Professional Documents
Culture Documents
f o r d i v e r s e p r o d ucts
and profits
FAO Diversification booklet 9
Diversification booklet number 9
© FAO 2009
Table of contents
Preface v
Acknowledgements vii
Market opportunities 5
Growth in market demand for small ruminants and their products 5
Table of contents
Preface
v
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vi
Acknowledgements
vii
Contribution of sheep and goats
to sustainable livelihoods
1
FIGURE 2 Boy hearding goats in Niger
(Photo: © FAO/23786/R. Lemoyne)
2
demand is high, yet largely unfulfilled. efficiently, and thus increase their
Although these animals are contribution to improved livelihoods,
distributed widely throughout the underpinned by a comprehensive
world, the potential of sheep and range of support services.
goats is often not realized. Policy- Hence the aim of this booklet is
makers and administration tend threefold:
to overlook their contributions to
the economy, rural and peri-urban • to highlight the benefits of
livelihoods, the empowerment of keeping sheep and goats;
3
Market opportunities
5
of livestock they keep as well as the and increased sustainability that
products derived from them. They will follow. If farmers lack the skills
may also need to change the methods required to make such an operation
of processing and marketing that work effectively, an entrepreneurial
they typically use. Farmers should marketing system may be a more
be encouraged to adapt their farming efficient and effective operation,
systems to meet consumer needs, but farmers will lose control over
but will require policy and practical the pricing and marketing of their
support to enable them to achieve products once they leave the farm.
these changes. This may take the Innovative forms of linking producers
form of training, credit, additional to markets, such as the formation of
services or advice which should be strategic alliances between farmers,
delivered with the target group clearly processors and supermarket chains,
identified. are further options to be considered.
While traditional markets in rural The nature of the product will
areas will continue to be important, influence the type of marketing
more modern outlets including system needed. Highly perishable
supermarkets are likely to be the products transported to distant
prime mechanism for delivery to markets will require a much greater
meet the increased urban demand. investment in infrastructure than less
In these circumstances, it is unlikely perishable products (for example,
that individual small farmers will be fresh milk in comparison with salted
able to respond to demand on their meat). Integrated marketing chains
own. The creation of cooperative or including food processing and supply
joint marketing ventures seems the to the retailer may be necessary for
most likely way forward. These may dairy and meat products. The more
be owned by the farmers themselves sophisticated the supply chain, the
or operated by entrepreneurs with more removed farmers are likely
the necessary infrastructure and to become from the selling process.
experience to make them work. Although well-trained professional
Farmer-owned cooperatives have staff may be more effective in such
the advantage that the farmers operations, it may represent additional
themselves are in control of the risks to individual small farmers and
operation and will benefit directly may make their farms less sustainable
from the increased income streams in the long-term.
6
Benefits of keeping
sheep and goats
7
Perhaps of equal importance are more varied and healthier diet than
the notional outputs of wealth, status, that obtained from a pure crop system.
security and the even less tangible Meat and milk and their processed
social benefits of empowerment, self- products provide a more interesting
esteem, pride and social interaction nutritional regime for the household
and inclusion which small stock can and also supply the minor but essential
engender (see Case Study 1). In many nutrients (minerals and vitamins) as
societies livestock also have religious well as the major nutrients (protein
and cultural significance. and energy) in the form of fats and
carbohydrates.
Dietary contribution of meat and Animal products that are edible
milk products can contribute significantly to the
Small ruminants (as indeed all improvement of household health and
animals) provide the potential for a are particularly valuable for children.
In the Tzotzil area of Chiapas, Mexico, sheep husbandry is culturally linked to the
responsibilities of the female head of the household. The sheep are kept primarily for
wool production, but play a secondary role in other agricultural and cultural aspects
of the household. Wool production is traditionally linked to clothes production and
is associated with a considerable amount of indigenous knowledge both in sheep
husbandry and in processing wool.
Sheep husbandry has a direct impact on annual household income. Tzotzil women
generate direct income through the sale of sheep, fleeces, woollen clothes, woollen
handicrafts and manure. Sheep also increase crop yields in manure-fertilized cropland,
which results in increased income when the crops are sold. Sheep represent 30
percent of total income in Tzotzil villages.
Fleeces produced in the household, plus some bought in the market, are hand-
processed into traditional Tzotzil clothes for the family. Fleeces are washed and
carded, spun using a spindle, and woven by means of an ancient back-strap loom.
These activities may not represent an economic use of resources, but the cultural
output is a key factor in this system and sheep play an important role in this context.
Toztil women have developed their own system for measuring wool production, using
subjective estimates of greasy fleece volume and quality, which correspond well
with the more objective measures used in the commercial wool industry. Wool has
cultural meaning, social importance and economic implications in this society. Any
interventions targeting sheep husbandry have to take all these factors into account.
8
Animal products provide the best cereals. Meat also supplies iron that
quality protein in the human diet. is easily absorbed and assists with the
Low animal protein intake can result absorption of iron from other foods,
in a high incidence of Kwashiorkor in addition to assisting the absorption
in children (malnutrition caused by of zinc. These products are also rich
inadequate protein intake despite sources of some group B vitamins.
a fairly good total calorie intake),
high infant mortality, malnutrition Milk and dairy products
in adults, and a general weakening Milk is a fundamental product in
9
In addition to its value as a food, activity, not only in terms of access to
milk has (and is often considered to food and cash (this may be their only
have) medicinal properties. In some source of cash), but also through more
societies, and for some species of subtle changes in their status. This
animal, milk is also believed to have may arise from the empowerment
magical properties. conferred on managers of livestock,
and the sense of purpose and cultural
Benefits at the household level identity that may follow, for example,
through participating in training and
Income and food security extension activities.
The presence of sheep and goats
around the home or garden can Special role in poverty alleviation
provide immediate daily food Small ruminants contribute to the
particularly in the form of milk and livelihoods of all their owners, but
its products. Small ruminants not only particularly to the poor and otherwise
provide food security through ready marginalized groups including the
accessibility, but they also increase chronically sick or families that have
the diversity of food and cash sources been affected by sickness (see Case
and thus reduce the risk that might Study 2). This is achieved by:
otherwise be associated with limited
food and cash supplies. • providing food and other products
Small livestock also improve directly to their owners;
household assets by providing fuel, • being one of the few assets
clothing and additional sources of readily available to the poor thus
income. For example, value can be being crucial in maintaining
added to meat by preservation and household survival during crisis;
making better use of by-products • acting as an important component
including the offal for food, intestines of farming systems through
for sausage skins and various organs increasing the diversity of
in cosmetics or as traditional or production, lowering risk, and
modern medical products. reducing fluctuations in cash flow
especially in harsh environments;
Empowering women and children • contributing to environmental
Women and children are usually the objectives and the sustainable use
managers, if not actually the owners, of resources through the effect of
of small ruminants. They derive some manure on soil quality and water
socio-economic benefits from this retention;
10
• assisting marginalized groups and Using local feedstuffs and
the poor to obtain private benefits feedstuffs not suitable for
from common property resources; human consumption
• making the difference between Many small ruminants exist on by-
survival and abject poverty products from crop production (see
for various types of producers Figure 3), on tree fodder (leaves,
including pastoralists, share twigs and fruits) and on household
croppers and part-time farmers; wastes. The use of these by-products
• acting as a readily available for livestock feed confers a value on
Ruth is an AIDS orphan. Both her parents died when she was 13 years old and she
had to move, together with her two younger brothers, about 250 kilometres to live
with her aunt and her grandmother. At 15 she is doing very well at school and was
chosen to receive goats from FARM-Africa because the income from the goats
would enable her to carry on with her schooling. Ruth says:
11
FIGURE 3 Sheep grazing on barley stubble
(Photo ICARDA)
12
Integration with crop/horticultural requirements of crops and livestock
production in many situations. Arable rotations
Combinations of crops and livestock on the farm, relay cropping in the
in the same farming system is usually garden, or permanent tree crops
mutually beneficial (see Case Study frequently include stock grazing on
3). This is caused by the recycling crop material in the field for their
benefits mentioned previously, but deposits of manure and urine.
also in part from the complementary
This system is characterized by intensively cultivated areas at altitudes higher than 1 500 m.
Individual holding sizes are very small, averaging less than 0.9 ha (of which 0.75 ha
is under food crops). The main crops are banana (mostly for brewing beer, with cooking
and dessert bananas being much less important), annual subsistence and cash crops.
Haricot beans, cassava and sweet potatoes are grown in association with bananas. The
many minor crops include pigeon peas, maize, sorghum, various cucumbers and gourds,
groundnuts, Irish potatoes and cocoyams or taro, and a great variety of green vegetables.
The aim is to provide a constant supply of food throughout the year. A few trees (mostly
Cupressus and Eucalyptus) assure a supply of fuel and coffee provides cash income.
Cropping patterns are influenced as much by social factors as by climate and soils.
The highlands are rarely considered to be important for livestock, but almost all families own
ruminants and poultry. Cattle used to be important culturally, but the high human density
(more than 600 people per km2) has resulted in greatly reduced numbers. In the past there
were taboos against eating sheep meat in some areas, but these are fading and the rearing
of both goats and sheep is being encouraged by the political authorities and extension
agents. Animals are closely integrated in the whole system. Almost all families own at least
one species of ruminant and many own three. The number of animals owned is small but
varies, as does the mix of species, with ecological zone. They are used for subsistence and
to generate cash.
Agricultural by-products are fed to animals by over 80 percent of owners; the type and
amount of which varies seasonally including banana leaves (mostly in the short dry and rains
seasons), sweet potato vines and peelings (mostly in the long dry season) and haricot beans.
The provision of green fodder, supplementary to grazing, is common, with many farmers
growing forage for this purpose. Manure is collected and spread directly on the arable land
or composted with waste produce from the farm or house.
Animal productivity is well below optimum because of poor extension services, inadequate
veterinary support and a lack of market information. These problems are not insurmountable
and if services could be provided, and coupled with the use of anti-erosion terraces for
growing forage grasses and tree legumes such as Leucaena leucocephala to improve animal
nutrition, livestock output could be improved considerably.
13
FIGURE 4 Local housing for sheep and goats in Togo
(Photo by R. T. Wilson)
14
Sheep and goats for diverse products and profits
FIGURE 5 Goats on their way to market in Mali
(Photo: © FAO/10995/J. van Acker)
15
Inputs to small ruminant
production systems
Using the right species and breed conditions add considerably to the
The basic unit of production in all costs of production. The choice of
livestock systems is the animal. a species, breed or type that is well
17
FIGURE 6 Improved rams (Djallonké breed) in Togo
(Photo: © FAO/19981)
18
Sheep and goats for diverse products and profits
FIGURE 7 Blackhead Persian sheep grazing on rangeland under Mount Meru in Tanzania
(Photo by R. T. Wilson)
from outside the farm that need to crops could be developed locally
be appropriate in terms of quality and the growing of alternative feed
and cost. If the local market does not sources should be encouraged.
supply appropriate feed resources, Careful selection of plant species to
policies should be introduced or provide the right balance of animal
orientated towards providing locally nutrients is crucial and might need
grown and processed feed resources to take into account the ecology
at a realistic cost. This will help of the rumen. Local roughage and
provide a sustainable system for both carbohydrates are also important
growers and livestock keepers. for ruminant systems for which by-
Better still, small stock keepers products and residues from arable
should be encouraged to grow their crops are a useful source.
own feeds by using such techniques
as intercropping, alley cropping, Grazing as a way of using
forage and multipurpose trees or local local feeds
processing of arable crop products. Livestock obtain much of their
Protein sources such as the by- nutritional need through grazing (see
products of oil extraction from arable Figure 7). Not only are livestock able
19
to harvest feeds that suit their nutrient • discourage the growth or invasion
requirements but they can also: of an area by unwanted plant
species;
• harvest material and turn it • maintain landscapes and
into useful products that would particular agro-ecosystems in a
otherwise be lost to agricultural way that would not otherwise be
production; possible.
• use natural grassland or rangeland
areas that would otherwise Grazing or herding is often carried
provide little or no economic out communally and in an organized
benefit (see Case Study 4); fashion that brings collective benefits
• encourage re-growth of beneficial to the whole community. However,
plant species in pastures; too many animals on an area may
In the semiarid areas of West Asia and North Africa, small ruminants play a key role in
the use of by-products from arable cropping and utilize a break crop in arable rotations.
They also provide a valuable means to recycle nutrients in a fragile agro-ecosystem
and provide additional income to households, as well as contributing to religious and
cultural aspects of everyday life.
In Northern Syria fat-tailed Awassi sheep are well adapted to the local climatic and
farming conditions. They tolerate heat well and graze on a range of low quality forage
sources, but also respond well to supplementary feeding or improved diets. Typical
farming systems for the area involve wheat, barley, lentils, vetch, local lucerne varieties
and watermelons in various rotations that often include a fallow period.
Sheep and goats fit well into these farming systems and receive a variety of feeds
depending on the time of year and the stage of their reproductive cycle. Low quality
feeds such as straw are widely used to cover an animal’s maintenance requirements.
In addition, steppe grassland, roadsides and marginal land are an important source
of feed from autumn to early spring. High energy feeds such as barley and legume
grains and industrial by-products (for example, cotton seed cake and citrus pulp) are
also used to meet the nutritional needs of the animals.
The critical times of the year are winter and spring when the ewes are pregnant and
lactating. The use of high quality supplements at these times helps both the animals
and the natural pasture, which can be rested and allowed to set seed. The use of
improved grazing in the summer (in the form of a specially grown forage crop) also
aids the use of straw stubbles and helps prevent overgrazing on the fragile rangeland.
Thus the rational use of a complex range of animal feeds supports sheep and goat
production in a highly fragile environment.
20
lead to overgrazing. Careful attention Most smallholder livestock can
should be paid to achieving the correct be kept in buildings and pens made
balance between the needs of the from local materials, such as wood
animals and those of the ecosystem, or sun dried bricks, thatch from local
since this is critical to long-term grasses and bush poles (see Figure 8).
sustainability. In particular situations These materials are usually cheap and
this may require attention to questions readily available at little more than
of land tenure and access rights at the cost of farm labour. Indigenous
both local and national levels. does not necessarily mean basic and
21
Labour needs thus preventing deterioration.
Livestock can be labour demanding, In some areas, meat preservation
even in extensive systems if they is common, by drying, smoking
have to be guarded or herded. In more or preserving as cooked products.
intensive systems, labour is required Examples include hams, sausages,
for cutting and carrying forage or dried meat, etc. Refrigeration or
other types of feed to the livestock freezing may be necessary for some
each day. Children often undertake products and is likely to become more
some of these tasks, but this may necessary as consumer awareness of
conflict with their formal education quality and health increases.
requirements. Fresh milk is a highly perishable
In addition to feeding and tending product because it is an ideal medium
animals, a regular supply of labour for bacterial proliferation and
is required for milking. This is often deteriorates quickly especially in hot
carried out by women and may and unhygienic conditions. Many
be combined with other domestic traditional and modern preservation
activities. Care is required to ensure processes can be employed to
that increased workloads do not extend the shelf-life of milk in fresh
conflict with women’s other income form including refrigeration and
earning activities or be detrimental to sterilization. These can be expensive
their health. For example, different but the value of the product, both to
methods of housing, fencing or the consumer and to the health of
tethering can assist in reducing labour the nation, justifies the cost. Milk is
requirements. generally conserved by traditional
methods in one of four groups of
Preserving livestock products products: fermented milks; butter
Many animal products, particularly and butter oils; cheese and curds;
those intended for human food, are and other milk products. Fermented
highly perishable. Damp conditions or products are often the result of
poor storage lead to spoilage caused natural souring; indeed this is such
by bacterial infection. If the products a common product that many people
are consumed immediately within who rely on milk for much of their
the home, spoilage is not likely to nutrition prefer soured to fresh milk.
be a problem. However, if they are Unfortunately sour milk itself is
marketed outside the household it susceptible to spoiling, if kept for
may be necessary to convert them to long periods, and souring does not kill
a product that has a longer ‘shelf-life’, many potential pathogenic organisms,
22
Sheep and goats for diverse products and profits
FIGURE 9 In a small cheese processing plant, a woman holds a finished cheese, Honduras
(Photo: © FAO/22051/G. Bizzarri)
23
fired driers, etc. can be used. Flavour heavy smoking, although more
can be added to dry meat by the use satisfactory in terms of preservation,
of salt and spices. can have severe negative effects
Smoking is less satisfactory as a on the flavour and nutritional value
preservative method: light smoking of the final product. Consequently,
delays the onset of spoilage by a smoking is often regarded as an
relatively short period, whereas emergency measure and other
Milk
Fresh and
Sandesh
Makhan Chhas stored Chhana
Mix with
Chakka Lassl 1:2 1:2 Boll portions
weat flour,
in sugar
deep fry
Mix with Concentrate, Concentrate,
sugar Heat freeze add sugar
clarify Pantooa
Source: FAO. 1990. The technology of traditional milk products in developing countries.
Animal Health and Production Paper No 85. Rome.
24
traditional methods of preservation as the production of handicrafts, for
are generally preferred. Modern example: wool may be washed, spun
methods of meat preservation include and made into yarns or cloths; animal
the use of refrigeration, for chilling skins may be cured and made into
and freezing, and canning. clothes, belts, bags, shoes, carpets
Milk may be processed into a range etc.; and animal by-products can
of products such as cheese, yoghurt, be made into candles and soap. If
butter and ghee. In some countries a possible, priority should be placed
multiplicity of products is made from on empowering households to add
25
Support services
for small ruminant production
27
and special services are now being breeds (see Case Study 6), improving
provided for women producers (see levels of feeding, and ensuring timely
Case Study 5). and focussed veterinary prophylaxis
One of the greatest deterrents to the or treatment.
growth of small stock production is the Once these aspects of livestock
spread of animal diseases that result in keeping have been addressed, other
a loss of production. The provision of weaknesses in the sector may become
resources to overcome this is essential apparent such as poor marketing and
through supplying appropriate breeds pricing arrangements, or the lack of
of livestock including exotic or cross indigenous knowledge. These issues
In the past, women have lacked access to credit facilities, inputs for their farming
practices including land, and, caused by the high illiteracy rate, access to extension
information. One major limitation to improving the income from small livestock was the
difficulty women faced in marketing their products outside their village environment.
This approach has resulted in positive benefits for women livestock keepers. They have
responded well to extension messages and have set up several organizations for their
mutual benefit. Women extension officers have helped to deliver acceptable extension
messages. Visits to similar farms in neighbouring areas have been productive and clearly
demonstrated the value of farmer-to-farmer extension. The integration of extension
activities with other rural services, such as combining the use of critical inputs with access
to credit, were found to be a major component of success. The use of village demonstration
sites encouraged the introduction and widespread dissemination of new techniques.
28
may, however, be addressed more Many small stock keepers are
easily once animal health constraints women and children who are usually
have been overcome or reduced to an excluded from the regular channels
acceptable level. of communication. Consequently,
sheep and goat keepers may find it
Access to technical and difficult to gain access to technical
commercial information, information concerning livestock,
loans and credit livestock services, loans, credit
Small ruminant producers differ in facilities, savings mechanisms and
“Before, my children were under-nourished, but now they are healthy and
happy because of the milk. Money from the goats enabled my eldest daughter
to go to secondary school and now she is a teacher working for the government.
Any extra income we get from the goats pays for schooling.”
Sarah has one Toggenburg buck and four does. They are housed in a shed with a
tin roof to keep out the wild animals that live in the nearby mountains. Brick walls
ensure that the animals keep warm during the colder nights.
The women’s group will soon establish a credit scheme. All members will put in
a small amount of money and give out loans for further goat-keeping activities,
thereby enabling more families to benefit from the project. Sarah is certain of the
difference that the animals have made to her life as she looks around her, at her
thriving children and grandchildren. “The goats have made my life very happy,”
she says.
29
In view of the large number of There are many alternative forms
small ruminants in many countries of delivering veterinary services. The
and their potential contribution to traditional approach of government
the local and national economy, veterinary service, comprising a top-
it is essential that policy-makers down structure of regional and district
address the issues that prevent access offices, has generally been unable to
to such services by small stock deliver services to local farmers as a
keepers. It may be necessary to make result of a combination of inadequate
special provision for the delivery of funding, poor motivation amongst
appropriate services designed for staff, and a failure of trust between
the different needs of small-scale farmer and veterinarian. More
livestock keepers. successful health delivery strategies
The provision of services, credit have involved the private sector, the
and physical inputs must be sensitive use of para-vets, community animal
to labour division between women health workers and pharmacy-based
and men in livestock production. services.
Particular attention should be paid to There is no one size fits all
the ability of women to access such solution. Governments need to
services and steps taken to overcome examine the question of how best
any barriers they may face. to deliver veterinary services to
smallholders and should not assume
Veterinary services that the historical top-down approach
Each species of small ruminant, is either the best or the only way.
country or region has its own set of The discussion often centres on
prevalent animal diseases. Whatever the provision of such services by
the disease, it must be handled in a public or private services or by non-
cost effective way in order to create governmental organizations (NGOs)
the framework in which successful and whether farmers should pay
livestock keeping can flourish. This directly for these services.
may involve a combination of national The main need is often simple
veterinary services, particularly for prophylaxis programmes that can
diseases that need a national or even be taught and delivered at the local
a transnational eradication policy (for level. More specialized veterinary
example, Rift Valley Fever and Peste knowledge may be needed in only
des Petit Ruminants - also known a small number of cases. In each
as goat plague) coupled with locally locality it should be possible to
delivered interventions. determine what are the most likely
30
disease threats and train farmers and Training may be delivered by
para-vets to deal with them. In view central or local government agencies,
of the close involvement of women NGOs, private organizations or
and of children in the management of farmers’ groups. The scale and nature
small ruminants, policy-makers and of small farm production means that
extension managers should ensure training is more likely to be delivered
that they are provided with training in in a cost effective manner, if it is
primary animal health care. delivered face-to-face at community
level or remotely by radio or
31
to more formal markets is an as transporting the final products to
additional means of generating cash a distant market or outlet. Existing
and providing a wider outlet for local transport arrangements may
surplus produce. Products need to be adequate or adaptable to the
be marketed in a reliable and cost- marketing needs of small farmers.
effective way. Assistance may take However, there could be special
the form of market information about needs for perishable food products
market opportunities, prices and including refrigerated containers for
quality requirements; transaction milk or meat. Investment in such
mechanisms between farmers and facilities is critical to the success
buyers; transport to more distant of the small stock keeper and must
markets; transporting goods to market be considered in relation to the
in smaller or larger lots; product throughput and sustainability of the
advertising; the use of middlemen, marketing operation.
the creation of local markets; and the
provision of information to potential Potential for establishing
buyers about the existence of markets. cooperatives and women’s
The creation of specialized groups
markets, the use of agricultural shows, Livestock producer cooperatives
the setting up of food fairs, as well as and women’s groups can provide
the more traditional food markets, are a range of benefits to members
possible outlets for surplus produce. including delivering technological
More innovative methods to supply messages, sharing best practices,
processing factories with bulk produce joint purchasing of inputs, collective
may be an option worth pursuing for value-adding activities, product
farmer groups. A major factor for a differentiation through labelling, risk
successful operation of this kind is reduction, securing higher prices and
that as much control of the marketing economies of scale through collective
process as possible remains in the marketing, and providing access to
hands of local livestock keepers. credit and savings mechanisms.
32
facilities for processing, such as their products must be informed
pasteurisation plants or licensed of the food safety legislation that
slaughterhouses. As consumers may affect their activities. The
become increasingly focused on national body responsible for food
quality and safety attributes, it is safety is responsible for setting
expected that regulatory frameworks such regulations, generally based on
will become more widespread, more Codex Alimentarius standards, and
stringent and have to be applied more it also controls their implementation
frequently and more rigorously. and should give such information to
33
Challenges and opportunities
35
are an important output of small private involvement in agriculture in
ruminants. There is rapidly rising general. There has been a rather slow
demand for livestock products private sector response to agricultural
especially from the urban populations and especially livestock investment,
that are escalating throughout the because there are alternative attractive
world. For small stock keepers in short-term opportunities in other
developing countries, there are sectors (especially transport, tourism
specific markets for higher output of and construction).
food products deriving from domestic The challenges to guaranteeing
animals in areas where the demand food security and alleviating poverty
is greatest, the cost of production is require sustained increases in
lowest, and the potential for adding production and productivity. Farmers
value is most favourable. Increased will respond to appropriate incentives,
and more efficient production is better market access and technology
therefore very important to overall transfer. The possibilities of enhancing
development. farm incomes from a high value
Small ruminants provide a very product should not be overlooked.
suitable base for increasing the supply Strategic options to improve small
of animal products. Comprehensive ruminant production include:
and coherent programmes for
development of small ruminant • prioritizing the development of
production would seem to be the the small-scale and traditional
most appropriate way to confront the sector;
complex biological, technical and • continuing to re-orient the role
climatic factors, and associated policy of governments in creating an
issues with which these extremely appropriate enabling environment;
useful animals have to contend. • making more appropriate
There is also the possibility of production technology available
improving the genetic potential of through research and extension;
indigenous livestock for the increased • continued investment in human
and more efficient production of resources development, especially
milk, meat, wool and skins. These farmers;
are areas where, given an appropriate • improving resource management
enabling environment, there is likely by smallholder farmers;
to be increased producer interest. • increasing beneficiary
Current economic policies in many participation in efforts and
countries now allow for much greater rewards.
36
Selected further reading
FAO. 2008. Rural transport and traction enterprises for improved livelihoods
and income, by P. Crossley & T. Chamen, FAO Diversification booklet
No.10, Rome.
FAO. 2007. A guide to marketing costs and how to calculate them, by A.W.
Shepherd, FAO Marketing Extension Guides, Rome.
FAO. 2002. Milk producer group resource book, a practical guide to assist
milk producer groups, by J. Draajer, Rome.
37
FAO. 1997a. Agricultural and food marketing management, by I.M.
Crawford, AGS Marketing and Agribusiness Text Vol. 2, Rome.
FAO. 1991. Small ruminant production and the small ruminant genetic
resource in tropical Africa, by R.T. Wilson, Animal Production and Health
Paper No. 88, Rome.
38
FAO. 1990b. Strategies for sustainable animal agriculture in developing
countries, Animal Production and Health Paper No. 107, Rome.
FAO. 1989a. Sheep and goat meat production in the humid tropics of West
Africa, Animal Production and Health Paper No. 70, Rome.
FAO. 1989b. Small ruminants in the Near East and North Africa. Vol. 3,
Animal Production and Health Paper No. 74, Rome.
39
Jansen, C. 2004. Goat keeping in the tropics, Agrodok 7, CTA, Wageningen.
Wilson, R.T., Murayi, Th. & Rocha, A. 1989. Indigenous African small
ruminant strains with potentially high reproductive performance, Small
Ruminant Research 2: 107-144.
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Sources of further information
and support
41
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Animal Production and Health Division
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla
00153 Rome
Italy
Tel: +39 06 5797
Fax: +39 06 57053152
http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/index_en.htm
42
Notes
Notes
SMALL RUMINANTS, SUCH AS SHEEP AND GOATS, FIT WELL INTO
SMALLHOLDER FARMING SYSTEMS. Their grazing preferences
enable them to feed on weeds, shrubs and other plants that
other species of domestic animals tend to refuse. Their small size
means they require less space than larger animals and they are
less likely to damage and compact soils. They are easier to work
with than large ruminants and are cheaper to buy and maintain.
Moreover, under the right conditions, they can be quite prolific.
The range of products produced by small ruminants is easy to
market because demand is high yet largely unfulfilled. Hence
there are considerable opportunities for smallholders to use such
animals more effectively and efficiently and thus increase their
contribution to livelihoods.