s Reformation of Ghazali’s Attack on Rationalism
1 Ghazali’s ‘Thafat-ul-Falasifa’. (Destruction of Philosophy).
2 We can never know things by reasoning but only by unquestioning acceptance of what is
revealed to us.”
3 Ibne Rushd “Thafat-ul-Thafat”. (Destruction of Destruction)

A commentator of Aristotle
1 For him, Aristotle was the greatest thinker.
2 Aristotle was a perfect man having infallible truth.
3 Ibne Rushd interpreted Aristotlian thought with originality.

His commentary on Plato

1 Islamic state is better than Plato’s Republic.
2 Islamic concept of Imam – Plato’s Philosopher King.

Averroism in Europe
1 He exerted tremendous influence on European thought.
2 12th – 16th Century.
3 During renaissance it flourished in Italy.
4 Many proudly declared themselves as Averroists.
5 His writings became prescribed studies in University of Venice and Paris.

Orthodox reaction to Averrorism

1 Very sharp reaction of church against averrorism.
2 But it flourished during renaissance especially after purging of objectionable poets.
3 Islamic world reacted during renaissance especially after Purging to Objectionable poets.
4 Islamic world reacted due to Ibne Rushd’s attack on Imam Ghazali’s thought.

Preservation of his commentaries

1 He knew no Greek language.
2 He had to depend on tranlisteration of Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ibje Bajia, Ibne Tufail.
 3 His own commentaries were preserved in Hebrew or Latin transliteration..

Contribution in Medicine
1 An encyclopedic work, Al-Kulliyat-fi-al-Tibb.
2 Small pox not twice in life.
3 Functions of Retina.

FATIMIDS OF EGYPT
Introduction

1 Fatimids lasted from 909 to 1171 A.D (297-567 A.H).

2 Total period of rule 262 years.
3 First caliph: Ubaidullah, Al-Mehdi
4 Last Caliph: Al-Azad
5 Abu Abdullah Hussain was the key preacher of Shia in Sana (Yemen).
6 Fatimid capital: Mehdya (founded by Ubaidullah-al-Mehdi
7 Al-Muiz bin Ismail, great Abbasid caliph (952-975 A.D) conquered Egypt.
8 He founded city of Cairo.
9 He established Jamia-al-Azahar (Al-Azhar University).
10 Later on, he shifted capital from Al-Mehdya to Cairo.
11 Thus, Fatimids came to an end.

Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC)

1 Established on September, 26, 1969.
2 Headquarters at Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
3 Current members 57.
4 Observers 5. (Russia, Bosnia, Cyprus, Thailand.)
Objectives
1 Immediate aim: Liberation of Jerusalem
2 Unity and solidarity among Muslims.
3 Resolve disputes among members.
4 Political, social, economic emancipation of Muslims.
5 Safeguard independence and rights of Muslims.

Functions
1 Collective security
2 Peaceful resolution of disputes.
3 Joint and uniform foreign policy.
4 Technical cooperation.

Instances of Inefficiency
1 1971 – Indian Intrusion in East Pakistan (Bangladesh).
2 1973 – Arab-Israel War.
3 1980-88 Iran-Iraq War.
4 1990 – Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.
5 2001 – U.S invasion of Afghanistan.
6 2003 – U.S invasion of Iraq.
7 2006 - Israeli invasion of Lebanon.
8 No role in the resolution of Kashmir dispute.
9 Ineffective role in Palestine issue.
10 Russian atrocities in Chechnya.
11 No role in Bosnia.
12 Silent on Iran’s nuclear programme.
13 Dormant on caricatures controversy.

Causes of Failure
1 Extreme poverty and uneven development.
2 High illiteracy rate. -65% average illiteracy rate.
3 Lack of skill and technical expertise.
4 Lesser role of woman in national development.
5 Military weakness.
6 Absence of democratic credentials.
7 Lack of leadership.
8 Internal cleavages.
9 Arab racism and other Muslim States.

Remedies
1 Collective Military Might must be set up on the pattern of NATO.
2 Strong and Independent Media.
3 Uplifting the under developed Muslim States.
4 Advancement in science and Technology.
5 Get rid of conservatism.
6 Discard belief in traditionalism.
7 Promote education.
8 Ameliorate the poor. Alleviate the Poverty.
9 Uniform sound foreign policy.
10 Establishing common markets.
11 Common currency on the model of EURO.
12 Wipe out internal differences.
13 Establish Islamic Development Banks.